Greeks Was The First

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Οδυσσέας Γκιλής
GREEKS WAS THE

FIRST
Οι Έλληνες ήταν οι
Πρώτοι που…
Πρώτη επεξεργασία 18/4/2002, νέα συμπλήρωση 28/11/2004,

διορθώσεις 3-10-2012
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ΠΙΝΑΚΑΣ ΠΕΡΙΕΧΟΜΕΝΩΝ
ΠΙΝΑΚΑΣ ΠΕΡΙΕΧΟΜΕΝΩΝ.................................................................................3
Απο το sites Google, μέσω του search και βάζοντας σαν « κλειδί» τις λέξεις..
"Greeks was the first'=Οι Έλληνες ήταν οι Πρώτοι… Πήρα τα παρακάτω
αποσπάσματα.........................................................................................................7
Ο λαός της Κρήτης ανέπτυξε τον πρώτο ευρωπαϊκό πολιτισμό, τον Μινωϊκο, που
ονομάζεται έτσι, από τον θρυλικό βασιλιά Μίνωα................................................7
ΝΕΕΣ ΠΗΓΕΣ ΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΝΙΚΕΣ-CD ROM-SITES.................................................57
Δεύτερη προσπάθεια , Απρίλιος 2001......................................................................57
Πηγές. Πρώτον...Απο το Cd Rom Hutchinson, επίσης Concise, Multipedia enc.
1995..........................................................................................................................61
Δεύτερον, 229. Απο το Internet.. English Department-Philosophy-Requirement-
Course Descriptions:-Philosophy.............................................................................97
-Ενα άλλο απόσπασμα.. Mythology in A Midsummer Night's Dream.........................98
-Μέσω Internet, λέξη Greek-Greece σε κείμενα του Shakespeare..........................98
Shakespeare's "small Latin, less Greek"......................................................................98
Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης.-'Aκμασε γύρω στο 330 π.Χ.............................................99
ΔΗΜΗΤΡΗΣ Ι. ΤΣΙΜΠΟΥΚΙΔΗΣ -«ΠΟΛΥΒΙΟΣ, -Ο ΜΕΓΑΛΥΤΕΡΟΣ
ΙΣΤΟΡΙΚΟΣ, ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΤΙΚΗΣ ΕΠΟΧΗΣ»-ΕΚΔΟΣΕΙΣ «ΕΝΤΟΣ»..........100
-Enc. Hutchinson. rhetoric.....................................................................................101
Greek language.......................................................................................................110
13. WITTGENSTEIN AND LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS.......................................118
Επιλογή αποσπασμάτων απο το A. G. Rigg, The English Language: A Historical
Reader. Για θέματα που έχουν σχέση με λέξεις, ελληνικά, επίδραση, Γλώσσα κ.λ.π.
................................................................................................................................119
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK.............................................................................120
THE NEW TESTAMENT..................................................................................121
ΕΛΕΩΝΟΡΑ ΣΚΟΥΤΕΡΗ-ΔΙΔΑΣΚΑΛΟΥ-Όρια και αντιστάσεις της λαϊκής
μνήμης : από τις πολιτιστικές αναβιώσεις στην πολιτισμική επιβίωση.................123
Ελένη Γλύκατζη - Αρβελέρ:...................................................................................123
Οι Ολυμπιακοί αγώνες-μηδ΄ Ολυμπίας αγώνα φέρτερον αυδάσομεν-Πίνδαρος...126
ΤΙ ΕΙΝΑΙ, ΑΝ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΚΑΤΙ, ΕΝΑΣ ΒΥΖΑΝΤΙΝΟΣ; Του-Clifton R. Fox-Καθηγητή
Ιστορίας-Στο Tomball College-Tomball, TX, USA-Σχόλια;......................................130
Νομίσματα και Συνέχεια........................................................................................133
Η χώρα που ονομαζόταν Ρωμανία.........................................................................137
Συμπεράσματα.......................................................................................................139
Enc. Britannica-On Line internet…Greek Mathematics and its Modern Heirs.........140
Classical Roots of the Scientific Revolution......................................................140
Ptolemy's Geography-The Science of the Earth's Surface.........................................141
Greek AstronomyThe Revival of an Ancient Science................................................141
Differences Between Classical and Hellenistic Greek-A Quick Introduction by Jay C.
Treat-..........................................................................................................................143
In order to read the Greek correctly, first download and install the Greek font SPIonic,
One of the freeware fonts from SBL..........................................................................143
General Characterization........................................................................................143
Orthography...........................................................................................................144
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Vocabulary..............................................................................................................144
Accidence...............................................................................................................144
Syntax.....................................................................................................................145
Perseus-Primary Text Index: Greek...........................................................................147
What is a little Greek?............................................................................................147
Little Greek 101:Learning New Testament Greek.....................................................147
Language and the New Capitalism........................................................................168
Colin Lankshear -Published in 1997, -The International Journal of Inclusive
Education. 1(4): 309-321. Introduction..............................................................168
Some comments on "capital" and "capitalism"..................................................169
A brief account of key features of the "new" capitalism....................................170
New capitalism and language: some macro social processes1. A new word order?
............................................................................................................................173
Acknowledgment...............................................................................................180
3.Greeks, police meeting first step.............................................................................181
4. Greeks of Afghanistan-By Bernt Glatzer.......................................................181
5.The First Greeks in Egypt.......................................................................................184
6. Political..........................................................................................................186
7. Page 1, Greeks: Safety comes first.....................................................................186
8. Ancient Greece The First Theoretical Thinkers.....................................................187
9. Government & Leaders......................................................................................187
10. Re: Romans Greeks and Byzantines....................................................................188
2. The Greeks have often been most influential.....................................................190
3. The Greeks are different.....................................................................................191
4. The Greeks are often best...................................................................................191
17. On the History of Dietetics -from Antiquity to Our Time -Peter Schneck-
(Berlin, Germany)..................................................................................................197
18. Greek Drama........................................................................................................201
19. Overview of Ancient Greek Mathematics........................................................204
20. Chapter Three Selected Quotations -Collected by Sammi Dawson and Josh
Weckesser...............................................................................................................205
24. GREEK GEOGRAPHY.......................................................................................212
1. Greeks were the first people to think and act like modern man.................212
2. Greeks were the first people to experiment with self-government............212
3. Greeks made significant advances in scientific thought............................212
4. Their cultural and artistic achievements are very similar to those of modern
man.212
II. Greek geography had a significant impact on the development of their unique
civilization..........................................................................................................212
1. Greece is divided into three main regions; (A) Peloponnese peninsula to the
south and home of Sparta and Corinth; (B) Attica in the middle; a plains area and
home of Athens, Thebes and Delphi; Macedonia to the north; a rough and rugged
area that connects via the Hellespont to Asia Minor..........................................212
2. Greeks became a sea-going people due to the close proximity of the sea to
most early Greek city-states...............................................................................212
3. These merchants and traders developed a sense of freedom and
independence not seen before............................................................................212
III. The terrain of Greece was not conducive to unification of the Greek people.
............................................................................................................................212
1. Mainland Greece is divided by a short but rugged mountain range..........213
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2. Greek rivers are shallow and non-navigable..............................................213

3. Soil is rocky and poor.................................................................................213
4. Coastline is very irregular with many excellent natural harbors................213
IV. The Climate of Greece, while moderate, did not allow for Greeks to grow
ample food..........................................................................................................213
1. Mild climate has a long growing season....................................................213
2. Rain, while sufficent, was not ample to produce grain crops....................213
3. Greeks resorted to growing dates and fruits...............................................213
4. Many Greeks raised sheep.........................................................................213
5. Their inability to raise sufficent food prompted the Greeks to become a sea-
going nation which relied on foreign trade for grain to feed a growing
population...........................................................................................................213
25. Technology-By Ian, PHILOSOPHICAL DISCUSSION.................................213
26. The Greek Foundation of Modern Education..................................................215
27. The History of Health and Health Education...................................................217
28. "The Humapan"-by Hans Schicht-page 24-History coming full Circle...........217
30.Orthographic Origins............................................................................................219
32. The Ancient Greeks, Part One: -The Pre-Socratics..........................................222
THE EARLY DAYS OF SURVEYING.............................................................230
THE EARLY DAYS OF SURVEYING.............................................................230
37. Chapter 2 :The GREEKS- Death of Socrates and Plato’s Theory of the Ideal
Forms- Plato describes the death of Socrates in the dialogue, the PHAEDO........234
The THEORY of the FORMS............................................................................234
38. 17 A Realist History.........................................................................................234
Bras....................................................................................................................235
40.Λίγη ιστορία......................................................................................................236
42. Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Γλώσσα, γλώσσες στην Ευρώπη -ISBN 960-
85931-9-0 -Aθήνα 2001, 96 σελ............................................................................237
English word, παραλείπονται.................................................................................242
1998 Νίκος Σαραντάκος ΜΙΛΤΟΣ ΚΟΥΝΤΟΥΡΑΣ (1889-1940).........................244
Andy's Reading Notes on Aristotle........................................................................246
22.4 Aristotle and the Lyceum...........................................................................247
Karl Marx (1818-1883)-Selections from Capital-Study Questions...........................250
Marx and Aristotle, Nineteenth-Century German Social Theory and Classical
Antiquity, Edited by George E. McCarthy............................................................254
Marx And Aristotle: Nineteenth-Century German Social Theory And Classical
Antiquity-Paperback -379 pages-Publication Date: May 1992 Publisher: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc...........................................................................................255
A.T.Fomenko, G.V.Nosovskij, NEW HYPOTHETICAL CHRONOLOGY AND
CONCEPT OF THE ENGLISH HISTORY.BRITISH EMPIRE AS A DIRECT
SUCCESSOR OF BYZANTINE-ROMAN EMPIRE.(SHORT SCHEME).........262
Essai sur l'origine des langues................................................................................265
Η επιλογή και επισήμανση των ελληνικής προέλευσης λέξεων έγινε από μένα.J. J.
Rousseau, Δοκίμιο για την καταγωγή της Γλώσσας..............................................265
Αλλα αποσπάσματα. A Brief History of Language -Restrictionism in the United
States, by Thomas Ricento.....................................................................................279
Αλλο απόσπασμα...................................................................................................280
ΓΛΩΣΣΑ, ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΣΤΗΝ ΕΥΡΩΠΗ - LANGUE, LANGUES EN EUROPE. 281
Μαρία Αραπόπουλου-Εκδ. ΖΗΤΗ.........................................................................281
VOX GRAECA - Η ΠΡΟΣΦΟΡΑ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΑΔΑΣ ΤΗΝ ΚΛΑΣΙΚΗ ΕΠΟΧΗ. .282
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English and Its History(This page brought to you by Blue Rider Development)..283
Old English.............................................................................................................283
Middle English, (translation by John Wycliffe, c. 1380-83)..................................284
(King James version, c. 1604)............................................................................284
Latin and English...................................................................................................284
Scholars and the Church.....................................................................................285
... Γενική Βιβλιογραφία, για το παροικιακό φαινόμενο.........................................287
Εδώ παραθέτω αποσπάσματα, μέσω Ιντερνετ, για το παροικιακό
φαινόμενο.ΣΑΕ(Συμβούλιο Απόδημου Ελληνισμού.............................................289
Εκδοτικός Οίκος ΚΑΚΤΟΣ, κλασσικά έργα..........................................................289
ΠΑΓΚΟΣΜΙΑ ΣΥΝΕΔΡΙΑ TOY Ο.Δ.Ε.Γ.1ο Συνέδριο : Δίον Πιερίας (1990).....291
Βιβλιογραφία Γλωσσολογίας Ιστορία της Γλώσσας- Ιστορικοσυγκριτική
Γραμματική 296
A (Very) Brief History of the English Language- Indo-European and Germanic
Influences...............................................................................................................298
Μέσω Internet, ελληνικές, λατινικές, αγγλικές λέξεις...........................................304
Δημοσιεύματα-του Καθηγητού Γ. Δ. Μπαμπινιώτη.Μέσω Internet......................305
A History of the English Language, Past Changes Precipitate Worldwide Popularity
................................................................................................................................313
History of English Language: Concepts and Terms, Notes by J.Dylan McNeill...324
Briefly Speaking.................................................................................................329
Τι λένε για μας: λέξεις και (εκ)φράσεις από ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες γύρω από την
Ελλάδα και τους Eλληνες(Ν. Σαραντάκος)............................................................341
H Ελληνική Γλώσσα και το παγκόσμιο πολιτισμικό σύμπαν, Tου Γαβριήλ Mηνά
................................................................................................................................344
Jeff Dorchen and the Moment of Truth: Language organisms...............................348
(en) Language Militia Manifesto [From the The Solidarity Federation Quarterly 351
Abstracts, Technoculture, edited by Lelia Green and Matthew Allen....................353
Πλάτωνας Μπιλέτσκυ, Ο αδερφός μου Ανδρέας...................................................357
Ολεξάνδρ Πονομαρίβ, Ελληνικής προέλευσης λέξεις στην ουκρανική Γλώσσα. .358
Νίνα Κλιμένκο, Τα Ελληνικά Γράμματα στην Ουκρανία......................................359
Αλέξανδρος-Γαλένκο, Ευγένιος Τσερνούχιν , Ονόματα και παρωνύμια στα βιβλία
μνημοσύνων των ορθόδοξων Ελλήνων της Κριμαίας στις αρχές του 18ου αι......360
Γιούρι Σάνιν, Οι Ποιητές και Αθλητές...................................................................361
ΟΙ ΕΛΛΗΝΕΣ ΣΤΗΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΑ.............................................................................362
Greek studies..........................................................................................................362
Erasmus, Desiderius (?1469 - 1536)......................................................................364
"Those Ignorant Baptists"(From the Montreal Register.), Taken from The Baptist
Reporter, 1846........................................................................................................366
One of those "Ignorant Baptist."A Brief Lexicon of Greek Terminology..............370
ΕΥΡΕΤΗΡΙΟ..........................................................................................................371
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Απο το sites Google, μέσω του search και βάζοντας σαν « κλειδί» τις
λέξεις.. "Greeks was the first'=Οι Έλληνες ήταν οι Πρώτοι…
Πήρα τα παρακάτω αποσπάσματα.
Ο λαός της Κρήτης ανέπτυξε τον πρώτο ευρωπαϊκό πολιτισμό, τον

Μινωϊκο, που ονομάζεται έτσι, από τον θρυλικό βασιλιά Μίνωα.
Στο έπος με τον Ομηρο. Στα αγγλικά epic.
Στο δίκαιο με τον Σόλωνα.
Οι ανωτέρω ορισμοί της λέξης βιβλιοθήκη, παρμένοι από την

εγκυκλοπαίδεια «Υδρία», δίνουν αμέσως την ευρύτητα του όρου και τους
τομείς στους οποίους αυτός απλώνεται. Οι πρώτες βιβλιοθήκες πρέπει
να υπήρχαν στη Μεσσοποταμία ήδη από το 3000 π.Χ. Ανασκαφές που
έγιναν στη Νινευή το 1850 έφεραν στο φως χιλιάδες πήλινες πινακίδες με
σφηνοειδή γραφή, μεθοδικά ταξινομημένες και καταλογογραφημένες,
που αποτελούσαν το αρχείο του βασιλιά Ασουρμπανιπάλ (668-626 π.Χ.).
Ο βασιλιάς της Αλεξάνδρειας Πτολεμαίος ο Φιλάδελφος (283-247
π.Χ.) ίδρυσε την πλουσιότερη και λαμπρότερη βιβλιοθήκη του
αρχαίου κόσμου, γνωστή ως «Μεγάλη Βιβλιοθήκη της
Αλεξάνδρειας», με 400.000, και κατ' άλλους 700.000 τόμους, και
καταλόγους, οι οποίοι θεωρούνται ως οι πρώτες προσπάθειες για τη
δημιουργία συστηματικής βιβλιογραφίας. Η βιβλιοθήκη αυτή
καταστράφηκε από πυρκαγιά κατά την άλωση της Αλεξάνδρειας από τον
Ιούλιο Καίσαρα το 47 π.Χ.
Η Αρχαία Ελληνική Τέχνη αποτελεί ένα από τα σημαντικότερα

φαινόμενα του παγκόσμιου πολιτισμού και συνέβαλε καθοριστικά στη
διαμόρφωση του χαρακτήρα και της αισθητικής του σύγχρονου δυτικού
κόσμου. Η Συλλογή Αρχαίας Ελληνικής Τέχνης του ΜΚΤ δίνει τη
δυνατότητα μιας διαχρονικής προσέγγισης του φαινομένου αυτού από τη
Μέση Εποχή του Χαλκού (2η χιλιετία π.Χ.) μέχρι το τέλος της Ρωμαϊκής
περιόδου (4ος αι. μ.Χ.).
Ιστορία. Αν και οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες, τόσο ο Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης, όσο

και ο Σέλευκος αλλά και ο ... Ποσειδώνιος ήταν οι Πρώτοι που
διαπίστωσαν τη σχέση της παλίρροιας με τη Σελήνη…
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Πρώτοι οι Ελληνες στη Φιλοσοφία με τον Αριστοτέλη και τον

Πλάτωνα, τον Δημόκριτο και τον Ηράκλειτο. Στα αγγλικά philosophy.
Πρώτοι στη γεωγραφία με τον Στράβωνα τον Πτολεμαίο και τον

Παυσανία. Στα αγγλικά geography.
Επίσης Πρώτοι στα μαθηματικά και στη γεωμετρία με τον Ευκλείδη,

τον Θαλή, τον Πυθαγόρα και τον Αρχιμείδη. Στα αγγλικά Mathematic,
grpmetry
Στην Ιστορία με τον Θουκιδίδη, τον Ηρόδοτο και τον Ξενοφώντα. Στα
αγγλικά History.
Αρχαία ελληνική πολιτική και κοινωνική φιλοσοφία - Σοφιστές, Πλάτων,

Αριστοτέλης…
Στην κωμωδία με τον Αριστοφάνη. Στα αγγλικά comedy.
Στο Δράμα. Αριστοφάνης, Μένανδρος.
Στην ποίηση με την Σαπφώ. Στα αγγλικά poetry.
Στην ιατρική με τον Γαληνό, τον Ιπποκράτη, τον Ασκληπιό.
Στην καθιέρωση της δημοκρατίας με τον Περικλή. Πολιτική, πόλις-

κράτος, Στα αγγλικά democracy.
Οι Ελληνες και οι Φοίνικες ήταν οι Πρώτοι ναυτικοί της Μεσογείου, οι

οποίοι ταξίδεψαν στην ανοιχτή θάλασσα, ακόμα και τη νύχτα….Οι
Ελληνες και οι Φοίνικες βελτίωσαν τα πανιά των πλοίων τους και
αύξησαν τον αριθμό των σειρών των κωπηλατών.
΄Οπως ο αστρολάβος και το κλισιοσκόπιο, συσκευές τις οποίες Πρώτοι

οι Ελληνες είχαν ανακαλύψει αιώνες πριν.
Φυσική. ΤΟ ΑΤΟΜΟ. «Το άτομο» περίπου 2.500 χρόνια πριν, ένας

άνδρας με το όνομα του Δημόκριτου Αβδήρων δήλωσε ότι όλη η ύλη
αποτελούνταν από σωματίδια που ονομάζονται "άτομα". Πολλοί
άνθρωποι είπαν, ότι αυτή ήταν μια ανοησία ακόμα και μεγάλοι
φιλόσοφοι όπως ο Πλάτων και ο Αριστοτέλης.
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Στην οικονομική επιστήμη με τον Αριστοτέλη και τον Ξενοφώντα.

Οίκος=νομή. Στα αγγλικά economy, economic.
Στο θέατρο. Στα αγγλικά Theater.
Ο μηχανισμός των Αντικυθήρων ανακαλύφθηκε στον βυθό του

ομώνυμου νησιού, μεταξύ των Κυθήρων και της Κρήτης, το 1900. Το
2006 χρονολογήθηκε στο 150-100 π.Χ. και πιθανολογήθηκε ότι το
βυθισμένο πλοίο που τον μετέφερε έκανε ταξίδι από την Ρόδο προς την
Ρώμη. Τώρα, επιστήμονες κατέληξαν ότι ο Μηχανισμός των
Αντικυθήρων, ένα θαύμα της αρχαίας Ελληνικής τεχνολογίας,
χρησιμοποιείτο ότι μόνο για να προβλέπει τις ηλιακές εκλείψεις αλλά
επίσης και για την συστηματοποίηση του ημερολογίου γύρω από τον
τετραετή κύκλο των Ολυμπιάδων. Οι νέες ανακαλύψεις, που
δημοσιεύθηκαν στις 30 Ιουλίου 2008 στην επετηρίδα Nature (Φύση),
αναφέρουν επίσης ότι ο σχεδιασμός του μηχανισμού ξεκίνησε από τις
Κορινθιακές αποικίες της Σικελίας, πιθανώς τις Συρακούσες. Οι
επιστήμονες εικάζουν ότι αυτό υπονοεί πιθανή σχέση με τον μέγα
Αρχιμήδη. Ο Αρχιμήδης, που έζησε στις Συρακούσες και πέθανε το 212
π.Χ., ανακάλυψε έναν πλανητικό μηχανισμό υπολογισμού των κινήσεων
της Σελήνης και των γνωστών πλανητών και συνέγραψε μια μελέτη περί
αστρονομικών μηχανισμών, η οποία δεν έχει διασωθεί.
(Πηγές: The New York Times, Wikipedia).
Στον Χριστιανισμό με την μετάφραση των Ο΄. Στα αγγλικά Christianity
Στην τραγωδία με τον Σοφοκλή, τον Ευριπίδη, τον Αισχύλο. Στα αγγλικά
tragedy.
Στις πολεμικές τέχνες με τον Μ. Αλέξανδρο και στην καθιέρωση των

Ολυμπιακών αγώνων. Στα αγγλικά Olympic games.
Πρώτοι επίσης στη γεωμετρία, γραμματική και το αλβαφητο.. Στα

αγγλικά geometry, grammar, alphabet.
Το ελληνικό αλφάβητο προήλθε από τους Φοίνικες γύρω στο έτος 900
π.Χ. Όταν το Φοινικικό αλφάβητο εφευρέθηκε υπήρχαν περίπου 600
σύμβολα….Οι Έλληνες δανείστηκε μερικά από τα σύμβολα και στη
συνέχεια έκαναν κάποιες από τις δικές τους στη δημιουργία της γλώσσας
τους.
Στη μουσική, βοτανική, ηθική... Στα αγγλικά music, Botany, ethic…
Anatomy, Biology and Botany were also valid fields of study.
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Education, in general was considered a leisure pursuit only available to

the privileged few. The majority of the population, Greek or Roman
slaves, received no education. The pursuit of literature was considered
the ultimate goal--an idle life of leisure void of manual labor. This pagan
goal of the idle rich is in America today.
Πρώτοι ασχολήθηκαν και δίδαξαν και ερεύνησαν, για τη διαλεκτική, τη

ρητορική και την αστρονομία., Στα αγγλικά dialectic, astronomy…
Αρχιτέκτων Μηχανικός ή Αρχιτέκτονας προέρχεται από τις λέξεις αρχή + τέκτων
Απο το sites Google, μέσω του search και βάζοντας σαν « κλειδί» τις
λέξεις.. «Greeks was the first»=Οι Έλληνες ήταν οι Πρώτοι… Πήρα τα
παρακάτω αποσπάσματα. Επίσης χρησιμοποίησα και το TLG=Thesaurus
Lingua Graeca=Θησαυρός Ελληνικής γλώσσας. Σημαντικά βοηθήθηκα
από τη Βικιπαίδεια.
Χρονολογικός πίνακας, προσώπων και γεγονότων.
Μυθολογία-Αστρονομία (ως διεθνής όρος εκ των ελληνικών λέξεων του

«άστρον» + «νέμω») είναι η επιστήμη που ερευνά και εξετάζει όλα τα
ουράνια σώματα (μεταξύ αυτών και τη Γη) καθώς και τις σχέσεις,
κινήσεις και δυναμική αυτών. Αναφέρεται στην παρατήρηση και την
ερμηνεία των φαινομένων που λαμβάνουν χώρα στον ουράνιο χώρο πέρα
11
από την Γη και την ατμόσφαιρά της. Μελετά την προέλευση, την εξέλιξη,
τις φυσικές και χημικές ιδιότητες των ουρανίων σωμάτων που μπορούν
να παρατηρηθούν (και είναι εκτός των ορίων της ατμόσφαιρας), καθώς
και των διεργασιών που περιλαμβάνουν αυτές. Γενικά η Αστρονομία
γεννήθηκε με την εμφάνιση του «διανοούμενου ανθρώπου» στον
ημέτερο πλανήτη. Ειδικότερα όμως για τους Έλληνες, η «Αστρονομία»
γεννήθηκε ακριβώς την ίδια ιερή εκείνη στιγμή που γεννήθηκε και η
ελληνική μυθολογία και μάλιστα σε μια αμφίδρομη σχέση. Προστάτης
της, η θεία Μούσα Ουρανία. Όμως και άλλοι πολιτισμοί όπως οι
Μεσοποτάμιοι και οι αρχαίοι Ινδοί, παρατηρούσαν μεθοδικά τον ουρανό.
Οπως ο αστρολάβος και το κλισιοσκόπιο, συσκευές τις οποίες Πρώτοι οι
Ελληνες είχαν ανακαλύψει αιώνες πριν… The History of Astronomy: A
Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions) by Michael
Hoskin. Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA (July 31, 2003) .
Astronomy, perhaps the First of the sciences, was already well
developed by the time of Christ. Seventeen centuries later, after Newton
showed that the movements of the planets could be explained in terms of
gravitation, it became the paradigm for the mathematical sciences...
Μυθολογία-Οι Ελληνες και οι Φοίνικες ήταν οι Πρώτοι ναυτικοί της

Μεσογείου, οι οποίοι ταξίδεψαν στην ανοιχτή θάλασσα, ακόμα και τη
νύχτα….Οι Ελληνες και οι Φοίνικες βελτίωσαν τα πανιά των πλοίων τους
και αύξησαν τον αριθμό των σειρών των κωπηλατών. Λόγω της
γεωγραφικής θέσης της Ελλάδας, αλλά και της ιδιομορφίαs του
γεωγραφικού της χώρου (κανένα σημείο δεν απέχει περισσότερο από 150
χλμ. από τη θάλασσα), η ανάπτυξη του πολεμικού ναυτικού ξεκινάει από
πολύ παλιά. Ήδη από τα Προϊστορικά χρόνια δημιουργήθηκαν οι πρώτες
οργανωμένες ναυτικές πολεμικές μονάδες, ως αναγκαιότητα
υπεράσπισης του ναυτικού εμπορίου που ασφαλώς και προηγήθηκε. Η
πρώτη πανελλαδική ναυτική επιχείρηση ήταν η Αργοναυτική
εκστρατεία της οποίας ακολούθησε ο δεύτερος μεγάλος αποικισμός ο
λεγόμενος Τρωικός πόλεμος, με την περισπούδαστη απόβαση με μια
δεκάχρονη πολιορκία η οποία ολοκληρώθηκε με την άλωση της Τροίας
από τους Αχαιούς και που ήταν η αιτία της δημιουργίας τών άφθαστων
έργων επικής ποίησης, μια βαριά κληρονομιά στον παγκόσμιο πολιτισμό.
Από τα Αρχαϊκά χρόνια, οι Έλληνες είχαν εξερευνήσει όλη τη Μεσόγειο,
ενώ είχαν αποικίες από τις Ηρακλείδες Στήλες μέχρι τον Εύξεινο Πόντο.
Στα Κλασσικά χρόνια, το πολεμικό ναυτικό υπερασπιζόμενο το εμπορικό
γνωρίζει μεγάλη άνθηση. Η φράση του Περικλή από τα χρόνια αυτά
Μέγα το της Θαλάσσης Κράτος, αναγράφεται στο θυρεό (έμβλημα με τη
μορφή ασπίδας) του σύγχρονου Ελληνικού Πολεμικού Ναυτικού.
Λαμπρό παράδειγμα της τότε υπεροχής του συνασπισμένου στόλου των
αρχαίων ελληνικών πόλεων - κρατών αποτελεί η νίκη της Ναυμαχίας
12
της Σαλαμίνας κατά των Περσών. Επίσης, από τις σημαντικότερες

δράσεις του Αρχαιοελληνικού ναυτικού αποτελεί η βοήθεια στην
εκστρατεία του Μεγάλου Αλεξάνδρου στην κάθοδο του Ινδού ποταμού
και το μεγάλο ταξίδι από τις εκβολές του μέχρι τον Περσικό Κόλπο.
Μυθολογία-Προς τιμήν του Φορωνέως γράφτηκε το αρχαιότερο έπος με

τίτλο «Φορωνίς», από άγνωστο ποιητή, που χάθηκε. Αυτό το έπος
χρησιμοποίησαν ως πηγή τους οι λογογράφοι Ακουσίλαος και Ελλάνικος
και από αυτούς οι μεταγενέστεροι, από τους οποίους παίρνουμε μια
εικόνα από το περιεχόμενό του. Ο Αργείος διθυραμβοποιός Ελλάνικος,
με πρότυπο αυτό το πρώτο έπος, έγραψε δέκα βιβλία με τίτλο «
Φορωνίς» που πραγματεύονταν περί της βασιλείας και των έργων του. Η
« Φορωνίς» ιστορούσε τον κατακλυσμό του Ωγύγου και την ευεργετική
βασιλεία των Ιναχιδών, που δεν επεδίωξε πολέμους, αλλά στα χρόνια
αυτά που ανέτειλε η αυγή του πολιτισμού, συνέβαλε στην καλλιέργεια
των εγχωρίων σπερμάτων του. Σ’ αυτό ο Φορωνεύς θεωρείται ως φορέας
του ανθρώπινου πολιτισμού και αποκαλείται «πατήρ θνητών ανθρώπων
και πρώτος άνθρωπος»…ΦΟΡΩΝΙΣ Έργα. 002 2.2 Ἰδαῖοι Φρύγες
ἄνδρες ὀρέστεροι οἰκί΄ ἔναιον͵ Κέλμις Δαμναμενεύς τε μέγας καὶ
ὑπέρβιος Ἄκμων͵ εὐπάλαμοι θεράποντες ὀρείης Ἀδρηστείης͵ οἳ πρῶτοι
τέχνηις πολυμήτιος Ἡφαίστοιο εὗρον ἐν οὐρείηισι νάπαις ἰόεντα
σίδηρον ἐς πῦρ τ΄ ἤνεγκαν καὶ ἀριπρεπὲς ἔργον ἔτευξαν. 4 Καλλιθόη
κλειδοῦχος Ὀλυμπιάδος βασιλείης͵ ῞Ηρης Ἀργείης͵ ἣ στέμμασι καὶ
θυσάνοισι πρώτη κόσμησεν περὶ κίονα μακρὸν ἀνάσσης Ἑρμείαν δὲ
πατὴρ ἐριούνιον ὠνόμασ΄ αὐτόν· πάντας γὰρ μάκαράς τε θεοὺς θνητούς
τ΄ ἀνθρώπους κέρδεσι κλεπτοσύνηισι τ΄ ἐκαίνυτο τεχνηέσσαις.
Μυθολογία-Ως μουσική ορίζεται η τέχνη που βασίζεται στην οργάνωση

ήχων με σκοπό τη σύνθεση, εκτέλεση και ακρόαση/λήψη ενός μουσικού
έργου. Με τον όρο εννοείται επίσης και το σύνολο ήχων από το οποίο
απαρτίζεται ένα μουσικο κομμάτι. Γνωστή και ως Απολλώνια Τέχνη, η
μουσική παίρνει το όνομά της από τις εννέα Μούσες της αρχαίας
ελληνικής μυθολογίας. Καθ' αυτή την έννοια, η μουσική διέφερε
σημασιολογικά της σημερινής χρήσης του όρου, και περιελάμβανε το
σύνολο των τεχνών που βρίσκονταν υπό την προστασία των Μουσών.
Στην Αρχαία Ελλάδα, ο όρος εννοούσε την Ποίηση, το Μέλος και τον
Χορό ως μια αδιάσπαστη ενότητα τεχνών η οποία καλλιεργήθηκε
ιδιαίτερα στο Θέατρο, ενώ τη θεωρία της Μουσικής εξέφραζε ο κλάδος
της Αρμονικής. Στα αγγλικά music, Botany, ethic… Anatomy, Biology
and Botany were also valid fields of study. Education, in general was
considered a leisure pursuit only available to the privileged few. The
majority of the population, Greek or Roman slaves, received no
education. The pursuit of literature was considered the ultimate goal--an
13
idle life of leisure void of manual labor. This pagan goal of the idle rich is
in America today… Μουσική: Κάθε λαός στο πέρασμα της ιστορίας
δημιούργησε τη μουσική του. Μουσική στην Ελλάδα όμως δεν σημαίνει
μόνο ρυθμός, μελωδία, αρμονία κι έκφραση. Περιλαμβάνει πέρα από το
μέλος, τη γεωμετρία και τη φιλοσοφία και συνδυάζεται με άλλες τέχνες
όπως η ποίηση και το δράμα. Η μουσική προστατεύεται από τις Μούσες
και αποτελεί αναπόσπαστο τμήμα της ελληνικής παιδείας.
Μυθολογία-Ίκαρος και Δαίδαλος. Σύμφωνα με τη ελληνική

μυθολογία, ο Ίκαρος ήταν γιος του Δαιδάλου και της Ναυκράτης, η
οποία, κατά μια παράδοση, ήταν δούλη του Μίνωος. Όταν ο Δαίδαλος
καταδικάστηκε από τον Άρειο Πάγο επειδή είχε φονεύσει τον τεχνίτη
Τάλω, έφυγε στην Κρήτη. Εκεί κατασκεύασε τον Λαβύρινθο για να ζει
μέσα ο Μινώταυρος, ο γιος της γυναίκας του Μίνωος Πασιφάης. Μέσα
στον Λαβύρινθο φυλάκισε ο Μίνως και τον ίδιο τον Δαίδαλο με τον γιο
του Ίκαρο, διότι ο Δαίδαλος είχε βοηθήσει την Πασιφάη να ενωθεί με τον
Ταύρο του Ποσειδώνος και να γεννηθεί ο Μινώταυρος. Ο Δαίδαλος με
τον Ίκαρο δραπέτευσαν από τον Λαβύρινθο με τη βοήθεια των φτερών
που είχε κατασκευάσει και για τους δύο ο Δαίδαλος, χρησιμοποιώντας
πούπουλα και κερί. Τα φτερά αυτά τα προσάρτησαν στους ώμους τους
και πέταξαν στον ουρανό. Ο Ίκαρος όμως, γοητευμένος από την πτήση,
παράκουσε την εντολή του πατέρα του να μην πετάει πολύ ψηλά για να
μη λιώσει από τη ζέστη του ήλιου το κερί των φτερών, ούτε και πολύ
χαμηλά για να μην λυθούν τα φτερά από την υγρασία της θάλασσας:
πέταξε ψηλά με αποτέλεσμα να λιώσει το κερί και να αποκολληθούν τα
φτερά, να πέσει στη θάλασσα και να χάσει τη ζωή του. Η θαλάσσια
περιοχή όπου ο Ίκαρος βρήκε τον θάνατο ονομάστηκε έκτοτε Ικάριο
Πέλαγος ή Ικάριος Πόντος. Η περιοχή αυτή βρίσκεται νότια του νησιού
που ονομάστηκε Ικαρία. Έτσι διηγείται την ιστορία του Ικάρου ο
Απολλόδωρος.
Μυθολογία. Ο Λαβύρινθος στην Ελληνική Μυθολογία, ήταν μια

σύνθετη οικοδομική κατασκευή, στην Κνωσσό. Φτιάχτηκε από τον
μηχανικό Δαίδαλο για λογαριασμό του μυθικού βασιλιά της Κρήτης,
Μίνωα. Ο λόγος που κατασκευάστηκε ήταν για να απομονώσει τον
Μινώταυρο, πλάσμα μισός άνθρωπος και μισός ταύρος. Τελικά τον
σκότωσε ο Αθηναίος ήρωας Θησέας, τον οποίο βοήθησε η κόρη του
Μίνωα, Αριάδνη να βρει την έξοδό με τον μίτο της. Ο ίδιος ο Δαίδαλος,
κατασκεύασε τόσο περίτεχνα και πολύπλοκα τον λαβύρινθο, που ακόμη
και αυτός κατάφερε με δυσκολία να βρει την έξοδό του, όταν
ολοκλήρωσε το έργο.
14
Μυθολογία. Φιλοξενία: Η φιλοξενία καθιερώθηκε ως ύψιστη αρχή ήδη

από την αρχαιότητα και τέθηκε υπό την προστασία του Δία. Η ιερότητα
του θεσμού της φιλοξενίας αποτέλεσε ένα βασικό βήμα προς την
κοινωνικοποίηση του ατόμου και τη δημιουργία των πρώτων
συνοικισμών. Μέχρι σήμερα έχει πρωτεύουσα σημασία στη ζωή και στις
σχέσεις των Ελλήνων.
Μυθολογία.-Μεταλλουργία. Η χρήση των μετάλλων αποτέλεσε

καθοριστικό παράγοντα στην εξέλιξη της ανθρώπινης τεχνολογίας. Στην
αρχαία Ελλάδα η τέχνη του μετάλλου, η μεταλλουργία, θεωρούνταν
ιδιαίτερα σημαντική μιας και είχε και δικό της θεό, τον Ήφαιστο. Τι
είναι, όμως, η μεταλλουργία; Πρόκειται για το σύνολο των μεθόδων και
διεργασιών, που ακολουθούνται για την εξαγωγή, παρασκευή,
διαμόρφωση και κατεργασία των μετάλλων και των κραμάτων τους. Η
εξαγωγή και χρησιμοποίηση των μέταλλων, όπως ο χρυσός, ο χαλκός και
ο σίδηρος ανάγονται στην προϊστορική εποχή. Οι λίγες γνώσεις μας,
σχετικά με τις μεταλλουργικές μεθόδους των αρχαίων, προέρχονται από
τις πληροφορίες των Διοσκουρίδη, Στράβωνα, Πλίνιου του Πρεσβυτέρου,
Διόδωρου του Σικελιώτη και άλλων. Οι Πρώτοι διάσημοι μεταλλουργοί,
που εφάρμοσαν την τέχνη τους στην κατασκευή όπλων και εργαλείων,
λατρεύονταν ως ημίθεοι, όπως οι Δάκτυλοι, οι Κάβειροι, οι Κορύβαντες
και οι Τέλχινες. Ο Ήφαιστος είναι ο θεός της φωτιάς και της
μεταλλουργίας στην ελληνική μυθολογία. Ήταν γιος του Δία και της
Ήρας. Αυτό αναφέρεται στους ομηρικούς στίχους, τους οποίους
ακολούθησαν οι μεταγενέστεροι συγγραφείς. Ωστόσο, ο Ησίοδος
παρουσιάζει τον θεό ως τέκνο της Ήρας και μόνο, που γεννήθηκε με
παρθενογένεση, χωρίς τη συμμετοχή πατέρα.
40.000 π.Χ. Η εποχή του λίθου χωρίζεται σε τρεις περιόδους, ανάλογα

με την εξέλιξη των λίθινων εργαλείων που έρχονται στο φως από τις
αρχαιολογικές ανασκαφές. Για την Ελλάδα ειδικά, η χρονολόγηση
αυτών των περιόδων, με βάση τις λιγοστές οπωσδήποτε
ραδιοχρονολογήσεις δειγμάτων από θέσεις αυτής της περιόδου, είναι
συμβατικά: παλαιολιθική περίοδος: από περίπου 40000 π.Χ. – περίπου
10000 π.Χ. μεσολιθική περίοδος: από περίπου 10000 π.Χ. – περίπου
6500 π.Χ. νεολιθική περίοδος: από περίπου 6500 π.Χ. – περίπου 3000
π.Χ. Η χρονολόγηση αυτών των περιόδων δεν είναι αυστηρή και ίσως
αλλάξει καθώς νέα στοιχεία ανακαλύπτονται με τις έρευνες των ειδικών.
9.000 π. Χ. -Χαλκός. Σύμφωνα με τους αρχαιολόγους ο χαλκός είναι το

πρώτο από τα μέταλλα που χρησιμοποίησε ο άνθρωπος για την
15
κατασκευή σκευών, εργαλείων και όπλων. Εκτιμάται ότι ο χαλκός έγινε

γνωστός περίπου το 9.000 π.Χ., πιθανόν επειδή απαντά ως αυτοφυής και
δεν απαιτεί μεταλλουργική διαδικασία για την παρασκευή του σε καθαρή
μορφή. H χρήση καθαρού χαλκού ήταν γνωστη στη Μικρά Ασία από το
6.500 π.Χ. ενώ πό τα μέσα της 4ης χιλιετίας άρχισε ν΄ αναπτύσσεται η
μεταλλουργία που προκάλεσε και την αστικοποήση της Μεσοποταμίας.
Περί το 3.000 π.Χ. η χρήση χαλκού ήταν πλήρως διαδεδομένη στην
Εγγύς Ανατολή. Η χρήση του ορείχαλκου ήταν ευρύτερα διαδεδομένη
στη 2η χιλιετία μέχρι την 1η όπου ακολολύθησε η ευρύτερη χρήση του
σιδήρου. Το αγγλικό του όνομα copper προκύπτει από το λατινικό
Cuprum, λέξη η οποία με τη σειρά της προέρχεται από το νησί της
Κύπρου, όπου και εξορυσσόταν κατά την ρωμαϊκή εποχή.
6.000 π. Χ. -Η Ναυσιπλοία στα αρχαία χρόνια και η Ελληνική συμβολή.

ΙΣΤΟΡΙΚΗ ΑΝΑΔΡΟΜΗ : ΑΠΟ ΤΟΝ ΑΣΤΡΟΛΑΒΟ ΣΤΟΝ ΕΞΑΝΤΑ
ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟ ΤΟΝ ΕΞΑΝΤΑ ΣΤΟ GPS: Aπο τα πανάρχαια χρόνια ο
άνθρωπος και Πρώτοι οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες προσπαθούσαν να
απαντήσουν στο ερώτημα ...ΠΟΥ ΒΡΙΣΚΟΜΑΣΤΕ; Το δύσκολο αυτό
ερώτημα οδήγησε τους Έλληνες Φιλόσοφους στα δύσκολα και
ανεξιχνίαστα μονοπάτια της Φυσικής, των Μαθηματικών, της
Αστρονομίας και γενικά των θετικών Επιστημών και οι γνώσεις τους
επέτρεψαν στους τότε Έλληνες ναυσιπλόους να πραγματοποιήσουν
ταξίδια που ακόμη και με τα σημερινά σύγχρονα όργανα θεωρούνται
δύσκολα και επικίνδυνα. άρτες των πιθανών πλεύσεων των
ΑΡΓΟΝΑΥΤΩΝ και του…("ΤΑ ΟΡΦΙΚΑ" Ιωάννη Πασσά -
εκδ."ΗΛΙΟΥ".). Εν συνεχεία κατά την περίοδο 6000-3000 Π.Χ έχουμε
την αλματώδη ανάπτυξη στην ναυσιπλοία και Ναυτική τέχνη του
ΜΙΝΩΙΚΟΥ KAI ΜΥΚΗΝΑΙΚΟΥ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΜΟΥ. Γύρω στα 1450 Π.Χ
είναι πιθανόν η ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙΑ και οι τότε γνωστές μέθοδοι ναυσιπλοίας να
έφεραν τον ΟΔΥΣΣΕΑ μέχρι και τον Καναδά (New foundland). Το 900
Π.Χ οι Έλληνες ναυτικοί έκαναν ταξίδια μέχρι την Κορνουάλη της
Αγγλίας για να μαζέψουν και να μεταφέρουν ΚΑΣΣΙΤΕΡΟ (τσίγκο) στη
Ελλάδα χρησιμοποιώντας και τις γνώσεις που είχαν για τον ΠΟΛΙΚΟ
ΑΣΤΕΡΑ. Οι πρώτες προσπάθειες για δημιουργία Ναυτικών χαρτών
και τοποθέτηση στίγματος πάνω σε αυτούς παρουσιάζονται κατά την
εποχή του ΘΑΛΗ ΤΟΥ ΜΙΛΗΣΙΟΥ (624-545 Π.Χ). Το 600 Π.Χ ο
ΘΑΛΗΣ ανακάλυψε την ΓΝΩΜΟΝΙΚΗ ΠΡΟΒΟΛΗ που
χρησιμοποιείται μέχρι σήμερα γνωρίζοντας ότι η Γη είναι ΣΦΑΙΡΙΚΗ και
ήταν ο πρώτος που μοίρασε τον χρόνο σε 365 ημέρες. Πρόβλεψε την
έκλειψη του ηλίου το 585 Π.Χ..
3.000 π.Χ. Κυκλαδικά Εδώλια: Τα κυκλαδικά εδώλια είναι αγαλματίδια

της εποχής του 3000 π.Χ. που βρέθηκαν κυρίως σε τάφους, αλλά και
16
οικισμούς. Εικάζεται ότι ο βασικός τους ρόλους ήταν να συντροφεύουν

τους νεκρούς. Ήταν κατασκευασμένα από μάρμαρο Πάρου και το ύψος
τους ποίκιλε από μερικά εκατοστά ως και 1,52 μ. Οι μορφές ήταν
γυναικείες κι ανδρικές, όρθιες είτε καθισμένες. Κυκλαδικά εδώλια μπορεί
να θαυμάσει ο επισκέπτης στα μουσεία των νησιών των Κυκλάδων
καθώς και στο Μουσείο Κυκλαδικής Τέχνης στην Αθήνα.
3.000 π. Χ. -Ο λαός της Κρήτης ανέπτυξε τον πρώτο ευρωπαϊκό

πολιτισμό, τον Μινωϊκο, που ονομάζεται έτσι, από τον θρυλικό
βασιλιά Μίνωα. Το όνομα του Μίνωα εμπλέκεται σε πολλούς από τους
μύθους της ελληνικής μυθολογίας. Από το Μίνωα πήρε την ονομασία του
ο Μινωικός πολιτισμός, που αναπτύχθηκε στην Κρήτη από το 3000
έως το 1450 π.Χ.. Μυκηναϊκά Τείχη: Οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες απέδιδαν την
κατασκευή τους στους Κύκλωπες λόγω των απίστευτων διαστάσεων
τους. Ήταν χτισμένα με ογκόλιθους μεγάλου πάχους και ύψους. Τα τείχη
είχαν ύψος άνω των 8 μ. και πλάτος κατά μέσο όρο 5 μ. Θαυμαστή είναι
η πύλη των λεόντων, δηλαδή η πύλη στις Μυκήνες όπου πάνω απ’ το
υπέρθυρο κοσμείται με το ανάγλυφο των λεόντων. Οι δύο λέοντες, που
αποτελούσαν σύμβολα και προστάτες της γης, βρίσκονται σκαλισμένοι
πάνω στο λεγόμενο «ανακουφιστικό τρίγωνο»… Ανάκτορο της
Κνωσού: Αποτελεί εξαιρετικό μνημείο της μινωικής αρχιτεκτονικής,
κατασκευασμένο από διάφορα είδη πέτρας. Το ανάκτορο ήταν
εκτεταμένο και πολυώροφο, ένα δαιδαλώδες συγκρότημα που
αναπτυσσόταν γύρω από μια μεγάλη υπαίθρια αυλή. Σ’ αυτό στεγάζονταν
ιερά, τα διαμερίσματα της βασιλικής οικογένειας, δωμάτια
αξιωματούχων, λουτρά, κουζίνες, τραπεζαρίες, εργαστήρια, αποθήκες
κ.α. Πολλές αίθουσες ήταν διακοσμημένες με τοιχογραφίες που
απεικόνιζαν εκδηλώσεις της μινωικής ζωής. Επίσης, διέθετε εξαιρετικό
αποχετευτικό κι υδρευτικό σύστημα.
2.000 π.Χ. -Η Αρχαία Ελληνική Τέχνη αποτελεί ένα από τα

σημαντικότερα φαινόμενα του παγκόσμιου πολιτισμού και συνέβαλε
καθοριστικά στη διαμόρφωση του χαρακτήρα και της αισθητικής του
σύγχρονου δυτικού κόσμου. Η Συλλογή Αρχαίας Ελληνικής Τέχνης του
ΜΚΤ δίνει τη δυνατότητα μιας διαχρονικής προσέγγισης του φαινομένου
αυτού από τη Μέση Εποχή του Χαλκού (2η χιλιετία π.Χ.) μέχρι το τέλος
της Ρωμαϊκής περιόδου (4ος αι. μ.Χ.).
1700 π.χ. Δίσκος της Φαιστού: Είναι ένας πήλινος δίσκος με

ιερογλυφική γραφή που χρονολογείται από τον 17ο αιώνα π.Χ. Τα
σύμβολα, που στο σύνολο τους είναι 242 και χωρίζονται σε 61 ομάδες,
βρίσκονται και στις δύο όψεις του δίσκου. Έχουν αποτυπωθεί
σπειροειδώς από την περιφέρεια προς το κέντρο, το καθένα χωριστά με
17
τη βοήθεια σφραγίδων κι έχουν μορφές ανθρώπινες, ζώων, εργαλείων,

όπλων κ.α. Το αντικείμενο αυτό που αποτελεί το παλαιότερο δείγμα
τυπογραφίας στον κόσμο, φυλάσσεται στο Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο του
Ηρακλείου… Ο Δίσκος της Φαιστού είναι ένα αρχαιολογικό εύρημα
από την Μινωική πόλη της Φαιστού στη νότια Κρήτη και
χρονολογείται πιθανώς στον 17ο αιώνα π.Χ.. Αποτελεί ένα από τα
γνωστότερα μυστήρια της αρχαιολογίας, αφού ο σκοπός της
κατασκευής του και το νόημα των όσων αναγράφονται σε αυτόν
παραμένουν άγνωστα.
1600 π. Χ. -Στην ιατρική με τον Γαληνό, τον Ιπποκράτη, τον Ασκληπιό.

την αρχαία Ελλάδα ο θεός της ιατρικής και της υγείας ήταν ο Ασκληπιός.
Κατά τη μυθολογία, ο Ασκληπιός ήταν υιός του θεού Απόλλωνα και της
Κορωνίδας, κόρης του βασιλιά της Θεσσαλίας, Φλεγύα. Όταν η
Κορωνίδα ήταν έγκυος, περιμένοντας το παιδί του Απόλλωνα,
ερωτεύτηκε και παντρεύτηκε έναν θνητό, τον Ισχύ. Ο Απόλλων
οργίστηκε με αυτό και διέταξε την αδελφή του, την θεά Άρτεμη, να
σκοτώσει την Κορωνίδα, όπως και έγινε. Ενώ το νεκρό σώμα της
Κορωνίδας καιγόταν ο Απόλλων έβγαλε το μωρό από την κοιλιά της και
το έδωσε στον Κένταυρο Χείρωνα (47) να το μεγαλώσει. Ο Χείρωνας
έμαθε στον Ασκληπιό ιατρική και κυνήγι. Ο Ασκληπιός συμμετείχε
αργότερα στην Αργοναυτική εκστρατεία με τον Ιάσωνα, ενώ οι υιοί του
πολέμησαν στον Τρωικό πόλεμο…Οι Έλληνες είχαν τον μεγάλο ναό του
Ασκληπιού στην Επίδαυρο και πολλούς άλλους ναούς σε όλη τη χώρα
που λέγονταν “Ασκληπιεία΄΄ (στην ουσία ήταν θεραπευτήρια) το
σημαντικότερο από τα οποία ήταν στο νησί Κω. Στους χώρους αυτούς
προσέρχονταν οι ασθενείς.
Στην Επίδαυρο ο Ασκληπιός λατρευόταν από τον 16ο αιώνα π.Χ. Αρχικά
ο θεός λατρευόταν στο ναό της Επιδαύρου. Το Ασκληπιείο της
Επιδαύρου είχε περισσότερο θρησκευτικό χαρακτήρα, σε αντίθεση με το
Ασκληπιείο της Κω που είχε περισσότερο επιστημονικό χαρακτήρα. Ο
ναός του Ασκληπιού στην Επίδαυρο είχε στο εσωτερικό του το
χρυσελεφάντινο άγαλμα του θεού που ήταν καθισμένος στον θρόνο του
κρατώντας ένα ραβδί. Στο Ασκληπιείο έρχονταν άρρωστοι από όλη την
Ελλάδα και μετά από όλο τον γνωστό κόσμο. Οι ασθενείς αρχικά έκαναν
θυσία στον πατέρα του Ασκληπιού, Απόλλωνα, που ήταν και αυτός
ιατρός. Μάλιστα, ο Απόλλωνας εθεωρείτο και αυτός θεός της ιατρικής
και επιδέξιος χειρούργος. Στο ιερό του Ασκληπιού υπήρχαν ιατρικά
εργαλεία, όπως νυστεριά, και γίνονταν και ιατρικές επεμβάσεις! Στο
Ασκληπιείο της Επιδαύρου υπήρχε ένας χώρος, το “άβατον΄΄, όπου
κοιμόταν ο ασθενής. Τον 4ο αιώνα π.Χ. στο Ασκληπιείο δημιουργήθηκε
και ιαματική πηγή και οι ασθενείς έκαναν τα ευεργετικά για την υγεία
18
τους ιαματικά λουτρά όπως κάνουν και σήμερα στις λουτροπόλεις. Την
ίδια εποχή στο μονόροφο κτίριο του Ασκληπιείου στην Επίδαυρο
χτίσθηκαν άλλοι δυο όροφοι, για να εξυπηρετηθούν οι δεκάδες ασθενών
που συνέρρεαν από όλη τη χώρα. Ο πρώτος που θεμελίωσε την ιατρική
ήταν ο φιλόσοφος (μαθητής του Πυθαγόρα) Αλκμαίων (τέλος 6ου –
αρχές 5ου αιώνα π.Χ.) από τον Κρότωνα, ελληνική αποικία της Κάτω
Ιταλίας. Πρώτος υποστήριξε ότι ο εγκέφαλος είναι το κέντρο των
αισθήσεων και των οργανικών λειτουργιών. Ο Αλκμαίων έγραψε το
πρώτο ιατρικό βιβλίο: το “Περί Φύσεως΄΄ (συνηθισμένος τίτλους για
τους παλαιότερους φιλοσόφους)… Greek Rational Medicine:
Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians.
Publisher: Routledge The Greeks were the First to develop rational
systems of medicine almost entirely free of magical and religious
elements and based upon natural causes. The importance of
this ..Ελληνική Ορθολογική Ιατρικής: Φιλοσοφία και Ιατρική Alcmaeon
από τους Αλεξανδρινούς. Εκδότης: Routledge . έκδοση 1993 | Οι
Έλληνες ήταν οι Πρώτοι που αναπτύσσουν ορθολογικά συστήματα
της ιατρικής σχεδόν εξ ολοκλήρου χωρίς μαγικές και θρησκευτικά
στοιχεία και βασίζεται σε φυσικά αίτια. Η σημασία του αυτό ... "The
Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science" by Kevin
Thomas Van Bladel.English. 2009. This is the First major study
devoted to the early Arabic reception and adaption of the figure of
Hermes Trismegistus, the legendary Egyptian sage to whom were
ascribed numerous works on astrology, alchemy, talismans, medicine,
and Philosophy. Before the more famous Renaissance European
reception of the ancient Greek Hermetica, the Arabic tradition about
Hermes and the works under his name had been developing and
flourishing for seven hundred years. The legendary Egyptian Hermes
Trismegistus was renowned in Roman antiquity as an ancient sage whose
teachings were represented in books of Philosophy and occult science…
Helen King, "Hippocrates' Woman: Reading the Female Body in
Ancient Greece". Publisher: Routledge. 1998. Gynecology in ancient
Greece originated in the myth of the First woman Pandora, whose
beautiful appearance was seen to cover her dangerous insides. This book
explores how Greek healers understood the interior workings of the
female body, and how gynecology was based on ideas about women and
their bodies found in myth and ritual. Helen King also presents a detailed
account of how doctors twisted ancient Greek texts into ways of
controlling women's behavior…Η Γυναικολογία στην αρχαία Ελλάδα
προέρχεται από το μύθο της Πανδώρας πρώτη γυναίκα, της οποίας η
όμορφη εμφάνιση θεωρήθηκε επικίνδυνη για την κάλυψη εσωτερικό
της. Αυτό το βιβλίο εξερευνά το πώς η ελληνική θεραπευτές κατανοήσει
τις εσωτερικές λειτουργίες του γυναικείου σώματος, το πώς και
19
γυναικολογία βασίστηκε στις ιδέες για τις γυναίκες και τους φορείς τους,
που βρέθηκαν στο μύθο και την τελετουργία. Ελένη βασιλιά παρουσιάζει
επίσης έναν λεπτομερή απολογισμό για το πώς οι γιατροί στριμμένα
αρχαία ελληνικά κείμενα σχετικά με τους τρόπους ελέγχου της
συμπεριφοράς των γυναικών… Charles G. Gross - Brain, Vision,
Memory: Tales in the History of Neuroscience. The MIT Press |
19/05/1998. Charles G. Gross is an experimental neuroscientist who
specializes in brain mechanisms in vision. He is also fascinated by the
history of his field. In these tales describing the growth of knowledge
about the brain from the early Egyptians and Greeks to the present
time, he attempts to answer the question of how the discipline of
neuroscience evolved into its modern incarnation through the twists and
turns of history. Charles G. Gross είναι ένας πειραματικός
νευροεπιστήμονας ο οποίος ειδικεύεται σε μηχανισμούς του εγκεφάλου
στην όραση. Είναι επίσης γοητευμένος από την ιστορία του τομέα του.
Σε αυτές τις ιστορίες που περιγράφουν την ανάπτυξη των γνώσεων
για τον εγκέφαλο από τις αρχές του Αιγυπτίους και Έλληνες μέχρι
σήμερα, επιχειρεί να απαντήσει στο ερώτημα του πώς η επιστήμη της
νευρολογίας εξελιχθεί σε σύγχρονη ενσάρκωση της, μέσα από τις
ανατροπές και τις στροφές της ιστορίας.
1300 π.χ. Η πληθυσμιακή και πολιτισμική ανάμειξη μεταξύ των

νεοφερμένων πρωτοελλήνων και των προελλήνων οδήγησε στην γένεση
του ελληνικού πολιτισμού. Οι περιοχές νοτίως της Θεσσαλίας δέχτηκαν
την ισχυρή επίδραση του ανεπτυγμένου Μινωικού πολιτισμού, γεγονός
που οδήγησε στην άνθηση του Μυκηναϊκού πολιτισμού. Αντίθετα, τα
βορειοδυτικά ελληνικά φύλα, τα οποία έμειναν άμοιρα της Μινωικής
επίδρασης, παρέμειναν σε χαμηλότερο πολιτιστικό επίπεδο. Ο
Μυκηναϊκός πολιτισμός έδωσε τα μεγάλα μυκηναϊκά κέντρα της Νότιας
Ελλάδας (Μυκήνες, Τίρυνθα, Πύλος, Ορχομενός κ.α.) και της Κρήτης
καθώς και την πρώτη ελληνική γραφή, τη Γραμμική Β'. Στις πινακίδες
της Γραμμικής Β' ανιχνεύουμε και τα πρώτα στοιχεία της μετέπειτα
αρχαίας ελληνικής θρησκείας. Η παρακμή του Μυκηναϊκού κόσμου
στο τέλος της Υστερο-Ελλαδικής περιόδου (στα τέλη του 13ου αι. π.Χ.)
οδήγησε στη σταδιακή εξαφάνιση των μυκηναϊκών κέντρων κατά την
Υπομυκηναϊκή περίοδο, η οποία τελειώνει το 1.100 π.Χ. περίπου, την
ολοκληρωτική εξαφάνιση της γραφής και τους λεγόμενους Σκοτεινούς
Αιώνες.
900 π.Χ. -Το ελληνικό αλφάβητο προήλθε από τους Φοίνικες γύρω στο
έτος 900 π.Χ. Όταν το Φοινικικό αλφάβητο εφευρέθηκε υπήρχαν
περίπου 600 σύμβολα….Οι Έλληνες δανείστηκε μερικά από τα σύμβολα
20
και στη συνέχεια έκαναν κάποιες από τις δικές τους στη δημιουργία της
γλώσσας τους. .. Στα αγγλικά geometry, grammar, alphabet… Σχετικά με
τη γλώσσα, ο Κάδμος θεωρείται ο εισηγητής στην Ελλάδα του φοινικικού
αλφάβητου, που θα αποτελέσει τη βάση για το ελληνικό αλφάβητο.
Διόδωρος ο Σικελιώτης V, 58.2-3, V, 78.1 Απολλόδωρος III, 1.1 Υγίνος:
Μύθοι 1 78 Οβιδιος: ... Ο Κάδμος εισήγαγε πολλές τεχνικές, πολλές
καινοτομίες στην Ελλάδα αλλά κυρίως είναι αυτός που έφερε την γραφή,
αλλιώς φοινικικό αλφάβητο, πρόδρομο του ελληνικού αλφάβητου. γ. Ο
Κάδμος και η Αρμονία γέννησαν τη Σεμέλη, μητέρα του ...
800 π.Χ. Ο Πολυποίτης, ο Λαπίθης ξακουστός ηγεμόνας της Ελασσόνας,

θεωρείται ο πρώτος έλληνας πρωταθλητής Δισκοβόλος που αναφέρεται
σε αρχαίο κείμενο, αφού ο Όμηρος(800 π.Χ.) στην Ιλιάδα εξιστορεί με
θαυμασμό την άφταστη αγωνιστική του ικανότητα. Μια θαυμάσια
μεταφορά σε αφηγηματική μορφή για παιδιά.
800 π.Χ. -Στην Ιστορία με τον Θουκιδίδη, τον Ηρόδοτο και τον
Ξενοφώντα. Στα αγγλικά History. Η καταγραφή και η ερμηνεία
παρελθόντων γεγονότων ξεκίνησε τόσο για τη Δύση όσο και για την
Ανατολή μέσω της επανάληψης των μύθων που παραδόθηκαν από
προφορικές παραδόσεις. Η επική ποίηση του Ομήρου (περ. 800 ΠΚΕ) ήταν
ένα παράδειγμα τέτοιας προφορικής ιστορίας. Στην κλασική εποχή της
αρχαίας Ελλάδας ο Ηρόδοτος ο «πατέρας» της ελληνικής ιστορίας και ο
Θουκυδίδης έγραψαν αφηγήσεις σχετικές με γεγονότα της εποχής τους…
Αθηναίος ιστορικός, που έγραψε την ιστορία του Πελοποννησιακού

πολέμου, που διήρκεσε από το 431 ώς το 404 π.Χ. Θεωρείται ο
μεγαλύτερος ιστορικός της αρχαιότητας, αλλά οι πληροφορίες για τη ζωή
του είναι πενιχρές. Ο Ηρόδοτος με την αφήγηση των περσικών πολέμων
και ο Θουκυδίδης με την κλασική μελέτη του πελοποννησιακού πολέμου
μεταξύ της πόλης των Αθηνών και της Σπάρτης. Και οι δύο κατέγραψαν
σύγχρονα ή κοντινά σε χρονική απόσταση γεγονότα στηριγμένοι σε
αυτόπτες μάρτυρες ή άλλες αξιόπιστες μαρτυρίες. Επικεντρώθηκαν στον
πόλεμο, την ιστορία των θεσμών και τον χαρακτήρα των πολιτικών
ηγετών για να δημιουργήσουν την εικόνα της αρχαιοελληνικής κοινωνίας
σε περιόδους της κρίσης ή μετάβασης. Κατά τον 4ο αιώνα ΠΚΕ την
ελληνική ιστοριογραφική παράδοση στην ελληνιστική περίοδο συνέχισε ο
Ξενοφών, ο Θεόπομπος ο Χίος και ο Έφορος. Στον 2ο ΠΚΕ αιώνα ο ιστορικός Πολύβιος
κατέγραψε τη ρωμαϊκή ιστορία, θέμα που επανέλαβε επίσης ο Στράβων ο

Γεωγράφος και ο Διονύσιος Αλικαρνασσέας στον επόμενο αιώνα. Στην ίδια
περίοδο ο Πλούταρχος βιογράφησε επιφανείς Έλληνες και Ρωμαίους,
χρησιμοποιώντας ενίοτε δραματικά στοιχεία και ανέκδοτα υλικά για την
απεικόνιση χαρακτήρων και την επίδρασή τους στη δημόσια ζωή . Ο
Εκαταίος ο Μιλήσιος, γιος του Ηγησάνδρου, γεννήθηκε στη Μίλητο
21
ανάμεσα στο 560 π.Χ. και το 550 π.Χ., και πέθανε μάλλον πριν από το
480 π.Χ. Σωζόμενα. Εκαταίος. 1a,1,T.1a.3 … ἐπὶ τῆς ξε ὀλυμπιάδος·
ἱστοριογράφος. Ἡρόδοτος δὲ ὁ Ἁλι καρνασεὺς ὠφέληται τούτου͵
νεώτερος ὤν. καὶ ἦν ἀκουστὴς Πρωταγόρου ὁ Ἑκαταῖος. πρῶτος δὲ
ἱστορίαν πεζῶς ἐξήνεγκε͵ συγγραφὴν δὲ Φερεκύδης . τὰ γὰρ Ἀκουσιλάου
νοθεύεται. Ἑλλάνικος Μιτυληναῖος .... κατὰ τοὺς χρόνους Εὐριπίδου
καὶ Σοφοκλέους· καὶ Ἑκαταίωι τῶι Μιλησίωι ἐπέβαλε͵ γεγονὼς κατὰ τὰ
Περσικὰ ἢ μικρῶι πρόσθεν.. Ἑλλάνικος Μιλήσιος· ἱστορικός. Περίοδον
Γῆς καὶ Ἱστορίας. ἄνδρες δ΄ ἄξιοι μνήμης ἐγένοντο ἐν τῆι Μιλήτωι
Θαλῆς τε ... καὶ ὁ τούτου μαθητὴς Ἀναξίμανδρος καὶ ὁ τούτου πάλιν
Ἀναξιμένης· ἔτι δ΄ Ἑκαταῖος ὁ τὴν Ἱστορίαν συντάξας… Οι κυριότεροι
Έλληνες ιστορικοί της αρχαιότητας ήταν ο Ηρόδοτος, ο Θουκυδίδης, ο
Ξενοφών, ο Κτησίας, ο Θεόπομπος, ο Έφορος, ο Καλλισθένης, ο
Ονησίκριτος, ο Τίμαιος, ο Απολλόδωρος, ο Ερατοσθένης, ο Πολύβιος, ο
Διόδωρος, ο Διονύσιος Αλικαρνασσεύς, ο Δίων Κάσσιος, ο Ιώσηπος, ο
Πλούταρχος, ο Αρριανός, ο Αππιανός, ο Ηρωδιανός και ο Ευσέβιος. Οι
κυριότεροι ιστορικοί της Ρώμης ήταν ο Καίσαρ, ο Σαλλούστιος, ο
Σισέννας, ο Ίρτιος, ο Νέπος, ο Λίβιος, ο Τρόγος, ο Ιουστίνος, ο Βελέιος
Πατέρκουλος, ο Βαλέριος Μάξιμος, ο Κρεμούτιος Κόρδος, ο Κούρτιος, ο
Τάκιτος, ο Σουητόνιος, ο Φλώρος, οι συγγραφείς της «Ιστόρια
Αουγκούστα», ο Ευτρόπιος, ο Φέστος, ο Αμμιανός Μαρκελλίνος, ο
Ιερώνυμος και ο Ορόζιος … TTC VIDEO - Herodotus - The Father Of
History (2002). Genre: History, Education | Label: The Great Courses |
Language: Englis.
Witness the "works and wonders" of the ancient world through the
eyes of its First great historian. Given the number and the superb
quality of the courses on classical literature that Professor Elizabeth
Vandiver has contributed to The Great Courses, we knew that we had to
bring her into our studio to lecture on Herodotus. His monumental work,
the Histories, was the subject of her doctoral dissertation and First
book. And it remains one of her great loves among Greek and Roman
writings. Μάρτυρας τα "έργα και θαύματα» του αρχαίου κόσμου μέσα
από τα μάτια του πρώτου μεγάλου ιστορικού του. Λαμβάνοντας
υπόψη τον αριθμό και την εξαιρετική ποιότητα των μαθημάτων σχετικά
με την κλασική φιλολογία ότι ο καθηγητής Elizabeth Vandiver συνέβαλε
πάρα πολύ να φέρει σε στούντιο της για να μας μιλήσει για τον Ηρόδοτο.
800 π.Χ. -Στο έπος με τον Ομηρο. Στα αγγλικά epic. Ο Όμηρος φέρεται
ως ο συγγραφέας των ποιητικών κειμένων της Ιλιάδας και της
Οδύσσειας, από τα πρώτα κείμενα της Ιστορικής περιόδου της αρχαίας
Ελλάδας, γνωστά ως «Ομηρικά Έπη». Για τη ζωή του υπάρχουν
ελάχιστες πληροφορίες και αυτές αντιφατικές, ενώ η φιλολογική
22
επιστήμη των δύο τελευταίων αιώνων αμφισβήτησε ακόμη και την

ύπαρξή του. Με κριτήρια τα χαρακτηριστικά των έργων, είναι ασφαλές
να υποθέσουμε ότι η Ιλιάδα και η Οδύσσεια γράφτηκαν τον 8ο αι. π.Χ.
(μερικοί μελετητές, π.χ. M.L. West, προτιμούν ημερομηνίες μέχρι και το
πρώτο μισό του 7ου αι. π.Χ.), με την Ιλιάδα να είναι προγενέστερη,
ενδεχομένως και κατά μερικές δεκαετίες. Στον Όμηρο κατά καιρούς
αποδόθηκαν και άλλα έργα, τα οποία σήμερα είναι δεκτό ότι δεν είναι
δικά του, αλλά ακόμη είναι αμφισβητήσιμο το αν τα δύο μεγάλα έπη
είναι έργα του ίδιου ποιητή. Η Ιλιάς αποτελείται από 15.693 στίχους και
αναφέρεται στις τελευταίες πενήντα μία (51), αποφασιστικής σημασίας
ημέρες του πολέμου της Τροίας, ο οποίος συνολικά διήρκεσε, σύμφωνα
με το μύθο, 10 χρόνια. Η Οδύσσεια αποτελείται από περίπου 12.000
στίχους και περιγράφει τον δεκαετή αγώνα του Οδυσσέα για τον νόστο
(επιστροφή στην πατρίδα του Ιθάκη).
7ος π.Χ. -Με τον όρο Ρητορική, (από την ελληνική λέξη ῥήτωρ), στο
σύγχρονο εννοιολογικό του πλαίσιο εννοείται εκείνος ο τομέας μελέτης
και τεχνικής που ασχολείται με τη σύνθεση του προφορικού και του
γραπτού λόγου στις σύγχρονες μορφές εκφοράς του, προκειμένου να
καταστεί μέσον πειστικότητας και αποτελεσματικότητας επί κάποιου
αιτίου. Η ρητορική είναι μια πολυσύνθετη τεχνική σπουδή. Ιστορικά η
κλασική ρητορική ανάγεται στη σχολή των προσωκρατικών φιλοσόφων
και τους Σοφιστές. Ως προσωκρατικοί φιλόσοφοι εννοούνται
φιλόσοφοι που έζησαν από τον 7ο αιώνα π.Χ. μέχρι και κατά την εποχή
του Σωκράτη… Γοργίας ρήτορας. Σωζόμενα. 2.5 Πορφύριος δὲ αὐτὸν
ἐπὶ τῆς π ὀλυμπιάδος [460-457] τίθησιν· ἀλλὰ χρὴ νοεῖν πρεσβύτερον
αὐτὸν εἶναι. οὗτος πρῶτος τῶι ῥητορικῶι εἴδει τῆς παιδείας δύναμίν
τε φραστικὴν καὶ τέχνην ἔδωκε͵ τροπαῖς τε καὶ μεταφοραῖς καὶ
ἀλληγορίαις καὶ ὑπαλλαγαῖς καὶ καταχρήσεσι καὶ ὑπερβάσεσι καὶ
ἀναδιπλώσεσι καὶ ἐπαναλήψεσι καὶ ἀποστροφαῖς καὶ παρισώσεσιν
ἐχρήσατο. ἔπραττε δὲ τῶν μαθητῶν ἕκαστον μνᾶς ρ. ἐβίω δὲ ἔτη ρθ͵ καὶ
συνεγράψατο πολλά.
7ος π. Χ. -Ο Αναξίμανδρος ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας προσωκρατικός

φιλόσοφος από τη Μίλητο (610 π.Χ. - 546 π.Χ.). Ασχολήθηκε με πολλές
επιστήμες και ιδιαίτερα με την Αστρονομία. …Ήταν ο πρώτος
φιλόσοφος που εισήγαγε τον όρο "αρχή" και πρέσβευε ότι το άπειρον
δεν έχει αρχή, αλλά είναι η αρχή των πάντων είναι "αθάνατον και
ανόλεθρον", "περιέχει δε άπαντα και πάντα κυβερνά" (Αριστοτέλη,
Μεταφ. 203Β). Θεωρούσε ότι από το άπειρο γεννιούνται και σε αυτό
επιστρέφουν συνεχώς άπειροι κόσμοι. Από το άπειρο ξεχώρισε μια φλόγα
και ο νεφελώδης αέρας. … Η ιδέα αυτής της μηχανικής ερμηνείας της
κυκλικής αστρικής κινήσεως διασώζεται από τον Αέτιο και υπήρξε
23
αποφασιστική στην ιστορία της αστρονομίας. … Λέγεται τέλος, ότι

εισήγαγε τη χρήση του γνώμονα στην αρχαία Ελλάδα και ότι
κατασκεύασε χάρτη του γνωστού τότε κόσμου. Αναξιμάνδρου
Σωζόμενα. 1.3 …τὸ δὲ πᾶν ἀμετάβλητον εἶναι. μέσην τε τὴν γῆν κεῖσθαι
κέν τρου τάξιν ἐπέχουσαν͵ οὖσαν σφαιροειδῆ τήν τε σελήνην ψευδοφαῆ
καὶ ἀπὸ ἡλίου φωτίζεσθαι͵ ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸν ἥλιον οὐκ ἐλάττονα τῆς γῆς καὶ
καθαρώτατον πῦρ. εὗρεν δὲ καὶ γνώμονα πρῶτος καὶ ἔστησεν ἐπὶ τῶν
σκιοθήρων ἐν Λακεδαίμονι͵ καθά φησι Φαβωρῖνος ἐν Παντοδαπῆι
ἱστορίαι [ fr. 27 FHG III 581] ͵ τροπάς τε καὶ ἰσημερίας σημαίνοντα καὶ
ὡροσκοπεῖα κατεσκεύασε. καὶ γῆς καὶ θαλάσσης περίμετρον πρῶτος
ἔγραψεν͵ ἀλλὰ καὶ σφαῖραν κατεσκεύασε. τῶν δὲ ἀρεσκόντων αὐτῶι
πεποίηται κεφαλαιώδη τὴν ἔκθεσιν͵ ἧι που περιέτυχεν καὶ Ἀπολλόδωρος
ὁ Ἀθηναῖος· ὃς καί φησιν αὐτὸν ἐν τοῖς Χρονικοῖς [ F GrHist. 244 F 29
II 1028] τῶι δευτέρωι ἔτει τῆς πεντηκοστῆς ὀγδόης ὀλυμπιάδος [547ƒ6]
ἐτῶν εἶναι ἑξήκοντα τεττάρων καὶ μετ΄ ὀλίγον τελευτῆσαι ἀκμάσαντά πη
μάλιστα κατὰ Πολυκράτη τὸν Σάμου τύραννον… Σωζόμενα. 2.1 … 4.5
ΣΟΥΔΑΣῃ Ἀ. Πραξιάδου Μιλήσιος φιλόσοφος συγγενὴς καὶ μαθητὴς καὶ διάδοχος
Θάλητος. πρῶτος δὲ ἰσημερίαν εὗρε καὶ τροπὰς καὶ ὡρολογεῖα͵ καὶ τὴν γῆν ἐν
μεσαιτάτωι κεῖσθαι. γνώμονά τε εἰσήγαγε καὶ ὅλως γεωμετρίας ὑποτύπωσιν
ἔδειξεν. ἔγραψε Περὶ φύσεως͵ Γῆς περίοδον καὶ Περὶ τῶν ἀπλανῶν καὶ Σφαῖραν
καὶ ἄλλα τινά. καὶ Ἀ. δὲ ἡγήσατο τῆς ἐς Ἀπολλωνίαν ἐκ Μιλήτου ἀποικίας.
Θαλοῦ δὲ γίνεται ἀκουστὴς Ἀ.͵ Πραξιάδου μὲν παῖς͵ γένος δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς
Μιλήσιος. οὗτος πρῶτος γνώμονας κατεσκεύασε πρὸς διάγνω σιν τροπῶν
τε ἡλίου καὶ χρόνων καὶ ὡρῶν καὶ ἰσημερίας πόλον μὲν γὰρ καὶ γνώμονα
καὶ τὰ δυώδεκα μέρεα τῆς ἡμέρης παρὰ Βαβυλωνίων ἔμαθον οἱ
Ἕλληνες…
7ος π.Χ. Η Αμφικτυονία ήταν οργάνωση αρχαίων ελληνικών Πόλεων, σε

ενώσεις με μέλη πολλές πόλεις, με κέντρο διάφορους ναούς. Υπήρχαν
αρκετές Αμφικτυονίες, με πιο γνωστή αυτή της Κεντρικής Ελλάδας, με
κέντρο τους Δελφούς. Τα κύρια καθήκοντα μιας αμφικτυονίας
αφορούσαν κυρίως την εποπτεία των ιερών αυτών χώρων αλλά
αποκτούσαν συχνά και πολιτική δύναμη. Η Δελφική Αμφικτυονία ήταν
μια ομοσπονδία δώδεκα φυλών της Στερεάς Ελλάδας και της Θεσσαλίας που
αποτελούσε αρχικά θρησκευτική ένωση, ενώ αργότερα απέκτησε και
πολιτική σημασία. Το Αμφικτυονικό Συνέδριο λάμβανε χώρα δύο φορές
τον χρόνο και κάθε φυλή είχε δύο ψήφους. Κατά τα Ρωμαϊκά χρόνια η
επίδραση της μειώθηκε μέχρι που ο Αδριανός ίδρυσε το Πανελλήνιο. Η
δύναμη που απέκτησε ήταν τέτοια που πρωταγωνίστησε στην περιοχή
έως τουλάχιστον τον 4ο αιώνα π.Χ. Αποτέλεσε, κατά κάποιο τρόπο, μια
μικρογραφία της Κοινωνίας των Εθνών και του σημερινού ΟΗΕ. Ήδη από τον 7ό
αιώνα π.Χ. υπήρχε μία αμφικτυονία των φυλών της κεντρικής Ελλάδας και
της Θεσσαλίας, οι οποίοι είχαν αρχικά και τη μεγαλύτερη επιρροή στο
συνέδριο. Κέντρο της ήταν το ιερό της Δήμητρας στην Ανθήλη, κοντά στις
24
. Στην αμφικτυονία αυτή προσχώρησαν και οι Δελφοί. Με τον καιρό

Θερμοπύλες
απέκτησε μεγάλες αρμοδιότητες στην διοίκηση του ιερού του Απόλλωνα

στους Δελφούς και ταυτόχρονα ισχυρές πολιτικές δυνάμεις.
7ος π. Χ. Οι πρώτες ορθολογικές προσπάθειες να περιγραφεί η φύση

του κόσμου άρχισαν στην Ιωνία. Η Μίλητος, η Εφεσος, η Κολοφώνα
κατά τον έκτο αιώνα, έσφιζαν απο ζωή, οικονομική ακμή και πνευματική
και πολιτισμική κίνηση, που ανέτρεχε ως την εποχή του . Στα Ιωνικά
παράλια εγκαταλείπεται για πρώτη φορά η μυθολογική κοσμογονία και
αρχίζει η προσπάθεια να εξηγηθεί ο κόσμος απο μιά απλή κατανοητή
αρχή. Αντι για την απλοϊκή αντίληψη για τη φύση του κόσμου και την
θεογονία του Ησιόδου έχομε, για πρώτη φορά, την αναζήτηση των αρχών
και των αιτίων γένεσης των όντων, σε μιάν αρχή , ένα πρωταρχικό
στοιχέιο, που να εξηγεί την προέλευση των πάντων, όπως ήταν το νερό
για τον Θαλή, το άπειρο για τον Αναξίμανδρο( Αναξίμανδρος, (610 π.Χ. - 547
π.Χ.), ο αέρας για τον Αναξιμένη, η φωτιά για τον Ηράκλειτο… A
History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder By J. R. Partington, Bert S.
Hall. Publisher: 1999. Μια ιστορία της ελληνικής Φωτιάς και Πυρίτιδας
JR Partington, Bert S. Hall. 1999 … Edward Harrison, «Masks of the
Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos, 2nd
Edition». Cambridge University Press 2003.
To the ancient Greeks the universe consisted of earth, air, fire and
water. To Saint Augustine it was the Word of God. To many modern
scientists it is the interaction of atoms and waves, and in years to come it
may be different again. What then is the real universe? History shows that
in every age society constructs its own universe, believing it to be the real
and final one. Yet these are only models, or masks covering what is not
understood and not known. This book brings together fundamental
scientific, philosophical, and religious issues in cosmology, raising
thought provoking questions. In every age people have pitied the
universes of their ancestors, convinced that they have at last discovered
the full truth. Do we now stand at the threshold of knowing everything, or
will our latest model also be rejected by our descendants?
Για τους αρχαίους Έλληνες το σύμπαν αποτελείται από γη, αέρα,
φωτιά και νερό. Για Άγιος Αυγουστίνος ήταν ο Λόγος του Θεού. Για
πολλούς σύγχρονους επιστήμονες, είναι η αλληλεπίδραση των ατόμων
και των κυμάτων, και στα χρόνια που έρχονται μπορεί να είναι
διαφορετική και πάλι. Ποια είναι τότε η πραγματική σύμπαν; Η ιστορία
δείχνει ότι σε κάθε εποχή κοινωνία κατασκευάζει το δικό της σύμπαν,
πιστεύοντας ότι είναι η πραγματική και οριστική.
7ος π. Χ. Τα πρώτα νομίσματα. Ο Βασιλιάς Φείδων του Άργους, το 700

π.Χ. περίπου, άλλαξε τα νομίσματα από το σίδηρο σε ένα μάλλον
25
άχρηστο και διακοσμητικό μέταλλο, το ασήμι, και, σύμφωνα με τον

Αριστοτέλη, αφιέρωσε μερικά από τα νομίσματα σιδήρου που έμειναν
(που ήταν στην πραγματικότητα ράβδοι σιδήρου) στο ναό της Ήρας. Ο
βασιλιάς Φείδων έπλασε τα ασημένια νομίσματα στην Αίγινα, στο ναό
της θεάς της φρόνησης και του πολέμου Αθηνάς Αφαίας, και χάραξε τα
νομίσματα με μια Χελώνα, η οποία χρησιμοποιείται μέχρι σήμερα ως
σύμβολο της κεφαλαιοκρατίας. Τα νομίσματα Χελώνες έγιναν αποδεκτά
ευρέως και χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ως διεθνές μέσο ανταλλαγής μέχρι τις
ημέρες του Πελοποννησιακού Πολέμου, όταν η Αθηναϊκή δραχμή τα
αντικατέστησε. Σύμφωνα με τον Ηρόδοτο Τα πρώτα χρυσά νομίσματα
στην ιστορία εκδόθηκαν από το Λύδιο βασιλιά Κροίσο, γύρω στο 650 –
600 π.Χ. Σύμφωνα με ένα μύθο, ο Δίας τιμώρησε την Ήρα και την έδεσε
την με μια χρυσή αλυσίδα μεταξύ ουρανού και γης. Η Ήρα, με τη
βοήθεια του Ηφαίστου, έσπασε τη χρυσή αλυσίδα και απελευθερώθηκε.
Λέγεται ότι όλος ο χρυσός που βρίσκεται στη γη προέρχεται από τα
κομμάτια αυτής της χρυσής αλυσίδας, που έπεσαν από τον ουρανό. Ίσως
λόγω αυτού του μύθο, ο χρυσός χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην αρχαία Ελλάδα
μόνο στους ναούς, τάφους και κοσμήματα και δεν υπάρχει οποιοδήποτε
αρχαίο ελληνικό χρυσό νόμισμα, μέχρι περίπου το 390 π.Χ., όταν ο
Έλληνας βασιλιάς Φίλιππος ο 2ος της Μακεδονίας εξέδωσε τα πρώτα
χρυσά νομίσματα. Σύμφωνα με άλλο μύθο, οι εφευρέτες των χρημάτων
ήταν η Δημοδίκη (ή Ερμοδίκη) από την Κύμη (σύζυγος του Μίδα), ο
Λύκος (γιος του Πανδίου του 2ου και πρόγονος των Λυκίων) και ο
Εριχθόνιος, από τη Λυδία ή τη Νάξο…Χρειάστηκε πολύ λίγος χρόνος,
για να περάσει από τη δυτική Μικρά Ασία στον κυρίως ελλαδικό χώρο η
χρήση του νέου μέσου συναλλαγής, του νομίσματος. Η πρώτη πόλη-
κράτος, που υιοθέτησε το νέο μέσο συναλλαγών και έκοψε τα δικά
της νομίσματα, ήταν η Αίγινα. Οι Αιγινήτες, ζώντας σε ένα βραχώδες
και χωρίς καλλιέργεια νησί, από νωρίς στράφηκαν στη θάλασσα και
γρήγορα με το στόλο τους αναδείχθηκαν σε μεγάλους εμπόρους της
Μεσογείου. Με τα συνεχή ταξίδια τους διαμέσου των θαλασσίων οδών
γνώρισαν το νόμισμα και γύρω στο 560 π.Χ. έκοψαν τα πρώτα δικά τους
αργυρά νομίσματα…α πρώτα νομίσματα κατασκευάστηκαν στη Μ.
Ασία από ήλεκτρο, κράμα χρυσού και αργύρου, στα τέλη του 7ου π.Χ.
αιώνα. Το πολύτιμο μέταλλο έδινε την αξία, το μικρό σχήμα το έκανε
εύκολο στη μεταφορά, το σύμβολο της κάθε εκδίδουσας αρχής, που
προστέθηκε αργότερα, έδινε την εγγύηση για το βάρος και την
αυθεντικότητά του. Οι ελληνικές πόλεις διέδωσαν την χρήση του
νομίσματος από την Ισπανία μέχρι τη Μαύρη Θάλασσα.
Χρησιμοποίησαν τα σύμβολά τους, ήρωες, θεούς, ζώα, φυτά κ.λπ., για
να σηματοδοτήσουν τα νομίσματα. Έκοψαν νομίσματα κυρίως σε άρ-
γυρο, καθώς αυτό ήταν το πολύτιμο μέταλλο στο οποίο είχαν ευκολότερη
πρόσβαση. Στα τέλη του 5ου και κυρίως τον 4ο π.Χ. αιώνα
26
κυκλοφόρησαν και χάλκινα νομίσματα για τις μικρές καθημερινές

συναλλαγές… W. V. Harris, "The Monetary Systems of the Greeks
and Romans" .Publisher: Oxford University Press. Edition 2010.
Most people have some idea what Greeks and Romans coins looked like,
but few know how complex Greek and Roman monetary systems
eventually became. The contributors to this volume are numismatists,
ancient historians, and economists intent on investigating how these
systems worked and how they both did and did not resemble a modern
monetary system. Why did people First start using coins? How did
Greeks and Romans make payments, large or small? What does
money mean in Greek tragedy? Was the Roman Empire an integrated
economic system? This volume can serve as an introduction to such
questions, but it also offers the specialist the results of Original research.
Οι περισσότεροι άνθρωποι έχουν κάποια ιδέα για τα Ελληνικά και τα
Ρωμαϊκά νομίσματα έμοιαζαν, αλλά λίγοι γνωρίζουν πόσο πολύπλοκο
έγινε το ελληνικό και ρωμαϊκό νομισματικό σύστημα τελικά. Οι
συμμετέχοντες στην εν λόγω προσπάθεια είναι νομισματολόγοι,
αρχαιολόγοι ιστορικοί, οικονομολόγοι .... Γιατί οι άνθρωποι
χρησιμοποιούν για πρώτη φορά νομίσματα; Πώς οι Έλληνες και οι
Ρωμαίοι κάνουν πληρωμές, μεγάλες ή μικρές; Τι σημαίνει χρήμα στην
ελληνική τραγωδία; Ήταν η Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία ένα ολοκληρωμένο
οικονομικό σύστημα;
7ος π. Χ. -Αρχαία ελληνική πολιτική και κοινωνική φιλοσοφία - Σοφιστές,

Πλάτων, Αριστοτέλης… Οι αναφερόμενοι, από τους αρχαίους Έλληνες
συγγραφείς, Επτά σοφοί, ήταν ιστορικά πρόσωπα που έζησαν από τον 7ο
αιώνα π.Χ. και νεότερα, που διέπρεψαν ως νομοθέτες, άρχοντες ή πολιτικοί.
Οι επικρατέστεροι θεωρούμενοι επτά σοφοί της αρχαιότητας (κατά

γενικότερη ομολογία συγγραφέων) ήταν οι: Θαλής ο Μιλήσιος,
Πιττακός ο Μυτιληναίος, Βίας ο Πριηνεύς, Κλεόβουλος ο
Ρόδιος, Σόλων ο Αθηναίος, Περίανδρος ο Κορίνθιος, και Χίλων ο
Λακεδαιμόνιος. Η λέξη φιλοσοφία ετυμολογικώς είναι σύνθετη και
προέρχεται από το αρχαίο ελληνικό φιλείν (αγαπώ) και τη λέξη σοφία,
δηλαδή αγάπη για τη σοφία. Η φιλοσοφία μάς ανοίγει νέους δρόμους και
αναζητά απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα που πιθανώς ξεπερνούν τις
ανθρώπινες γνωστικές δυνατότητες, βοηθώντας στη διερεύνηση των
ορίων της ανθρώπινης σκέψης, ακόμα και όταν δεν φτάνει σε κάποιο
αποτέλεσμα ο επαγωγικός της προβληματισμός. Δεν θα ήταν λάθος να
πούμε ότι φιλοσοφία είναι σκέψη πάνω στην ίδια τη σκέψη και τις
δυνατότητες της. Αρχαίοι Έλληνες.Γοργίας, Σωκράτης, Πλάτωνας, Πυθαγόρας,
Αριστοτέλης, Επίκουρος, Ζήνων ο Κιτιεύς, Αντισθένης, Διογένης της Σινώπης… ΘΑΛΟΥ.
Αποφθέγματα. 9.1.1 Καὶ πρῶτος ὁ Σόλων· Ἀλλ΄ ἀκήκοας μὲν ἣν ἔχω
γνώμην περὶ πολιτείας͵ εἰ δὲ βούλει καὶ νῦν ἀκούειν͵ δοκεῖ μοι πόλις
27
ἄριστα πράττειν καὶ μάλιστα σώζειν δημοκρατίαν͵ ἐν ᾗ τὸν ἀδικήσαντα

τοῦ ἀδικηθέντος οὐδὲν ἧττον οἱ μὴ ἀδικηθέντες προβάλλονται καὶ
κολάζουσιν… Θαλής.. Σωζόμενα.1.3…πατρὸς μὲν Ἐξαμύου͵ μητρὸς δὲ
Κλεοβουλίνης͵ ἐκ τῶν Θηλιδῶν͵ οἵ εἰσι Φοίνικες͵ εὐγενέστατοι τῶν ἀπὸ
Κάδμου καὶ Ἀγήνορος. ἦν δὲ τῶν ἑπτὰ σοφῶν͵ καθὰ καὶ Πλάτων
[ Protag. 343 A] φησί· καὶ πρῶτος σοφὸς ὠνομάσθη ἄρχοντος Ἀθήνησι
Δαμασίου [582ƒ1 ]͵ καθ΄ ὃν καὶ οἱ ἑπτὰ σοφοὶ ἐκλήθησαν͵ ὥς φησι
Δημήτριος ὁ Φαληρεὺς ἐν τῆι τῶν Ἀρχόντων ἀναγραφῆι ἐπολιτογραφήθη
δὲ ἐν Μιλήτωι͵ ὅτε ἦλθε σὺν Νείλεωι ἐκπεσόντι Φοινίκης· ὡς δ΄ οἱ
πλείους φασίν͵ ἰθαγενὴς Μιλήσιος ἦν καὶ γένους λαμπροῦ… Great
Minds of the Eastern Intellectual Tradition. Course No. 4620 Taught
By Professor Grant Hardy, Ph.D., Yale University, University of North
Carolina at Asheville. Publisher: 2011. Western Philosophy is a vast
intellectual tradition, the product of thousands of years of revolutionary
thought built up by a rich collection of brilliant minds. When most of us
study Philosophy, we're focusing only on the Western intellectual
tradition brought about by people such as Aristotle, Descartes, and
Nietzsche... Δυτική φιλοσοφία είναι μια μεγάλη πνευματική παράδοση,
το προϊόν της χιλιάδες χρόνια της επαναστατικής σκέψης που
αναπτύχθηκε από μια πλούσια συλλογή από λαμπρά μυαλά. Όταν οι
περισσότεροι από εμάς φιλοσοφία της μελέτης, είμαστε εστιάζοντας
μόνο στη δυτική πνευματική παράδοση που επέφερε από ανθρώπους
όπως ο Αριστοτέλης, ο Καρτέσιος, ο Νίτσε και ... The Apology of
Socrates by: Plato. 2006. The Apology of Socrates is One of the
earliest existing documents of Greek Philosophy - everything earlier
was lost and is known only through quoted fragments in later works, like
those of Plato himself. Rightly so, the Apology is still, all by itself, an
excellent introduction to Western Philosophy and traditionally the First
complete text read in the formal study of Classical Greek.Η Απολογία
του Σωκράτη είναι ένα από τα πρώτα υπάρχοντα έγγραφα της
ελληνικής φιλοσοφίας - ό, τι νωρίτερα χάθηκε και είναι γνωστό μόνο
μέσα από θραύσματα που αναφέρονται σε μεταγενέστερα έργα, όπως
αυτά του Πλάτωνα ο ίδιος. Δικαίως έτσι, η Απολογία εξακολουθεί να
είναι, από μόνη της, μια εξαιρετική εισαγωγή στη δυτική φιλοσοφία
και παραδοσιακά το πρώτο πλήρες κείμενο διαβάζεται στην επίσημη
μελέτη της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής… The Dialogues of Plato (part 5).
Publisher: Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Edition 1892 .Many would
consider Plato not only the greatest philosopher ever, but the greatest
Greek prose writer as well. Numerous English translations have been
attempted, largely to be criticized and forgotten. Over a hundred years
after the First Edition of his translation in 1871, Benjamin Jowett's
reputation remains resilient to time. Jowett (1817-93) was a great
classical scholar and Master of Balliol College, Oxford, who spent over
28
fifty years transLating and revising these dialogues. He was interested in

conveying the literariness of Plato's writings and to offer up a cohesively
readable translation that would appeal equally to classics scholars and
readers with no knowledge of ancient Greek. This 1892 third Edition of
Jowett's translation reveals his clearest vision, with his final editorial
selections, ordering, and word-polishing; it includes the Eryxias, the
Second Alcibiades, twenty-one of Jowett's essays, and marginal analyses,
all subsequently omitted. Though Jowett wanted his translation to be
improved and corrected from time to time, for its overall consistency and
fluidity, this third Edition remains a classic that both Plato and Jowett
scholars will wish to read and consult.
Πολλοί λένε ότι ο Πλάτωνας, είναι όχι μόνο ο μεγαλύτερος φιλόσοφος
που έγινε ποτέ, αλλά η μεγαλύτερος έλληνας πεζογράφος. Πολλές
αγγλικές μεταφράσεις έχουν επιχειρηθεί, κυρίως για να επικριθεί και να
ξεχαστεί. Πάνω από εκατό χρόνια μετά την πρώτη έκδοση της
μετάφρασης του το 1871, η φήμη Benjamin Jowett παραμένει ανθεκτική
στο χρόνο. Jowett (1817-1893) ήταν ένας μεγάλος κλασσικός μελετητής
και Master of Balliol College της Οξφόρδης, ο οποίος πέρασε πάνω από
πενήντα χρόνια μετάφραση και την αναθεώρηση αυτών των διαλόγων.
7ος π. Χ. Semonides Iambographus (Σεμωνίδης ὁ Ἀμοργῖνος) .

Iambograph, Blüte "490 Jahre nach dem Troianischen Krieg". Suid.:
Σεμωνίδης Κρίνεω Ἀμοργῖνος ἰαμβογράφος, γέγονε δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς μετὰ
τετρακόσια καὶ ἐνενήκοντα ἔτη τῶν Τρωïκῶν. ἔγραψεν ἰάμβους πρῶτος
αὐτὸς κατά τινος. Ο Σημωνίδης ο Αμοργίνος ήταν Έλληνας ιαμβικός
ποιητής, έδρασε στον 7ο αιώνα π.Χ.. Ελάχιστα είναι γνωστά για τη ζωή
του. Γεννήθηκε στη Σάμο γύρω στο 670 π.Χ., σύμφωνα με μαρτυρίες, κι
άκμασε περί το δεύτερο μισό του 7ου π. Χ., αλλά μετά παρέμεινε στην
Αμοργό. Λέγεται μάλιστα πως βοήθησε και στο ν' απελευθερωθεί το
νησί. Έτσι, πήρε το προσωνύμιο "Αμοργίνος", ώστε να ξεχωρίζει από τον
Κείο. Άλλες πάλι μαρτυρίες λένε πως έζησε προς το τέλος του 6ου
αιώνα. Συνέγραψε ελεγείες, ιάμβους, μα απ' όλα όσα έγραψε σώζονται
μόνο περίπου 200 στίχοι. Διακωμώδησε ποιητικά σχεδόν τα πάντα και το
αριστούργημά του είναι ο ίαμβος "Κατά Γυναικών".
776 π. Χ.-Οι Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες είναι αθλητική διοργάνωση πολλών

αγωνισμάτων που γίνεται κάθε τέσσερα χρόνια. Η καταγωγή των
αγώνων είναι η Αρχαία Ελλάδα, και έχουν αναβιωθεί από τον Γάλλο
βαρώνο Πιέρ ντε Κουμπερτέν στα τέλη του 19ου αιώνα. Οι Αγώνες της
Ολυμπιάδας, γνωστοί και ως Θερινοί Ολυμπιακοί, τελούνται κάθε
τέσσερα χρόνια από το 1896 και μετά, με εξαίρεση τις χρονιές κατά τη
διάρκεια των Παγκόσμιων πολέμων. Το 1924 άρχισαν ειδικοί
29
Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες, οι Χειμερινοί Ολυμπιακοί, για χειμερινά

αθλήματα. Από το 1994 οι χειμερινοί αγώνες δεν γίνονται πια την ίδια
χρονιά με τους Θερινούς Ολυμπιακούς… Ο πρώτος καταγεγραμμένος
εορτασμός των Ολυμπιακών Αγώνων στην αρχαιότητα ήταν στην
Ολυμπία, το 776 π.Χ. Είναι σχεδόν σίγουρο ότι αυτή δεν ήταν και η
πρώτη φορά που γίνονταν οι Αγώνες. Τότε οι Αγώνες ήταν μόνο τοπικοί
και διεξαγόταν μόνο ένα αγώνισμα, η κούρσα του σταδίου.
700 π.Χ. Η Tριήρης ήταν ταχύτατο αρχαίο κωπήλατο πολεμικό πλοίο,

του οποίου ο τύπος εξελίχθηκε στον αρχαίο ελλαδικό χώρο (αρχικά
στην Κόρινθο, σύμφωνα με την παράδοση) από τη διήρη, η οποία ήδη
κυριαρχούσε στις ελληνικές αποικίες της Μ. Ασίας, στην Κύπρο και τη
Φοινίκη. Χαρακτηρίστηκε, από τη γενικευμένη χρήση της, ως
μεσογειακή τεχνολογία της εποχής με τρεις σειρές κωπηλατών (ερετών),
που στον ελληνικό χώρο κατανέμονταν σε ισάριθμα καταστρώματα
(τρίκροτες τριήρεις), αλλά στη Φοινίκη, στην Καρχηδόνα και στην Ιταλία
εμφανίστηκαν επίσης δίκροτες τριήρεις, δηλαδή με δυο καταστρώματα,
αλλά 2 κωπηλάτες ανά κουπί στο πάνω, καθώς και μονόκροτες, δηλαδή
με ένα κατάστρωμα, αλλά 3 κωπηλάτες ανά κουπί… Η τριήρης
χρησιμοποιήθηκε επί πάνω από 400 χρόνια (700-300 π.Χ., περίπου),
οπότε υποσκελίστηκε από βαρύτερες γαλέρες και κυρίως από την
πεντήρη…
650 π.Χ. An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation

Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre. Publisher: Oxford
University Press | Edition 2005. This is the First lexicon of all
identifiable Greek city states of the Archaic and Classical periods (c.650-
325 BC). During this time, the eastern Mediterranean was dominated by
Greeks who shared an identity based on language, religion, and
traditions; however, the Greek world was divided politically into some
1,500 city states, each consisting of an urban center with its immediate
hinterland. This book contains descriptions of 1,035 of these city states,
organized region by region.Αυτό είναι το πρώτο λεξικό όλων των
αναγνωρίσιμων ελληνικές πόλεις-κράτη της πόλης των αρχαϊκών και
κλασικών χρόνων (c.650-325 π.Χ.). Κατά τη διάρκεια αυτής της
περιόδου, η ανατολική Μεσόγειος ήταν κυριαρχείται από τους Έλληνες
που είχαν μια κοινή ταυτότητα με βάση τη γλώσσα, τη θρησκεία και τις
παραδόσεις? Ωστόσο, η ελληνική κόσμος χωρίστηκε σε πολιτικά περίπου
1.500 πόλεις-κράτη, το καθένα αποτελείται από ένα αστικό κέντρο με
άμεση ενδοχώρα της. Αυτό το βιβλίο περιέχει περιγραφές από 1.035 από
αυτά τα κράτη της πόλης, που διοργανώθηκε ανά περιοχή.
30
631 π. Χ.-The island of Aegina was the earliest state in European Greece
to adopt the use of coined money. Ancient tradition, which ascribed to
Pheidon, king of Argos, the credit of having been the First to strike coins
in this island, is perhaps due to the undisputed priority over all other
coins of European Greece of the oldest staters of the Turtle type (Rev.
Num., 1903, 359, n. 2). Unfortunately, however, there is much doubt
about the date of Pheidon (Th. Reinach, Rev. Num., 1894, 1). As to the
earliest Aeginetic coins there can be little doubt that they belong to about
the middle of the seventh century. The principal ancient writers who
mention Pheidon as having struck coins in Aegina, or the Aeginetans as
having been the First to strike money, are—Ephorus in Strabo, viii. p.
358; Aelian, Var. Hist., 12.20; and the Parian Chronicle, Boeckh, C. I. G.
2374, v. 45 (Φειδων ο Αργειος εδημευσε τα μετρα ... και ανεσκευασε,
και νομισμα αργυρουν εν Αιγινη εποιησεν. Cf. also Etym. Magn. s. v.
οβελισκος—, παντων δε πρωτος Φειδων Αργειος νομισμα εκοψεν εν
Αιγινη. Why Aegina rather than Argos should have been chosen as a
place of mintage is not difficult to understand, when we remember that
from very early times down to its conquest by Athens in B.C. 456 Aegina
was One of the greatest commercial states of Greece, while Argos was
to some extent removed from the main current of the stream of trade
which flowed through the Saronic gulf to and from the isthmus of
Corinth. It is, however, more than doubtful whether Aegina ever formed
part of Pheidon’s dominions. Ξενοφάνης. Απόσπασμα. 15.5 POLLUX
IX 83 …εἴτε Φείδων πρῶτος ὁ Ἀργεῖος ἔκοψε νόμισμα εἴτε Δημοδίκη ἡ
Κυμαία συνοικήσασα Μίδαι τῶι Φρυγὶ παῖς δ΄ ἦν Ἀγαμέμνονος Κυμαίων
βασιλέως εἴτε Ἀθηναίοις Ἐριχθόνιος καὶ Λύκος͵ εἴτε Λυδοί͵ καθά φησι
Ξ. Vgl. Herod. I 94 Λυδοὶ γὰρ δὴ καὶ πρῶτοι ἀνθρώπων τῶν ἡμεῖς
ἴδμεν͵ νόμισμα χρυσοῦ καὶ ἀργυροῦ κοψάμενοι ἐχρήσαντο. Το πρώτο
``Ευρωπαϊκό`` νόμισμα της Ιστορίας. Όπως διαβάζουμε στο Πάριο
χρονικό (πρόκειται για τον μαρμάρινο κατάλογο του 3ου αι. π. Χ. όπου
καταγράφονται τα γεγονότα και οι προσωπικότητες που έπαιξαν
σημαντικό ρόλο στην αρχαία ελληνική ιστορία) : ΑΦ’ ΟΥ Φ[ΕΙ]ΔΩΝ Ο
ΑΡΓΕΙΟΣ ΕΔΗΜΕΥΣ[Ε ΤΑ] ΜΕΤ[ΡΑ ΚΑΙ ΣΤ]ΑΘΜΑ
ΚΑΤΕΣΚΕΥΑΣΕ ΚΑΙΝΟΜΙΣΜΑ ΑΡΓΥΡΟΥΝ ΕΝ ΑΙΓΙΝΗ
ΕΠΟΙΗΣΕΝ, ΕΝΔΕΚΑΤΟΣ ΩΝ ΑΦ’ ΗΡΑΚΛΕΟΥΣ, ΕΤΗ ΓΗΔΔ-ΔΙ,
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΟΝΤΟΣ ΑΘΗΝΩΝ [ΦΕΡΕΚΛ]ΕΙΟΥΣ….. που σημαίνει σε
ελεύθερη μετάφραση : Όταν ο Φείδων ο Αργείος κοινοποίησε τα μέτρα
και τα σταθμά και κατασκεύασε αργυρό νόμισμα στην Αίγινα, έγινε
11ος από τον Ηρακλή, έτος ΓΗΔΔΔΙ = 631, όταν ο Φερέκλειος βασίλευε
στην Αθήνα..
630 π. Χ. -Γεωμετρία είναι ο κλάδος των μαθηματικών που ασχολείται

με χωρικές σχέσεις, δηλαδή με τη σύνθεση του χώρου που ζούμε.
31
Εμπειρικά, αλλά και διαισθητικά, οι άνθρωποι χαρακτηρίζουν τον χώρο

μέσω συγκεκριμένων θεμελιωδών ιδιοτήτων, που ονομάζονται
αξιώματα. … Τη γεωμετρία ανέπτυξαν εμπειρικά οι Βαβυλώνιοι και οι
Αιγύπτιοι. Μετά τις πλημμύρες του Νείλου, οι Αιγύπτιοι
χρησιμοποιούσαν εμπειρική γεωμετρία, για να υπολογίσουν τα όρια των
χωραφιών τους. Οι Βαβυλώνιοι ανέπτυξαν τις αρχές της τριγωνομετρίας
διαιρώντας τον κύκλο και τις γωνίες σε 360 μοίρες και υπολογίζοντας τον
αριθμό π, δηλαδή το πηλίκο του μήκους της περιφέρειας του κύκλου δια
το μήκος της διαγωνίου του, περίπου ίσο με 3+1/8.Με τη γεωμετρία
ήρθαν σε επαφή και οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες κυρίως με το Θαλή το
Μιλήσιο. Με την πάροδο των ετών ανέπτυξαν των αποδεικτική
γεωμετρία, η οποία κορυφώνεται στην Αλεξανδρινή εποχή… Ο Θαλής ο
Μιλήσιος, (περ 630/635 π. ...) … Leonard Mlodinow, "Euclid's Window :
The Story of Geometry from Parallel Lines to Hyperspace". English
2001…
600 π.Χ. Στην ελληνική μυθολογία με το όνομα Ευρώπη είναι γνωστή

κυρίως η κόρη του Φοίνικα και της Τηλέφασσας. Από μερικούς
θεωρείται κόρη του Αγήνορα (ο Φοίνιξ ήταν γιος του Αγήνορα). Ο Δίας
απήγαγε την Ευρώπη και μαζί απέκτησαν τρία τουλάχιστον παιδιά: τον
βασιλιά Μίνωα, τον Ραδάμανθυ και τον Σαρπηδόνα…Το θέμα της
αρπαγής της Ευρώπης από τον Δία-ταύρο ήταν πολύ αγαπητό στους
αρχαίους καλλιτέχνες. Η αρχαιότερη από όλες τις σχετικές παραστάσεις
είναι στη μετόπη του ναού στον Σελινούντα (περ. 600 π.Χ.). Στο
Βρετανικό Μουσείο υπάρχει ένα μαρμάρινο σύμπλεγμα που βρέθηκε
στην Κρήτη και φαίνεται ότι είναι αντίγραφο χάλκινου συμπλέγματος,
έργου του γλύπτη Πυθαγόρα από το Ρήγιο για το οποίο ήταν πολύ
περήφανοι οι Τυρρηνοί. Επίσης περίφημη ήταν η χαμένη σήμερα
παράσταση του Αντιφίλου (5ος αι.π.Χ.), για την οποία γνωρίζουμε μόνο
πως τη θαύμαζαν πάρα πολύ.
600 π. Χ. -Στην τραγωδία με τον Σοφοκλή, τον Ευριπίδη, τον Αισχύλο.

Στα αγγλικά tragedy. Η τραγωδία είναι δραματικό είδος που
εμφανίστηκε στην Αρχαία Ελλάδα. Ο φιλόσοφος Αριστοτέλης στο έργο του Περί
Ποιητικής, δίνει τον εξής ορισμό της τραγωδίας: Ἐστὶν οὖν τραγωδία
μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας, μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ
λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστῳ τῶν εἰδὼν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις, δρώντων καὶ οὐ δι’
ἀπαγγελίας, δι’ ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων
κάθαρσιν… Δηλαδή, "είναι λοιπόν η τραγωδία μίμηση (δηλ.
αναπαράσταση επί σκηνής) πράξης σημαντικής και ολοκληρωμένης, η
οποία έχει κάποια διάρκεια, με λόγο ποιητικό ("γλυκό" ή "διανθισμένο",
στην κυριολεξία), τα μέρη της οποίας διαφέρουν στη φόρμα τους, που
παριστάνεται ενεργά και δεν απαγγέλλεται, η οποία προκαλώντας τη
32
συμπάθεια και το φόβο του θεατή τον αποκαθάρει (λυτρώνει) από

παρόμοια ψυχικά συναισθήματα". Οι πηγές και η παράδοση αποδίδουν
τη δημιουργία της τραγωδίας στον Θέσπη. Ο Φρύνιχος κατά τον
Ηρόδοτο τιμωρήθηκε με πρόστιμο και απαγόρευση για το έργο του
Μιλήτου Άλωσις, γιατί υπενθύμισε στους Αθηναίους «οικεία κακά»,
δραματοποιώντας την υποδούλωση της φυλετικά συγγενικής Μιλήτου. Ο
ποιητής Θέσπις από τον δήμο Ικαρίας (σημερινό Διόνυσο), θεωρείται
σύμφωνα με την παράδοση ο εφευρέτης της τραγωδίας και πιθανότατα
και ο πρώτος ηθοποιός. Στα μέσα περίπου του 6ου αι. π.Χ., είχε την ιδέα
να ξεχωρίσει ένα μέλος του χορού (πιθανότατα τον ίδιον) και να
παρεμβάλλει στο διθύραμβο απαγγελία με άλλο μέτρο και διαφορετική
μελωδία από του Χορού… Αποσπάσματα. Αισχύλου. 5.D.46.1 5.D.47.3
5.D.46 Athen. Δειπνοσοφ. X 33™ ... ἐπεὶ καὶ τὸν Αἰσχύλον ἐγὼ φαίην
ἂν τοῦτο διαμαρτάνειν. πρῶτος γὰρ ἐκεῖνος͵ καὶ οὐχ ὡς ἔνιοί φασιν
Εὐριπίδης͵ παρήγαγε τὴν τῶν μεθυόντων ὄψιν εἰς τραγωιδίαν· ἐν γὰρ
τοῖς Καβείροις εἰσάγει τοὺς περὶ τὸν Ἰάσονα μεθύοντας. ἃ δ΄ αὐτὸς ὁ
τραγωιδο ποιὸς ἐποίει͵ ταῦτα τοῖς ἥρωσι περιέθηκε· μεθύων γοῦν ἔγραφε
τὰς τραγ ωιδίας aus Chamaileon, Π. Αἰσχύλου F 40 a Wehrli. 5.D.47
Schol. BDEGQ Pindar. Pyth. 4, 171b™ πάντας Σοφοκλῆς ἐν ταῖς
Λημνιάσι τῶι δράματι F 385 Pears. καταλέγει τοὺς εἰς τὸ Ἀργῶιον
εἰσελθόντας σκάφος͵ καὶ ὁ Αἰσχύλος ἐν Καβείροις ... History Channel -
Clash Of The Gods (2009). Genre: Documentary, Historical,
Mythological, Legends, Investigation, Ancient World, Religion.
Reacquaint yourself with myths so powerful that they remain woven into
the fabric of the present world, resonating with real-life relevance.
Thousands of years ago, they were used to help frame the world of the
ancients, and dictate the guidelines of their societies. Today, they are
often the First stories we learn as children, iconic tales where good and
evil clash, and humanity and fantasy collide. But what is the reality
behind these stories? From the epic tragedy of Medusa, Greek
mythology’s most infamous female fiend, to Hercules, its greatest
action hero, and Hades, master of the land of the dead and a god so feared
no one would speak his name, explore these myths and the legendary
figures who inspired them in CLASH OF THE GODS.
Χιλιάδες χρόνια πριν, είχαν χρησιμοποιηθεί για να βοηθήσει τον κόσμο
πλαίσιο των αρχαίων, και υπαγορεύουν τις κατευθυντήριες γραμμές των
κοινωνιών τους. Σήμερα, είναι συχνά οι πρώτες ιστορίες που μαθαίνουμε
ως παιδιά, εικονικές ιστορίες όπου το καλό και το κακό σύγκρουση, και η
ανθρωπότητα και φαντασία συγκρούονται. Αλλά ποια είναι η
πραγματικότητα πίσω από αυτές τις ιστορίες; Από την επική τραγωδία
της Μέδουσας, πιο κακόφημες θηλυκό δαίμονας ελληνική μυθολογία,
να τον Ηρακλή, ο μεγαλύτερος ήρωας δράσης του, και ο Άδης, ο
πλοίαρχος του γη των νεκρών και ένα θεό…
33
600 π.Χ. -Ηρόδοτος. Ιστορία. 2.158.1 Ψαμμητίχου δὲ Νεκῶς παῖς

ἐγένετο καὶ ἐβασίλευσε Αἰγύπτου͵ ὃς τῇ διώρυχι ἐπεχείρησε πρῶτος τῇ
ἐς τὴν Ἐρυθρὴν θάλασσαν φερούσῃ͵ τὴν Δαρεῖος ὁ Πέρσης δεύτερα
διώρυξε. Τῆς μῆκος μέν ἐστι πλόος ἡμέραι τέσσερες͵ εὖρος δὲ ὠρύχθη
ὥστε τριήρεας δύο πλέειν ὁμοῦ ἐλαστρεομένας· ἦκται δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ Νείλου
τὸ ὕδωρ ἐς αὐτήν͵ ἦκται δὲ κατύπερθε ὀλίγον Βουβάστιος πόλιος παρὰ
Πάτουμον τὴν Ἀραβίην πόλιν· Με το όνομα Ψαμμήτιχος ήταν γνωστοί
τρεις Φαραώ της 26ης δυναστείας, η οποία ήταν η τελευταία δυναστεία
Αιγυπτίων Φαραώ πριν από την Περσική κατοχή. Μετά την Περσική
κατοχή ακολούθησαν και άλλες δυναστείες, της λεγομένης Τελευταίας
Περιόδου. Ο Ψαμμήτιχος ο Α' (664-610 π.Χ.) ήταν γιος του Νέκωνα του
Α'. Ο Ψαμμήτιχος ο Β' (595-589) ακολούθησε τον Νέκωνα τον Α' και ο
Ψαμμήτιχος ο Γ' (526-525) διαδέχθηκε τον Άμωσι τον Β᾿. Ο βασιλιάς
των Περσών Καμβύσης ο Β', μετά την άλωση της Νινευί, πέρασε με το
στρατό του στην Αίγυπτο, την κατέλαβε και οδήγησε τον Ψαμμήτιχο Γ'
αλυσοδεμένο στα Σούσα.
600 π. Χ. -Στην ποίηση με την Σαπφώ. Στα αγγλικά poetry. Η Σαπφώ, η

σημαντικότερη Λυρική ποιήτρια της αρχαιότητας και μια από τις πιο
σημαντικές ποιήτριες παγκοσμίως έγραφε, πολλούς αιώνες πριν,
τυραννισμένη από τον έρωτα της για μια μαθήτρια… Η Σαπφώ, γενική
της Σαπφούς, (αιολική διάλεκτος Ψαπφώ, αποκαλούμενη και Σαπφώ η
Λεσβία από τον τόπο καταγωγής της) (~ 630 - 570 π.Χ.), ήταν Eλληνίδα
λυρική ποιήτρια από τη Λέσβο, ιδιαίτερα γνωστή από την αρχαιότητα
μέχρι σήμερα για τα ποιήματά της. Με το όνομά της έχει συνδεθεί και ο
λεσβιακός έρωτας… Andrew L. Ford, "Aristotle as Poet: The Song for
Hermias and Its Contexts". Publisher: Oxford University Press | ISBN
10: 0199733295 | 2011.
6ος π. Χ. -Ο Πολυκράτης ήταν τύραννος της Σάμου κατά το δεύτερο

μισό του 6ου αιώνα π.Χ. Ηρόδοτος. Ιστορία. 3.122.7 … Πολυκράτης
γάρ ἐστι πρῶτος τῶν ἡμεῖς ἴδμεν Ἑλλήνων ὃς θαλασσοκρατέειν
ἐπενοήθη͵ πάρεξ Μίνω τε τοῦ Κνωσσίου καὶ εἰ δή τις ἄλλος πρότερος
τού του ἦρξε τῆς θαλάσσης· τῆς δὲ ἀνθρωπηίης λεγομένης γενεῆς
Πολυκράτης πρῶτος͵ ἐλπίδας πολλὰς ἔχων Ἰωνίης τε καὶ νήσων ἄρξειν.
Μαθὼν ὦν ταῦτά μιν διανοεύμενον ὁ Ὀροίτης πέμψας ἀγγελίην ἔλεγε
τάδε· Ὀροίτης Πολυκράτεϊ ὧδε λέγει. Πυνθάνομαι ἐπιβουλεύειν σε
πρήγμασι μεγάλοισι καὶ χρήματά τοι οὐκ εἶναι κατὰ τὰ φρονήματα.
34
592 π. Χ. -Στο δίκαιο με τον Σόλωνα. ΘΑΛΟΥ. Αποφθέγματα. 9.1.1

Καὶ πρῶτος ὁ Σόλων· Ἀλλ΄ ἀκήκοας μὲν ἣν ἔχω γνώμην περὶ πολιτείας͵
εἰ δὲ βούλει καὶ νῦν ἀκούειν͵ δοκεῖ μοι πόλις ἄριστα πράττειν καὶ
μάλιστα σώζειν δημοκρατίαν͵ ἐν ᾗ τὸν ἀδικήσαντα τοῦ ἀδικηθέντος
οὐδὲν ἧττον οἱ μὴ ἀδικηθέντες προβάλλονται καὶ κολάζουσιν. Ο Σόλων
(περ. 639 - 559 π.Χ.) ήταν σημαντικός Αθηναίος νομοθέτης,
φιλόσοφος, ποιητής και ένας από τους επτά σοφούς της αρχαίας
Ελλάδας. Ως συνέπεια βίαιης και μακροχρόνιας εξέγερσης των πολιτών
ενάντια στους ευγενείς, ο Σόλων κλήθηκε κοινή συναινέσει των
αντιμαχόμενων μερών[1], το 594/3 π.Χ. με έκτακτη διαδικασία να
νομοθετήσει και για το έργο αυτό εξοπλίστηκε με έκτακτες εξουσίες.
Εκείνο το έτος εξελέγη άρχων από το δήμο της Αθήνας και όχι από τον
Άρειο Πάγο, όπως προέβλεπε το αθηναϊκό πολίτευμα της εποχής. Του
δόθηκαν οι έκτακτες εξουσίες του διαλλακτού, δηλ. του μεσολαβητή, του
συμφιλιωτή, και του νομοθέτου, τις οποίες διατήρησε και μετά το τέλος
της ετήσιας αρχοντείας του. Οι νόμοι που θέσπισε δημοσιεύτηκαν ίσως
το 592 π.Χ.
580 π. Χ. -Επίσης Πρώτοι στα μαθηματικά και στη γεωμετρία με τον
Ευκλείδη, τον Θαλή, τον Πυθαγόρα και τον Αρχιμείδη. Στα αγγλικά
Mathematic, geometry. Ο Πυθαγόρας ο Σαμιος, υπήρξε σημαντικός
Έλληνας φιλόσοφος, μαθηματικός, γεωμέτρης και θεωρητικός της
μουσικής. Είναι ο κατεξοχήν θεμελιωτής των ελληνικών μαθηματικών
και δημιούργησε ένα άρτιο σύστημα για την επιστήμη των ουρανίων
σωμάτων, που κατοχύρωσε με όλες τις σχετικές αριθμητικές και
γεωμετρικές αποδείξεις. Γεννήθηκε σε χρονολογία που δεν μας είναι
γνωστή, αλλά που εικάζεται πως είναι μεταξύ των ετών 580 - 572 π.Χ.
και ως επικρατέστερος τόπος γεννήσεως παραδίδεται η νήσος Σάμος.
Πέθανε στο Μεταπόντιον της Ιταλικής Λευκανίας σε μεγάλη ηλικία,
περί το 500 - 490 π.Χ. Ο Αρχιμήδης (287 π.Χ.-212 π.Χ.) ήταν ένας από
τους μεγαλύτερους μαθηματικούς, φυσικούς και μηχανικούς της
αρχαιότητας. Γεννήθηκε, έζησε και πέθανε στις Συρακούσες, τη μεγάλη
ελληνική αποικία της Σικελίας… Michael N. Fried, "Edmond
Halley's Reconstruction of the Lost Book of Apollonius's Conics:
Translation and Commentary". Publisher: S.r.n.e. September 30, 2011.
Apollonius’s Conics was One of the greatest works of advanced
mathematics in antiquity. The work comprised eight books, of which
four have come down to us in their Original Greek and three in Arabic.
By the time the Arabic translations were produced, the eighth book had
already been lost. In 1710, Edmond Halley, then Savilian Professor of
Geometry at Oxford, produced an Edition of the Greek text of the Conics
of Books I-IV, a translation into Latin from the Arabic versions of
Books V-VII, and a reconstruction of Book VIII. Κωνικά του
Απολλώνιου ήταν ένα από τα μεγαλύτερα έργα των προηγμένων
35
μαθηματικών στην αρχαιότητα. Το έργο αποτελείται από οκτώ βιβλία,

εκ των οποίων τέσσερις έχουν έρθει σε μας στην αρχική τους ελληνικά
και τρία στα αραβικά. Μέχρι τη στιγμή που οι αραβικές μεταφράσεις
παρήχθησαν, το όγδοο βιβλίο είχε ήδη χαθεί… Mathematical
Mountaintops: The Five Most Famous Problems of All Time. Oxford
University Press, Incorporated. 2001. In Mathematical Mountaintops,
John Casti brilliantly recreates the solutions to the five greatest
mathematical problems of all time: The Four-Color Map Problem,
Fermat's Last Theorem, The Continuum Hypothesis, Kepler's Conjecture,
Casti's account of the struggle to solve Kepler's Conjecture wittily reveals
how the "proof of the obvious" sometimes eludes us for centuries. And
his discussion of The Continuum Hypothesis movingly portrays the
tragic figure of Georg Cantor, the troubled genius who created the
First truly Original mathematics since the Greeks, yet died insane in
an institution. Casti closes with a preview of the "Magnificent Seven"--
the greatest unsolved mathematical mysteries, each of which carries a
million-dollar bounty from the Clay Mathematics Institute--including the
Poincare Conjecture, the Yang-Mills Existence and Mass Gap (why
physicists can't isolate quarks), and the Reimann Hypothesis ("the
granddaddy of all mathematical mysteries"). Mathematical Mountaintops
is a brilliant account of mathematicians in action--seeking hidden patterns
and structures, forging elegant chains of reasoning--as they struggle with
problems that challenged the greatest minds for decades, if not centuries.
580 π.Χ. -Ο Πυθαγόρας ο Σαμιος, υπήρξε σημαντικός Έλληνας

φιλόσοφος, μαθηματικός, γεωμέτρης και θεωρητικός της μουσικής.
Είναι ο κατεξοχήν θεμελιωτής των ελληνικών μαθηματικών και
δημιούργησε ένα άρτιο σύστημα για την επιστήμη των ουρανίων
σωμάτων, που κατοχύρωσε με όλες τις σχετικές αριθμητικές και
γεωμετρικές αποδείξεις. Γεννήθηκε σε χρονολογία που δεν μας είναι
γνωστή, αλλά που εικάζεται πως είναι μεταξύ των ετών 580 - 572 π.Χ.
και ως επικρατέστερος τόπος γεννήσεως παραδίδεται η νήσος Σάμος.
Πυθαγόρας. Σωζόμενα. 6a.1 7.4 4 ISOCR. Πυθαγόρας ὁ Σάμιος ..
ἀφικόμενο εἰς Αἴγυπτον καὶ μαθη τὴς ἐκείνων γενόμενος τήν τ΄ ἄλλην
φιλοσοφίαν πρῶτος εἰς τοὺς Ἕλληνας ἐκόμισε καὶ τὰ περὶ τὰς θυσίας
καὶ τὰς ἁγιστείας τὰς ἐν τοῖς ἱεροῖς ἐπι φανέστερον τῶν ἄλλων
ἐσπούδασεν ἡγούμενος͵ εἰ καὶ μηδὲν αὐτῶι διὰ ταῦτα πλέον γίγνοιτο
παρὰ τῶν θεῶν͵ ἀλλ΄ οὖν παρά γε τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ἐκ τούτων μάλιστ΄
εὐδοκιμήσειν. ὅπερ αὐτῶι καὶ συνέβη. τοσοῦτον γὰρ εὐδοξίαι τοὺς
ἄλλους ὑπερέβαλεν͵ ὥστε καὶ τοὺς νεωτέρους ἅπαντας ἐπιθυμεῖν αὐτοῦ
36
μαθητὰς εἶναι͵ καὶ τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους ἥδιον ὁρᾶν τοὺς παῖδας τοὺς
αὑτῶν ἐκείνωι συγγι γνομένους ἢ τῶν οἰκείων ἐπιμελουμένους. καὶ
τούτοις οὐχ οἷόν τ΄ ἀπιστεῖν· ἔτι γὰρ καὶ νῦν τοὺς προσποιουμένους
ἐκείνου μαθητὰς εἶναι μᾶλλον σιγῶντας θαυ μάζουσιν ἢ τοὺς ἐπὶ τῶι
λέγειν μεγίστην δόξαν ἔχοντας. Fragmenta astrologica 21.1 …πρῶτος
ὠνόμασε τὴν τῶν ὅλων περιοχὴν κόσμον ἐκ τῆς ἐν αὐτῶι τάξεως.
11.2.124 1Πυθαγόρου φιλοσόφου ψῆφος περὶ τῶν γεννωμένων βρεφῶν
καὶ περὶ ὁμοίας σκέψεως τῶν ἑπτὰ πλανωμένων ἀστέρων͵ ἵν΄ ἀπὸ
θεωρίας νοῇς ἕκαστον εἰς ποῖον ἀστέρα ἐγεννήθη.
560 π.Χ. - Ο Εκαταίος ο Μιλήσιος, γιος του Ηγησάνδρου, γεννήθηκε

στη Μίλητο ανάμεσα στο 560 π.Χ. και το 550 π.Χ., και πέθανε μάλλον
πριν από το 480 π.ΧΣωζόμενα. Εκαταίος. 1a,1,T.1a.3 … ἐπὶ τῆς ξε
ὀλυμπιάδος· ἱστοριογράφος. Ἡρόδοτος δὲ ὁ Ἁλικαρνασεὺς ὠφέληται
τούτου͵ νεώτερος ὤν. καὶ ἦν ἀκουστὴς Πρωταγόρου ὁ Ἑκαταῖος.
πρῶτος δὲ ἱστορίαν πεζῶς ἐξήνεγκε͵ συγγραφὴν δὲ Φερεκύδης . τὰ γὰρ
Ἀκουσιλάου νοθεύεται. Ἑλλάνικος Μιτυληναῖος .... κατὰ τοὺς
χρόνους Εὐριπίδου καὶ Σοφοκλέους· καὶ Ἑκαταίωι τῶι Μιλησίωι
ἐπέβαλε͵ γεγονὼς κατὰ τὰ Περσικὰ ἢ μικρῶι πρόσθεν.. Ἑλλάνικος
Μιλήσιος· ἱστορικός. Περίοδον Γῆς καὶ Ἱστορίας. ἄνδρες δ΄ ἄξιοι μνήμης
ἐγένοντο ἐν τῆι Μιλήτωι Θαλῆς τε ... καὶ ὁ τούτου μαθητὴς
Ἀναξίμανδρος καὶ ὁ τούτου πάλιν Ἀναξιμένης· ἔτι δ΄ Ἑκαταῖος ὁ τὴν
Ἱστορίαν συντάξας.
530 π.Χ. -Θεαγένης Ρηγίνος. . προσπάθησαν να αφαιρέσουν οι

ερμηνευτές των ποιητών και ιδίως του Ομήρου. Πρώτος υπήρξε ο
Θεαγένης ο Ρηγίνος το 530 π.Χ. Σωζόμενα. 2.11 2.16 …τὸ δὲ ὕδωρ
Ποσειδῶνα καὶ Σκάμανδρον͵ τὴν δ΄ αὖ σελήνην Ἄρτεμιν͵ τὸν ἀέρα δὲ
῞Ηραν καὶ τὰ λοιπά. ὁμοίως ἔσθ΄ ὅτε καὶ ταῖς διαθέσεσιν ὀνόματα θεῶν
τιθέναι͵ τῆι μὲν φρονήσει τὴν Ἀθηνᾶν͵ τῆι δ΄ ἀφροσύνηι τὸν Ἄρεα͵ τῆι
δ΄ ἐπιθυμίαι τὴν Ἀφροδίτην͵ τῶι λόγωι δὲ τὸν Ἑρμῆν͵ καὶ προσοικειοῦσι
τούτοις· οὗτος μὲν οὖν ὁ τρόπος ἀπολογίας ἀρχαῖος ὢν πάνυ καὶ ἀπὸ
Θεαγένους τοῦ Ρηγίνου͵ ὃς πρῶτος ἔγραψε περὶ Ὁμήρου͵ τοιοῦτός ἐστιν
ἀπὸ τῆς λέξεως.
500 π.Χ. -Δύτες. Στην αρχαία Ελλάδα δύτες με άπνοια μάζευαν

σφουγγάρια και επιδίδονταν σε στρατιωτικές υποβρύχιες επιχειρήσεις. .
Η ιδέα της πρώτης αναπνευστικής συσκευής υποβρυχίως -μια χύτρα
ανεστραμμένη πάνω από την κεφαλή του δύτη, ώστε να συγκρατεί τον
αέρα, ανήκει στον Αριστοτέλη (βλ. Αριστοτέλους Προβλήματα). Ο
Θουκυδίδης, επίσης, κάνει αναφορά για δύτες που πριόνιζαν τα
υποβρύχια φράγματα προστασίας των Συρακουσίων, ενώ ο Αρριανός
εξιστορεί πώς ο Αλέξανδρος έκανε χρήση δυτών στην πολιορκία της
37
Τύρου. Μεταξύ των αρχαίων ιστοριών, η ιστορία του Σκυλλία είναι ίσως
η πιο διάσημη. Ο Ηρόδοτος, ο ιστοριογράφος από την Αλικαρνασσό που
ονομάστηκε και πατέρας της Ιστορίας, αναφέρει ότι το 500 π.Χ ο δύτης
Σκυλλίας ή Σκύλλις ή ακόμη Σκύλαξ και Σκύλλος – ονομαστός
κολυμβητής, (στο μακροβούτι και στο κολύμβι … σωστό
«σκυλόψαρο !...») από την πολιτεία Σκιώνη, Ευβοέων εποίκων της
Παλλήνης Χαλκίδικής, ύστερα από πολλά κατορθώματα του ως
βατραχάνθρωπος, συνελήφθη από Πέρσες στρατιώτες οι οποίοι τον
επιβίβασαν σε ένα από τα πλοία του στόλου τους με σκοπό να τον
χρησιμοποιήσουν εναντίον του Ελληνικού στόλου. Όμως ο Σκυλλίας
έμαθε τα σχέδια τους και βούτηξε από το πλοίο στην θάλασσα, έκοψε τα
σκοινιά από τις άγκυρες και δημιούργησε μεγάλη σύγχυση στον Περσικό
στόλο.Χρησιμοποιώντας ένα κούφιο καλάμι ως αναπνευστήρα
κολύμπησε 9 ναυτικά μίλια μέχρι το Αρτεμίσιο και ανέφερε στους
Έλληνες τις προθέσεις του εχθρού καθώς και άλλα χρήσιμα στοιχεία. Η
Ύδνα (κατά άλλους Κυάνή) εκπληκτική δύτρια και κόρη του Σκυλλία,
βοήθησε τον πατέρα της στα έργα του εναντίον των Περσών. Προς τιμήν
τους ανεγέρθησαν δυο χρυσά αγάλματα - ομοιώματα (το ένα είναι
μάλλον η Αφροδίτη του Εσκυλλίνου) στο πανελλήνιο ιερό των Δελφών
τα οποία σύλησε ο Νέρων 500 χρόνια αργότερα.
«Άριστος δύτης της εποχής του, εκ Σκιώνης, παράσχων μεγάλας
εκδουλεύσεις εις τους Έλληνας κατά τους Περσικούς πολέμους.
Ευρισκόμενος εν τη υπηρεσία του Περσικού στόλου, έπεσεν ημέραν τινά
εις την θάλασσαν περί τας Αφετάς, και, κατά την παράδοσιν διήλθε υπό
τα εχθρικά πλοία και έφθασε κολυμβών υπό την θάλασσαν μέχρι του
Αρτεμισίου, όπου εστάθμευεν ο Ελληνικός στόλος, να αναγγείλη το
ναυάγιον του Περσικού στόλου, πληροφοριών αυτούς συνάμα ότι το
υπόλοιπον αυτού περιέπλεε την Είβοιαν ίνα περικύκλωση τον Ελληνικόν
στόλον. Κατά την παράδοσιν, περί της οποίας αμφιβάλλει και αυτός ο
αναφερών ταύτην Ηρόδοτος, ο Σκυλλίας διέτρεξεν υπό την θάλασσαν 80
σταδίους ! (Ήροδ. VIII, 8). Μετά το τέλος του πολέμου οι Αμφικτύονες
εκτιμώντες τας προς την Ελλάδα υπηρεσίας του Σκυλλίου και της
θυγατρός του Κυανής, φημιζαμένης και ταύτης ως άρίσίης δύτου και
κολυμβήτριας, ανήγειραν προς τιμήν αυτών ανδριάντας εις το εν Αδεφοίς
Ιερόν του Απόλλωνος.»
500 π. Χ. - Ο Ανακρέων ο Τήιος (περίπου 572 π.Χ. – περίπου 485 π.Χ.)
ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας λυρικός ποιητής, θεωρούμενος ένας από τους
εννέα λυρικούς ποιητές της αρχαιότητας. Ο Ανακρέων, αν και
υπερασπιστής του μέτρου, θεωρήθηκε από τους μεταγενέστερούς του
λανθασμένα γλεντζές και μέθυσος. Ανακρέων. Επίγραμμα. 6.145 [ΤΟΥ
ΑΥΤΟΥ] Βωμοὺς τούσδε θεοῖς Σοφοκλῆς ἱδρύσατο πρῶτος͵ ὃς πλεῖστον
Μούσης εἷλε κλέος τραγικῆς. 6.346 ΑΝΑΚΡΕΟΝΤΟΣ Τελλίᾳ ἱμερόεντα
38
βίον πόρε͵ Μαιάδος υἱέ͵ ἀντ΄ ἐρατῶν δώρων τῶνδε χάριν θέμενος. δὸς δέ
μιν εὐθυδίκων Εὐωνυμέων ἐνὶ δήμῳ ναίειν αἰῶνος μοῖραν ἔχοντ΄ ἀγαθήν.
500 π.Χ. Ο Οινοπίδης ο Χίος ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας μαθηματικός
(γεωμέτρης) και αστρονόμος, που άκμασε περί το 450 π.Χ.. Γεννήθηκε
λίγο μετά το 500 π.Χ. στο νησί Αναξιμένης. Σωζόμενα. 15.2 D. 352…
πλατὺν ὡς πέταλον τὸν ἥλιον. ὑπὸ πεπυκνω μένου ἀέρος καὶ ἀντιτύπου
ἐξωθούμενα τὰ ἄστρα τὰς τροπὰς ποιεῖσθαι. Εὔδημος ἱστορεῖ ἐν ταῖς
Ἀστρολογίαις ͵ ὅτι Οἰνοπίδης εὗρε πρῶτος ....͵ Ἀναξιμένης δὲ ὅτι ἡ
σελήνη ἐκ τοῦ ἡλίου ἔχει τὸ φῶς καὶ τίνα ἐκλείπει τρόπον. πυρίνην τὴν
σελήνην., Ἀναξιμένης ταὐτὰ τούτωι περὶ βροντῶν κτλ. προστιθεὶς τὸ ἐπὶ
τῆς θαλάσσης͵ ἥτις σχιζομένη ταῖς κώπαις παραστίλβει. νέφη μὲν
γίνεσθαι παχυνθέντος ἐπὶ πλεῖον τοῦ ἀέρος͵ μᾶλλον δ΄ ἐπισυναχθέντος
ἐκθλίβεσθαι τοὺς ὄμβρους͵ χάλαζαν δέ͵ ἐπειδὰν τὸ καταφερόμενον ὕδωρ
παγῆι͵ χιόνα δ΄ ὅταν συμπεριληφθῆι τι τῶι ὑγρῶι πνευματικόν.
500 π.Χ. -Θουκυδίδης. Ιστορία. 1.93.3.1 … ἔπεισε δὲ καὶ τοῦ Πειραιῶς

τὰ λοιπὰ ὁ Θεμιστοκλῆς οἰκοδομεῖν ὑπῆρκτο δ΄ αὐτοῦ πρότερον ἐπὶ τῆς
ἐκείνου ἀρχῆς ἧς κατ΄ ἐνιαυτὸν Ἀθηναίοις ἦρξε νομίζων τό τε χωρίον
καλὸν εἶναι͵ λιμένας ἔχον τρεῖς αὐτοφυεῖς͵ καὶ αὐτοὺς ναυτικοὺς
γεγενημένους μέγα προφέρειν ἐς τὸ κτήσασθαι δύναμιν τῆς γὰρ δὴ
θαλάσσης πρῶτος ἐτόλμησεν εἰπεῖν ὡς ἀνθεκτέα ἐστί͵ καὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν
εὐθὺς ξυγκατεσκεύαζεν. καὶ ᾠκοδόμησαν τῇ ἐκείνου γνώμῃ τὸ πάχος τοῦ
τείχους ὅπερ νῦν ἔτι δῆλόν ἐστι περὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ· Ο Θεμιστοκλής (527
π.Χ. - 459 π.Χ.) ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας πολιτικός και στρατηγός. Υπήρξε
αρχηγός της δημοκρατικής παράταξης στην κλασική Αθήνα…
5ος π. Χ. Γλυπτή Διακόσμηση του Παρθενώνα: Η γλυπτή διακόσμηση

του Παρθενώνα, έργο του Φειδία και των μαθητών του αποτελεί ένα από
τα αντιπροσωπευτικότερα δείγματα της κλασικής πλαστικής του 5ου
αιώνα. Διακρίνεται για την έμφαση στην λεπτομέρεια των μορφών, που η
πλαστική επεξεργασία τους έχει οδηγήσει στην τελειότητα. Τα γλυπτά
είναι σμιλευμένα σε μάρμαρο Πεντέλης κι απεικονίζουν παραστάσεις
από την ελληνική μυθολογία καθώς και την μυθολογία και την ζωή της
Αθήνας. Σήμερα βρίσκονται στο Λονδίνο… The Dream of Reason: A
History of Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance. By
Anthony Gottlieb.The Lost Gods: The Greeks. 2005. English,
Russian .Genre: Documentary, Historica. Sooner or later, everything
ends. One by one, the mighty civilizations of the ancient world passed
into history. And when they died, their gods died with them. Or did they?
Ancient Greece was the First major civilization to emerge in
Europe. Its seat of power in Athens was crowned by the Acropolis, the
famed city of the gods. In this episode, host Christy Kenneally explores
the surviving remnants of this great civilization and its gods: Parthenon,
39
home to the goddess Athena and the most spectacular of the monuments
of the Acropolis; Delphi, the “Vatican” of ancient Greece, where the god
Apollo spoke through his Oracle; and the Greek colony of Paestum in
southern Italy, site of a temple to Poseidon.
488 π. Χ. -Διαλεκτική. Η λέξη διαλεκτική προέρχεται από την ελληνική

λέξη διαλέγομαι, που σημαίνει διεξάγω συζήτηση. Στην αρχαιότητα με τη
διαλεκτική εννοούσαν την τέχνη να φτάνει κανείς στην αλήθεια μέσω τις
σύγκρουσης αντιθέτων απόψεων. Ο όρος επικράτησε διεθνώς ως
Dialectic. Στην Αγγλία παλαιότερα ο όρος αυτός ήταν συνώνυμος της
Λογικής όπως και εφαρμοζόταν στη τυπική συλλογιστική των εκάστοτε
ρητόρων. Όμως ο όρος αυτός από την αρχαιότητα αναφέρεται ειδικότερα
στη λογική αμφισβήτηση δηλαδή στην αρχική τέχνη του «διαλέγεσθαι»
με ερωτήσεις και στη συνέχεια αποκρίσεις. Λέγεται ότι πρώτος που
δημιούργησε και εξάσκησε τη τέχνη αυτή ήταν ο Ζήνων ο Ελεάτης. Ο
Ζήνων γεννήθηκε γύρω στο 488 π.Χ
479 π. Χ. -Τσουνάμι. Η Μινωική έκρηξη, στην Αρχαία Ελλάδα είχε ως

αποτέλεσμα να σκοτωθούν πάνω από 100.000 άνθρωποι. Γύρω στο 1615
π.Χ., ένα ηφαίστειο υποθαλάσσιο στο νησί της Θήρας, ξέσπασε με
τεράστια δύναμη. Σύμφωνα με το NOAA Κέντρο Ερευνών τσουνάμι, η
έκρηξη του ηφαιστείου δημιούργησε το πρώτο τσουνάμι που
καταγράφηκε στην ιστορία. Ενώ η ακριβής αριθμός των νεκρών της
αρχαίας αυτής καταστροφής δεν θα γίνει ποτέ γνωστός, μερικοί
ερευνητές πιστεύουν ότι μπορεί να προανήγγειλε το τέλος του Μινωικού
πολιτισμού στο νησί της Κρήτης. Γεωλογικά στοιχεία δείχνουν ότι 15
μέτρα κύματα από το τσουνάμι κατέκλυσαν τις ακτές της Κρήτης. Και
μπορεί το φαινόμενο να απαντά με περισσότερη συχνότητα στον
Ειρηνικό Ωκεανό, αλλά μη ξεχνάμε ότι το μεγαλύτερο σε δύναμη,
ένταση και τελικά ιστορικής σημασίας καταστροφικό τσουνάμι συνέβη
στο Αιγαίο και είναι εκείνο που προκάλεσε η έκρηξη του ηφαιστείου της
Σαντορίνης. Τα γιγαντιαία κύματα που πιθανολογείται ότι έφτανα ως τα
30 μέτρα και προκλήθηκαν από την κατάρρευση του ηφαιστειακού
κώνου στη θάλασσα, δεν κατέστρεψαν μόνο τον μινωικό πολιτισμό.
Ωστόσο, πολλούς αιώνες αργότερα, το πρώτο τσουνάμι, που
καταγράφεται στους ιστορικούς χρόνους, είναι εκείνο στην Ποτίδαια της
Χαλκιδικής το 479 π.Χ., από το οποίο καταστράφηκε ο περσικός στόλος
και που περιγράφει ο Ηρόδοτος.
5ος π. Χ. -Πολεοδομία. Τοπογραφικό σχέδιο της Ολύνθου. Η κλασική

πόλη της Ολύνθου ήταν δομημένη σύμφωνα με το ιπποδάμειο
πολεοδομικό σύστημα, 452-348 π.Χ., 'Ολυνθος.Ορισμένες αρχαίες
πόλεις, όπως ο Πειραιάς και η Όλυνθος ήταν χτισμένες βάσει του
40
λεγόμενου Ιπποδάμειου πολεοδομικού συστήματος, σύμφωνα με το

οποίο οι περιοχές στις οποίες δεν υπήρχαν δημόσια οικοδομήματα, αλλά
ιδιωτικές κατοικίες, διαμορφωνόταν σε ορθογώνια οικοδομικά μπλοκ τα
οποία διαχωρίζονταν μεταξύ τους με παράλληλους και κάθετους
δρόμους. Τα αρχαία αθηναϊκά σπίτια της περιοχής της Αγοράς τα οποία
έχουν έρθει στο φως από τις ανασκαφές, δεν διατάσσονται σε κανονικά
οικοδομικά τετράγωνα, αντίθετα απ' ότι συνέβαινε στις πόλεις που
ακολουθούσαν το Ιπποδάμειο σύστημα, οι οποίες χαρακτηρίζονται από
έναν αξιοσημείωτο πολεοδομικό σχεδιασμό.
5ος π. Χ. -Στο θέατρο. Στα αγγλικά Theater. Το αρχαίο ελληνικό θέατρο,

θεσμός της αρχαιοελληνικής πόλης-κράτους, διδασκαλία και τέλεση
θεατρικών παραστάσεων, επ' ευκαιρία των εορτασμών του Διονύσου,
αναπτύχθηκε στα τέλη της αρχαϊκής περιόδου και διαμορφώθηκε
πλήρως κατά την κλασική περίοδο -κυρίως στην Αθήνα. Φέρει έναν
έντονο θρησκευτικό και μυστηριακό χαρακτήρα κατά τη διαδικασία της
γέννησής του, αλλά και έναν εξίσου έντονο κοινωνικό και πολιτικό
χαρακτήρα κατά την περίοδο της ανάπτυξής του. Για να κατανοήσουμε
καλύτερα τις παραμέτρους που χαρακτηρίζουν το αρχαίο θέατρο στην
ανάπτυξή του, θα χρησιμοποιήσουμε ως παράδειγμα το θέατρο του
Διονύσου, καθώς οι σωζόμενες τραγωδίες και κωμωδίες του 5ου και
του 4ου π.Χ. αι. γράφτηκαν -τουλάχιστον οι περισσότερες- για να
παιχτούν στο θέατρο του Διονύσου στην Αθήνα… Θέατρο: Το δράμα
γεννήθηκε σταδιακά μέσα από τις εκδηλώσεις της διονυσιακής λατρείας.
Ο πρώτος που συνδύασε την μουσική και την όρχηση με το λόγο στη
διδασκαλία του διθυράμβου ήταν ο Θέσπης. Το δράμα όμως
διαμορφώθηκε και γνώρισε την ύψιστη μορφή τελειότητας μέσα απ’ τις
καινοτομίες και τις δημιουργίες των τριών μεγάλων δραματουργών, του
Αισχύλου, του Σοφοκλή και του Ευριπίδη. Η προσφορά τους δεν
περιορίζεται μόνο στα περίφημα έργα που κληροδότησαν στην
ανθρωπότητα, αλλά επεκτείνεται με τη συμβολή τους στην εξέλιξη της
θεατρικής σκηνογραφίας… Θέατρο Αρχαίας Επιδαύρου: Το θέατρο της
Επιδαύρου, ένα μνημείο ομορφιάς και συμμετρίας, συνιστά έργο
τελειοποίησης της τεχνικής κατασκευής θεάτρων των αρχαίων Ελλήνων.
Η μοναδική του ακουστική του είναι ένα από τα στοιχεία που το
καθιστούν πόλο έλξης για επισκέπτες απ’ όλο τον κόσμο. Η κατασκευή
του ξεκίνησε στα τέλη του 4ου π.Χ. αιώνα, ενώ την τελική του μορφή
έλαβε στα μέσα του 2ου π.Χ. αιώνα. Το μνημείο ανακαλύφθηκε το 1881.
Αποτελούνταν από τα τυπικά μέρη του θεάτρου, το κοίλο, την ορχήστρα
και τη σκηνή. Το κοίλο και η ορχήστρα διασώζονται σε καλή κατάσταση,
σ’ αντίθεση με το άλλοτε μεγαλόπρεπο σκηνικό οικοδόμημα που έχει
πλέον τη μορφή ερειπίων.
41
5ος π. Χ. -Στην κωμωδία με τον Αριστοφάνη. Στα αγγλικά comedy. Με

τον όρο αρχαία κωμωδία εννοείται ο ένας από τους δύο βασικούς
πυλώνες που στήριξαν το οικοδόμημα του αττικού δράματος. Από την
αρχαία κωμωδία διασώθηκαν μόνο 11 του Αριστοφάνη, ένα
ολοκληρωμένο του Μενάνδρου, που τιτλοφορείται "Ο Δύσκολος".
Επίσης, εκτός από πολλά αποσπάσματα έργων από διάφορους ποιητές
έχει διασωθεί και η κωμωδία του Μενάνδρου "Η Σαμία" αλλά όχι σε
ακέραια μορφή. Τα κομμάτια που της έλειπαν όμως, αντικαταστάθηκαν
με καινούρια ύστερα από μελέτες και έτσι έχουμε πλέον μιαν
ολοκληρωμένη μορφή της. Αρχαία κωμωδία (486 - περ. 400 π.Χ.). Μέση
κωμωδία (περ. 400 - περ. 320 π.Χ.). Νέα κωμωδία (περ. 320 - περ. 120
π.Χ.). Το σημαντικότερο έτος της Αττικής Κωμωδίας ήταν το 486 π.Χ.,
γιατί το έτος εκείνο παρουσιάστηκαν για πρώτη φορά στο πρόγραμμα
των Μεγάλων Διονυσίων (θεατρικοί αγώνες) έργα των κωμικών...
Shakespeare and the Traditions of Comedy. Cambridge University
Press.1976. This book relates Shakespeare's comedies to a broad
European background. At the beginning and again at the end of his career,
Shakespeare was attracted by a tradition of stage romances which can be
traced back to Chaucer's time. But the main shaping behind his comedies
came from the classical tradition. Mr Salingar therefore examines the
underlying theme of 'errors' in Greek and Roman comedies and,
taking three Italian comedies famous in the sixteenth century as
examples, he then reveals how the Italian Renaissance revived the
classical tradition, and what effect this revival had on Shakespeare the
Elizabethan playwright and discusses such topics as the device of the play
within a play and Shakespeare's choice of Italian short stories as plot
material. This book shows how Shakespeare changed the motifs he took
over from previous traditions of comedy and highlights the innovations
he introduced, as an actor-dramatist writing in the First period of
commercial theatre in Europe.…Στην αρχή και πάλι στο τέλος της
καριέρας του, ο Σαίξπηρ ήταν προσελκύονται από την παράδοση του
σταδίου ειδύλλια τα οποία μπορούν να αναχθούν στην εποχή του
Chaucer. Αλλά η κύρια διαμόρφωση πίσω από κωμωδίες του προήλθε
από την κλασική παράδοση. Ο κ. Salingar εξετάζει ως εκ τούτου το
βασικό θέμα της «λάθη» στην ελληνική και ρωμαϊκή κωμωδίες και,
λαμβάνοντας τρεις ιταλικές κωμωδίες διάσημη στο δέκατο έκτο αιώνα,
ως παραδείγματα, αποκαλύπτει στη συνέχεια πως η ιταλική Αναγέννηση
αναβίωσε την κλασική παράδοση, και τι επίδραση είχε αυτή η αναβίωση
στο Σαίξπηρ …
42
5ος π. Χ. -Στο Δράμα. Αριστοφάνης, Μένανδρος. ΤΟ ΑΡΧΑΙΟ ΔΡΑΜΑ.

Αν θα έπρεπε να αναζητήσουμε τις ρίζες του θεάτρου θα χρειαστεί να
ταξιδέψουμε αρκετές εκατοντάδες χρόνια πριν. Η απαρχή του αρχαίου
ελληνικού δράματος, και κατ’ επέκταση του θεάτρου, εντοπίζεται στις
θρησκευτικές τελετουργίες των πρώτων κοινωνιών. Μαζί με τα πρώτα
βήματα της ανθρωπότητας γεννήθηκε ο χορός, που ήταν η πρώτη
θεατρική πράξη. Από τότε κιόλας συναντάει κανείς ίχνη από τραγούδια
και χορούς προς τιμήν ενός Θεού που ερμηνεύονται από ιερείς και
πιστούς, καθώς και μια απεικόνιση της γέννησης του Θεού, του θανάτου
του και της ανάστασής του. Πρώτη μεγάλη θεατρική εποχή στην
ιστορία του Πολιτισμού δεν μπορεί να θεωρηθεί παρά ο 5ος αι. π.Χ.
στην Ελλάδα. Τότε ήταν που οι τραγωδίες και οι κωμωδίες
ερμηνεύτηκαν για πρώτη φορά όχι από ιερείς αλλά από ηθοποιούς και σε
ειδικά κατασκευασμένους χώρους ή τοποθεσίες, που, αν και τόποι ιεροί,
δεν ήταν όμως ναοί.
5ος π. Χ. -Πρώτοι οι Ελληνες στη Φιλοσοφία με τον Αριστοτέλη και

τον Πλάτωνα, τον Δημόκριτο και τον Ηράκλειτο. Στα αγγλικά
philosophy. Με τον όρο ελληνική φιλοσοφία εννοείται ο φιλοσοφικός
στοχασμός που αναπτύχθηκε στο ελλαδικό χώρο ή στις επικράτειές του
ανά τους αιώνες έως τη σύγχρονη εποχή. Το κυριότερο κριτήριο
συνέχειας για την εξέλιξη της ελληνικής φιλοσοφικής σκέψης είναι η
πολιτισμική συνέχεια, η κοινή γλώσσα, η υποκειμενική αίσθηση της
κοινής καταγωγής -ειδικά στην Ελληνιστική εποχή- το κοινό
γεωγραφικό και ιστορικό πλαίσιο αναφοράς. Εκτός των παραπάνω
υφίστανται και κριτήρια θεματικής συνάφειας και κοινών προβλημάτων
που χαρακτηρίζουν συγκεκριμένα γνωρίσματα των διακριτών περιόδων
του ελληνόφωνου φιλοσοφικού στοχασμού. Βάσει των παραπάνω
απαιτείται περιοδολόγηση αυτού που ονομάζεται ελληνική φιλοσοφία,
χωρίς την οποία δεν είναι δυνατή η παρακολούθηση της εξέλιξης του
φιλοσοφικού στοχασμού και του τρόπου με τον οποίο αναπτύχθηκε
εκτός των γεωγραφικών ορίων της ελληνικής επικράτειας κατά την
αρχαιότητα. Η αρχαιοελληνική περίοδος μέχρι τους πρώτους
χριστιανικούς αιώνες αποτελεί αναμφίβολα τον κορμό αυτού που
αποκαλείται διεθνώς ελληνική φιλοσοφία. Ακολουθεί η βυζαντινή
περίοδος μέχρι την Άλωση, η οποία ενδιαφέρει τόσο για την διάσωση,
την επεξεργασία και την μετάδοση της αρχαίας φιλοσοφικής σκέψης, όσο
και για τη σύνθεσή της με τον Χριστιανισμό. Τον κύκλο κλείνει η
νεότερη και η σύγχρονη φιλοσοφία, η οποία δεν ενδιαφέρει τόσο για την
πρωτοτυπία της σε θέματα στοχασμού, αλλά ως ιστορική αποτύπωση της
συνειδητοποίησης του νέου ελληνισμού με την οικειοποίηση του
αρχαιοελληνικού παρελθόντος και την παράλληλη πρόσληψη της δυτικής
φιλοσοφικής σκέψης.
43
5ος π. Χ. -Φυσική. ΤΟ ΑΤΟΜΟ. «Το άτομο» περίπου 2.500 χρόνια πριν,

ένας άνδρας με το όνομα του Δημόκριτου Αβδήρων δήλωσε ότι όλη η
ύλη αποτελούνταν από σωματίδια που ονομάζονται "άτομα". Πολλοί
άνθρωποι είπαν, ότι αυτή ήταν μια ανοησία ακόμα και μεγάλοι
φιλόσοφοι όπως ο Πλάτων και ο Αριστοτέλης. Ο Δημόκριτος (~460 π.Χ.-
370 π.Χ) ήταν προσωκρατικός φιλόσοφος, ο οποίος γεννήθηκε στα Άβδηρα της
Θράκης…. Δημόκριτος. Ο Δημόκριτος (~460 π.Χ.- 370 π.Χ) ήταν
προσωκρατικός φιλόσοφος, ο οποίος γεννήθηκε στα Άβδηρα της Θράκης.
Ήταν μαθητής του Λεύκιππου.Αποσπάσματα. 15.2 Δαμάστης ὁ Σιγειεὺς
[F Gr Hist. 5 T 4 I 153] τὰ πλεῖστα ἐκ τῶν Ἑκαταίου μεταγράψας
Περίπλουν ἔγραψεν· ἑξῆς Δ. καὶ Εὔδοξος καὶ ἄλλοι τινὲς γῆς περιόδους
καὶ περίπλους ἐπραγματεύσαντο. οἱ μὲν οὖν παλαιοὶ τὴν οἰκουμένην
ἔγραφον στρογγύλην͵ μέσην δὲ κεῖσθαι τὴν Ἑλλάδα καὶ ταύτης Δελφούς·
τὸν ὀμφαλὸν γὰρ ἔχειν τῆς γῆς. πρῶ τος δὲ. πολύπειρος ἀνὴρ
συνεῖδεν͵ ὅτι προμήκης ἐστὶν ἡ γῆ ἡμιόλιον τὸ μῆκος τοῦ πλάτους
ἔχουσα· συνήινεσε τούτωι καὶ Δικαίαρχος ὁ Περιπατητικός…68 B 15.
εἶτα [nach Anaximander Δαμάστης ὁ Σιγειεὺς [F.Gr.Hist. 5 T 4 I 153] τὰ
πλεῖστα ἐκ τῶν Ἑκαταίου μεταγράψας Περίπλουν ἔγραψεν˙ἑξῆς Δ. καὶ
Εὔδοξος καὶ ἄλλοι τινὲς γῆς περιόδους καὶ περίπλους ἐπραγματεύσαντο.
(2) οἱ μὲν οὖν παλαιοὶ τὴν οἰκουμένην ἔγραφον στρογγύλην, μέσην δὲ
κεῖσθαι τὴν Ἑλλάδα καὶ ταύτης Δελφούς˙ τὸν ὀμφαλὸν γὰρ ἔχειν τῆς γῆς.
πρῶτος δὲ Δ. πολύπειρος ἀνὴρ συνεῖδεν, ὅτι προμήκης ἐστὶν ἡ γῆ [II 145.
20] ἡμιόλιον τὸ μῆκος τοῦ πλάτους ἔχουσα˙ συνήινεσε τούτωι καὶ
Δικαίαρχος ὁ Περιπατητικός. Vgl. A 94…. Δημόκριτος. 300,17.2
Alchim. I 56, 7] Δ…. ἐλθὼν ἀπὸ Ἀβδήρων φυσικὸς ὢν καὶ πάντα τὰ
φυσικὰ ἐρευνήσας καὶ συγγραψάμενος τὰ ὄντα κατὰ φύσιν. Ἄβδηρα δέ
ἐστι πόλις Θράικης· ἐγένετο δὲ ἀνὴρ λογιώτατος͵ ὃς ἐλθὼν ἐν Αἰγύπτωι
ἐμυσταγωγήθη παρὰ τοῦ μεγάλου Ὀστάνου ἐν τῶι ἱερῶι τῆς Μέμφεως
σὺν καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς ἱερεῦσιν Αἰγύπτου. ἐκ τούτου λαβὼν ἀφορμὰς
συνεγράψατο βίβλους τέσσαρας βαφικάς͵ περὶ χρυσοῦ καὶ ἀργύρου καὶ
λίθων καὶ πορφύρας. λέγω δή͵ τὰς ἀφορμὰς λαβὼν συνεγράψατο παρὰ
τοῦ μεγάλου Ὀστάνου. ἐκεῖνος γὰρ ἦν πρῶτος ὁ γράψας ὅτι ἡ φύσις
τῆι φύσει τέρπεται καὶ ἡ φύσις τὴν φύσιν κρατεῖ καὶ ἡ φύσις τὴν
φύσιν νικᾶι κτλ.
5ος π.Χ. Ερεχθείο: Το Ερεχθείο παίρνει το όνομα του από τον Ερεχθέα,
στον οποίο είναι αφιερωμένο. Ο ναός είναι επίσης αφιερωμένος στον
Ποσειδώνα, και την Αθηνά Πολιάδα. Βρίσκεται βόρεια του Παρθενώνα
κι είναι κτισμένος σε ιωνικό ρυθμό. Ολοκληρώθηκε στα τέλη του 5ου
αιώνα και ξεχώρισε για το ιδιόμορφο σχέδιο και τον διάκοσμο του. Η
ιδιομορφία του έγκειται εν μέρει στη μορφολογία του εδάφους που έχει
αποτέλεσμα ένα τμήμα του να είναι πιο ανυψωμένο. Ο ναός είναι
44
περισσότερο γνωστός για τις γυναικείες μορφές, τις Καρυάτιδες, που

στηρίζουν αντί για κίονες το ναό.
5ος π.Χ. Παρθενώνας: Πρόκειται για ένα μνημείο του μεγαλείου της
Αθήνας του 5ου αιώνα. Βρίσκεται στο υψηλότερο σημείο του βράχου της
Ακρόπολης κι αποτελεί το τελειότερο επίτευγμα δωρικού ρυθμού. Η
κατασκευή του ναού, που ήταν αφιερωμένος στην θεά Αθηνά Παρθένο,
ολοκληρώθηκε το 432 π.Χ. Εξαιρετικά ενδιαφέρον από αρχιτεκτονικής
άποψης, είναι το γεγονός ότι δεν υπάρχει ούτε μια ευθεία γραμμή, καθώς
στο ναό κυριαρχεί η καμπύλη, αλλά και το γεγονός ότι οι κίονες δεν είναι
κάθετοι, αλλά αν προεκταθούν νοερά συναντώνται στα 1852 μ. Την
κλασσική εποχή ο ναός στέγαζε το άγαλμα μοναδικών διαστάσεων κι
ομορφιάς της θεάς, κατασκευασμένο από τον Φειδία.
5ος π.Χ. Ο Ίππασος ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας Πυθαγόρειος φιλόσοφος,

μαθηματικός και φυσικός. Κατά τον Ιάμβλιχο ήταν Κροτωνιάτης,
γενικά όμως επονομαζόταν «Μεταπόντιος» ή «Μεταποντίνος». Η ακμή
του τοποθετείται στα πρώτα 40 χρόνια του 5ου αιώνα π.Χ. και θεωρείται
από τους αρχαιότερους μαθητές του Πυθαγόρα. Ήταν ο ιδρυτής του
«μαθηματικού τμήματος» της Πυθαγόρειας Σχολής.Η διδασκαλία του
διέφερε των άλλων Πυθαγορείων ως προς τούτο: ότι παραδεχόταν ως
αρχή του κόσμου την ύλη (πυρ) και όχι την άϋλη μορφή (αριθμοί) όπως
εκείνοι. Είναι πιθανό εξ αυτού να πήγασε η διάδοση ότι ο Ίππασος
κοινοποίησε μυστικά της Πυθαγόρειας φιλοσοφίας και ότι εξ αυτού
καταδιώχθηκε και τελικά φονεύθηκε. Ιππασός. Σωζόμενα. 3.2 Ἱππάσου
φησὶν εἶναι γεγραμμένον ἐπὶ διαβολῆι Πυθαγόρου. περὶ δ΄ Ἱππάσου
λέγουσιν͵ ὡς ἦν μὲν τῶν Πυθαγορείων͵ διὰ δὲ τὸ ἐξενεγκεῖν καὶ
γράψασθαι πρῶτος σφαῖραν τὴν ἐκ τῶν δώδεκα πενταγώνων ἀπόλοιτο
κατὰ θάλατταν ὡς ἀσεβήσας͵ δόξαν δὲ λάβοι ὡς εὑρών͵ εἶναι δὲ πάντα
3ἐκείνου τοῦ ἀνδρός3. προσαγορεύουσι γὰρ οὕτω τὸν Πυθαγόραν καὶ οὐ
καλοῦσιν ὀνόματι. ἐπέδωκε δὲ τὰ μαθήματα͵ ἐπεὶ ἐξηνέχθησαν͵ κατὰ
πᾶσαν τὴν Ἑλλάδα͵ καὶ πρῶτοι τῶν τότε μαθηματικῶν ἐνομίσθησαν
δισσοὶ προάγοντε μάλιστα Θεόδωρός τε ὁ Κυρηναῖος καὶ Ἱπποκράτης ὁ
Χῖος. λέγουσι δὲ οἱ Πυθαγόρειοι ἐξενηνέχθαι γεωμετρίαν οὕτως…
5ος π. Χ. -Επίχαρμος. Σωζόμενα. 27.2 MARM. PAR. ep. 71 ἀφ΄ οὗ

Ἱέρων Συρακουσσῶν ἐτυράννευσεν ἔτη ἄρχοντος Ἀθήνησι Χάρητος. ἦν
δὲ καὶ Ἐπίχαρμος ὁ ποιητὴς κατὰ τοῦτον.. Συρακόσιος. οὗτος πρῶτος
τὴν κωμωιδίαν διερριμμένην ἀνεκτήσατο πολλὰ προσφιλοτεχνήσας.
χρόνοις δὲ γέγονε κατὰ τὴν ογ ὀλυμπιάδα [488-5] ͵ τῆι δὲ ποιήσει
γνωμικὸς καὶ εὑρετικὸς καὶ φιλότεχνος. σώιζεται δὲ αὐτοῦ δράματα μ͵
45
ὧν ἀντιλέγονται δ. ἔστι μὲν γὰρ οὐδέποτ΄ οὐδέν͵ ἀεὶ δὲ γίγνεται. Ο

Επίχαρμος (5ος π.Χ. αι.) ήταν κωμωδιογράφος και φιλόσοφος από την Κω.
Αναδείχθηκε ένας από τους μεγαλύτερους ποιητές της αρχαίας Ελλάδας.
461 π. Χ.-Στην καθιέρωση της δημοκρατίας με τον Περικλή. Πολιτική,

πόλις-κράτος, Στα αγγλικά democracy. Ο Περικλής (από τις λέξεις περί
και κλέος δηλαδή o περιτριγυρισμένος από δόξα, περίδοξος, περίπου 495-
429 π.Χ.) ήταν Αρχαίος Έλληνας πολιτικός, ρήτορας και στρατηγός του
5ου αιώνα π.Χ., γνωστού και ως «Χρυσού Αιώνα», και πιο
συγκεκριμένα της περιόδου μεταξύ των Περσικών Πολέμων και του
Πελοποννησιακού Πολέμου. Η δύναμη, δόξα και η φήμη την οποία
χάρισε στην Αρχαία Αθήνα, δικαιώνουν απόλυτα το χαρακτηρισμό του
Χρυσού Αιώνα. Η εποχή στην οποία ήταν κύριος της πολιτικής ζωής της
Αρχαίας Αθήνας, δηλαδή μεταξύ του 461 π.Χ. και του 429 π.Χ.,
ονομάζεται μέχρι σήμερα «Εποχή του Περικλή»… Δημοκρατία: Η
δημοκρατία γεννήθηκε στην Αθήνα. Πατέρας της δημοκρατίας θεωρείται
ο Κλεισθένης, ο οποίος με τις μεταρρυθμίσεις που εισήγαγε το 508 π.Χ.
έκανε το αποφασιστικό βήμα προς την ποιοτική μεταβολή του
πολιτεύματος της πόλης-κράτους. Ουσιαστικά, δημοκρατία καθιερώθηκε
μετά τις πολιτειακές μεταβολές που επέφεραν ο Εφιάλτης κι ο Περικλής.
Η δημοκρατία τον 5ο αιώνα είναι μια νέα λέξη που περικλείει μέσα της
όλη την κυριολεκτική της σημασία, είναι μια άμεση δημοκρατία και η
εξουσία πραγματικά ασκείται από το λαό, τον δήμο της Αθήνας. Αξίζει
να σημειωθεί, ότι το ιδανικό της δημοκρατίας διασώθηκε στις ψυχές των
Ελλήνων ανά τους αιώνες και προβάλλεται ξανά τον 19ο αιώνα σε μια
μοναρχική Ευρώπη μέσα απ’ τα επαναστατικά συντάγματα, που
θεωρούνται τα δημοκρατικότερα της εποχής.
450 π. Χ. Michael Gagarin, Antiphon the Athenian: Oratory, Law,

and Justice in the Age of the Sophists. University of Texas Press, 2002.
Antiphon (ca. 480 – 411) was the First “logographer” (speechwriter);
he began writing speeches for use in the lawcourts about 430 – 425.
Greeks had been giving speeches, of course, in many different settings
from the time of Homer and undoubtedly earlier, but Antiphon was the
First to write down a speech for delivery in court. We can plausibly
connect this innovation with the earliest report of his career (Thucydides
8.68) that, although he had great skill with words, he did not like to
appear in public but confined himself to giving advice to others who were
involved in legal or political disputes. Αντιφώντα (περ. 480 - 411) …
Άρχισε να γράφει τις ομιλίες για χρήση στα δικαστήρια των δήμων
περίπου 430 με 425. Οι Έλληνες είχαν δώσει ομιλίες, φυσικά, σε πολλές
διαφορετικές ρυθμίσεις από την εποχή του Ομήρου και αναμφίβολα
νωρίτερα, αλλά Αντιφώντα ήταν ο πρώτος για να γράψει μια ομιλία για
46
την παράδοση... Μπορούμε να συνδέσουμε εύλογα αυτήν την καινοτομία

με την πρώτη έκθεση της του σταδιοδρομία (Θουκυδίδης 8,68) ότι…
450 π.Χ. -Ο Ευριπίδης (485 π.Χ. - 406 π.Χ.), υπήρξε τραγικός ποιητής
και ένας από τους τρεις μεγάλους διδάσκαλους του αττικού δράματος στο
αρχαίο ελληνικό θέατρο. Αποσπάσματα. 377.2…ὃς γὰρ ἂν χρηστὸς
φύῃ͵ οὐ τοὔνομ΄ αὐτοῦ τὴν φύσιν διαφθερεῖ. νῦν δ΄ ἤν τις οἴκων
πλουσίαν ἔχῃ φάτνην͵ πρῶτος γέγραπται τῶν τ΄ ἀμεινόνων κρατεῖ· τὰ
δ΄ ἔργ΄ ἐλάσσω χρημάτων νομίζομεν.
4ος π. Χ.-Στις πολεμικές τέχνες με τον Μ. Αλέξανδρο. Αλέξανδρος ο

Μέγας ή Αλέξανδρος Γ' ο Μακεδών, Βασιλεύς Μακεδόνων, Ηγεμών
(Στρατηγός Αυτοκράτωρ) της Πανελλήνιας Συμμαχίας κατά της
Περσικής αυτοκρατορίας, διάδοχος των Φαραώ της Αιγύπτου, Κύριος
της Ασίας και βορειοδυτικής Ινδίας, οι κατακτήσεις του οποίου
αποτέλεσαν τον θεμέλιο λίθο των βασιλείων των Διαδόχων του. Οι
Αλεξανδρινοί χρόνοι αποτελούν το τέλος της κλασσικής αρχαιότητας και
την απαρχή της περιόδου της παγκόσμιας ιστορίας γνωστής ως
Ελληνιστικής. Υπήρξε ένας από τους σπουδαιότερους Έλληνες
στρατηγούς στην ιστορία του έθνους, καταφέρνοντας σε ηλικία μόλις
33 ετών να κατακτήσει το μεγαλύτερο μέρος του τότε γνωστού κόσμου
(4ος αιώνας π.Χ.). Marathon 490 BC: The First Persian Invasion Of
Greece (Campaign) Osprey Publishing. Edition 2002. The story of the
Marathon campaign is an epic of the Ancient World. When the Ionian
Greeks revolted against their Persian overlords in 499BC, the cities of
Athens and Eretria came to their aid. The Persian King Darius swore
vengeance and in 490BC a fleet of 600 ships packed with troops was sent
to take revenge on the Athenians. At Marathon the Greeks met the
Persians in battle and drove them in rout back to their ships. The moral
effect of this victory was enormous – for the First time a Greek army
had defeated the Persians and demonstrated the superiority of hoplite
tactics… The Greek and Persian Wars 499-386 BC (Essential
Histories). Publisher: Osprey Publishing. Edition 2003. This book covers
One of the defining periods of European history. The series of wars
between the Greeks and the Persian Empire produced the famous battles
of Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, as well as an ill-fated attempt to
overthrow the Persian king in 400 BC... Αυτό το βιβλίο καλύπτει μια από
τις καθοριστικές περιόδους της ευρωπαϊκής ιστορίας. Η σειρά των
πολέμων μεταξύ των Ελλήνων και της Περσικής Αυτοκρατορίας που
παράγονται στις περίφημες μάχες του Μαραθώνα, Θερμοπύλες,
47
Σαλαμίνας, και, καθώς και στηπροσπάθεια να ανατρέψει το βασιλιά των

Περσών. ...
400 π.Χ. -Ο Πλάτων (427 π.Χ.–347 π.Χ.) ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας

φιλόσοφος από την Αθήνα, ο πιο γνωστός μαθητής του Σωκράτη και
δάσκαλος του Αριστοτέλη. Πλάτων. Ἱππάρχος 228.b.4 ΣΩ. Πολίτῃ
μὲν ἐμῷ τε καὶ σῷ͵ Πεισιστράτου δὲ ὑεῖ τοῦ ἐκ Φιλαϊδῶν͵ Ἱππάρχῳ͵ ὃς
τῶν Πεισιστράτου παίδων ἦν πρεσβύτατος καὶ σοφώτατος͵ ὃς ἄλλα τε
πολλὰ καὶ καλὰ ἔργα σοφίας ἀπεδείξατο͵ καὶ τὰ Ὁμήρου ἔπη πρῶτος
ἐκόμισεν εἰς τὴν γῆν ταυτηνί͵ καὶ ἠνάγκασε τοὺς ῥαψῳδοὺς Πανα
θηναίοις ἐξ ὑπολήψεως ἐφεξῆς αὐτὰ διιέναι͵ ὥσπερ νῦν ἔτι 228.c οἵδε
ποιοῦσιν͵ καὶ ἐπ΄ Ἀνακρέοντα τὸν Τήιον πεντηκόντορον στείλας
ἐκόμισεν εἰς τὴν πόλιν͵ Σιμωνίδην δὲ τὸν Κεῖον ἀεὶ περὶ αὑτὸν εἶχεν͵
μεγάλοις μισθοῖς καὶ δώροις πείθων·
372 π. Χ. -Θεόφραστος. ΕΚ ΤΩΝ ΘΕΟΦΡΑΣΤΟΥ ΦΥΣΙΚΩΝ ΔΟΞΩΝ

1.10 Θαλῆς δὲ πρῶτος παραδέδοται τὴν περὶ φύσεως ἱστορίαν τοῖς
Ἕλλησιν ἐκφῆναι͵ πολλῶν μὲν καὶ ἄλλων προγεγονότων͵ ὡς καὶ
Θεοφράστῳ δοκεῖ͵ αὐτὸς δὲ πολὺ διενεγκὼν ἐκείνων ὡς ἀποκρύψαι πάν
τας τοὺς πρὸ αὐτοῦ· λέγεται δὲ ἐν γραφαῖς μηδὲν καταλιπεῖν πλὴν τῆς
καλου μένης Ναυτικῆς ἀστρολογίας. Ἵππασος δὲ ὁ Μεταποντῖνος καὶ
Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος ἓν καὶ οὗτοι καὶ κινούμενον καὶ πεπερασμένον͵
ἀλλὰ πῦρ ἐποίησαν τὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ ἐκ πυρὸς ποιοῦσι τὰ ὄντα πυκνώσει
καὶ μα νώσει καὶ διαλύουσι πάλιν εἰς πῦρ ὡς ταύτης μιᾶς οὔσης φύσεως
τῆς ὑποκειμένης· πυρὸς γὰρ ἀμοιβὴν εἶναί φησιν Ἡράκλειτος πάντα·
ποιεῖ δὲ καὶ τάξιν τινὰ καὶ χρόνον ὡρισμένον τῆς τοῦ κόσμου με ταβολῆς
κατά τινα εἱμαρμένην ἀνάγκην. Τις περισσότερες πληροφορίες για βίο
του Θεοφράστου αντλούμε από τον Διογένη, συγγραφέα των βίων των
φιλοσόφων. Ο Θεόφραστος γεννήθηκε το 372 π.Χ.
350 π. Χ.-Ηθική είναι ο κλάδος της φιλοσοφίας που ασχολείται αρχικά

με το παρακάτω ερώτημα: ποιες ανθρώπινες πράξεις είναι αποδεκτές και
ορθές και ποιες ανάρμοστες και λανθασμένες; Ωστόσο, στα θέματα
ηθικής σπάνια υπάρχει γενική συμφωνία απόψεων και ακόμα και ο
προσδιορισμός ποιο είναι το κεντρικό ή θεμελιώδες ζήτημα είναι κι αυτός
αντικείμενο διαφωνιών. Ο Πλάτων (427 π.Χ.–347 π.Χ.) ήταν αρχαίος
Έλληνας φιλόσοφος από την Αθήνα,
350 π. Χ. -Ιστορία • Αν και οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες, τόσο ο Πυθέας ο

Μασσαλιώτης, όσο και ο Σέλευκος αλλά και ο ... Ποσειδώνιος ήταν οι
Πρώτοι που διαπίστωσαν τη σχέση της παλίρροιας με τη Σελήνη… O
48
Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης (Πυθεύς, περ. 380 – περ. 310 π.Χ.) ήταν αρχαίος
Έλληνας έμπορος, εξερευνητής και γεωγράφος από τη Μασσαλία… O
Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης (Πυθεύς, περ. 380 – περ. 310 π.Χ.) ήταν
αρχαίος Έλληνας έμπορος, εξερευνητής και γεωγράφος από τη
Μασσαλία της σημερινής Γαλλίας. Είναι γνωστός για το ταξίδι που
πραγματοποίησε στις θάλασσες της βόρειας Ευρώπης. Ο Πυθέας
περιέγραψε το ταξίδι του στα βιβλία του Περί Ωκεανού και Γης περίοδος,
από τα οποία σώζονται μόνο αποσπάσματα, σε αναφορές άλλων
συγγραφέων. Ανάμεσα σε αυτούς, ο Στράβων και ο Πολύβιος
αμφιβάλουν για το αν ο Πυθέας έκανε πραγματικά το ταξίδι που
περιγράφει.
350 π. Χ.-Στην οικονομική επιστήμη με τον Αριστοτέλη και τον

Ξενοφώντα. Οίκος=νομή. Στα αγγλικά economy, economic. Μπορεί να
μη δημιούργησε τον όρο «Πολιτική Οικονομία», αποσαφήνισε όμως και
διερεύνησε τα συστατικά στοιχεία του όρου, θέτοντας έτσι τις
προϋποθέσεις για να γίνει τούτο πολύ αργότερα. Για πρώτη φορά οι δύο
όροι παρουσιάζονται μαζί για να χαρακτηρίσουν την Οικονομική
Επιστήμη το 1615 από το Γάλλο επιστήμονα Μονκρετιέν στο βιβλίο του,
«Πραγματεία της Πολιτικής Οικονομίας» και ασφαλώς δεν πρέπει
κανείς να ξεχνά τους κλασσικούς οικονομολόγους (Adam Smith, David
Ricardo κτλ) και ιδιαίτερα τον Μαρξ οι οποίοι καθιέρωσαν τον όρο
ανεβάζοντας την «Πολιτική Οικονομία» στο βάθρο και καταξιώνοντας
την ως τη βασίλισσα των κοινωνικών επιστημών. Ο Αριστοτέλης δε
συνέγραψε ασφαλώς ένα αυτόνομο καθαρά οικονομικό σύγγραμμα,
εκτός από ένα πολύ μικρό τον «Οικονομικό», όμως οι οικονομικές του
απόψεις βρίσκονται διάσπαρτες σε πολλά από τα έργα του. Ο
Αριστοτέλης ( 384 - 322 π.Χ. ) ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας φιλόσοφος. Ο
Ξενοφών (περ. 427 π.Χ.-355 π.Χ.) Αθηναίος, ιστορικός και φιλόσοφος,
υπήρξε στρατιώτης, μισθοφόρος και μαθητής του Σωκράτους και
περισσότερο γνωστός για τα έργα του σχετικά με την ιστορία του καιρού
του, τα έργα του Σωκράτους, και τη ζωή του στην Ελλάδα.
334 π. Χ. Granicus 334 BC: Alexander's First Persian Victory

(Campaign). Publisher: Osprey Publishing. Edition 2007. Granicus River
was Alexander's First great victory over the Persians, where he
demonstrated the heroic style of active and decisive leadership that was
the hallmark of his career. After assuming the throne of Macedonia in
336BC and consolidating his hold on mainland Greece, Alexander
crossed the Hellespont to face the Persians at the steep banks of the
Granicus...Στον Γρανικό ποταμό ήταν η πρώτη μεγάλη νίκη του
49
Μεγάλου Αλεξάνδρου κατά των Περσών, όπου επέδειξε το ηρωικό

ύφος των ενεργών και αποφασιστική ηγεσία που ήταν το σήμα κατατεθέν
της καριέρας του. Μετά την ανάληψη του θρόνου της Μακεδονίας και
της εδραίωσης της το 336 π. Χ. τη λαβή του στην ηπειρωτική Ελλάδα, ο
Αλέξανδρος διέσχισε τον Ελλήσποντο για να αντιμετωπίσουν τους
Πέρσες στις απόκρημνες όχθες του Γρανικού ...
300 π.Χ. Από τα επτά θαύματα του κόσμου. Ο Φάρος της Αλεξάνδρειας-280 π.Χ. Ο
Κολοσσός της Ρόδου-292 π.Χ. - 280 π.Χ. Το Μαυσωλείο της
Αλικαρνασσού-353 π.Χ.-351 π.Χ. Ο Ναός της Αρτέμιδος στην Έφεσο-
356 π.Χ. Το Χρυσελεφάντινο άγαλμα του Ολυμπίου Διός-430 π.Χ.
Ενδεικτικά το βάζω εδώ.
300 π.Χ. First lunar eclipse of 2011. Οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες και η πρώτη
Σύνολο Σεληνιακή έκλειψη του 2011. Michio Kaku στις 21 Ιουνίου,
2011. Όταν παρακολουθείτε τη σεληνιακή έκλειψη, θα πρέπει επίσης να
σκεφτούμε για το πώς οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες, πάνω από 2.000 χρόνια πριν,
χρησιμοποιείησαν τις εκλείψεις και τις σκιές για τον υπολογισμό των
κατά προσέγγιση διαστάσεις της Γης, της Σελήνης, του ηλιακού
συστήματος. Αυτό ήταν ένα από τα μεγάλα επιτεύγματα του
μαθηματικού αρχαία Ελλάδα, με επικεφαλής τον Ερατοσθένη και τον
Αρίσταρχο. Ο Ερατοσθένης (Κυρήνη 276 π.Χ. – Αλεξάνδρεια 194
π.Χ.) ήταν αρχαίος Έλληνας μαθηματικός, γεωγράφος και
αστρονόμος. Θεωρείται ο πρώτος που υπολόγισε το μέγεθος της Γης και
κατασκεύασε ένα σύστημα συντεταγμένων με παράλληλους και
μεσημβρινούς. Ακόμα κατασκεύασε ένα χάρτη του κόσμου όπως τον
θεωρούσε. Για τις θεωρίες του περί γεωγραφίας κατηγορήθηκε αργότερα
από τον Στράβωνα, ότι δεν παρείχε τις αναγκαίες αποδείξεις. Ο
Αρίσταρχος ο Σάμιος (310 π.Χ. - περίπου 230 π.Χ.) ήταν Έλληνας
αστρονόμος και μαθηματικός, που γεννήθηκε στη Σάμο. Είναι ο
πρώτος καταγεγραμμένος άνθρωπος ο οποίος πρότεινε ηλιοκεντρικό
μοντέλο του Ηλιακού Συστήματος, θέτοντας τον Ήλιο και όχι τη Γη,
στο κέντρο του γνωστού Σύμπαντος (για το λόγο αυτό είναι συχνά
γνωστός ως ο "Έλληνας Κοπέρνικος"). Οι ιδέες του περί Αστρονομίας
δεν είχαν γίνει αρχικά αποδεκτές και θεωρήθηκαν κατώτερες από εκείνες
του Αριστοτέλη και του Πτολεμαίου, έως ότου αναγεννήθηκαν επιτυχώς
και αναπτύχθηκαν από τον Κοπέρνικο περίπου 2000 χρόνια μετά.
300 π.Χ. Βοτανική. Μεταξύ των πρώτων βοτανικών μελετών,

χρονολογημένα περίπου στο 300 π.Χ., υπάρχουν δύο μεγάλα έργα του
Θεόφραστου: Περί φυτών ιστορίας (Historia Plantarum) και Περί
φυτών αιτιών. Αυτά τα δύο βιβλία απαρτίζουν τη σημαντικότερη
50
συνεισφορά στην επιστήμη της βοτανικής κατά τη διάρκεια της

αρχαιότητας και του μεσαίωνα. Ο Ρωμαίος συγγραφέας ιατρικής,
Διοσκουρίδης, μας παρέχει σημαντική μαρτυρία για τις γνώσεις των
Ελλήνων και των Ρωμαίων όσο αφορά τα φαρμακευτικά φυτά. Ο
Θεόφραστος (372 π.Χ. – περ. 287/5 π.Χ.) ήταν φιλόσοφος της
αρχαιότητας.
3ος π. Χ. -Στον Χριστιανισμό με την μετάφραση των Ο΄. Στα αγγλικά

Christianity. Χριστιανισμός ονομάζεται το θρησκευτικό σύστημα πίστης
το οποίο αναγνωρίζει ως ιδρυτή και κεντρικό πρόσωπο του συνόλου της
διδασκαλίας του, τον Ιησού Χριστό, όπως παρουσιάζεται στα βιβλία της
Καινής Διαθήκης. Αυτό σημαίνει, πως πέρα από κάθε άλλη έννοια που
περιλαμβάνει η θρησκεία αυτή, οι οπαδοί του Χριστιανισμού εστιάζουν
την προσοχή τους και έχουν ως κοινό σημείο αναφοράς το πρόσωπο του
Ιησού Χριστού. Η Μετάφραση των Εβδομήκοντα αποτελεί τη
σπουδαιότερη από τις πρώτες μεταφράσεις της Παλαιάς Διαθήκης και
την πρώτη, στην ουσία, γραπτή μετάφραση από την εβραϊκή στην
ελληνιστική κοινή γλώσσα. Η μετάφραση έγινε σταδιακά μεταξύ του
3ου και του 1ου αιώνα π.Χ. από ελληνόγλωσσους Ιουδαίους και
μεταγενέστερα περιέλαβε επιπλέον βιβλία, πέρα από αυτά που ανήκουν
στον Ιουδαϊκό Βιβλικό κανόνα (Τανάκ). Μερικά ταργκούμ που
αποτελούσαν μεταφράσεις ή παραφράσεις των Εβραϊκών Γραφών στην
αραμαϊκή έγιναν επίσης εκείνη την εποχή… The Elements of New
Testament Greek. Publisher: CUP | 2005. Since 1914 Cambridge has
published The Elements of New Testament Greek, a best-selling
textbook for scholars and students of the Bible. The Original book by
Nunn was replaced and succeeded in 1965 by J. W. Wenham's book of the
same title; now Jeremy Duff has produced a new book to continue this
long-established tradition into the twenty-first century. Learning Greek is
a journey of many steps... Maurice A. Robinson & William G.
Pierpont, "The New Testament in the Original Greek" Chilton Book
Publishing | English |. THE NEW TESTAMENT was written in Koine
Greek during the First century AD. From the time of its Original
revelation, handwritten copies continually were prepared in order
tomaintain and preserve that Original text into the modern era. All copies
made prior to the invention of movable-type printing were made by hand,
resulting in various scribal alterations, most of these being of a minor
nature. Although the autographs no longer exist and no two manuscript
copies are completely identical, sufficient evidence exists by which one
can produce an accurate representation of the Original text by comparing
and evaluating the overall manuscript consensus. Robinson and Pierpont
have taken the utmost care in preparing that text for this Edition… Η
Καινή Διαθήκη γράφτηκε στην Ελληνική Κοινή κατά τη διάρκεια του
51
πρώτου μ.Χ. αιώνα. Από την εποχή της αρχικής αποκάλυψης του,
χειρόγραφα αντίγραφα συνεχώς ετοιμάστηκαν σε … τάξη και να
διατηρήσουν το αρχικό κείμενο στη σύγχρονη εποχή… Sylvie
Honigman, "The Septuagint and Homeric Scholarship in Alexandria:
A Study in the Narrative of the Letter of Aristeas". Publisher:
Routledge. 2003. The Letter of Aristeas tells the story of how Ptolemy
Philadelphus of Egypt commissioned seventy scholars to translate the
Hebrew Bible into Greek. Long accepted as a straightforward historical
account of a cultural enterprise in Ptolemaic Alexandria, the Letter
nevertheless poses serious interpretative problems. Sylvie Honigman
argues that the Letter should not be regarded as history, but as a charter
myth for diaspora Judaism. She expounds its generic affinities with other
works on Jewish history from Ptolemaic Alexandria, and argues that the
process of translation was simultaneously a process of establishing an
authoritative text, comparable to the work on the text of Homer being
carried out by contemporary Greek scholars. The Letter of Aristeas is
among the most intriguing literary productions of Ptolemaic
Alexandria, and this is the First book-length study to be devoted to
it. Η Επιστολή του Αριστέα αφηγείται την ιστορία για το πώς ο
Πτολεμαίος Φιλάδελφος της Αιγύπτου ανέθεσε σε εβδομήντα μελετητές
να μεταφράσουν την εβραϊκή Βίβλο στα ελληνικά. Ευρέως αποδεκτή ως
μια απλή ιστορική καταγραφή της πολιτιστικής επιχείρησης στην
Πτολεμαϊκή Αλεξάνδρεια, η επιστολή αποτελεί, ωστόσο, σοβαρά
ερμηνευτικά προβλήματα. Ο Sylvie Honigman υποστηρίζει ότι η
επιστολή δεν θα πρέπει να θεωρηθεί ως ιστορία, αλλά ως ένας μύθος
ελε΄θθερος για τη διασπορά του Ιουδαϊσμού. Εκείνη αναπτύσσει γενική
συγγένεια του με άλλα έργα στην ιστορία των Εβραίων από την
Πτολεμαϊκή Αλεξάνδρεια, και υποστηρίζει ότι η διαδικασία της
μετάφρασης ήταν ταυτόχρονα μια διαδικασία για την ίδρυση ενός
επίσημου κειμένου, συγκρίσιμη με την εργασία σχετικά με το κείμενο
του Ομήρου που διεξάγεται από σύγχρονους Έλληνες μελετητές. Η
Επιστολή του Αριστέα είναι ένα από τα πιο ενδιαφέροντα λογοτεχνικές
παραγωγές της Πτολεμαϊκής Αλεξάνδρειας, και αυτό είναι το πρώτο
βιβλίο-μελέτη που έχει αφιερωθεί σε αυτό.
283 π. Χ. -Βιβλιοθήκη. Οι ανωτέρω ορισμοί της λέξης βιβλιοθήκη,

παρμένοι από την εγκυκλοπαίδεια «Υδρία», δίνουν αμέσως την ευρύτητα
του όρου και τους τομείς στους οποίους αυτός απλώνεται. Οι πρώτες
βιβλιοθήκες πρέπει να υπήρχαν στη Μεσσοποταμία ήδη από το 3000
π.Χ. Ανασκαφές που έγιναν στη Νινευή το 1850 έφεραν στο φως χιλιάδες
πήλινες πινακίδες με σφηνοειδή γραφή, μεθοδικά ταξινομημένες και
καταλογογραφημένες, που αποτελούσαν το αρχείο του βασιλιά
Ασουρμπανιπάλ (668-626 π.Χ.). Ο βασιλιάς της Αλεξάνδρειας
52
Πτολεμαίος ο Φιλάδελφος (283-247 π.Χ.) ίδρυσε την πλουσιότερη και

λαμπρότερη βιβλιοθήκη του αρχαίου κόσμου, γνωστή ως «Μεγάλη
Βιβλιοθήκη της Αλεξάνδρειας», με 400.000, και κατ' άλλους 700.000
τόμους, και καταλόγους, οι οποίοι θεωρούνται ως οι πρώτες προσπάθειες
για τη δημιουργία συστηματικής βιβλιογραφίας. Η βιβλιοθήκη αυτή
καταστράφηκε από πυρκαγιά κατά την άλωση της Αλεξάνδρειας από τον
Ιούλιο Καίσαρα το 47 π.Χ.
212 π. Χ. -Ο μηχανισμός των Αντικυθήρων ανακαλύφθηκε στον βυθό του
ομώνυμου νησιού, μεταξύ των Κυθήρων και της Κρήτης, το 1900. Το
2006 χρονολογήθηκε στο 150-100 π.Χ. και πιθανολογήθηκε ότι το
βυθισμένο πλοίο που τον μετέφερε έκανε ταξίδι από την Ρόδο προς την
Ρώμη. Τώρα, επιστήμονες κατέληξαν ότι ο Μηχανισμός των
Αντικυθήρων, ένα θαύμα της αρχαίας Ελληνικής τεχνολογίας,
χρησιμοποιείτο ότι μόνο για να προβλέπει τις ηλιακές εκλείψεις αλλά
επίσης και για την συστηματοποίηση του ημερολογίου γύρω από τον
τετραετή κύκλο των Ολυμπιάδων. Οι νέες ανακαλύψεις, που
δημοσιεύθηκαν στις 30 Ιουλίου 2008 στην επετηρίδα Nature (Φύση),
αναφέρουν επίσης ότι ο σχεδιασμός του μηχανισμού ξεκίνησε από τις
Κορινθιακές αποικίες της Σικελίας, πιθανώς τις Συρακούσες. Οι
επιστήμονες εικάζουν ότι αυτό υπονοεί πιθανή σχέση με τον μέγα
Αρχιμήδη. Ο Αρχιμήδης, που έζησε στις Συρακούσες και πέθανε το 212
π.Χ., ανακάλυψε έναν πλανητικό μηχανισμό υπολογισμού των κινήσεων
της Σελήνης και των γνωστών πλανητών και συνέγραψε μια μελέτη περί
αστρονομικών μηχανισμών, η οποία δεν έχει διασωθεί.
(Πηγές: The New York Times, Wikipedia).
200 π.Χ. -Αρχιτέκτων Μηχανικός ή Αρχιτέκτονας προέρχεται από τις

λέξεις αρχή + τέκτων. Ο Ανδρόνικος ο Κυρρήστης ήταν αρχαίος
Έλληνας μηχανικός, αστρονόμος και αρχιτέκτων. Καταγόταν από τη
Κύρρο της Συρίας και άκμασε περί το τέλος του 2ου αιώνα π.Χ. Ήταν
γιος του Ερμεία. Τον αναφέρουν ο Παυσανίας, ο Βιτρούβιος και ο
Ουάρρων. Ο Ανδρόνικος ο Κυρρήστης φέρεται να κατασκεύασε από
λευκό μάρμαρο Ηλιακό ωρολόγιο, (το οποίο βρέθηκε στη Τήνο και
φυλάσσεται σήμερα στο μουσείο της πόλης). Από την κατασκευή εκείνη
απέκτησε μεγάλη φήμη οπότε και κλήθηκε στην Αθήνα όπου και
κατασκεύασε το γνωστό μετεωρολογικό και ωρομετρικό σταθμό, σήμερα
μνημείο, το Ωρολόγιο του Κυρρήστου, γνωστό και ως Πύργος των
Ανέμων, κατά τον Βιτρούβιο, ή Αέρηδες κατά τους νεότερους
Αθηναίους. Ο Απολλόδωρος ο Δαμασκηνός (60-125 μ.Χ.) από την
Δαμασκό Συρίας υπήρξε αρχαίος Έλληνας μηχανικός αρχιτέκτονας.
Έζησε επί Τραϊανού και Αδριανού. Ο Τραϊανός του ανέθεσε την
κατασκευή σημαντικών έργων, της Αγοράς, του Ωδείου και του
53
Γυμνασίου στην Ρώμη. Έπεσε σε δυσμένεια, εξορίστηκε και αργότερα

σκοτώθηκε από τον Αδριανό.
2ος π.Χ. Νίκη της Σαμοθράκης: Πρόκειται για ένα από τα διασημότερα
και τα πιο μεγαλόπνοα έργα της ελληνιστικής πλαστικής. Απεικονίζει τη
θεά Νίκη να στέκεται πάνω στην πρώρα πλοίου μ’ ανοιγμένα φτερά
καθώς κινείται προς τα μπρος. Το έργο, που δυστυχώς σώζεται ακέφαλο,
χρονολογείται στις αρχές του 2ου π.Χ. αιώνα. Σήμερα βρίσκεται στο
Παρίσι, στο μουσείο του Λούβρου.
2ος π.Χ. Η σάρισα ήταν αρχαίο όπλο, ένα δόρυ μεγάλου μήκους, το
βασικό επιθετικό όπλο της μακεδονικής φάλαγγας. Η σάρισα ήταν
κατασκευασμένη από σκληρό ξύλο κρανιάς, δέντρο που αφθονεί στα
βουνά της δυτικής Μακεδονίας (της Άνω Μακεδονίας των αρχαίων). Η
κρανιά φτάνει σε μεγάλο ύψος με ευθύ κορμό, παρέχοντας έτσι δόρατα
με μεγάλο μήκος, σχετικά ελαφρά, με σκληρότητα και αντοχή.
Χαρακτηριστικό της σάρισας, το οποίο κυρίως διαφοροποιούσε τη
μακεδονική από τις οπλιτικές φάλαγγες, ήταν το μήκος της. Αρχικά
περίπου 5,5 μέτρα, έφτασε τον 2ο π.Χ. αιώνα τα 6,50 μέτρα. Είχε
σιδερένια αιχμή και σαυρωτήρα στο αντίθετο άκρο, ως αντίβαρο και για
να καρφώνεται στο έδαφος. Ο φαλαγγίτης τη χειριζόταν με τα δύο χέρια.
200 μ. Χ. Cleomedes "Cleomedes' Lectures on Astronomy".

University of California Press | 2004. At some time around 200 A.D., the
Stoic philosopher and teacher Cleomedes delivered a set of lectures on
elementary astronomy as part of a complete introduction to Stoicism for
his students. The result was The Heavens (Caelestia), the only work by a
professional Stoic teacher to survive intact from the First two centuries
A.D., and a rare example of the interaction between science and
Philosophy in late antiquity.Σε κάποια στιγμή, γύρω στο 200 μ.Χ., ο
στωικός φιλόσοφος και δάσκαλος Κλεομήδης παραδίδει μια σειρά από
διαλέξεις σχετικά με στοιχειώδη αστρονομία ως μέρος ενός πλήρους
εισαγωγή Στωικισμού για τους μαθητές του. Το αποτέλεσμα ήταν οι
Ουρανοί (Caelestia), το μόνο έργο από έναν επαγγελματία δάσκαλο
Στωική να επιβιώσει ανέπαφη από την πρώτη δύο αιώνες μ.Χ., και ένα
σπάνιο παράδειγμα της αλληλεπίδρασης μεταξύ της επιστήμης και της
φιλοσοφίας στην ύστερη αρχαιότητα.
200 π.Χ. -Πρώτοι στη γεωγραφία με τον Στράβωνα τον Πτολεμαίο και
τον Παυσανία. Στα αγγλικά geography. Ο Στράβων ήταν αρχαίος
Έλληνας ιστορικός, γεωγράφος και φιλόσοφος. Ειδικότερα, ως
γεωγράφος, συγκαταλέγεται στους διασημότερους της αρχαίας εποχής. Ο
54
Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαίος ήταν ονομαστός Έλληνας φυσικός φιλόσοφος ο

οποίος γεννήθηκε στη ρωμαϊκή Αίγυπτο και έζησε στην Αλεξάνδρεια
κατά την περίοδο 127 - 151 μ.Χ. Το σπουδαιότερο έργο του, «Η
Μεγίστη» (ή «Μαθηματική Σύνταξις»), σώθηκε στα αραβικά ως
«Αλμαγέστη» και στηρίζεται στις παρατηρήσεις διάφορων
προγενέστερων αστρονόμων και ιδίως του Ιππάρχου. Αποτέλεσε ένα από
τα κείμενα που έδωσαν ώθηση στην αστρονομία των Αράβων. Επίσης ο
Πτολεμαίος ασχολήθηκε με τη μουσική, την οπτική, τη μαντική
αστρολογία και τη γεωγραφία. Ο Παυσανίας ήταν Έλληνας περιηγητής
και γεωγράφος του 2ου αι., ο οποίος έζησε στους χρόνους του Αδριανού
και του Μάρκου Αυρήλιου. Ο Σκύλαξ ο Καρυανδεύς ήταν εξερευνητής
του 6ου αιώνα π.Χ., ο οποίος με εντολή του Δαρείου Α' εξερεύνησε τις
ασιατικές ακτές πέρα από τον Ινδό ποταμό όπως αναφέρει ο Ηρόδοτος
Καταγόταν από τα Καρύανδα της Καρίας. Με το ίδιο όνομα αναφέρεται
συγγραφέας και εξερευνητής του 4ου αιώνα π.Χ. ο οποίος αντέγραψε και
απέδωσε πιθανότατα με περικοπές και το έργο του Σκύλακος του
Καρυανδρέως "Περίπλους" . Για να ξεχωρίζει από τον Σκύλακα του 6ου
αιώνα, αναφέρεται ως "Ψευδοσκύλαξ".
140 π.Χ. Αφροδίτη της Μήλου: Εξίσου γνωστό έργο της ελληνιστικής
περιόδου είναι το άγαλμα της Αφροδίτης της Μήλου. Η θεά
απεικονίζεται σε ήρεμη στάση και ημίγυμνη. Τα χέρια δεν σώζονται. Το
άγαλμα που βρίσκεται στο μουσείο του Λούβρου στο Παρίσι
χρονολογείται γύρω στο 140 π.Χ.
1ος μ. Χ. -Γραμματική. Η δυτική παράδοση ξεκινάει από τους

Αλεξανδρινούς φιλολόγους και τους Ρωμαίους γραμματικούς. Το
παλιότερο σωζόμενο έργο αυτής της παράδοσης είναι η Τέχνη
Γραμματική του Διονύσιου του Θράκα. Στο έργο αυτό όμως η
γραμματική έχει μια πολύ ευρύτερη σημασία από τη σημερινή και
ισοδυναμεί στην πραγματικότητα με αυτό που θα προσδιορίζαμε σήμερα
ως φιλολογία ή γραμματολογία, καθώς περιλαμβάνει και την έκδοση
και την ερμηνεία κειμένων και η γλωσσολογική μελέτη είναι απλώς ένα
κομμάτι της…Ο αττικισμός ως φαινόμενο ξεκίνησε από Έλληνες
λογίους και δασκάλους του 1ου αι. π.Χ. που πίστευαν –αδιαφορώντας για
τη φυσική εξέλιξη της ζωντανής καθομιλουμένης- ότι η ορθή γλώσσα
ήταν η Αττική και ότι η γλώσσα της εποχής τους, η Κοινή, ήταν γεμάτη
παραφθορές κάποιας πρότυπης γλωσσικής μορφής. Την άποψη αυτή
υιοθέτησαν εκτός από τους λόγιους και άλλοι μορφωμένοι, με
αποτέλεσμα να κυκλοφορήσουν και εγχειρίδια με οδηγίες για τη ορθή
χρήση της Αττικής. Ένα τέτοιο γράφτηκε και από τον γραμματικό
Φρύνιχο, λεξικογράφο της ρωμαϊκής εποχής.
55
7ος μ.Χ. Το υγρό πυρ (λεγόμενο επίσης πυρ θαλάσσιον, μηδικόν πυρ,
πολεμικόν πυρ, πυρ λαμπρόν, πυρ ρωμαϊκόν ή πυρ σκευαστόν) και
γνωστό στους Δυτικούς ως ελληνικό πυρ (Λατ. ignis graecus, αγγλ.
Greek fire) ήταν ένα εμπρηστικό όπλο της Βυζαντινής Αυτοκρατορίας,
που εφευρέθηκε τον ύστερο 7ο αιώνα μ.Χ.. Εκτοξευόμενο από
καταπέλτες, αλλά κυρίως από πεπιεσμένους σίφωνες, το υγρό πυρ είχε
την ιδιότητα να μην σβήνει στο νερό. Ως εκ τούτου, έπαιξε σημαντικό
ρόλο στην απόκρουση των αραβικών πολιορκιών της
Κωνσταντινούπολης, και σε αρκετές ναυτικές συμπλοκές με τους
Άραβες και τους Ρως. Περιβαλλόταν με άκρα μυστικότητα, με
αποτέλεσμα να αγνοούμε σήμερα την ακριβή σύστασή του. Το βυζαντινό
υγρό πυρ δεν πρέπει να συγχέεται με παρόμοιες εμπρηστικές ουσίες που
χρησιμοποίησαν οι Άραβες και άλλα κράτη, και που στη διεθνή
βιβλιογραφία συνήθως αναφέρονται συλλογικά ως «ελληνικό πυρ».
1896-Συγκρίνοντας εκείνη την πρώτη Ολυμπιάδα της Αθήνας του 1896

με τις πιο τελευταίες διοργανώσεις των Ολυμπιακών Αγώνων…
56
Το αρχαιότερο νόμισμα που διατίθενται σήμερα ανακαλύφθηκε το Εφέσου, μια

αρχαία ελληνική πόλη και ακμάζον εμπορικό κέντρο στις ακτές της Μικράς Ασίας. Το
1 / 6 στατήρ, εικονίζεται παρακάτω, είναι περισσότερο από 2.700 χρόνια,
καθιστώντας το ένα από τα πρώτα νομίσματα. Φτιαγμένο από ήλεκτρο, φυσικό
κράμα που συμβαίνουν από χρυσό και ασήμι, το νόμισμα προέρχεται από την
περιοχή της Λυδίας. Είχε ένα σχέδιο από τη μία πλευρά, μόνο λόγω της πρωτόγονης
μέθοδο κατασκευής.
Τα πρώτα νομίσματα κόπηκαν στις ελληνικές πόλεις της Ιωνίας τον 7ο αι. π.
57
ΝΕΕΣ ΠΗΓΕΣ ΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΝΙΚΕΣ-CD ROM-SITES.
Δεύτερη προσπάθεια , Απρίλιος 2001.
Επίσης ουσιαστική παρέμβαση με νέα στοιχεία από: Internet, Cd Rom

Encarta, Multipedia, Bookshelf 95, Oxford Dictionary, Enc. Britannica
Και κυρίως με τεκμηρίωση απο Thesaurus Lingua Graeca(όπου
παραπέμπω το αναφέρω σαν TLG) με αποσπάσματα αρχαίων
κλασσικών. Χρησιμοποίησα επίσης και βοηθήθηκα αφάνταστα απο τη
συγκέντρωση των 1.000 κλασσικών βιβλίων πού έχω σε Cd Rom, από
όπου πήρα αποσπάσματα με λεξεις με ελληνικές ρίζες. Ειδικά στο
Internet τα Sites που χρησιμοποίησα είναι :
Links
AltaVista - Ναυτεμπορική -Yahoo!- Lycos pro- - Live News- Μετάφραση
.
References Οδηγοί
Atlas Greek Index- Greek Explorer- Greek Indexer- Europe Online-
TradeWave Galaxy- Management and Technology Dictionary- ROGET'S
Thesaurus- Bridgeman Art ibrary -Financial Encyclopaedia -Webster
dictionary- World Flags- PC Webopaedia- Information Please-
Biographical Dictionary- Handbook of International Statistics -Microsoft
Encarta- Political Dictionary .
Computers References
Guide to Cyberspace- ILC Glossary of Internet Terms- pcOnline Internet
Services- Λεξικό για Computing- Λεξικό για Hackers- CompuWeb .
Internet providers Αθήνα
Acropolis Net- Add Information Systems- Ariadnet- Biz-Net
InfoServices- Cosmos ompuLink- Ermis On-Line- FastNet- Global
Technology -Groovy Net -Hellas On-Line-Internet Hellas- Link- Matrix-
MBN- NETcity -Netor- Powernet- TechLink- Y-net- IBM Ελλάς-
58
ΟΤΕnet- GreekNet- Αίας- HellasWeb.Com- DIAS- ATLASnet-

ENTERNET-ISTOS .
Θεσσαλονίκη
AlphaNet -Diavlos- ExpertNET- Hypernet-MEGAsys- OPENet- Pan-
Macedonian Network .
Εξωτερικό
Russian Research Centre Kurchatov- EuroNet- msn -Relcom
-CompuServe -Skynet- Telebyte- Eunet- Internet Providers -Promo.Net
-UltraNet -America Online -China Education & Research -ItalyNet .
Άλλη Ελλάδα
FORTHnet- HELIOS- HIWAY- Knossos BBS .
Πρακτορεία ειδήσεων
CNN- Deutsche Welle News- EBN -Europe Online- NewsPage- Reuters-
Αθηναϊκό Πρακτορείο Ειδήσεων -Υπουργείο Τύπου και ΜΜΕ-
Μακεδονικό Πρακτορείο- MSNBC- AFP Worldwide News Agency .
Πολιτική
Die Zeit- International Herald Tribune -Omnivore- SPIEGEL- TIME-
Washington Post -Καθημερινή- ΤΟ ΒΗΜΑ- Times Newspapers-Foreign
Affairs- Beijing Review Hurriyet -Le Monde .
Διάφορα
National Geographic- Pathfinder- Slate- AIR&SPACE -Αγγελιοφόρος.
Logistics
Warehousing Management- Inventory Reduction Report- Logistics
Management -
APICS .
Business
Business Week- Electronic Telegraph- Finance & Development-
Financial Times -Forbes -FORTUNE- The Economist - ΕΞΠΡΕΣ-
Ναυτεμπορική- Intelligence Online- Harvard Business Review- Δελτίο
Φορολογικής - Miller Publishing -Cyber Thesis -Knowledge Inc- Ernst &
Young LLP- Knowledge anagement .
Graphics
Iterated Systems- Asymetrix- Autodesk- Corel- Adobe- Macromedia-
QuickTime .
Βιβλίο- Συγγραφείς
Umberto Eco- Μακρυγιάννης- Νίκος Δήμου .
Συλλογές κειμένων
Eris Projec(προσωρινή διακοπή)t- Internet Classics Archive -Marx-
Engels Archive- Project Gutenberg, περίπου 2.000 τίτλοι βιβλίων-
Ηλεκτρονική Βίβλος(Με δυνατότητα έρευνας λέξη-λέξη) -Περσεύς
Project- Books On-Line -Μεσαιωνικά κείμενα -Ιστορία Οικονομικής
Σκέψης- HES Electronic Texts- Collected Works by Subject .Britannica
-Ε.ΚΕ.ΒΙ .
59
Εκδοτικοί οίκοι
Macmillan -McGraw-Hill -Oxford University Press- Prentice Hall
-Λιβάνης- Penguin- Microsoft Press- IDG Books- Σάκκουλας- Ωκεανίδα
Thomson- John Wiley -Gower -Addison Wesley Longman .
Βιβλιοπωλεία
Amazon books- Internet Bookshop- Opamp Catalog- ΚΛΕΙΩ
Βιβλιογραφικός Κόμβος -Dillons- Waterstone's -Barnes & Noble
-Bookpages- Bibliofind- Ελληνικό Βιβλίο-Παπασωτηρίου-Ιανός-
Blackwell's .
Βιβλιοθήκες
British Library -Consortium of University Research Libraries- Internet
Public Library -Online Computer Library Center- Virtual Library .
Χειρόγραφα
Renaissance Dante- ARTFL Project- Bodleian Library -Oxford
University- OxLIP .
Επιστήμες
Ιατρική -Whole Brain Atlas
Νομικά-Συνταγματικό Δίκαιο- LawNet- International Commercial
Law Ιστορία-History Net -MayaQuest '96- Πειρατεία- Χρήμα -Viking
Network- Mayan Culture -World Cultures- Επτά Θαύματα- ArchNet
-Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες- Μέγας Αλέξανδρος .
Χαρτογραφία
GIS Resource List- University of California Map Library- Zbigniew
Zwolinski's LOBE -PCL Map Collection -DeLorme- Ερατοσθένης
-MapQuest .
Πανεπιστήμια
City Liberal Studies- Harvard University- Lomonosov University-
London School of Economics- MIT- Swedish University of - ΑΠΘ .
Οικονομικά
Logistics Glossary- Electronic Commerce World Institute- Virtual
Logistics Directory -Catalyst WMS -BusinessOpenLearningArchive-
WebEc- Internal Audit WWW -Virtual Library Logistics -Logistics
World- Comparative Chronology of Money .
Αστρονομία
NASA- Royal Observatory -Cambridge astronomy -Royal Greenwich
Observatory -
European Southern Observatory- Time & Again - Solar System- SETI
Institute -Διαστημικό Τηλεσκόπιο Hubble.
Θρησκείες
Αγιον Όρος- Οικουμενικό Πατριαρχείο- Κατακόμβες Ρώμης- Religion
Virtual Library- Εκκλησία Ελλάδος .
Search Engines
Πρόσωπα
60
All 4 One -Excite- HotBot- i-Explorer-AltaVista- Internet Sleuth -Lycos

pro -Magellan Internet Directory- Net Locator -Open Text- Starting Poin-
tWebCrawler -Yahoo!- Ultraseek- Phantis .
Οργανισμοί-Ινστιτούτα
Οργανώσεις-Greenpeace- Society of Competitive Intelligence
Professional -Society of Logistics Engineers - Federalist Society
-Association for the Monetary Union of Europe .
Ινστιτούτα
Adam Smith Institute- Heritage Foundation- Institute of Economic
Affairs- RAND- Cato Institute-NIRA- World Economic Forum- Institute
of Logistics .
Οργανισμοί
World Bank -Federal Reserve System- OECD- United Nations -CORDIS.
Πολιτική
Ασία
China Home Page .
Ευρώπη
CCTA Government Information Service -EUROPA- IDA- Ρωσική
κυβέρνηση -Υπουργείο Εξωτερικών Γαλλίας- Υπουργείο Εξωτερικών
Γερμανίας- Downing Street
Πολιτισμός
Ζωγραφική
Capella Sistina-(Art)^n Laboratory -WebMuseum -Σουρεαλισμός
-ArtsEdNet .
Resources
Οδηγός Μουσείων και Αρχαίων Κειμένων- World Wide Arts Resources-
Mysterious Places .
Μουσεία
Πηγές. Πρώτον...Απο το Cd Rom Hutchinson, επίσης Concise,

Multipedia enc. 1995.
85. Dion Cassius AD 150–235. Roman historian. He wrote, in Greek, a

Roman History in 80 books (of which 26 survive), covering the period
from the founding of the city to AD 229, including the only surviving
account of the invasion of Britain by Claudius 43 BC.
86. drama (Greek ‘action’). in theatre, any play composed to be

performed by actors for an audience. The term is also used collectively
to group plays into Historical or stylistic periods- for example, Greek
61
drama, Restoration drama- as well as referring to the whole body of

work written by a dramatist for performance. Drama is distinct from
literature in that it is a performing art open to infinite interpretation, the
product not merely of the dramatist but also of the collaboration of
director, designer, actors, and technical staff. See also comedy, tragedy,
mime, and pantomime.
90. dysprosium (Greek dusprositos ‘difficult to get near’) silver-white,

metallic element of the lanthanide series, symbol Dy, atomic number 66,
relative atomic mass 162.50. It is among the most magnetic of all known
substances and has a great capacity to absorb neutrons. It was discovered
1886 by French chemist Paul Lecoq de Boisbaudran (1838-1912).
95. Empire style French decorative arts style prevalent during the rule of
the emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (1804-14). A late form of Neo-
Classicism, it featured motifs drawn from ancient Egyptian as well as
Greek and Roman art. Dark woods and draperies were also frequently
used. The influence of the style extended through Europe and North
America.
96. empiricism. (Greek empeiria ‘experience’ or ‘experiment’)

in philosophy, the belief that all knowledge is ultimately derived from
sense experience. It is suspicious of metaphysical schemes based on a
priori propositions, which are claimed to be true irrespective of
experience. It is frequently contrasted with rationalism. Empiricism
developed in the 17th and early 18th centuries through the work of John
Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume, traditionally known as the
British empiricist school.
97. Endymion in Greek mythology, a beautiful young man loved by

Selene, the Moon goddess. He was granted eternal sleep in order to
remain forever young. Keats’s poem Endymion 1818 is an allegory of
searching for perfection.
98. epic narrative poem or cycle of poems dealing with some great deed-
often the founding of a nation or the forging of national unity- and often
using religious or cosmoLogical themes. The two major epic poems in
the Western tradition are The Iliad and The Odyssey, attributed to Homer,
and which were probably intended to be chanted in sections at feasts.
Greek and later criticism, which considered the Homeric epic the
highest form of poetry, produced the genre of secondary epic- such as the
Aeneid of Virgil, Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, and Milton’s Paradise
Lost- which attempted to emulate Homer, often for a patron or a Political
62
cause. The term is also applied to narrative poems of other traditions: the
Anglo- Saxon Beowulf and the Finnish Kalevala; in India the Ramayana
and Mahabharata; and the Babylonian Gilgamesh. All of these evolved in
different societies to suit similar social needs and used similar literary
techniques.
99. Erasmus Desiderius c. 1466–1536 Dutch scholar and leading

humanist of the Renaissance era, who taught and studied all over Europe
and was a prolific writer. His pioneer translation of the Greek New
Testament (with parallel Latin text) 1516 exposed the Vulgate as a
second-hand document. Although opposed to dogmatism and abuse of
church power, he remained impartial during Martin Luther's conflict with
the pope. Erasmus was born in Rotterdam, and as a youth he was a monk
in an Augustinian monastery near Gouda. After becoming a priest, he
went to study in Paris 1495. He paid the first of a number of visits to
England 1499, where he met the physician Thomas Linacre, the
Politician Thomas More, and the Bible interpreter John Colet, and for a
time was professor of divinity and Greek at Cambridge University.
He also edited the wr… of St Jerome and the early Christian authorities,
and published Encomium Moriae/The Praise of Folly 1511 (a satire on
church and society that quickly became an international bestseller) and
Colloquia (dialogues on contemporary subjects) 1519.
101. Eros in Greek mythology, boy-god of love, traditionally armed with

bow and arrows. He was the son of Aphrodite, and fell in love with
Psyche. He is identified with the Roman Cupid.
102. ethics area of philosophy concerned with human values, which

studies the meanings of moral terms and theories of conduct and
goodness; also called moral philosophy. It is One of the three main
branches of contemporary philosophy. The study of ethics began in
ancient India and China, and began to be systematized by the Greek
philosopher Socrates in the 5th century BC. Plato’s Republic is an
exposition of the nature of justice or righteousness, and ethical theory
was advanced by Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and similar writings.
The Cyrenaics, Epicureans, and Stoics advanced theories that have been
many times revived. The ‘Christian ethic’ is mainly a combination of
New Testament moral teaching with ideas drawn from Plato and
Aristotle, combining hedonism and rationalism. Medieval scholasticism
saw God’s will as the ethical standard but tempered it with Aristotelian
ethics. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Thomas Hobbes and David Hume
were notable British ethical philosophers. One of the greatest
contributors to ethical theory was the German Immanuel Kant, an
63
idealist, with his ‘categorical imperative’ (the obligation to obey absolute

moral law), since conscience is to ethics as intelligence is to Logic.
The utilitarian ethic (for the good of society rather than the individual)
was expounded in the UK during the 18th and 19th centuries by Jeremy
Bentham, J S Mill, and Herbert Spencer, and opposed by F H Bradley and
T H Green, who linked ethics with metaphysics and emphasized the place
of the individual in organized society. Utilitarianism has become the
ostensible basis for law, Politics, commerce, and social ethics, while
conscience guides the individual. Ethicists of the 20th century include G
E Moore and C D Broad in the UK and John Dewey in the USA.
Medical ethics concerns the provision of guidelines for doctors.
103. Ethnicity (from Greek Ethnos ‘a people’) people's own sense of

cultural identity; a social term that overlaps with such concepts as race,
nation, class, and religion. Social scientists use the term Ethnic group to
refer to groups or societies who feel a common sense of identity, often
based on a traditional shared culture, language, religion, and customs. It
may or may not include common territory, skin colour, or common
descent. The USA, for example, is often described as a multi-Ethnic
society because many members would describe themselves as members
of an Ethnic group (Jewish, black, or Irish, for example) as well as their
national one (American).
104. Eucharist chief Christian sacrament, in which bread is eaten and

wine drunk in memory of the death of Jesus. Other names for it are the
Lord’s Supper, Holy Communion, and (among Roman Catholics, who
believe that the bread and wine are transubstantiated, that is, converted to
the body and blood of Christ) the Mass. The doctrine of transubstantiation
was rejected by Protestant churches during the Reformation.
The word comes from the Greek for ‘thanksgiving’, and refers to the
statement in the Gospel narrative that Jesus gave thanks over the bread
and the cup. In Britain, members of the Church of England are required to
participate in the Eucharist at least three times a year, with Easter as one.
The service is not part of the worship of Quakers or the Salvation Army.
105. eugenics (Greek eugenes ‘well-born’) study of ways in which the

physical and mental characteristics of the human race may be improved.
The eugenic principle was abused by the Nazi Party in Germany during
the 1930s and early 1940s to justify the attempted extermination of entire
social and Ethnic groups and the establishment of selective breeding
programmes. Modern eugenics is concerned mainly with the elimination
of genetic disease. The term was coined by Francis Galton in 1883, and
the concept was Originally developed in the late 19th century with a
64
view to improving human intelligence and behaviour. In 1986 Singapore

became the first democratic country to adopt an openly eugenic policy
by guaranteeing pay increases to female university graduates when they
give birth to a child, while offering grants towards house purchases for
nongraduate married women on condition that they are sterilized after the
First or second child.
106. eunuch (Greek eunoukhos ‘one in charge of a bed’) castrated man.

Originally eunuchs were bedchamber attendants in harems in the East,
but as they were usually castrated to keep them from taking too great an
interest in their charges, the term became applied more generally. In
China, eunuchs were employed within the imperial harem from some
4,000 years ago and by medieval times wielded considerable Political
power. Eunuchs often filled high offices of state in India and Persia.
Italian castrati were singers castrated as boys to preserve their soprano
voices, a practice that ended with the accession of Pope Leo XIII 1878.
107. euphemism figure of speech whose name in Greek means ‘speaking
well (of something)’. To speak or write euphemistically is to use a
milder, more polite, less direct, or even less honest expression rather than
one that is considered too blunt, vulgar, direct, or revealing.
Thus, ‘he passed away’ is used in place of he died; ‘sleep with someone’
substitutes for have sex with someone; and ‘liquidate the opposition’ has
a softer impact than kill one’s enemies.
108. Europa in Greek mythology, the daughter of the king of Tyre,

carried off by Zeus (in the form of a bull); she personifies the continent of
Europe.
109Farsi or Persian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the

Indo- European family, and the official language of Iran (formerly
Persia). It is also spoken in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Tajikistan.
Farsi is the language of the province of Fars (Persia proper).
It is written in Arabic script, from right to left, and has a large mixture of
Arabic religious, philosophical, and technical vocabulary.
Many Persian words have entered English through other languages. For
example, paradise comes Originally from the Old Persian word
pairidaeza for park or pleasure ground, but passed through Greek
paradeisos, Latin paradisus and French paradis before reaching English.
110. Fisher John, St c. 1469–1535 English cleric, created bishop of
Rochester 1504. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the revival in the
study of Greek, and a friend of the humanists Thomas More and
Desiderius Erasmus. In 1535 he was tried on a charge of denying the
royal supremacy of Henry VIII and beheaded.
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111. forum (Latin ‘market’) in an ancient Roman town, the meeting

place and market, like the Greek agora. At Rome the Forum Romanum
contained the Senate House, the public speaking platform, covered halls
for trading, temples of Saturn, Concord, and the Divine Augustus, and
memorial arches. Later constructions included the Forum of Caesar
(temple of Venus), the Forum of Augustus (temple of Mars), and the
colonnaded Forum of Trajan, containing Trajan’s Column.
112. Gaia or Ge in Greek mythology, the goddess of the Earth. She

sprang from primordial Chaos and herself produced Uranus, by whom
she was the mother of the Cyclopes and Titans.
113. Galen c. 130–c. 200 Greek physician whose ideas dominated

Western medicine for almost 1,500 years. Central to his thinking were
the theories of humours and the threefold circulation of the blood. He
remained the highest medical authority until Andreas Vesalius and
William Harvey exposed the fundamental errors of his system.
Galen was born in Pergamum in Asia Minor. He attended the Roman
emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Although he made relatively few
discoveries and relied heavily on the teachings of Hippocrates, he wrote a
large number of books, more than 100 of which are known.
114. gamma third letter (G, g) of Greek alphabet. gamma globulin, any
of a group of globulins, including most antibodies, concerned with
immunity. gamma ray, kind of radioactive ray resembling X-rays.
gammacism, n. stuttering over g and k. gammadion, gammation, n. (pl.
-dia,-tia,) cross, as swastika, formed of four capital gammas.
115. Geometry branch of mathematics concerned with the properties of

space, usually in terms of plane (two-dimensional) and solid (three-
dimensional) figures. The subject is usually divided into pure Geometry,
which embraces roughly the plane and solid Geometry dealt with in
Euclid’s Elements, and analytical or coordinate Geometry, in which
problems are solved using algebraic methods. A third, quite distinct, type
includes the non-Euclidean geometries.
106. Gnosticism esoteric cult of divine knowledge (a synthesis of

Christianity, Greek philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, and the mystery
cults of the Mediterranean), which flourished during the 2nd and 3rd
centuries and was a rival to, and influence on, early Christianity. The
medieval French Cathar heresy and the modern Mandean sect (in S Iraq)
descend from Gnosticism.
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107. God the concept of a supreme being, a unique creative entity, basic
to several monotheistic religions (for example Judaism, Christianity,
Islam); in many polytheistic cultures (for example Norse, Roman,
Greek), the term ‘god’ refers to a supernatural being who personifies the
force behind an aspect of life (for example Neptune, Roman god of the
sea). Since the 17th century, advances in science and the belief that the
only valid statements were those verifiable by the senses have had a
complex influence on the belief in God. (See also monotheism,
polytheism, deism, theism, and pantheism.)
108. Gorgon in Greek mythology, any of three sisters, Stheno, Euryale,

and Medusa, who had wings, claws, enormous teeth, and snakes for hair.
Medusa, the only one who was mortal, was killed by Perseus, but even in
death her head was still so frightful that it turned the onlooker to stone.
109. government any system whereby Political authority is exercised.
Modern systems of government distinguish between liberal democracies,
totalitarian (one-party) states, and autocracies (authoritarian, relying on
force rather than ideology). The Greek philosopher Aristotle was the
first to attempt a systematic classification of governments. His main
distinctions were between government by one person, by few, and by
many (monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy), although the
characteristics of each may vary between states and each may
degenerate into tyranny (rule by an oppressive elite in the case of
oligarchy or by the mob in the case of democracy).
The French philosopher Montesquieu distinguished between
constitutional governments- whether monarchies or republics- which
operated under various legal and other constraints, and despotism, which
was not constrained in this way. Many of the words used (dictatorship,
tyranny, totalitarian, democratic) have acquired negative or positive
connotations that make it difficult to use them objectively. The term
liberal democracy was coined to distinguish Western types of
democracy from the many other Political systems that claimed to be
democratic. Its principal characteristics are the existence of more than
one Political party, open processes of government and Political debate,
and a separation of powers.
110. grammar (Greek grammatike tekhne ‘art of letters’) the rules for
combining words into phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs. The
standardizing impact of print has meant that spoken or colloquial
language is often perceived as less grammatical than written language,
but all forms of a language, standard or otherwise, have their own
grammatical systems. People often acquire several overlapping
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grammatical systems within one language; for example, a formal system

for writing and standard communication and a less formal system for
everyday and peer- group communication. Originally ‘grammar’ was an
analytical approach to writing, intended to improve the understanding and
the skills of scribes, philosophers, and writers. When compared with
Latin, English has been widely regarded as having less grammar or at
least a simpler grammar; it would be truer, however, to say that English
and Latin have different grammars, each complex in its own way. In
Linguistics (the contemporary study of language) grammar, or syntax,
refers to the arrangement of the elements in a language for the purposes
of acceptable communication in speech, writing, and print. All forms of a
language, standard or otherwise, have their grammars or grammatical
systems, which children acquire through use; a child may acquire several
overlapping systems within one language (especially a nonstandard form
for everyday life and a standard form linked with writing, school, and
national life). Not even the most comprehensive grammar book (or
grammar) of a language like English, French, Arabic, or Japanese
completely covers or fixes the implicit grammatical system that people
use in their daily lives. The rules and tendencies of natural grammar
operate largely in nonconscious ways but can, for many social and
professional purposes, be studied and developed for conscious as well as
inherent skills. See also parts of speech. Recent theories of the way
language functions include phrase structure grammar, transformational
grammar, and case grammar.
111. Greek art the sculpture, mosaic, and crafts of ancient Greece (no
large- scale painting survives). It is usually divided into three periods:
Archaic (late 8th century-480 BC), showing Egyptian influence;
Classical (480-323 BC), characterized by dignified and eloquent
realism; and Hellenistic (323-27 BC), more exuberant or dramatic.
Sculptures of human figures dominate all periods, and vase painting was
a focus for artistic development for many centuries. Archaic period
Statues of naked standing men (kouroi) and draped females (korai) show
an Egyptian influence in their rigid frontality. By about 500 BC the
figure was allowed to relax its weight on to one leg. Subjects were
usually depicted smiling. Classical period Expressions assumed a
dignified serenity. Further movement was introduced in new poses, such
as in Myron’s bronze Diskobolus/The Discus Thrower 460-50 BC, and
in the rhythmic Parthenon reliefs of riders and horses supervised by
Phidias. Polykleitos’ sculpture Doryphoros/The Spear Carrier 450-440
BC was of such harmony and poise that it set a standard for beautiful
proportions. Praxiteles introduced the female nude into the sculptural
repertory with the graceful Aphrodite of Cnidus about 350 BC. It was
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easier to express movement in bronze, hollow-cast by the lost-wax

method, but relatively few bronze sculptures survive, and many are
known only through Roman copies in marble. Hellenistic period
Sculptures such as the Winged Victory of Samothrace with its dramatic
drapery, and the tortured Laocoφn explored the effects of movement and
deeply felt emotion. vase painting Artists worked as both potters and
painters until the 5th century BC, and the works they signed were
exported throughout the empire. Made in several standard shapes and
sizes, the pots served as functional containers for wine, water, and oil.
The first decoration took the form of simple lines and circles, out of
which the Geometric style emerged near Athens in the 10th century BC.
It consisted of precisely drawn patterns, such as the key meander.
Gradually the bands of decoration multiplied and the human figure,
geometrically stylized, was added. About 700 BC the potters of Corinth
invented the Black Figure technique in which unglazed red clay was
painted in black with mythoLogical scenes and battles in a narrative
frieze. About 530 BC Athenian potters reversed the process and
developed the more sophisticated Red Figure pottery, which allowed for
more detailed and elaborate painting of the figures in red against a black
background. Their style grew increasingly naturalistic, showing lively
scenes from daily life. The finest examples date from the mid-6th to the
mid-5th century BC in Athens. Later painters tried to follow major art
trends and represent spatial depth, dissipating the unique quality of their
fine linear technique.
112. Hades- in Greek mythology, the underworld where spirits went

after death, usually depicted as a cavern or pit underneath the Earth, the
entrance of which was guarded by the three-headed dog Cerberus. It was
presided over by the god Pluto or Hades (Roman Dis). Pluto was the
brother of Zeus and married Persephone, daughter of Demeter and Zeus.
Tartarus was the section where the wicked were punished, for example,
Tantalus.
113. hapax legomenon- (Greek)-(pl.-legomena) word or phrase of which

there is only one recorded use.
114. Hawthorne Nathaniel 1804–1864 US writer. He was the author of

American literature’s first great Classic novel, The Scarlet Letter 1850.
Set in 17th-century Puritan Boston, it tells the powerful allegorical story
of a ‘fallen woman’ and her daughter who are judged guilty according to
men’s, not nature’s laws. He wrote three other novels, including The
House of the Seven Gables 1851, and many short stories, a form he was
instrumental in developing, including Tanglewood Tales 1853, Classic
69
Greek legends retold for children. Born in Salem, Massachusetts,

Hawthorne graduated from Bowdoin College and worked as a customs
official. He was the US consul 1853-57 in Liverpool, England, and then
lived in Italy until 1860. Hawthorne's fiction is marked by its haunting
symbolism and its exploration of guilt, sin, and other complex moral and
psychoLogical issues. It had a profound effect on writers of his own time,
notably his friend Herman Melville, and continues to influence writers.
116. hegemony (Greek hegemonia ‘authority’) Political dominance of

one power over others in a group in which all are supposedly equal. The
term was first used for the dominance of Athens over the other Greek
city states, later applied to Prussia within Germany, and, in more recent
times, to the USA and the USSR with regard to the rest of the world.
117. helium (Greek helios ‘Sun’) colourless, odourless, gaseous,

nonmetallic element, symbol He, atomic number 2, relative atomic mass
4.0026. It is grouped with the inert gases, is nonreactive, and forms no
compounds. It is the second-most abundant element (after hydrogen) in
the universe, and has the lowest boiling (-268.9°C/-452°F) and melting
points (-272.2°C/-458°F) of all the elements.
118. hell in various religions, a place of posthumous punishment. In

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, hell is a transitory stage in the
progress of the soul, but in Christianity and Islam it is eternal (purgatory
is transitory). Judaism does not postulate such punishment.
In the Bible, the word ‘hell’ is used to translate Hebrew and Greek
words all meaning ‘the place of departed spirits, the abode of the dead’.
In medieval Christian theology, hell is the place where unrepentant
sinners suffer the torments of the damned, but the 20th-century tendency
has been to regard hell as a state of damnation (that is, everlasting
banishment from the sight of God) rather than a place.
119. Helmont Jean Baptiste van 1577–1644 Belgian doctor who was the
first to realize that there are gases other than air, and claimed to have
coined the word ‘gas’ (from Greek chαos).
120. heresy (Greek hairesis ‘parties’ of believers) doctrine opposed to

orthodox belief, especially in religion. Those holding ideas considered
heretical by the Christian church have included Gnostics, Arians,
Pelagians, Montanists, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, and Anabaptists.
121. hierodule ancient Greek temple slave. hierodulic, adj.

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122. hieroglyphic Egyptian writing system of the mid-4th millennium

BC-3rd century AD, which combines picture signs with those indicating
letters. The direction of writing is normally from right to left, the signs
facing the beginning of the line. It was deciphered 1822 by the French
Egyptologist J F Champollion (1790-1832) with the aid of the Rosetta
Stone, which has the same inscription carved in hieroglyphic, demotic,
and Greek.
123. hippopotamus (Greek ‘river horse’) large herbivorous, even-toed

hoofed mammal of the family Hippopotamidae. The common
hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius is found in Africa. It averages
over 4 m/13 ft long, 1.5 m/5 ft high, weighs about 4,500 kg/5 tons, and
has a brown or slate-grey skin. It is an endangered species. A social and
gregarious animal, the hippopotamus spends the day wallowing in rivers
or waterholes, only emerging at night to graze. The pygmy hippopotamus
Choeropsis liberiensis inhabits W Africa. To the ancient Egyptians, the
hippopotamus symbolized both evil and female fertility.
124. History record of the events of human societies. The earliest

surviving Historical records are the inscriptions denoting the
achievements of Egyptian and Babylonian kings. As a literary form in the
Western world, Historical writing or historiography began with the
Greek Herodotus in the 5th century BC, who was first to pass beyond
the limits of a purely national outlook. Contemporary historians make
extensive use of statistics, population figures, and primary records to
justify Historical arguments. A generation later, Thucydides brought to
History a strong sense of the Political and military ambitions of his
native Athens. His close account of the Peloponnesian War was
continued by Xenophon. Later Greek History and Roman History
tended towards rhetoric; Sallust tried to recreate the style of
Thucydides, but Livy wrote an Augustan History of his city and its
conquests, while Tacitus expressed his cynicism about the imperial
dynasty. ..This critical approach continued into the 17th century but the
18th century Enlightenment disposed of the attempt to explain History in
theoLogical terms, and an interpretive masterpiece was produced by
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 1776-88.
An attempt to formulate a Historical method and a philosophy of
History, that of the Italian Giovanni Vico, remained almost unknown
until the 19th century. Romanticism left its mark on 19th- century
Historical writing in the tendency to exalt the contribution of the
individual ‘hero’, and in the introduction of a more colourful and
dramatic style and treatment, variously illustrated in the works of the
French historian Jules Michelet (1798-1874), and the British writers
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Carlyle and Macaulay. During the 20th century the study of History has
been revolutionized, partly through the contributions of other disciplines,
such as the sciences and anthropology. The deciphering of the Egyptian
and Babylonian inscriptions was of great importance. Researchers and
archaeologists have traced developments in preHistory, and have
revealed forgotten civilizations such as that of Crete. AnthropoLogical
studies of primitive society and religion, which began with James
Frazer’s Golden Bough 1890, have attempted to analyse the bases of later
forms of social organization and belief. The changes brought about by the
Industrial Revolution and the accompanying perception of economics as
a science forced historians to turn their attention to economic questions.
Marx’s attempt to find in economic development the most significant,
although not the only, determining factor in social change, has
influenced many historians. History from the point of view of ordinary
people is now recognized as an important element in Historical study.
Associated with this is the collection of spoken records known as oral
History. A comparative study of civilizations is offered in A J Toynbee’s
Study of History 1934-54, and on a smaller scale by J M Roberts’s
History of the World 1992. Contemporary historians make a distinction
between Historical evidence or records, Historical writing, and
Historical method or approaches to the study of History. The study of
Historical method is also known as historiography.
125. Λεξικό της νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας Με σχόλια για τη σωστή

χρήση των λέξεων: Ερμηνευτικό, ετυμολογικό, ορθογραφικό,
συνωνύμων-αντιθέτων, κύριων ονομάτων, επιστημονικών όρων,
ακρωνυμίων ΜΠΑΜΠΙΝΙΩΤΗΣ, ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΣ ΕΚΔΟΣΕΙΣ ΚΕΝΤΡΟ
ΛΕΞΙΚΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ.
126. Hopkins Gerard Manley 1844–1889 English poet and Jesuit priest.
His work, which is marked by its Originality of diction and rhythm and
includes ‘The Wreck of the Deutschland’ and ‘The Windhover’, was
published posthumously 1918 by Robert Bridges. His poetry is
profoundly religious and records his struggle to gain faith and peace, but
also shows freshness of feeling and delight in nature. His employment of
‘sprung rhythm’ (combination of traditional regularity of stresses with
varying numbers of syllables in each line) greatly influenced later 20th-
century poetry. Hopkins converted to Roman Catholicism 1866 and in
1868 began training as a Jesuit. He was ordained 1877 and taught Greek
and Latin at University College, Dublin, 1884-89.
127. humanism belief in the high potential of human nature rather than in
religious or transcendental values. Humanism culminated as a cultural
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and literary force in 16th-century Renaissance Europe in line with the

period's enthusiasm for Classical literature and art, growing
individualism, and the ideal of the all- round male who should be
statesman and poet, scholar and warrior. Erasmus is a great exemplar of
Renaissance humanism. Renaissance humanism originated in the literary
studies undertaken in the 13th and 14th centuries by such men as
Petrarch. It gained momentum with the scholarly study of literary texts
and, as a result, the rediscovery of the great body of ancient Greek
literature for the West.
128. hydrangea any flowering shrub of the genus Hydrangea of the

saxifrage family Hydrangeaceae, native to Japan. Cultivated varieties of
Hydrangea macrophylla normally produce round heads of pink flowers,
but these may be blue if certain chemicals, such as alum or iron, are in the
soil. The name is from the Greek for ‘water vessel’, after the cuplike
seed capsules.
129. hydrogen-(Greek hydro + gen ‘water generator’)colourless,

odourless, gaseous, nonmetallic element, symbol H, atomic number 1,
relative atomic mass 1.00797.
130. hymn song in praise of a deity. Examples include Ikhnaton’s hymn

to the Aton in ancient Egypt, the ancient Greek Orphic hymns, Old
Testament psalms, extracts from the New Testament (such as the ‘Ave
Maria’), and hymns by the British writers John Bunyan (‘Who would true
valour see’) and Charles Wesley (‘Hark the herald angels sing’). The
earliest sources of modern hymn melodies can be traced to the 11th and
12th centuries, and the earliest polyphonic settings date from the late 14th
century. Gospel music and carols are forms of Christian hymn singing.
Other Christian hymn writers include Reginald Heber (1783-1826)
(‘From Greenland’s icy mountains’), Henry Francis Lyte (1793-1847)
(‘Abide with me’), John S B Monsell (1811-1875) (‘Fight the good
fight’), and Sabine Baring- Gould (1834-1924) (‘Onward Christian
soldiers’). William Blake’s poem ‘Jerusalem’ was set to music by Hubert
Parry. Vaughan Williams edited the English Hymnal 1906, writing new
hymns as well as giving new arrangements to many existing ones. Less
conventional is Benjamin Britten’s ‘Hymn to St Cecilia’ 1942.
131. icon in the Greek or Eastern Orthodox church, a representation of

Jesus, Mary, an angel, or a saint, in painting, low relief, or mosaic. The
painted icons were traditionally done on wood. After the 17th century and
mainly in Russia, a riza, or gold and silver covering that leaves only the
73
face and hands visible (and may be adorned with jewels presented by the
faithful in thanksgiving), was often added as protection.
Icons were regarded as holy objects, based on the doctrine that God
became visible through Christ. Icon painting originated in the Byzantine
Empire, but many examples were destroyed by the iconoclasts in the 8th
and 9th centuries. The Byzantine style of painting predominated in the
Mediterranean region and in Russia until the 12th century, when Russian,
Greek, and other schools developed. Notable among them was the
Russian Novgorod school, inspired by the work of the Byzantine refugee
Theophanes the Greek. Andrei Rublev is the outstanding Russian icon
painter.
132. iconoclast-(Greek ‘image-breaker’) literally, a person who attacks

religious images, Originally in obedience to the injunction of the Second
Commandment not to worship ‘graven images’. Under the influence of
Islam and Judaism, an iconoclastic movement calling for the destruction
of religious images developed in the Byzantine Empire, and was
endorsed by the Emperor Leo III in 726. Fierce persecution of those who
made and venerated icons followed, until iconoclasm was declared a
heresy in the 9th century. The same name was applied to those opposing
the use of images at the Reformation, when there was much destruction in
churches. Figuratively, the term is used for a person who attacks
established ideals or principles.
133. Iliad Greek epic poem, product of an oral tradition; it was possibly
written down by 700 BC and is attributed to Homer. The title is derived
from Ilion, the Greek name for Troy. Its subject is the wrath of the
Greek hero Achilles at the loss of his concubine Briseis, and at the death
of his friend Patroclus, during the Greek siege of Troy.
The poems ends with the death of the Trojan hero Hector at the hands of
Achilles.
134. Indo-European languages family of languages that includes some

of the world's major Classical languages (Sanskrit and Pali in India,
Zend Avestan in Iran, Greek and Latin in Europe), as well as several of
the most widely spoken languages (English worldwide; Spanish in
Iberia, Latin America, and elsewhere; and the Hindi group of languages
in N India). Indo-European languages were once located only along a
geographical band from India through Iran into NW Asia, E Europe, the
northern Mediterranean lands, N and W Europe and the British Isles.
134. When first discussed and described in the 19th century, this family
was known as the Aryan and then the Indo-Germanic language family.
Because of unwelcome associations with the Nazi idea of ‘Aryan’ racial
74
purity and superiority, both titles have been abandoned by scholars in

favour of the neutral ‘Indo-European’. In general terms, many Indo-
European languages (such as English, French, and Hindi) have tended to
evolve from the highly inflected to a more open or analytic grammatical
style that does not greatly depend on complex grammatical endings to…
135. iodine (Greek iodes ‘violet’) greyish-black nonmetallic element,

symbol I, atomic number 53, relative atomic mass 126.9044. It is a
member of the halogen group. Its crystals give off, when heated, a violet
vapour with an irritating odour resembling that of chlorine. It only occurs
in combination with other elements. Its salts are known as iodides, which
are found in sea water.
136. irony literary technique that achieves the effect of ‘saying one thing
and meaning another’ through the use of humour or mild sarcasm. It can
be traced through all periods of literature, from Classical Greek and
Roman epics and dramas to the good-humoured and subtle irony of
Chaucer to the 20th-century writer’s method for dealing with nihilism
and despair, as in Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot. The Greek
philosopher Plato used irony in his dialogues, in which Socrates elicits
truth through a pretence of naivety. Sophocles’ use of dramatic irony also
has a high seriousness, as in Oedipus Rex, where Oedipus prays for the
discovery and punishment of the city’s polluter, little knowing that it is
himself. Eighteenth-century scepticism provided a natural environment
for irony, with Jonathan Swift using the device as a powerful weapon in
Gulliver’s Travels and elsewhere.
137. kleptomania (Greek kleptes ‘thief’) behavioural disorder

characterized by an overpowering desire to possess articles for which
one has no need. In kleptomania, as opposed to ordinary theft, there is no
obvious need or use for what is stolen and sometimes the sufferer has no
memory of the theft.
138. krypton (Greek kryptos ‘hidden’) colourless, odourless, gaseous,

nonmetallic element, symbol Kr, atomic number 36, relative atomic mass
83.80. It is grouped with the inert gases and was long believed not to
enter into reactions, but it is now known to combine with fluorine under
certain conditions; it remains inert to all other reagents. It is present in
very small quantities in the air (about 114 parts per million). It is used
chiefly in fluorescent lamps, lasers, and gas-filled electronic valves.
Krypton was discovered 1898 in the residue from liquid air by British
chemists William Ramsay and Morris Travers; the name refers to their
difficulty in isoLating it.
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139. Labyrinth in Greek legend, the maze designed by the Athenian

artisan Daedalus at Knossos in Crete for King Minos, as a home for the
Minotaur- a monster, half man and half bull. After killing the Minotaur,
Theseus, the prince of Athens, was guided out of the Labyrinth by a
thread given to him by the king's daughter, Ariadne.
140. lanthanum (Greek lanthanein ‘to be hidden’) soft, silvery, ductile

and malleable, metallic element, symbol La, atomic number 57, relative
atomic mass 138.91, the first of the lanthanide series. It is used in making
alloys. It was named 1839 by Swedish chemist Carl Mosander (1797-
1858).
141. lecithin lipid (fat), containing nitrogen and phosphorus, that forms a
vital part of the cell membranes of plant and animal cells. The name is
from the Greek lekithos ‘egg yolk’, eggs being a major source of lecithin.
142. lesbianism homosexuality (sexual attraction to one's own sex)
between women, so called from the Greek island of Lesbos (now
Lesvos), the home of Sappho the poet and her followers to whom the
behaviour was attributed.
143. Lethe in Greek mythology, a river of the underworld whose waters,

when drunk, brought forgetfulness of the past.
144. literary criticism establishment of principles governing literary

composition, and the assessment and interpretation of literary works.
Contemporary criticism offers analyses of literary works from
structuralist, semioLogical, feminist, Marxist, and psychoanalytical
perspectives, whereas earlier criticism tended to deal with moral or
Political ideas, or with a literary work as a formal object independent of
its creator. The earliest systematic literary criticism was the Poetics of
Aristotle; a later Greek critic was the author of the treatise On the
Sublime, usually attributed to Longinus. Horace and Quintilian were
influential Latin critics. The Italian Renaissance introduced humanist
criticism, and the revival of Classical scholarship exalted the authority of
Aristotle and Horace. Like literature itself, European criticism then
applied Neo-Classical, Romantic, and modern approaches.
145. magnesium lightweight, very ductile and malleable, silver-white,

metallic element, symbol Mg, atomic number 12, relative atomic mass
24.305. It is One of the alkaline-earth metals, and the lightest of the
commonly used metals. Magnesium silicate, carbonate, and chloride are
widely distributed in nature. The metal is used in alloys and flash
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photography..It was named after the ancient Greek city of Magnesia,

near where it was first found. It was First recognized as an element by
Scottish chemist Joseph Black 1755 and discovered in its oxide by
English chemist Humphry Davy 1808. Pure magnesium was isolated
1828 by French chemist Antoine-Alexandre-Brutus Bussy.
146. marsupial (Greek marsupion ‘little purse’) mammal in which the

female has a pouch where she carries her young (born tiny and immature)
for a considerable time after birth. Marsupials include omnivorous,
herbivorous, and carnivorous species, among them the kangaroo,
wombat, opossum, phalanger, bandicoot, dasyure, and wallaby.
The marsupial anteater Myrmecobius has no pouch.
147. martyr (Greek ‘witness’) one who voluntarily suffers death for
refusing to renounce a religious faith. The first recorded Christian
martyr was St Stephen, who was killed in Jerusalem shortly after Jesus'
alleged ascension to heaven.
148. materialism philosophical theory that there is nothing in existence

over and above matter and matter in motion. Such a theory excludes the
possibility of deities. It also sees mind as an attribute of the physical,
denying idealist theories that see mind as something independent of
body; for example, Descartes’ theory of ‘thinking substance’.
Like most other philosophical ideas, materialism probably arose among
the early Greek thinkers. The Stoics and the Epicureans were
materialists, and so were the ancient Buddhists. Among later
materialists have been Hobbes, Diderot, d'Holbach, Bόchner, and
Haeckel; Hume, J S Mill, Huxley, and Spencer showed materialist
tendencies.
149. mayfly any insect of the order Ephemerida (Greek ephemeros

‘lasting for a day’, an allusion to the very brief life of the adult). The
larval stage, which can last a year or more, is passed in water, the adult
form developing gradually from the nymph through successive moults.
The adult has transparent, net-veined wings.
150. medical ethics moral guidelines for doctors governing good

professional conduct. The basic aims are considered to be doing good,
avoiding harm, preserving the patient’s autonomy, telling the truth, and
pursuing justice. Ethical issues provoke the most discussion in medicine
where these five aims cannot be simultaNeously achieved- for example,
where what is ‘good’ for a child may clash with his or her autonomy or
that of the parents. Traditionally these principles have been set out in the
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Hippocratic Oath (introduced by Greek physician Hippocrates and

including such injunctions as the command to preserve confidentiality, to
help the sick to the best of one's ability, and to refuse fatal draughts), but
in the late 20th century rapidly advancing technology has raised the
question of how far medicine should intervene in natural processes.
151. melody (Greek melos ‘song’) in music, a distinctive sequence of

notes sounded consecutively within an orderly pitch structure such as a
scale or a mode. A melody may be a tune in its own right, or it may form
a theme running through a longer piece of music. The expressive
component of melody is related to an intuitive balance between the
expression of movement, through change of pitch, and an expectation that
certain constant features should emerge. The underlying constant features
are the scale or mode; in Western music these are enhanced by key and
harmony.
152. Menander c. 342–291 BC Greek comic dramatist. Previously only

known by reputation and some short fragments, Menander’s comedy
Bad-Tempered Man 316 BC, was discovered 1957 on Egyptian papyrus.
Substantial parts of The Samian Woman, The Arbitration, The Unkindest
Cut, and The Shield are also extant. His comedies, with their wit and
ingenuity of plot often concerning domestic intrigue, were adapted by
the Roman comic dramatists Plautus and Terence.
153. Mercury in Roman mythology, a god, identified with the Greek

Hermes, and like him represented with winged sandals and a winged staff
entwined with snakes. He was the messenger of the gods, and was
associated particularly with commerce.
154. Messina, Strait of

channel in the central Mediterranean separating Sicily from mainland
Italy; in Greek legend a monster (Charybdis), who devoured ships, lived
in the whirlpool on the Sicilian side, and another (Scylla), who devoured
sailors, in the rock on the Italian side. The Classical hero Odysseus
passed safely between them.
155. metaphor (Greek ‘transfer’) figure of speech using an analogy or

close comparison between two things that are not normally treated as if
they had anything in common. Metaphor is a common means of
extending the uses and references of words. See also simile.
If we call people cabbages or foxes, we are indicating that in our opinion
they share certain qualities with those vegetables or animals: an inert
quality in the case of cabbages, a cunning quality in the case of foxes,
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which may lead on to calling people ‘foxy’ and saying ‘He really foxed
them that time’, meaning that he tricked them. If a scientist is doing
research in the field of nuclear physics, the word ‘field’ results from
comparison between scientists and farmers (who literally work in fields).
Such usages are metaphorical.
156. metropolitan (Greek ‘mother-state, capital’)

in the Christian church generally, a bishop who has rule over other
bishops (termed suffragans). In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a
metropolitan has a rank between an archbishop and a patriarch.
In the Church of England, the archbishops of York and Canterbury are
both metropolitans.
157Midas in Greek mythology, a king of Phrygia who was granted the

gift of converting all he touched to gold. He soon regretted his gift, as his
food and drink were also turned to gold. For preferring the music of Pan
to that of Apollo, he was given ass's ears by the latter.
158. Moliθre pen name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin 1622–1673

Moliθre's comedies, based on the exposure of hypocrisy and cant, made
him vulnerable to many attacks (from which he was protected by Louis
XIV) and marked a new departure in the French theatre away from
reliance on Classical Greek themes.
159. molybdenum (Greek malybdos ‘lead’) heavy, hard, lustrous, silver-

white, metallic element, symbol Mo, atomic number 42, relative atomic
mass 95.94. The chief ore is the mineral molybdenite. The element is
highly resistant to heat and conducts electricity easily. It is used in alloys,
often to harden steels. It is a necessary trace element in human nutrition.
It was named 1781 by Swedish chemist Karl Scheele, after its isolation
by P J Hjelm (1746-1813), for its resemblance to lead ore.
It has a melting point of 2,620°C, and is not found in the free state. As an
aid to lubrication, molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) greatly reduces
surface friction between ferrous metals. Producing countries include
Canada, the USA, and Norway.
160. Monophysite (Greek ‘one-nature’) member of a group of Christian

heretics of the 5th-7th centuries who taught that Jesus had one nature, in
opposition to the orthodox doctrine (laid down at the Council of
Chalcedon 451) that he had two natures, the human and the divine.
Monophysitism developed as a reaction to Nestorianism and led to the
formal secession of the Coptic and Armenian churches from the rest of
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the Christian church. Monophysites survive today in Armenia, Syria,

and Egypt.
161. More (St) Thomas 1478–1535 English Politician and author. From
1509 he was favoured by Henry VIII and employed on foreign embassies.
He was a member of the privy council from 1518 and Lord Chancellor
from 1529 but resigned over Henry’s break with the pope. For refusing to
accept the king as head of the church, he was executed. The title of his
Political book Utopia 1516 has come to mean any supposedly perfect
society. Son of a London judge, More studied Greek, Latin, French,
theology, and music at Oxford, and law at Lincoln's Inn, London, and
was influenced by the humanists John Colet and Erasmus, who became a
friend. In Parliament from 1504, he was made Speaker of the House of
Commons in 1523. He was knighted in 1521, and on the fall of Cardinal
Wolsey became Lord Chancellor, but resigned in 1532 because he could
not agree with the king on his ecclesiastical policy and marriage with
Anne Boleyn. In 1534 he refused to take the oath of supremacy to Henry
VIII as head of the church, and after a year's imprisonment in the Tower
of London he was executed. Among Thomas More’s writings are the
Latin Utopia 1516, sketching an ideal commonwealth; the English
Dialogue 1528, a theoLogical argument against the Reformation leader
Tyndale; and a History of Richard III. He was also a patron of artists,
including Holbein. More was canonized in 1935.
162. Muse in Greek mythology, One of the nine daughters of Zeus and
Mnemosyne (goddess of memory) and inspirers of creative arts: Calliope,
epic poetry; Clio, History; Erato, love poetry; Euterpe, lyric poetry;
Melpomene, tragedy; Polyhymnia, sacred song; Terpsichore, dance;
Thalia, comedy; and Urania, astronomy.
163. music art of combining sounds into a coherent perceptual

experience, typically in accordance with conventional patterns and for an
aesthetic purpose. Music is generally categorized as Classical, jazz, pop
music, country and western, and so on. The Greek word mousike
covered all the arts presided over by the Muses. The various civilizations
of the ancient and modern world developed their own musical systems.
Eastern music recognizes subtler distinctions of pitch than does Western
music and also differs from Western music in that the absence, until
recently, of written notation ruled out the composition of major developed
works; it fostered melodic and rhythmic patterns, freely interpreted (as in
the Indian raga) by virtuosos.
Western Classical music
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Middle Ages The documented History of Western music since Classical

times begins with the liturgical music of the medieval Catholic Church,
derived from Greek and Hebrew antecedents. The four scales, or modes,
to which the words of the liturgy were chanted were traditionally first set
in order by St Ambrose AD 384. St Gregory the Great added four more to
the Original Ambrosian modes, and this system forms the basis of
Gregorian plainsong, still used in the Roman Catholic Church. The organ
was introduced in the 8th century, and in the 9th century harmonized
music began to be used in churches, with notation developing towards its
present form. In the 11th century counterpoint was introduced, notably at
the monastery of St Martial, Limoges, France, and in the late 12th century
at Notre Dame in Paris (by Lιonin and Perotin). In the late Middle Ages
the Provenηal and French troubadours and court composers, such as
Machaut, developed a secular music, derived from church and folk music
(see also Minnesingers).
15th and 16th centuries Europe saw the growth of contrapuntal or
polyphonic music. One of the earliest composers was the English
musician John Dunstable, whose works inspired the French composer
Guillaume Dufay, founder of the Flemish school; its members included
Dufay’s pupil Joannes Okeghem and the Renaissance composer Josquin
Desprez. Other composers of this era were Palestrina from Italy, Roland
de Lassus from Flanders, Victoria from Spain, and Thomas Tallis and
William Byrd from England. Madrigals were written during the
Elizabethan age in England by such composers as Thomas Morley and
Orlando Gibbons.
17th-century The Florentine Academy (Camerata), a group of artists and
writers, aimed to revive the principles of Greek tragedy. This led to the
invention of dramatic recitative and the beginning of opera. Monteverdi
was an early operatic composer; by the end of the century the form had
evolved further in the hands of Alessandro Scarlatti in Italy and Jean-
Baptiste Lully in France. In England the outstanding composer of the
period was Purcell. in Greek mythology, a beautiful youth who rejected
the love of the nymph Echo and was condemned to fall in love with his
own reflection in a pool. He pined away and in the place where he died a
flower sprang up that was named after him.
166. Nemesis-in Greek mythology, the goddess of retribution, who

especially punished hubris (Greek hybris), violent acts carried through in
defiance of the gods and human custom. . .KEYB:
168. Neo-Classicism movement in art, architecture, and design in

Europe and North America about 1750-1850, characterized by a revival
of Classical Greek and Roman styles. It superseded the Rococo style and
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was inspired both by the excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum (which

revived Roman styles) and by the theories of the cultural studies of the
German art historian J J Winckelmann (which revived Greek styles).
Leading figures of the movement were the architect Robert Adam; the
painters David, Ingres, and Mengs; the sculptors Canova, Flaxman, and
Thorvaldsen; and the designers Wedgwood, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton.
171. New Testament the second part of the Bible, recognized by the
Christian church from the 4th century as sacred doctrine. The New
Testament includes the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of
Jesus, the History of the early church, the teachings of St Paul, and
mystical writings. It was written in Greek during the 1st and 2nd
centuries AD, and the individual sections have been ascribed to various
authors by Biblical scholars.
172. Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm 1844–1900 German philosopher who

rejected the accepted absolute moral values and the ‘slave morality’ of
Christianity. He argued that ‘God is dead’ and therefore people were free
to create their own values. His ideal was the άbermensch, or ‘Superman’,
who would impose his will on the weak and worthless. Nietzsche claimed
that knowledge is never objective but always serves some interest or
unconscious purpose. His insights into the relation between thought and
language were a major influence on philosophy. Although claimed as a
precursor by Nazism, many of his views are incompatible with
totalitarian ideology. He is a profoundly ambivalent thinker whose
philosophy can be appropriated for many purposes. Born in Rφcken,
Saxony, he attended Bonn and Leipzig universities and was professor of
Greek at Basel, Switzerland, 1869-80. He had abandoned theology for
philology, and was influenced by the writings of Schopenhauer and the
music of Wagner, of whom he became both friend and advocate. Both
these attractions passed, however, and ill- health caused his resignation
from the university. He spent his later years in northern Italy, in the
Engadine, and in southern France. He published Morgenrφte/The Dawn
1880-81, Die frφhliche Wissenschaft/The Gay Science 1881-82, Also
sprach Zarathustra/Thus Spoke Zarathustra 1883-85, Jenseits von Gut
und Bφse/Between Good and Evil 1885-86, Zur Genealogie der
Moral/Towards a Genealogy of Morals 1887, and Ecce Homo 1888. He
suffered a permanent breakdown in 1889 from overwork and loneliness.
173. nitrogen (Greek nitron ‘native soda’, sodium or potassium nitrate)

colourless, odourless, tasteless, gaseous, nonmetallic element, symbol N,
atomic number 7, Nitrogen has been recognized as a plant nutrient, found
in manures and other organic matter, from early times, long before the
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complex cycle of nitrogen fixation was understood. It was isolated in

1772 by English chemist Daniel Rutherford (1749-1819) and named in
1790 by French chemist Jean Chaptal (1756-1832).
174. nomothetic legislative; based on law. nomothetes /Greek n. pl. -tai
law-giver.
175. novel extended fictional prose narrative, often including some sense
of the psychoLogical development of the central characters and of their
relationship with a broader world. The modern novel took its name and
inspiration from the Italian novella, the short tale of varied character
which became popular in the late 13th century. As the main form of
narrative fiction in the 20th century, the novel is frequently classified
according to genres and subgenres such as the Historical novel, detective
fiction, fantasy, and science fiction. Greek mythology, a guardian spirit
of nature. Hamadryads or dryads guarded trees; naiads, springs and pools;
oreads, hills and rocks; and Nereids, the sea.
177. OdysseyGreek epic poem; the product of an oral tradition, it was

probably written before 700 BC and is attributed to Homer. It describes
the voyage home of Odysseus after the fall of Troy, and the vengeance he
takes with his son Telemachus on the suitors of his wife Penelope on his
return. During his ten-year wanderings, he encounters the Cyclops, the
enchantress Circe, Scylla and Charybdis, and the Sirens.
178. Old Testament Christian term for the Hebrew Bible, which is the
first part of the Christian Bible. It contains 39 (according to
Christianity) or 24 (according to Judaism) books, which include the
origins of the world, the History of the ancient Hebrews and their
covenant with God, prophetical writings, and religious poetry. The First
five books (The five books of Moses) are traditionally ascribed to Moses
and known as the Pentateuch (by Christians) or the Torah (by Jews).
The language of the Original text was Hebrew, dating from the 12th-2nd
centuries BC. The earliest known manuscripts containing part of the text
were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The traditional text (translated
first into Greek and then other languages) was compiled by rabbinical
authorities around the 2nd century AD.
179. oligarchy rule of the few, in their own interests. It was first
identified as a form of government by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
In modern times there have been a number of oligarchies, sometimes
posing as democracies; the paramilitary rule of the Duvalier family in
Haiti, 1957-86, is an example.
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180. Oligocene third epoch of the Tertiary period of geoLogical time,

35.5-3.25 million years ago. The name, from Greek, means ‘a little
recent’, referring to the presence of the remains of some modern types of
animals existing at that time.
181. omega last (twenty-fourth) letter (W, w) of Greek alphabet; ending.

omegoid, adj. W-shaped.
182. O'Neill Eugene (Gladstone) 1888–1953 US playwright. He is widely

regarded as the greatest US dramatist. His plays, although tragic, are
characterized by a down-to-earth quality and are often experimental in
form, influenced by German Expressionism, Strindberg, and Freud. They
were a radical departure from the romantic and melodramatic American
theatre entertainments. They include the Pulitzer Prize-winning plays
Beyond the Horizon 1920 and Anna Christie 1921, as well as The
Emperor Jones 1920, The Hairy Ape 1922, Desire Under the Elms 1924,
The Iceman Cometh 1946, and the posthumously produced
autobiographical drama A Long Day’s Journey into Night 1956 ( written
1941) , also a Pulitzer Prize winner. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature 1936.
O’Neill was born in New York City, the son of stage actors James O’Neill
and Ella Quinlan. His tumultuous family relationships would later
provide much material for his plays. He had varied experience as gold
prospector, sailor, and actor. Other plays include The Great God Brown
1925, Strange Interlude 1928 (which lasts five hours), Mourning
Becomes Electra 1931 (a trilogy on the theme of Orestes from Greek
mythology), and A Moon for the Misbegotten 1947 (written 1943).
183. onomatopoeia. (Greek ‘name-making’) figure of speech that copies
natural sounds. For example, the word ‘cuckoo’ imitates the sound that
the cuckoo makes. Such words as bang, crash, ripple, smash, splash, and
thump are said to be onomatopoeic. Onomatopoeia works differently in
different languages, the English bowwow for a sound made by dogs
being paralleled by the French oua, oua. Onomatopoeia may be built
into prose or verse, as in ‘a sudden sizzling sound’, the s and z sounds
used to suggest frying.
184. opera dramatic musical work in which singing takes the place of
speech. In opera the music accompanying the action has paramount
importance, although dancing and spectacular staging may also play their
parts. Opera originated in late 16th- century Florence when the musical
declamation, lyrical monologues, and choruses of Classical Greek
drama were reproduced in current forms. One of the earliest opera
composers was Jacopo Peri, whose Euridice influenced Monteverdi. At
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first solely a court entertainment, opera soon became popular, and in

1637 the First public opera house was opened in Venice. In the later 17th
century the elaborately conventional aria, designed to display the
virtuosity of the singer, became predominant, overshadowing the
dramatic element. Composers of this type of opera included Cavalli,
Pietro Antonio Cesti (1623-1669), and Alessandro Scarlatti. In France
opera was developed by Lully and Rameau, and in England by Purcell,
but the Italian style retained its ascendancy, as exemplified by Handel.
Comic opera (opera buffa) was developed in Italy by such composers as
Pergolesi, while in England The Beggar’s Opera 1728 by John Gay
started the vogue of the ballad opera, using popular tunes and spoken
dialogue. Singspiel was the German equivalent (although its music was
newly composed). A lessening of artificiality began with Gluck, who
insisted on the pre-eminence of the dramatic over the purely vocal
element. Mozart learned much from Gluck in writing his serious operas,
but excelled in Italian opera buffa. In works such as The Magic Flute, he
laid the foundations of a purely German-language opera, using the
Singspiel as a basis. This line was continued by Beethoven in Fidelio and
by the work of Weber, who introduced the Romantic style for the first
time in opera.
185. oral literature stories that are or have been transmitted in spoken
form, such as public recitation, rather than through writing or printing.
Most pre-literate societies have had a tradition of oral literature,
including short folk tales, legends, myths, proverbs, and riddles as well as
longer narrative works; and most of the ancient epics- such as the Greek
Odyssey and the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh- seem to have been
composed and added to over many centuries before they were committed
to writing. Some ancient stories from oral traditions were not written
down as literary works until the 19th century, such as the Finnish
Kalevala (1835-49); many fairy tales, such as those collected in Germany
by the Grimm brothers, also come into this category. Much of this sort of
folk literature may have been consciously embellished and altered, as
happened in 19th-century Europe for nationalistic purposes. Oral
literatures have continued to influence the development of national
written literatures in the 20th century, particularly in Africa, central Asia,
and Australia. Russian investigations and studies of Yugoslavia’s oral
literature, Originally undertaken to illuminate the oral basis of Homeric
narrative, have prompted collections and scientific studies in many other
parts of the world.
186. orchesis-art of dancing in Greek chorus.

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187. orchestra group of musicians playing together on different

instruments. In Western music, an orchestra typically contains various
bowed string instruments and sections of wind, brass, and percussion.
The size and format may vary according to the needs of composers.
The term was Originally used in Greek theatre for the semicircular
space in front of the stage, and was adopted in 17th-century France to
refer first to the space in front of the stage where musicians sat, and later
to the musicians themselves. The string section is commonly divided into
two groups of violins (first and second), violas, cellos, and double basses.
The woodwind section became standardized by the end of the 18th
century, when it consisted of two each of flutes, oboes, clarinets, and
bassoons, to which were later added piccolo, cor anglais, bass clarinet,
and double bassoon. At that time, two timpani and two horns were also
standard, and two trumpets were occasionally added. During the 19th
century, the brass section was gradually expanded to include four horns,
three trumpets, three trombones, and tuba. To the percussion section a
third timpano was added, and from Turkey came the bass drum, side
drum, cymbals, and triangle. One or more harps became common and, to
maintain balance, the number of string instruments to a part also
increased. Other instruments used in the orchestra include xylophone,
celesta, piano, and organ. The orchestra used to be conducted by means
of a violin bow, but by Mendelssohn's time the baton was implemented.
The term may also be applied to non-Western ensembles such as the
Indonesian gamelan orchestra, consisting solely of percussion
instruments, mainly tuned gongs and bells.
188. Orion in astronomy, a very prominent constellation in the equatorial

region of the sky, identified with the hunter of Greek mythology.
It contains the bright stars Betelgeuse and Rigel, as well as a distinctive
row of three stars that make up Orion's belt. Beneath the belt, marking the
sword of Orion, is the Orion nebula; nearby is One of the most
distinctive dark nebulae, the Horsehead.
189. osmium (Greek osme ‘odour’) hard, heavy, bluish-white, metallic

element, symbol Os, atomic number 76, relative atomic mass 190.2…It
was discovered in 1803 and named in 1804 by English chemist Smithson
Tennant (1761-1815) after the irritating smell of one of its oxides.
190. owl any bird of the order Strigiformes, found worldwide. They are
mainly nocturnal birds of prey, with mobile heads, soundless flight, acute
hearing, and forward-facing immobile eyes, surrounded by ‘facial discs’
of rayed feathers. All species lay white eggs, and begin incubation as
soon as the first is laid. They regurgitate indigestible remains of their
prey in pellets (castings). Owls comprise two families: typical owls,
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family Strigidae, of which there are about 120 species; and barn owls,
family Tytonidae, of which there are 10 species. The short-eared owl Asio
flammeus, of North America, South America, and Eurasia, is a streaked
tawny colour, about 38 cm/15 in long; it hunts at dawn and dusk and
roosts mainly on the ground. The great horned owl Bubo virginianus, of
North and South America, measures 56 cm/22in, has long ear- tufts, and
lives in forests, grasslands, and deserts. The tawny owl Strix aluco is a
brown-flecked species of Europe and the Middle East; the little owl
Athene noctua is the Greek symbol of wisdom and bird of Athena,
found widely near human homes; the snowy owl Nyctea scandiaca lives
in the Arctic; the largest of the owls are the eagle owl Bubo bubo of
Eurasia, and the powerful owl Ninox strenua of Australia, both up to 0.75
m/2.25 ft long. The worldwide barn owl Tyto alba was formerly common
in Britain, but is now diminished by …
191. oxygen (Greek oxys ‘acid’; genes ‘forming’) colourless, odourless,

tasteless, nonmetallic, gaseous element, symbol O, atomic number 8,
relative atomic mass 15.9994. It is the most abundant element in the
Earth's crust (almost 50% by mass), forms about 21% by volume of the
atmosphere, and is present in combined form in water and many other
substances. Life on Earth evolved using oxygen, which is a by-product of
photosynthesis and the basis for respiration in plants and animals. The
element was first identified by English chemist Joseph Priestley 1774
and independently in the same year by Swedish chemist Karl Scheel. It
was named by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier 1777.
192. oxymoron (Greek ‘sharply dull’ or ‘pointedly foolish’) figure of

speech, the combination of two or more words that are normally
opposites, in order to startle. Bittersweet is an oxymoron, as are cruel to
be kind and beloved enemy.
193. oxytone in ancient Greek, bearing acute accent on last syllable; n.

such word.
194. Palaeocene (Greek ‘old’ + ‘recent’) first epoch of the Tertiary

period of geoLogical time, 65-56.5 million years ago. Many types of
mammals spread rapidly after the disappearance of the great reptiles of
the Mesozoic. Flying mammals replaced the flying reptiles, swimming
mammals replaced the swimming reptiles, and all the ecoLogical niches
vacated by the reptiles were adopted by mammals.
195. Pangaea or Pangea. (Greek ‘all-land’) single land mass, made up of

all the present continents, believed to have existed between 250 and 200
87
million years ago; the rest of the Earth was covered by the Panthalassa
ocean. Pangaea split into two land masses- Laurasia in the north and
Gondwanaland in the south- which subsequently broke up into several
continents. These then drifted slowly to their present positions (see
continental drift). The existence of a single ‘supercontinent’ was proposed
by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener 1812.
196. pantheism. (Greek pan ‘all’; theos ‘God’) doctrine that regards all of
reality as divine, and God as present in all of nature and the universe. It is
expressed in Egyptian religion and Brahmanism; stoicism, Neo-
Platonism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam can be interpreted in
pantheistic terms. Pantheistic philosophers include Bruno, Spinoza,
Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel.
197. parapsychology. (Greek para ‘beyond’) study of phenomena that

are not within range of, or explicable by established science, for example,
extra-sensory perception. The faculty allegedly responsible for such
phenomena, and common to humans and other animals, is known as psi.
ParapsychoLogical phenomena include: mediumship, supposed contact
with the spirits of the dead, usually via an intermediate ‘guide’ in the
other world; precognition, foreknowledge of events, as in ‘second sight’;
telekinesis, movement of objects from one position to another by human
mental concentration; and telepathy, a term coined by English essayist
W H Myers (1843-1901) for ‘communication of impressions of any kind
from one mind to another, independently of the recognized channels of
sense’. Most scientists are sceptical, but a chair of parapsychology was
established 1984 at Edinburgh University, endowed by the Hungarian
author Arthur Koestler.
198. part of speech. grammatical function of a word, described in the

grammatical tradition of the Western world, based on Greek and Latin.
The four major parts of speech are the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb;
the minor parts of speech vary according to schools of grammatical
theory, but include the article, conjunction, preposition, and pronoun.
In languages like Greek and Latin, the part of speech of a word tends to
be invariable (usually marked by an ending, or inflection); in English, it is
much harder to recognize the function of a word simply by its form.
Some English words may have only one function (for example, and as a
conjunction). Others may have several functions (for example, fancy,
which is a noun in the phrase ‘flights of fancy’, a verb in ‘Fancy that!’
and an adjective in ‘a fancy hat’).
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199. pathogen. (Greek ‘disease producing’) in medicine, any

microorganism that causes disease. Most pathogens are parasites, and
the diseases they cause are incidental to their search for food or shelter
inside the host. Nonparasitic organisms, such as soil bacteria or those
living in the human gut and feeding on waste foodstuffs, can also become
pathogenic to a person whose immune system or liver is damaged. The
larger parasites that can cause disease, such as nematode worms, are not
usually described as pathogens.
200. patriarchy. (Greek ‘rule of the father’) form of social organization in

which a man heads and controls the family unit. By extension, in a
patriarchal society men also control larger social and working groups as
well as government. The definition has been broadened by feminists to
describe the dominance of male values throughout society.
201. Pegasus. in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere,

near Cygnus, and represented as the winged horse of Greek mythology.
It is the seventh-largest constellation in the sky, and its main feature is a
square outlined by four stars, one of which (Alpherat) is actually part of
the adjoining constellation Andromeda. Diagonally across is Markab (or
Alpha Pegasi), about 100 light years distant.
202. Pentateuch. Greek (and Christian) name for the first five books of
the Bible, ascribed to Moses, and called the Torah by Jews.
203. Peter, St. Christian martyr, the author of two epistles in the New
Testament and leader of the apostles. He is regarded as the first bishop
of Rome, whose mantle the pope inherits. His real name was Simon, but
he was nicknamed Kephas (‘Peter’, from the Greek for ‘rock’) by Jesus,
as being the rock upon which he would build his church. His emblem is
two keys; feast day 29 June. Originally a fisherman of Capernaum, on
the Sea of Galilee, Peter may have been a follower of John the Baptist,
and was the First to acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah. Tradition has it
that he later settled in Rome; he was martyred during the reign of the
emperor Nero, perhaps by crucifixion. Bones excavated from under the
Basilica of St Peter's in the Vatican 1968 were accepted as those of St
Peter by Pope Paul VI.
204. Petrie (William Matthew) Flinders 1853–1942. English

archaeologist who excavated sites in Egypt (the pyramids at Gξza, the
temple at Tanis, the Greek city of Naucratis in the Nile delta, Tell el
Amarna, Naquada, Abydos, and Memphis) and Palestine from 1880.
89
Petrie's work was exacting and systematic, and he developed dating

sequences of pottery styles that correlated with dynastic and predynastic
events.
205. Phanerozoic. (Greek phanero ‘visible’) eon in Earth History,

consisting of the most recent 570 million years. It comprises the
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The vast majority of fossils
come from this eon, owing to the evolution of hard shells and internal
skeletons. The name means ‘interval of well-displayed life’.
206. philanthropy
the love felt by an individual towards mankind. It is expressed through

acts of generosity and charity and seeks to promote the greater happiness
and prosperity of humanity. The term derives from the Greek, but the
notion of caring for more than oneself and one's immediate family is the
basis for all civilizations. It can be found in the writings of Confucius and
Mencius and it is a central tenet of Judaism where it is considered not just
a virtue but an obligation. To do good works and to relieve suffering is to
recognize one's fellow beings equally as children of God. Philanthropy,
like charity and aid, has sometimes been accused of perpetuating poverty
and inequality by victimizing the recipients rather than encouraging self-
help.
207. philHellene lover of Greece or things Greek. philHellenic.

philHellenism, philHellenist.
208. philosophy (Greek ‘love of wisdom’) branch of learning that

includes metaphysics (the nature of being), epistemology (theory of
knowledge), Logic (study of valid inference), ethics, and aesthetics.
Philosophy is concerned with fundamental problems- including the
nature of mind and matter, perception, self, free will, causation, time and
space, and the existence of moral judgements- which cannot be resolved
by a specific method. Oldest of all philosophical systems is the Vedic
system from about 2500 BC, but, like many other Eastern systems, it
rests on a primarily mystic basis. The first scientific system originated in
Greece in the 6th century BC with the Milesian school (Thales,
Anaximander, Anaximenes). Both they and later pre-Socratics
(Pythagoras, Xenophon, Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, Empedocles,
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus) were lively theorists, and ideas
such as atomism, developed by Democritus, occur in later schemes of
thought. Originally, philosophy included all intellectual endeavour, but
over time traditional branches of philosophy have acquired their own
status as separate areas of study. In the 5th century Socrates, foremost
90
among the teachers known as the Sophists, laid the foundation of ethics;
Plato evolved a system of universal ideas; Aristotle developed Logic.
Later schools include Epicureanism (Epicurus), stoicism (Zeno) and
scepticism (Pyrrho); the eclectics- not a school, they selected what
appealed to them from various systems (Cicero and Seneca); and the
Neo- Platonists, infusing a mystic element into the system of Plato
(Philo, Plotinus and, as disciple, Julian the Apostate).
The close of the Athenian schools of philosophy by Justinian AD 529
marks the end of ancient philosophy, though many of its teachers moved
eastwards; Greek thought emerges in Muslim philosophers such as
Avicenna and Averroes, and the Jewish Maimonides. For the West the
work of Aristotle was transmitted through Boethius. Study by medieval
scholastic philosophers, mainly concerned with the reconciliation of
ancient philosophy with Christian belief, began in the 9th century with
John Scotus Erigena and includes Anselm, Abelard, Albertus Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas, his opponent Duns Scotus, and William of Occam.
In the 17th century Descartes, with his rationalist determination to doubt
and faith in mathematical proof, marks the beginning of contemporary
philosophy, and was followed by Spinoza, Leibniz, and Hobbes. The
empiricists, principally an 18th-century English school (Locke, Berkeley,
Hume), turned instead to physics as indicating what can be known and
how, and led up to the transcendental criticism of Kant. In the early 19th
century Classical German idealism (Fichte, Schelling, Hegel) repudiated
Kant's limitation of human knowledge; in France Comte developed the
positivist thought that attracted Mill and Spencer. Notable also in the 19th
century are the pessimistic atheism of Schopenhauer; the dialectical
materialism of Marx and Engels; the work of Nietzsche and Kierkegaard,
which led towards 20th- century existentialism; the pragmatism of James
and Dewey; and the absolute idealism at the turn of the century of the
Neo- Hegelians (Bradley, Royce).
Among 20th-century movements are the Logical positivism of the Vienna
Circle (Carnap, Popper, Ayer); the creative evolution of Bergson; Neo-
Thomism, the revival of the medieval philosophy of Aquinas (Maritain);
existentialism (Heidegger, Jaspers, Sartre); the phenomenology of
Husserl, who influenced Ryle; and realism (Russell, Moore, Broad,
Wittgenstein). Twentieth-century philosophers have paid great attention
to the nature and limits of language, in particular in relation to the
language used to formulate philosophical problems. They are inclined to
think of philosophy as an investigation of the fundamental assumptions
that govern our ways of understanding and acting in the world.
209. Phoenicia. ancient Greek name for N Canaan on the E coast of the
Mediterranean. The Phoenician civilization flourished from about 1200
91
until the capture of Tyre by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. Seafaring
traders and artisans, they are said to have circumnavigated Africa and
established colonies in Cyprus, N Africa (for example, Carthage), Malta,
Sicily, and Spain. Their cities (Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos were the main
ones) were independent states ruled by hereditary kings but dominated by
merchant ruling classes. The Phoenicians occupied the seaboard of
Lebanon and Syria, north of Mount Carmel. Their exports included
Tyrian purple dye and cloth, furniture (from the timber of Lebanon), and
jewellery. Documents found 1929 at Ugarit on the Syrian coast give
much information on their civilization; their deities included Baal, Astarte
or Ishtar, and Moloch. Competition from the colonies combined with
attacks by the Sea Peoples, the Assyrians, and the Greeks on the cities in
Phoenicia led to their ultimate decline.
210. phosphorus. (Greek phosphoros ‘bearer of light’) highly reactive,

nonmetallic element, symbol P, atomic number 15, relative atomic mass
30.9738. It occurs in nature as phosphates (commonly in the form of the
mineral apatite), and is essential to plant and animal life. Compounds of
phosphorus are used in fertilizers, various organic chemicals, for matches
and fireworks, and in glass and steel. Phosphorus was first identified
1674 by German alchemist Hennig Brand (c. 1630-?), who prepared it
from urine. The element has three allotropic forms: a black powder; a
white- yellow, waxy solid that ignites spontaNeously in air to form the
poisonous gas phosphorus pentoxide; and a red-brown powder that
neither ignites spontaNeously nor is poisonous.
211. Plato c. 428–347 BC Greek philosopher. He was a pupil of

Socrates, teacher of Aristotle, and founder of the Academy school of
philosophy. He was the author of philosophical dialogues on such topics
as metaphysics, ethics, and Politics. Central to his teachings is the notion
of Forms, which are located outside the everyday world- timeless,
motionless, and absolutely real. Plato's philosophy has influenced
Christianity and European culture, directly and through Augustine, the
Florentine Platonists during the Renaissance, and countless others.
Born of a noble family, he entered Politics on the aristocratic side, and in
philosophy became a follower of Socrates. He travelled widely after
Socrates' death, and founded the educational establishment, the
Academy, in order to train a new ruling class.
Of his work, some 30 dialogues survive, intended for performance either
to his pupils or to the public. The principal figure in these ethical and
philosophical debates is Socrates and the early ones employ the Socratic
method, in which he asks questions and traps the students into
contradicting themselves; for example, Iron, on poetry. states. Platonic
92
love is inspired by a person’s best qualities and seeks their development.

Other dialogues include the Symposium, on love, Phaedo, on immortality,
and Apology and Crito, on Socrates’ trial and death. It is impossible to
say whether Plato’s Socrates is a faithful representative of the real man
or an articulation of Plato’s own thought. Plato’s philosophy rejects
scientific rationalism (establishing facts through experiment) in favour of
arguments, because mind, not matter, is fundamental, and material objects
are merely imperfect copies of abstract and eternal ‘ideas’. His Political
philosophy is expounded in two treatises, The Republic and The Laws,
both of which describe ideal…
212. Plutarch c. AD 46–120 Greek biographer and essayist. His Parallel

Lives comprise paired biographies of famous Greek and Roman soldiers
and Politicians, followed by comparisons between the two. Thomas
North’s 1579 translation inspired Shakespeare’s Roman plays.
Plutarch lectured on philosophy in Rome and was appointed
procurator of Greece by Emperor Hadrian.
213. polis (Greek ‘city’). in ancient Greece, a city-state, the Political

and social centre of most larger Greek communities.
Originally a citadel on a rock or hill, in Classical times the polis
consisted of a walled city with adjoining land, which could be extensive.
Membership of a polis as a citizen, participation in its cults and festivals,
and the protection of its laws formed the basis of Classical Greek
civilization, which was marked by intense inter-city rivalries and conflicts
until the Hellenistic period.
214. polyhedron in Geometry, a solid figure with four or more plane

faces. The more faces there are on a polyhedron, the more closely it
approximates to a sphere. Knowledge of the properties of polyhedra is
needed in crystallography and stereochemistry to determine the shapes
of crystals and molecules. There are only five types of regular polyhedron
(with all faces the same size and shape), as was deduced by early Greek
mathematicians; they are the tetrahedron (four equilateral triangular
faces), cube (six square faces), octahedron (eight equilateral triangles),
dodecahedron (12 regular pentagons) and icosahedron (20 equilateral
triangles).
215. praseodymium (Greek praseo ‘leek-green’ + dymium)

silver-white, malleable, metallic element of the lanthanide series, symbol
Pr, atomic number 59, relative atomic mass 140.907. It occurs in nature
in the minerals monzanite and bastnasite, and its green salts are used to
colour glass and ceramics. It was named in 1885 by Austrian chemist
93
Carl von Welsbach (1858-1929). He fractionated it from dydymium

(Originally thought to be an element but actually a mixture of rare-earth
metals consisting largely of Neodymium, praseodymium, and cerium),
and named it for its green salts and spectroscopic line.
216. printing reproduction of text or illustrative material on paper, as in

books or newspapers, or on an increasing variety of materials; for
example, on plastic containers. The first printing used woodblocks,
followed by carved wood type or moulded metal type and hand-operated
presses. Modern printing is effected by electronically controlled
machinery. Current printing processes include electronic
phototypesetting with offset printing, and gravure print.
In China the art of printing from a single wooden block was known by the
6th century AD, and movable type was being used by the 11th century. In
Europe printing was unknown for another three centuries, and it was only
in the 15th century that movable type was reinvented, traditionally by
Johannes Gutenberg in Germany. William Caxton introduced
printing to England. There was no further substantial advance until, in
the 19th century, steam power replaced hand- operation of printing
presses, making possible long ‘runs’; hand-composition of type (each tiny
metal letter was taken from the case and placed individually in the narrow
stick that carried one line of text) was replaced by machines operated by a
keyboard. Linotype, a hot- metal process (it produced a line of type in a
solid slug) used in newspapers, magazines, and books, was invented by
Ottmar Mergenthaler 1886 and commonly used until the 1980s. The
Monotype, used in bookwork (it produced a series of individual
characters, which could be hand- corrected), was invented by Tolbert
Lanston (1844-1913) in the USA 1889. Important as these developments
were, they represented no fundamental change but simply a faster method
of carrying out the same basic typesetting operations. The actual printing
process still involved pressing the inked type on to paper, by letterpress.
In the 1960s this form of printing began to face increasing competition
from offset printing, a method that prints from an inked flat surface, and
from the gravure method (used for high- circulation magazines),which
uses recessed plates. The introduction of electronic phototypesetting
machines, also in the 1960s, allowed the entire process of setting and
correction to be done in the same way that a typist operates, thus
eliminating the hot-metal composing room …
217. promethium radioactive, metallic element of the lanthanide series,

symbol Pm, atomic number 61, relative atomic mass 145.
It occurs in nature only in minute amounts, produced as a fission
product/by-product of uranium in pitchblende and other uranium ores; for
94
a long time it was considered not to occur in nature. The longest- lived
isotope has a half-life of slightly more than 20 years.
Promethium is synthesized by neutron bombardment of Neodymium, and
is a product of the fission of uranium, thorium, or plutonium; it can be
isolated in large amounts from the fission- product debris of uranium fuel
in nuclear reactors. It is used in phosphorescent paints and as an X-ray
source. It was named in 1949 after the Greek Titan Prometheus.
218. proton (Greek ‘first’). in physics, a positively charged subatomic
particle, a constituent of the nucleus of all atoms. It belongs to the baryon
subclass of the hadrons. A proton is extremely long-lived, with a lifespan
of at least 1032 years. Itc arries a unit positive charge equal to the
negative charge of an electron. Its mass is almost 1,836 times that of an
electron, or 1.67 Χ 10-24 g. The number of protons in the atom of an
element is equal to the atomic number of that element.
219. Psyche late Greek personification of the soul as a winged girl or

young woman. The goddess Aphrodite was so jealous of Psyche's
beauty that she ordered her son Eros, the god of love, to make Psyche fall
in love with the worst of men. Instead, he fell in love with her himself.
220. Ptolemy II 308–246 BC. Ruler of Egypt 283-246 BC. He

consolidated Greek control and administration, constructing a canal from
the Red Sea to the Nile as well as the museum, library, and the Pharos
(lighthouse) at Alexandria, One of the Seven Wonders of the World. He
was the son of Ptolemy I,…
221. pun figure of speech, a play on words, or double meaning that is

technically known as paronomasia (Greek ‘adapted meaning’).
Double meaning can be accidental, often resulting from homonymy, or
the multiple meaning of words; puns, however, are deliberate, intended
as jokes or as clever and compact remarks. The success of a pun is often a
matter of taste; if an ominous horoscope is called a ‘horrorscope’ or a
genetic experiment is characterized as producing ‘designer genes’, this
may or may not be regarded as witty, useful, or relevant. Puns may
depend on either the sound or the look of a word, or may require some
modification of the words in question to produce their effect (for
example, a Political meeting described as ‘coming apart at the themes’,
echoing ‘seams’).
222. pyrrhic ancient Greek war dance; metrical foot of two short
syllables; adj. pertaining to such dance or foot, or to Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus. Pyrrhic victory, victory like that of Pyrrhus of Epirus over
95
Romans in 279 BC., when his army sustained tremendous losses; fruitless
victory.
223. rabies or hydrophobia (Greek ‘fear of water’)

viral disease of the central nervous system that can afflict all warm-
blooded creatures. It is almost invariably fatal once symptoms have
developed. Its transmission to humans is generally by a bite from an
infected animal…
224. Racine Jean 1639–1699 French dramatist. He was an exponent of

the Classical tragedy in French drama, taking his subjects from Greek
mythology and observing the rules of Classical Greek drama. Most of
his tragedies have women in the title role, for example Andromaque
1667, Iphigιnie 1674, and Phθdre 1677.
An orphan, Racine was educated by Jansenists at Port Royal (see
Jansenism), but later moved away from an ecclesiastical career to success
and patronage at court. His ingratiating flattery won him the success he
craved 1677 when he was appointed royal historiographer.
225. Raphael Sanzio (Raffaello Sanzio) 1483–1520 Italian painter. He

was One of the greatest artists of the High Renaissance, active in
Perugia, Florence, and Rome (from 1508), where he painted frescoes in
the Vatican and for secular patrons. His religious and mythoLogical
scenes are harmoniously composed; his dignified portraits enhance the
character of his sitters. Many of his designs were engraved, and much
of his later work was the product of his studio.
Raphael was born in Urbino, the son of Giovanni Santi (died 1494), a
court painter. In 1499 he went to Perugia, where he worked with
Perugino, whose graceful style is reflected in Raphael’s Marriage of the
Virgin 1504 (Brera, Milan). This work also shows his early concern for
harmonious disposition of figures in the pictorial space. In Florence
1504-08 he studied the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
Masaccio, and Fra Bartolommeo. His paintings of this period include the
Ansidei Madonna (National Gallery, London). Pope Julius II
commissioned him to decorate the papal apartments (the Stanze della
Segnatura) in the Vatican. Raphael’s first fresco series there, The School
of Athens 1509, is a complex but Classically composed grouping of
Greek philosophers and mathematicians, centred on the figures of
Plato and Aristotle. A second series of frescoes, 1511-14, includes the
dramatic and richly coloured Mass of Bolsena. Raphael received many
commissions and within the next few years he produced mythoLogical
frescoes in the Villa Farnesina in Rome (1511-12), cartoons for tapestries
for the Sistine Chapel, Vatican (Victoria and Albert Museum, London),
96
the Sistine Madonna about 1512 (Gemδldegalerie, Dresden), and

portraits, for example of Baldassare Castiglione about 1515 (Louvre,
Paris). His last great work, The Transfiguration 1519-20 (Vatican
Museum, Rome), anticipates Mannerism.
226. Regency style style of architecture and interior furnishings popular

in England during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It is
characterized by restrained simplicity and the imitation of ancient
Classical elements, often Greek. Architects of this period include
Decimus Burton (1800-1881), Henry Holland (1746-1806), and John
Nash.
227. Renaissance period and intellectual movement in European cultural

History that is traditionally seen as ending the Middle Ages and
beginning modern times. The Renaissance started in Italy in the 14th
century and flourished in W Europe until about the 17th century.
The aim of Renaissance education was to produce the ‘complete human
being’ (Renaissance man), conversant in the humanities, mathematics
and science (including their application in war), the arts and crafts, and
athletics and sport; to enlarge the bounds of learning and geographical
knowledge; to encourage the growth of scepticism and free thought, and
the study and imitation of Greek and Latin literature and art. The
revival of interest in Classical Greek and Roman culture inspired
artists, architects, and writers. Scientists and explorers proliferated
as well. The beginning of the Italian Renaissance is usually dated in the
14th century with the writers Petrarch and Boccaccio. The invention of
printing (mid-15th century) and geographical discoveries helped spread
the new spirit. Exploration by Europeans opened Africa, Asia, and the
New World to trade, colonization, and imperialism. Biblical criticism by
the Dutch humanist Erasmus and others contributed to the Reformation,
but the Counter-Reformation almost extinguished the movement in 16th-
century Italy. In the visual arts Renaissance painting and sculpture later
moved towards Mannerism. Figures of the Renaissance include Leonardo
da Vinci, the Politician Machiavelli, the poets Ariosto and Tasso, the
philosopher Bruno, the physicist and astronomer Galileo, and the artists
Michelangelo, Cellini, and Raphael in Italy; the writers Rabelais and
Montaigne in France, Cervantes in Spain, and Camoλns in Portugal; the
astronomer Copernicus in Poland; and the writers More, Bacon, Sidney,
Marlowe, and Shakespeare in England.
228. Renaissance art movement in European art of the 15th and 16th
centuries. It began in Florence, Italy, with the rise of a spirit of
humanism and a new appreciation of the Classical Greek and Roman
97
past. In painting and sculpture this led to greater naturalism and interest
in Anatomy and perspective. The 15th century is known as the Classical
Renaissance. The High Renaissance (early 16th century) covers the
careers of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian in Italy
and Dόrer in Germany. Mannerism (roughly 1520s-90s) forms the final
stage of the High Renaissance. The Renaissance was heralded by the
work of the early 14th- century painter Giotto in Florence, and in the
early 15th century a handful of outstanding innovative artists emerged
there: Masaccio (in painting), Donatello (in sculpture), and Brunelleschi
(in architecture). At the same time the humanist philosopher, artist, and
writer Leon Baptista Alberti recorded many of the new ideas in his
treatises on painting, sculpture, and architecture..
Δεύτερον, 229. Απο το Internet.. English Department-Philosophy-

Requirement-Course Descriptions:-Philosophy
Standard - This course provides a comprehensive grammar review.

Writing focuses on paragraph structure and personal essays. A genre
approach to literature is presented with forms included being: Greek
Mythology, Shakespeare, Science fiction, religious writings, fantasy
and adolescent short stories/poetry.
Skill Development: A - Smaller in size and more process oriented, this

section of English I helps students gain the necessary skills to read
various genres and write a basic paragraph. Writing focuses on
paragraph structure through the use of personal essays. A genre approach
to literature is presented with forms including: Greek Mythology,
Shakespeare, science fiction and short stories. An intensive grammar
study is completed. Skills are reinforced through class discussions
and individual conferences.
Learning Center - This course follows the basic curriculum of the

English Department with an emphasis on the writing process and reading
comprehension to teach content. Classes contain no more than six
students. (Required of all Full Learning Center studen.
-Ενα άλλο απόσπασμα.. Mythology in A Midsummer Night's Dream

98
Shakespeare's use of mythoLogical characters in this play is particularly

interesting. The convergence of such an eclectic cast of characters,
derived from Classical Greek, Roman and traditional Celtic sources
indicates a less than stringent concern with consistency on Shakespeare's
part. There could be various reasons for his incorporation of so many
varied mythoLogical traditions. He simply may have been trying to
appeal to the broadest possible audience. The upper, or educated classes
would have been quite familiar with the Classical mythologies, as these
were considered an indispensable part of any education in the
Renaissance. The lower, less educated people in the audience, would have
been more likely to recognize Puck, or Robin Goodfellow, a traditional
mythoLogical character who still appeared in many folktales.
If you wish to access information about any one particular

mythoLogical character or event in the play, the references are
listed below in alphabetical order -please use the hypertext links…
-Μέσω Internet, λέξη Greek-Greece σε κείμενα του Shakespeare.
Shakespeare's "small Latin, less Greek"
The cumulative evidence of Shakespeare's plays is that he read widely

and deeply. Whether he read much in languages other than English is less
easy to ascertain.
At grammar school he would have learned to read Latin, and his

familiarity with the drama of Plautus in his early Comedy of Errors
shows that he could read Latin when he wanted to. There is no evidence
to suggest that he could read Greek.
He may have known French and Italian. There are extensive passages of
respectable French in Henry V (though of course someone else could
have written these scenes), and there is no known English translation of
Cinthio's Hecatomithi, the source of Othello (though there was a French
translation).
And if there were translations?
Whatever his ability to read other languages, it is clear that Shakespeare

preferred to read in English if there was a translation. Thus, late in his
career, he read one of his favourite authors, Ovid, in translation, even
though he must have read him in the Original at school. (We know this,
because One of the most famous passages* in The Tempest follows
Golding's translation rather than the Latin.) Golding
99
(The incantation of Medea, 7.265-72):
Ye airs and winds: ye elves of hills, of brooks, of woods

Of standing lakes, and of the night, approach ye everyone,
Through help of whom (the crooked banks much wondering at the
thing)
I have compelled streams to run clean backward to their spring.
By charms I raise and lay the winds, and burst the viper's jaw,
And from the bowels of the earth both stones and trees do draw. . .
Shakespeare (Prospero's surrender of his art, 5.1.33-44):
Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes, and groves,-. . . by

whose aid
(Weak masters though you be) I have bedimmed
The noontide sun, called forth the mutinous winds,
Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης.-'Aκμασε γύρω στο 330 π.Χ..
Μαθηματικός και Αστρονόμος ο Πυθέας έγινε γνωστός στο

πανελλήνιο με το περίφημο εξερευνητικό ταξίδι του στον βόρειο
Ωκεανό. Το ταξίδι αυτό έγινε οργανωμένα με πλήθος πλοίων και
στόχο την εξερεύνηση και μέτρηση των βόρειων ακτών της
Ευρώπης. Η εκτέλεση αυτού του πολύχρονου, πολυδάπανου και
στρατηγικά σημαντικού ταξιδιού εκτιμάται ότι χρηματοδοτήθηκε από τον
Μ. Αλέξανδρο. Η αποστολή αυτή εκτελέστηκε με επιτυχία από τον
Πυθέα και απέδειξε ότι η Ευρώπη μέχρι την Βαλτική είναι περίβρεχτη,
ότι η Βρετανία είναι νήσος και ακόμα ότι βόρειά της, σε έξη μέρες
πλεύση, βρίσκεται η νήσος Θούλη σε απόσταση από τον πόλο της γης
όσο η απόσταση του Τροπικού από τον Ισημερινό (24°). Το ημερολόγιο
και τις παρατηρήσεις του τις περιέλαβε στο έργο του "Περί του
Ωκεανού" (Ερατοσθένης, Πολύβιος, Στράβων, Διόδωρος, Πλίνιος,
Τίμαιος).
Εκτός από το περίφημο ταξίδι του η μαθηματική του ανακάλυψη με την

οποία έγινε γνωστός στον Ελληνισμό ήταν εκείνη της μέτρησης του
γεωγραφικού πλάτους ενός τόπου με την μέτρηση του λόγου (Γνώμονα):
(Σκιά) το μεσημέρι των Τροπών ή των Ισημεριών.
Σημαντική θεωρείται και η κατασκευή Διόπτρας δικής του έμπνευσης με
την οποία πραγματοποιούσε νυχτερινές και ημερήσιες ουράνιες
σκοπεύσεις. Με αυτήν πιστεύεται ότι έδωσε τα πλάτη των βορείων
τόπων και κυρίως της Βρετανίας (Στράβων), μετρώντας το τροπικό
100
ύψος του Ηλίου, γιατί δεν μπορούσε να έχει πάντοτε τον λόγο
(Γνώμ.):
ΔΗΜΗΤΡΗΣ Ι. ΤΣΙΜΠΟΥΚΙΔΗΣ -«ΠΟΛΥΒΙΟΣ, -Ο

ΜΕΓΑΛΥΤΕΡΟΣ ΙΣΤΟΡΙΚΟΣ, ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΤΙΚΗΣ
ΕΠΟΧΗΣ»-ΕΚΔΟΣΕΙΣ «ΕΝΤΟΣ»
«Τίποτα δεν πρέπει ν’ αποδίδεται στην τύχη. Οφείλουμε ν’ αναζητούμε

την αιτία, γιατί χωρίς την αιτία δεν μπορεί να γίνει τίποτα ούτε από
εκείνα που φαίνονται ότι λογικά έχουν επιτελεστεί ούτε από εκείνα που
φαίνονται παράλογα» (Πολύβιος).
Οι εκδόσεις “ΕΝΤΟΣ” προσφέρουν στην επιστημονική κοινότητα και
το αναγνωστικό κοινό τη βελτιωμένη, συμπληρωμένη και
εικονογραφημένη β’ έκδοση της ιστορικής μελέτης “Πολύβιος, ο
μεγαλύτερος ιστορικός της ελληνιστικής εποχής”, του Δημήτρη
Τσιμπουκίδη.
Η Ιστορία του 3ου και του 2ου π.Χ. αιώνα, η ιστορική και φιλοσοφική
σκέψη που αναπτύχθηκε στην ελληνιστική περίοδο, οι ελληνο-
μακεδονικές και ελληνο-ρωμαϊκές σχέσεις, τα ελληνιστικά κράτη και οι
ελληνικές συμπολιτείες, εξετάζονται διεξοδικά στα έξι κεφάλαια του
βιβλίου του Δ. Τσιμπουκίδη.
Το βιβλίο “Πολύβιος, ο μεγαλύτερος ιστορικός της ελληνιστικής

εποχής” πραγματεύεται την “Γενική Ιστορία” του Πολύβιου, που
αποτέλεσε τη βάση για “τη διαλεκτική ενότητα των πολιτισμών ανάμεσα
σε Ανατολή και Δύση”. Προμηθευτείτε τη β’ έκδοση της μελέτης του Δ.
Ι. Τσιμπουκίδη από όλα τα κεντρικά βιβλιοπωλεία και τις εκδόσεις
“ΕΝΤΟΣ”.
-Enc. Hutchinson. rhetoric
(Greek rhetor ‘orator’). traditionally, the art of public speaking and

debate. Rhetorical skills are valued in such occupations as Politics,
teaching, law, religion, and broadcasting.
Accomplished rhetoricians need not be sincere in what they say; they

should, however, be effective, or at least entertaining. Nowadays,
‘rhetoric’ is often a pejorative term (for example, ‘Cut the rhetoric and
tell us what you really think’).
Rhyme. identity of sound, usually in the endings of lines of verse, such

as wing and sing. Avoided in Japanese, it is a common literary device in
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other Asian and European languages. Rhyme first appeared in Europe in

late Latin poetry but was not used in Classical Latin or Greek.
right-angled triangle
triangle in which One of the angles is a right angle (90°). It is the basic
form of triangle for defining trigonometrical ratios (for example, sine,
cosine, and tangent) and for which Pythagoras' theorem holds true. The
longest side of a right-angled triangle is called the hypotenuse; its area is
equal to half the product of the lengths of the two shorter sides.
Any triangle constructed with its hypotenuse as the diameter of a circle,

with its opposite vertex (corner) on the circumference, is a right-angled
triangle. This is a fundamental theorem in Geometry, first credited to
the Greek mathematician Thales about 580 BC.
Roger II 1095–1154
King of Sicily from 1130, the second son of Count Roger I of Sicily
(1031-1101). By the time he was crowned king on the authority of Pope
Innocent II (died 1143) he had achieved mastery over the whole of
Norman Italy. He used his navy to conquer Malta and territories in North
Africa, and to harass Byzantine possessions in the eastern Mediterranean.
His Palermo court was a cultural centre where Latin, Greek, and
Arab scholars mixed freely…
Roman art
sculpture and painting of ancient Rome, from the 4th century BC to the
fall of the Western Empire 5th century AD. Much Roman art was
intended for public education, notably the sculpted triumphal arches and
giant columns, such as Trajan's Column AD 106-113, and portrait
sculptures of soldiers, Politicians, and emperors. Surviving mural
paintings (in Pompeii, Rome, and Ostia) and mosaic decorations show
Greek influence. Roman art was to prove of lasting inspiration in the
West.
Realistic portrait sculpture was developed by the Romans. A cult of

heroes began and in public places official statues were erected of
generals, rulers, and philosophers. The portrait bust developed as a new
art form from about 75 BC; these were serious, factual portraits of men to
whose wisdom and authority (the busts implied) their subject nations
should reasonably submit. Strict realism in portraiture gave way to a
certain amount of Greek-style idealization in the propaganda statues
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of the emperors, befitting their semidivine status. . The art of mosaic

was found throughout the Roman Empire. It was introduced from
Greece and used for floors as well as walls and vaults, in trompe l’oeil
effects, geometric patterns, and scenes from daily life and mythology.
Romanian language
member of the Romance branch of the Indo-European language family,

spoken in Romania, Macedonia, Albania, and parts of N Greece. It has
been strongly influenced by the Slavonic languages and by Greek. The
Cyrillic alphabet was used until the 19th century, when a variant of the
Roman alphabet was adopted.
Roman religion
religious system that retained early elements of animism (with reverence

for stones and trees) and totemism (see Romulus and Remus), and had a
strong domestic base in the lares and penates, the cult of Janus and Vesta.
It also had a main pantheon of gods derivative from the Greek one,
which included Jupiter and Juno, Mars and Venus, Minerva, Diana,
Ceres, and many lesser deities.
The deification of dead emperors served a Political purpose and also

retained the idea of family- that is, that those who had served the national
family in life continued to care, as did one's ancestors, after their death.
By the time of the empire, the educated classes tended towards Stoicism
or Scepticism, but the following of mystery cults, especially within the
army (see Isis and Mithraism), proved a strong rival to early
Christianity.
Rosetta Stone
slab of basalt with inscriptions from 197 BC, found near the town of
Rosetta, Egypt, 1799. Giving the same text in three versions- Greek,
hieroglyphic, and demotic script- it became the key to deciphering other
Egyptian inscriptions.
Discovered during the French Revolutionary Wars by one of Napoleon's

officers in the town now called Rashid, in the Nile delta, the Rosetta
Stone was captured by the British 1801, and placed in the British
Museum 1802. Demotic is a cursive script (for quick writing) derived
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from Egyptian hieratic, which in turn is a more easily written form of

hieroglyphic.
Satyr in Greek mythology, a lustful, drunken woodland creature

characterized by pointed ears, two horns on the forehead, and a tail.
Satyrs attended the god of wine, Dionysus. Roman writers confused
satyrs with goat-footed fauns.
Cepticism ancient philosophical view that absolute knowledge of things

is ultimately unobtainable, hence the only proper attitude is to suspend
judgement. Its origins lay in the teachings of the Greek philosopher
Pyrrho, who maintained that peace of mind lay in renouncing all claims
to knowledge.
It was taken up in a less extreme form by the Greek Academy in the 3rd
and 2nd centuries BC. Academic sceptics claimed that although truth is
finally unknowable, a balance of probabilities can be used for coming to
decisions. The most radical form of scepticism is known as solipsism,
which maintains that the self is the only thing that can be known to exist.
Scientology. (Latin scire ‘to know’ and Greek logos ‘branch of

learning’) ‘applied religious philosophy’ based on dianetics, founded in
California in 1954 by L Ron Hubbard as the Church of Scientology. It
claims to ‘increase man’s spiritual awareness’, but its methods of
recruiting and retaining converts have been criticized. Its headquarters
from 1959 have been in Sussex, England.
Shakespeare William 1564–1616
English dramatist and poet. Established in London by 1589 as an actor

and a dramatist, he was England’s unrivalled dramatist until his death,
and is considered the greatest English dramatist. His plays, written in
blank verse with some prose, can be broadly divided into lyric plays,
including Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Night’s Dream; comedies,
including The Comedy of Errors, As You Like It, Much Ado About
Nothing, and Measure For Measure; Historical plays, such as Henry VI
(in three parts), Richard III, and Henry IV (in two parts), which often
showed cynical Political wisdom; and tragedies, such as Hamlet,
Macbeth, and King Lear. He also wrote numerous sonnets.
Born in Stratford-on-Avon, the son of a wool dealer, he was educated at

the grammar school, and in 1582 married Anne Hathaway. They had a
daughter, Susanna, 1583, and twins Hamnet (died 1596) and Judith 1595.
Early plays, written around 1589-93, were the tragedy Titus Andronicus;
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the comedies The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, and The
Two Gentlemen of Verona; the three parts of Henry VI; and Richard III.
About 1593 he came under the patronage of the Earl of Southampton, to
whom he dedicated his long poems Venus and Adonis 1593 and The
Rape of Lucrece 1594; he also wrote for him the comedy Love’s
Labour’s Lost, satirizing the explorer Walter Raleigh’s circle, and seems
to have dedicated to him his sonnets written around 1593-96, in which the
mysterious ‘Dark Lady’ appears.
From 1594 Shakespeare was a member of the Chamberlain’s (later the

King’s) company of players, and had no rival as a dramatist, writing, for
example, the lyric plays Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night’s Dream,
and Richard II 1595-97, followed by King John and The Merchant of
Venice 1596-97…
With Hamlet begins the period of the great tragedies, 1601-08: Othello,
Macbeth, King Lear, Timon of Athens, Antony and Cleopatra, and
Coriolanus. This ‘darker’ period is also reflected in the comedies
Troilus and Cressida, All’s Well That Ends Well, and Measure for
Measure around 1601-04. It is thought that Shakespeare was only part
author of Pericles, which is grouped with the other plays of around 1608-
11- Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, and The Tempest- as the mature
romance or ‘reconciliation’ plays of the end of his career. During 1613 it
is thought that Shakespeare collaborated with John Fletcher on Henry
VIII and Two Noble Kinsmen. He had already retired to Stratford about
1610, where he died on 23 April 1616. For the first 200 years after his
death, Shakespeare’s plays were frequently performed in cut or revised
form (Nahum Tate’s King Lear was given a happy ending), and it was not
until the 19th century, with the critical assessment of Samuel Coleridge
and William Hazlitt, that the Original texts were restored.
sigma eighteenth letter (S, s) of Greek alphabet; thousandth part of

second. sigmate, adj. having shape of S or S; v.t. add -s in tense
formation. sigmatism, n. inability to pronounce sibilants.
Siren in Greek mythology, a sea nymph who lured sailors to their deaths
along rocky coasts by her singing. Odysseus, in order to hear the sirens
safely, tied himself to the mast of his ship and stuffed his crew's ears with
wax.
The Argonauts escaped them because the singing of Orpheus surpassed

that of the sirens.
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Socratic pertaining to Socrates, Greek philosopher, and his method of

argument. Socratic irony, method of argument by pretending ignorance
and asking seemingly simple questions in order to draw opponent into
making errors or rash statements. Socratic method, instruction by asking
questions.
Sophist (Greek sophistes ‘wise man’)
one of a group of 5th-century BC itinerant lecturers on culture, rhetoric,

and Politics. Sceptical about the possibility of achieving genuine
knowledge, they applied bogus reasoning and were concerned with
winning arguments rather than establishing the truth. Plato regarded them
as dishonest and sophistry came to mean fallacious reasoning.
Stereotype (Greek ‘fixed impression’)
in sociology, a fixed, exaggerated, and preconceived description about a

certain type of person, group, or society.
It is based on prejudice rather than fact, but by repetition and with time,
stereotypes become fixed in people's minds, resistant to change or factual
evidence to the contrary.
The term, Originally used for a method of duplicate printing, was

adopted in a social sense by the US journalist Walter Lippman in 1922.
Stereotypes can prove dangerous when used to justify persecution and
discrimination. Some sociologists believe that stereotyping reflects a
power structure in which one group in society uses labelling to keep
another group ‘in its place’.
Stoicism (Greek stoa ‘porch’). Greek school of philosophy, founded

about 300 BC by Zeno of Citium. The stoics were pantheistic
materialists who believed that happiness lay in accepting the law of the
universe. They emphasized human brotherhood, denounced slavery, and
were internationalist. The name is derived from the porch on which
Zeno taught. In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, stoics took a
prominent part in Greek and Roman revolutionary movements.
After the 1st century BC stoicism became the philosophy of the Roman
ruling class and lost its revolutionary significance; outstanding stoics of
this period were Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
Synergy. (Greek ‘combined action’)in architecture, the augmented

strength of systems, where the strength of a wall is greater than the added
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total of its individual units. Examples are the stone walls of early South
American civilizations, which held together without cement or mortar.
Technetium. (Greek technetos ‘artificial’)-silver-grey, radioactive,

metallic element, symbol Tc, atomic number 4.
Terence (Publius Terentius Afer) 190–159 BC
΄terns Roman dramatist. Born in Carthage, he was taken as a slave to

Rome where he was freed and came under the patronage of the Roman
general Scipio Africanus Minor. His surviving six comedies (including
The Eunuch 161 BC) are subtly characterized and based on Greek
models. They were widely read and performed during the Middle Ages
and the Renaissance.
Thalassa (Greek)-‘the sea’, especially exclamation of the Greek

soldiers on seeing the Black Sea in the Anabasis. thalassaemia
theatre performance by actors for an audience; it may include drama,

dancing, music, mime, and puppets. The term is also used for the place
or building in which dramatic performances take place. theatre History
can be traced to Egyptian religious ritualistic drama as long ago as 3200
BC. The first known European theatres were in Greece from about 600
BC. History The earliest Greek theatres were open spaces, possibly
associated with the worship of the god Dionysus. The great theatre of
Dionysus at Athens provided for an audience of 15,000-20,000 people
sitting in tiers on the surrounding slopes. Facing this banked auditorium
was a scene- building, built Originally of wood and then reconstructed in
stone c. 340 BC. The design served as a model for the theatres that were
erected in all the main cities of the Graeco-Roman world. Examples of
Roman theatres exist at Orange, France, St Albans, England, and
elsewhere. But after the collapse of the Roman Empire the theatres fell
into disuse.
In medieval times, temporary stages of wood and canvas, some mounted

on pageant wagons, were set up side by side in fairgrounds and market
squares for the performance of mimes and miracle plays. Small enclosed
theatres were built in the 16th century, for example in Vicenza, Italy (by
the architect Palladio). The first London theatre was built in
Shoreditch 1576 by James Burbage, who also opened the First
covered theatre in London, the Blackfriars, 1596. His son, Cuthbert
Burbage, was responsible for building the Globe Theatre, the venue
for Shakespeare's plays. The tradition of open-air performances was
continued in the Italian commedia dell'arte, originating in the 16th
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century. In the 17th and 18th centuries most theatrical productions were
performed indoors under licence, until the greater commercialization of
the 19th century. Historic London theatres include the Haymarket (1720,
rebuilt 1821), Drury Lane (1663), and Her Majesty's (1705), both rebuilt
several times. The English Stage Company was established at the Royal
Court theatre 1956 to provide a platform for new works.
Thesaurus. (Greek ‘treasure’)-collection of synonyms or words with

related meaning. Thesaurus compilers include Francis Bacon, Comenius
(1592-1670), and Peter Mark Roget, whose work was published 1852.
Tradescant John 1570–1638. English gardener and botanist, who travelled

widely in Europe and is thought to have introduced the cos lettuce to
England from the Greek island bearing the same name. He was
appointed gardener to Charles I and was succeeded by his son, John
Tradescant the Younger (1608-1662), after his death. The younger
Tradescant undertook three plant-collecting trips to Virginia, USA, and
the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus named the genus Tradescantia (the
spider worts) in his honour. The Tradescants introduced many new plants
to Britain, including the acacia, lilac, and occidental plane. Their
collection of plants formed the nucleus of the Ashmolean Museum in
Oxford.
Tragedy. in the theatre, a play dealing with a serious theme, traditionally

one in which a character meets disaster as a result either of personal
failings or circumstances beyond his or her control. Historically the
Classical view of tragedy, as expressed by the Greek tragedians
Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, and the Roman tragedian Seneca,
has been predominant in the Western tradition. In the 20th century
tragedies dealing with exalted or heroic figures in an elevated manner
have virtually died out. Tragedy has been replaced by dramas with
‘tragic’ implications or overtones, as in the work of Ibsen, O’Neill,
Tennessee Williams, and Osborne, for example, or by the problem plays
of Pirandello, Brecht, and Beckett.
The Greek view of tragedy was developed by the philosopherAristotle,

but it was the Roman Seneca (whose works were probably intended to be
read rather than acted) who influenced the Elizabethan tragedies of
Marlowe and Shakespeare. French Classical tragedy developed under
the influence of both Seneca and an interpretation of Aristotle which
gave rise to the theory of unities of time, place, and action, as observed
by Racine, one of its greatest exponents. In Germany the tragedies of
Goethe and Schiller led to the exaggerated melodrama, which replaced
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pure tragedy. In the 18th century attempts were made to ‘domesticate’

tragedy, notably by Lessing, but it was the realistic dramas of Ibsen that
confirmed the transformation of serious tragedy in the theatre, a play
dealing with a serious theme, traditionally one in which a character
meets disaster as a result either of personal failings or circumstances
beyond his or her control. Historically the Classical view of tragedy, as
expressed by the Greek tragedians Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles,
and the Roman tragedian Seneca, has been predominant in the Western
tradition. In the 20th century tragedies dealing with exalted or heroic
figures in an elevated manner have virtually died out. Tragedy has been
replaced by dramas with ‘tragic’ implications or overtones, as in the
work of Ibsen, O’Neill, Tennessee Williams, and Osborne, for example,
or by the problem plays of Pirandello, Brecht, and Beckett.
The Greek view of tragedy was developed by the

philosopherAristotle, but it was the Roman Seneca (whose works were
probably intended to be read rather than acted) who influenced the
Elizabethan tragedies of Marlowe and Shakespeare. French Classical
tragedy developed under the influence of both Seneca and an
interpretation of Aristotle which gave rise to the theory of unities of
time, place, and action, as observed by Racine, one of its greatest
exponents. In Germany the tragedies of Goethe and Schiller led to the
exaggerated melodrama, which replaced pure tragedy. In the 18th
century attempts were made to ‘domesticate’ tragedy, notably by
Lessing, but it was the realistic dramas of Ibsen that confirmed the
transformation of serious drama.
Trompe. (French ‘deceives the eye’)-painting that gives a convincing

illusion of three-dimensional reality. As an artistic technique, it has been
in common use in most stylistic periods in the West, originating in
Classical Greek art.
Tyche. personification of Chance in Classical Greek thought, whose

cult developed in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, when it was
identified with that of the Roman Fortuna.
Utopia. (Greek ‘no place’)-any ideal state in literature, named after

philosopher Thomas More’s ideal commonwealth in his book Utopia
1516. Other versions include Plato’s Republic, Francis Bacon’s New
Atlantis, and City of the Sun by the Italian Tommaso Campanella (1568-
1639). Utopias are a common subject in science fiction. See also
dystopia.
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Verse. arrangement of words in a rhythmic pattern, which may depend

on the length of syllables (as in Greek or Latin verse), or on stress, as in
English. Classical Greek verse depended upon quantity, a long
syllable being regarded as occupying twice the time taken up by a
short syllable. In English verse syllables are either stressed (strong) or
unstressed (weak), and are combined in feet, examples of which are: …
endings of words) was introduced to W European verse in late Latin
poetry, and alliteration (repetition of the same initial letter in successive
words) was the dominant feature of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Both these
elements helped to make verse easily remembered in the days when it
was spoken rather than written. form The Spenserian stanza (in which
Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene) has nine iambic lines rhyming
ababbcbcc. In English, the sonnet has 14 lines, generally of ten
syllables each; it has several rhyme schemes. Blank verse, consisting of
unrhymed five-stress lines, as used by Marlowe, Shakespeare, and
Milton, develops an inner cohesion that replaces the props provided by
rhyme and stanza. It became the standard metre for English dramatic
and epic poetry. Free verse, or vers libre, avoids rhyme, stanza form, and
any obvious rhythmical basis.
Wilkins William 1778–1839
English architect. He pioneered the Greek Revival in England with his

design for Downing College, Cambridge, 1807-20. Other works include
the main block of University College London 1827-28, and the National
Gallery, London, 1834-38.
Xenon. (Greek xenos ‘stranger’)-colourless, odourless, gaseous, non-

metallic element, symbol Xe, atomic number 54, relative atomic mass
131.30. It is grouped with the inert gases and was long believed not to
enter into reactions, but is now known to form some compounds, mostly
with fluorine. It is a heavy gas present in very small quantities in the air
(about one part in 20 million). Xenon is used in bubble chambers, light
bulbs, vacuum tubes, and lasers. It was discovered in 1898 in a residue
from liquid air by Scottish chemists William Ramsay and Morris
Travers.
Byron George Gordon, 6th Baron Byron 1788–1824
English poet. He became the symbol of Romanticism and Political

liberalism throughout Europe in the 19th century. His reputation was
established with the first two cantos of Childe Harold 1812. Later works
include The Prisoner of Chillon 1816, Beppo 1818, Mazeppa 1819, and,
most notably, the satirical Don Juan 1819-24. He left England 1816,
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spending most of his later life in Italy. Born in London and educated at
Harrow and Cambridge, Byron published his First volume Hours of
Idleness 1807 and attacked its harsh critics in English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers 1809. Overnight fame came with the First two cantos of
Childe Harold, romantically describing his tours in Portugal, Spain, and
the Balkans (third canto 1816, fourth 1818). In 1815 he married
mathematician Anne Milbanke (1792-1860), with whom he had a
daughter, Augusta Ada Byron, separating from her a year later amid much
scandal. He then went to Europe, where he became friendly with Percy
and Mary Shelley. He engaged in Italian revolutionary Politics and
sailed for Greece 1823 to further the Greek struggle for
independence, but died of fever at Missolonghi. He is remembered for
his lyrics, his colloquially easy Letters, and as the ‘patron saint’ of
Romantic liberalism.
Greek language
member of the Indo-European language family, which has passed

through at least five distinct phases since the 2nd millennium BC:
Ancient Greek 14th-12th centuries BC; Archaic Greek, including
Homeric epic language, until 800 BC; Classical Greek until 400 BC;
Hellenistic Greek, the common language of Greece, Asia Minor, W
Asia, and Egypt to the 4th century AD, and Byzantine Greek, used until
the 15th century and still the ecclesiastical language of the Greek
Orthodox Church. Modern Greek is principally divided into the general
vernacular (Demotic Greek) and the language of education and
literature (Katharevousa). In its earlier phases Greek was spoken mainly
in Greece, the Aegean islands, the west coast of Asia Minor, and in
colonies in Sicily, the Italian mainland, S Spain, and S France. Hellenistic
Greek was an important language not only in the Middle East but also in
the Roman Empire generally, and is the form also known as New
Testament Greek (in which the Gospels and other books of the New
Testament of the Bible were first written). Byzantine Greek was not
only an imperial but also an ecclesiastical language, the medium of the
Greek Orthodox Church. Modern Greek, in both its forms, is spoken in
Greece and in Cyprus, as well as wherever Greeks have settled
throughout the world (principally Canada, the USA, and Australia).
Classical Greek word forms continue to have a great influence in the
world’s scientific and technical vocabulary, and make up a large part of
the technical vocabulary of English.
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Gymnastics. physical exercises, Originally for health and training (so

called from the way in which men of ancient Greece trained: gymnos
‘naked’). The gymnasia were schools for training competitors for public
games. Men’s gymnastics includes high bar, parallel bars, horse vault,
rings, pommel horse, and floor exercises. Women’s gymnastics includes
asymmetrical bars, side horse vault, balance beam, and floor exercises.
Also popular are sports acrobatics, performed by gymnasts in pairs, trios,
or fours to music, where the emphasis is on dance, balance, and timing,
and rhythmic gymnastics, choreographed to music and performed by
individuals or six- girl teams, with small hand apparatus such as a ribbon,
ball, or hoop. Gymnastics was first revived in 19th-century Germany as
an aid to military strength, and was also taken up by educationists
including Froebel and Pestalozzi, becoming a recognized part of the
school curriculum. Today it is a popular spectator sport.
Hedonism. ethical theory that pleasure or happiness is, or should be, the
main goal in life. Hedonist sects in ancient Greece were the Cyrenaics,
who held that the pleasure of the moment is the only human good, and the
Epicureans, who advocated the pursuit of pleasure under the direction of
reason. Modern hedonistic philosophies, such as those of the British
philosophers Jeremy Bentham and J S Mill, regard the happiness of
society, rather than that of the individual, as the aim.
Lear Edward 1812–1888
English artist and humorist. His Book of Nonsense 1846 popularized the
limerick (a five-line humorous verse). He first attracted attention by his
paintings of birds, and later turned to landscapes. He travelled to Italy,
Greece, Egypt, and India, publishing books on his travels with his own
illustrations, and spent most of his later life in Italy.
Novel. extended fictional prose narrative, often including some sense of

the psychoLogical development of the central characters and of their
relationship with a broader world. The modern novel took its name and
inspiration from the Italian novella, the short tale of varied character
which became popular in the late 13th century. As the main form of
narrative fiction in the 20th century, the novel is frequently classified
according to genres and subgenres such as the Historical novel, detective
fiction, fantasy, and science fiction.
The European novel is said to have originated in Greece in the 2nd

century BC. Ancient Greek examples include the Daphnis and Chloλ of
Longus; almost the only surviving Latin work that could be called a
novel is the Golden Ass of Apuleius (late 2nd century), based on a Greek
112
model. There is a similar, but until the 19th century independent,

tradition of prose narrative including psychoLogical development in the
Far East, notably in Japan, with for example The Tale of Genji by
Murasaki Shikibu. The works of the Italian writers Boccaccio and
Matteo Bandello (1485-1561) were translated into English in such
collections as William Painter’s Palace of Pleasure 1566-67, and inspired
the Elizabethan novelists, including John Lyly, Philip Sidney, Thomas
Nash, and Thomas Lodge. In Spain, Cervantes’ Don Quixote 1604
contributed to the development of the novel through its translation into
other European languages, but the 17th century was dominated by the
French romances of Gauthier de Costes de La Calprenθde (1614-1663)
and Madelaine de Scudιry (1607-1691), although William Congreve and
Aphra Behn continued the English tradition.
Philosophy. (Greek ‘love of wisdom’)-branch of learning that includes

metaphysics (the nature of being), epistemology (theory of knowledge),
Logic (study of valid inference), ethics, and aesthetics. Philosophy is
concerned with fundamental problems- including the nature of mind and
matter, perception, self, free will, causation, time and space, and the
existence of moral judgements- which cannot be resolved by a specific
method. Oldest of all philosophical systems is the Vedic system from
about 2500 BC, but, like many other Eastern systems, it rests on a
primarily mystic basis. The first scientific system originated in Greece
in the 6th century BC with the Milesian school (Thales,
Anaximander, Anaximenes). Both they and later pre-Socratics
(Pythagoras, Xenophon, Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, Empedocles,
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus) were lively theorists, and ideas
such as atomism, developed by Democritus, occur in later schemes of
thought. Originally, philosophy included all intellectual endeavour,
but over time traditional branches of philosophy have acquired their
own status as separate areas of study. In the 5th century Socrates,
foremost among the teachers known as the Sophists, laid the
foundation of ethics; Plato evolved a system of universal ideas;
Aristotle developed Logic. Later schools include Epicureanism
(Epicurus), stoicism (Zeno) and scepticism (Pyrrho); the eclectics- not a
school, they selected what appealed to them from various systems
(Cicero and Seneca); and the Neo- Platonists, infusing a mystic element
into the system of Plato (Philo, Plotinus and, as disciple, Julian the
Apostate). The close of the Athenian schools of philosophy by Justinian
AD 529 marks the end of ancient philosophy, though many of its
teachers moved eastwards; Greek thought emerges in Muslim
philosophers such as Avicenna and Averroes, and the Jewish
Maimonides. For the West the work of Aristotle was transmitted through
113
Boethius. Study by medieval scholastic philosophers, mainly concerned

with the reconciliation of ancient philosophy with Christian belief,
began in the 9th century with John Scotus Erigena and includes Anselm,
Abelard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, his opponent Duns Scotus,
and William of Occam. In the 17th century Descartes, with his rationalist
determination to doubt and faith in mathematical proof, marks the
beginning of contemporary philosophy, and was followed by Spinoza,
Leibniz, and Hobbes. The empiricists, principally an 18th-century
English school (Locke, Berkeley, Hume), turned instead to physics as
indicating what can be known and how, and led up to the transcendental
criticism of Kant. In the early 19th century Classical German idealism
(Fichte, Schelling, Hegel) repudiated Kant's limitation of human
knowledge; in France Comte developed the positivist thought that
attracted Mill and Spencer. Notable also in the 19th century are the
pessimistic atheism of Schopenhauer; the dialectical materialism of Marx
and Engels; the work of Nietzsche and Kierkegaard, which led towards
20th- century existentialism; the pragmatism of James and Dewey; and
the absolute idealism at the turn of the century of the Neo- Hegelians
(Bradley, Royce).
Robert Guiscard c. 1015–1085
Norman adventurer and duke of Apulia. Robert, also known as ‘the

Wizard’, carved out a fiefdom centred on Apulia in southern Italy, of
which he became duke 1059. By 1071 he had expelled the Byzantines
from southern Italy and the Arabs from Sicily, establishing his younger
brother Roger as count and laying the foundations for the Norman
kingdom of Sicily. He imposed a centralized feudal state over an
Ethnically diverse realm, and was a great patron of the Catholic church.
Robert was the son of an obscure Norman, Tancred de Hauteville, and
from c. 1047 he helped his family in its struggles with the Byzantines,
ejecting them from Calabria and defeating the Byzantine-Lombard-Papal
army at Civitate 1053, where he briefly took Pope Leo IX prisoner. He
benefited from the schism between the Orthodox and Catholic churches
1054, because his success against the Byzantines and his plan to rid
Sicily of Arabs brought him back into papal favour. One result was his
investiture with the duchy of Apulia and lordship of Calabria and Sicily
1059. Incursions into papal territory earned him excommunication 1075,
and the following year he defeated the Pope's Lombard allies and
captured Salerno, which he made his capital. Amicable relations with
Pope Gregory VII were restored 1080, allowing him to wage war against
the Byzantines along the Adriatic coast 1081-82. After a pause to prevent
114
Gregory VII falling to Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV 1083, he returned

to his Illyrian campaigns, dying at the siege of Cephalonia, in Greece.
Scots language. the form of the English language as traditionally spoken

and written in Scotland, regarded by some scholars as a distinct
language. Scots derives from the Northumbrian dialect of Anglo-Saxon
or Old English, and has been a literary language since the 14th century.
It is also known as Inglis (now archaic, and a variant of ‘English’),
Lallans (‘Lowlands’), Lowland Scots (in contrast with the Gaelic of the
Highlands and Islands), and ‘the Doric’ (as a rustic language in contrast
with the ‘Attic’ or ‘Athenian’ language of Edinburgh’s literati,
especially in the 18th century). It is also often referred to as Broad Scots
in contrast to the anglicized language of the middle classes.
Scots has been spoken in SE Scotland since the 7th century. During the
Middle Ages it spread to the far north, blending with the Norn dialects of
Orkney and Shetland (once distinct varieties of Norse). Scots has a wide
range of poetry, ballads, and prose records, including two national epic
poems: Barbour’s Bruce and Blind Harry’s Wallace. With the transfer of
the court to England upon the Union of the Crowns in 1603 and the
dissemination of the King James Bible, Scots ceased to be a national and
court language, but has retained its vitality among the general population
and in various literary and Linguistic revivals. Words originating in
Scots that are now widely used in English include bonnie (= good-
looking), glamour, raid and wee (= small). In Scotland a wide range of
traditional Scots usage intermixes with standard English.
Acronym. word formed from the initial letters and/or syllables of other
words, intended as a pronounceable abbreviation; for example, NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), radar (radio detecting and ranging),
RAM (random-access memory) and FORTRAN (formula tranlation).
Many Acronyms are so successfully incorporated into everyday
language that their origin as abbreviations is widely overlooked. Full
stops are not normally used in Acronyms.
Anglo-Saxon
Οne of the several Germanic invaders (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) who
conquered much of Britain between the 5th and 7th centuries. After the
conquest kingdoms were set up, which are commonly referred to as the
Heptarchy; these were united in the early 9th century under the
overlordship of Wessex. The Norman invasion 1066 brought Anglo-
Saxon rule to an end. The Jutes probably came from the Rhineland and
not, as was formerly believed, from Jutland. The Angles and Saxons came
115
from Schleswig-Holstein, and may have united before invading. The

Angles settled largely in East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria; the
Saxons in Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; and the Jutes in Kent and S
Hampshire. There was probably considerable intermarriage with the
Romanized Celts of ancient Britain, although the latter's language and
civilization almost disappeared. The English- speaking peoples of Britain,
the Commonwealth, and the USA are often referred to today as Anglo-
Saxons, but the term is inaccurate, as the Welsh, Scots, and Irish are
mainly of Celtic or Norse descent, and by the 1980s fewer than 15% of
Americans were of British descent.
Chrestomathy. collection of short written passages, especially in foreign

language; phrase-book. chrestomathic pertaining to useful knowledge.
Cyril and Methodius, Sts. two brothers, both Christian saints: Cyril
826-869 and Methodius 815-885. Born in Thessalonica, they were sent as
missionaries to what is today Moravia. They invented a Slavonic
alphabet, and translated the Bible and the liturgy from Greek to
Slavonic. The language (known as Old Church Slavonic) remained in
use in churches and for literature among Bulgars, Serbs, and Russians up
to the 17th century. The cyrillic alphabet is named after Cyril and may
also have been invented by him. Feast day 14 Feb.
Diglossia. co-existence of a (in social and literary terms) higher and

lower form of the same language.
English language
member of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.

It is traditionally described as having passed through four major stages
over about 1,500 years: Old English or Anglo-Saxon (c. 500-1050),
rooted in the dialects of invading settlers (Jutes, Saxons, Angles, and
Frisians); Middle English (c. 1050-1550), influenced by Norman French
after the Conquest 1066 and by ecclesiastical Latin; Early Modern
English (c. 1550-1700), including a standardization of the diverse
influences of Middle English; and Late Modern English (c. 1700
onwards), including in particular the development and spread of current
Standard English. Through extensive exploration, colonization, and trade,
English spread worldwide from the 17th century onwards and remains the
most important international language of trade and technology. It is used
in many variations, for example, British, American, Canadian, West
Indian, Indian, Singaporean, and Nigerian English, and many pidgins and
creoles.
116
Historical roots The ancestral forms of English were dialects brought

from the NW coastlands of Europe to Britain by Angle, Saxon, and Jutish
invaders who gained footholds in the SE in the 5th century and over the
next 200 years extended and consolidated their settlements from S
England to the middle of Scotland. Scholars distinguish four main early
dialects: of the Jutes in Kent, the Saxons in the south, the Mercians or S
Angles in the Midlands, and the Northumbrians or N Angles north of the
Humber. Until the Danish invasions 9th-11th centuries, Old English was a
highly inflected language but appears to have lost many of its
grammatical endings in the interaction with Danish, creating a more open
or analytic style of language that was further changed by the influence of
Norman French after the Conquest 1066. For several centuries English
was in competition with other languages: first the various Celtic
languages of Britain, then Danish, then French as the language of
Plantagenet England and Latin as the language of the Church. In
Scotland, English was in competition with Gaelic and Welsh as well as
French and Latin (see Scots language).
In 1362 English replaced French as the language of the law courts of

England, although the records continued for some time to be kept in
Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was a court poet at this time and strongly
influenced the literary style of the London dialect. When William Caxton
set up his printing press in London 1477 the new hybrid language
(vernacular English mixed with courtly French and scholarly Latin)
became increasingly standardized, and by 1611, when the Authorized
(King James) Version of the Bible was published, the educated English of
the Home Counties and London had become the core of what is now
called Standard English. Great dialect variation remained, and still
remains, throughout Britain.
By the end of the 16th century, English was firmly established in four
countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and with the
establishment of the colonies in North America in the early 17th century
was spoken in what are now the USA, Canada, and the West Indies.
Seafaring, exploration, commerce, and colonial expansion in due course
took both the standard language and other varieties throughout the world.
By the time of Johnson's dictionary 1755 and the American Declaration
of Independence 1776, English was international and recognizable as the
language we use today.
current usage The orthography of English was more or less established

by 1650, and, in England in particular, a form of standard educated
speech (known as Received Pronunciation) spread from the major public
117
(private) schools in the 19th century. This accent was adopted in the early
20th century by the BBC for its announcers and readers, and is variously
known as RP, BBC English, Oxford English, and the King’s or Queen’s
English. It was the socially dominant accent of the British Empire and
retains prestige as a model for those learning the language. In the UK,
however, it is no longer as sought after as it once was.
Generally, Standard English today does not depend on accent but rather
on shared educational experience, mainly of the printed language.
Present-day English is an immensely varied language, having absorbed
material from many other tongues. It is spoken by more than 300
million native speakers, and between 400 and 800 million foreign
users. It is the official language of air transport and shipping; the
leading language of science, technology, computers, and commerce;
and a major medium of education, publishing, and international
negotiation. For this reason scholars frequently refer to its latest
phase as World English.
Philosophy and Cognitive Science-Cognitive Turn and Linguistic

Turn-Jean-Michel-Roy-University of Bordeaux-ABSTRACT: My first
goal is to question a received view about the development of Analytical
Philosophy. According to this received view Analytical Philosophy is
born out of a Linguistic Turn establishing the study of language as the
foundation of the discipline; this primacy of language is then overthrown
by the return of the study of mind as philosophia prima through a second
Cognitive Turn taken in the mid-sixties. My contention is that this picture
is a gross oversimplification and that the Cognitive Turn should better be
seen as an extension of the Linguistic one. Indeed, if the Cognitive Turn
gives explicit Logical priority to the study of mind over the study of
language, one of its central features is to see the mind as a
representational system offering no substantial difference with a
Linguistic one. However, no justification is offered for the fundamental
assimilation of the nature of a mental representation with that of a
Linguistic symbol supporting this picture of the mind, although the idea
that a system of mental representations is identical in structure with a
system of Linguistic symbols has been argued over and over. I try to
demonstrate this point through a close critical examination of Fodor's
paradigmatic notion of 'double reduction.' My second claim is that the
widespread contemporary assimilation of a mental representation with a
symbol of a Linguistic kind is no more than a prejudice. Finally I
indicate that this prejudice cannot survive a rigorous critical examination.
13. WITTGENSTEIN AND LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

118
Having now examined three ways of applying the Logical distinction

between "analysis" and "synthesis", and having explored in some detail
its application to the Geometry of Logic, the remaining task in this
second part of our course is to consider some of the ways in which an
over-emphasis on either analysis or synthesis has shaped the way some
philosophers have developed their ideas. As I mentioned in the very
first lecture, among the various developments in western philosophy
during the twentieth century, two movements have been most influential:
Linguistic analysis and existentialism. Most versions of the former have
emphasized the importance of analysis, and most versions of the latter,
synthesis, so much as to neglect or even explicitly reject the significance
of the opposing trend. Yet as we have come to expect, given the
complementary relationship between analysis and synthesis, the
continued existence of each trend depends on that of the other, for they
are complementary poles of a single movement. Hence it should come as
no surprise to find that, as we approach the close of this century, both
trends are passing away together, and being replaced gradually by other
ways of thinking. If we had more time, it would be interesting to
examine more recent movements, such as the deconstructionist and
hermeneutic schools of thought. But these trends are still in the process
of developing, and so would be more difficult to view objectively; hence
we shall pass over them in this course.
Επιλογή αποσπασμάτων απο το A. G. Rigg, The English Language: A

Historical Reader. Για θέματα που έχουν σχέση με λέξεις,
ελληνικά, επίδραση, Γλώσσα κ.λ.π.
119
The main purpose of this collection is to present texts that illustrate the
changing possibilities of expression within the language, by showing
how writers of widely differing periods coped with the same texts. The
first section, I through XXI, consists of parallel passages, in which a
common Original lies behind each of the English translations. In some
cases the Originals may have differed slightly. For instance, in the
passages from the Bible, the Old and Middle English translators used the
Latin Vulgate of Jerome, whereas the Hebrew of the Old Testament
and the Greek of the New Testament were used for the King James
version of 1611 and the New English Bible of 1961. Essentially the
same needs of expression had nevertheless to be met. The notes after each
set of texts point out the main differences in source. The second section,
XXII through XXXIV, consists of passages of Old and Middle English,
from the ninth to the fifteenth century, all of which were written without
any dependence on a text to be translated.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
The purpose of this Introduction is not to replace in any way the full-
length treatments in the books mentioned in the last paragraph, but to
demonstrate how the book may be used, what particular points the student
should look for, and how the information may be related to further
generalizations about the development of the language as a whole. Below
are printed four versions of Matthew 2:1-15 on the attendance of the
Magi at the Nativity;2 they are taken from the Old English version of ca.
A.D. 1000, the "Wycliffite" translation by John Purvey (late fourteenth
century), the King James Authorized Version of 1611 (KJ), and the New
English Bible of 1961 (NEB). The New English Bible aimed at a
translation "in which an attempt should be made consistently to use the
idiom of contemporary English to convey the meaning of the Greek"
(pp. viii-ix).
VOCABULARY
Many OE words have disappeared from our vocabulary, many of them by

the time of ME. Some of them may have been lost because the things
120
they denoted changed or vanished, others because they were pushed out
by newer words. Most evident of all is the influence of other languages
on the native vocabulary. First of all the Danish invasions and
settlements of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries contributed a large
number of Norse words to the English lexicon, particularly in Northern
dialects, from which many of them eventually entered Standard English.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 brought into English many words of
Romance origin, first of all in a Norman form, and later from Central
French (the latter often from literary sources as well as from the spoken
language). The consequent flexibility of English made it easy for it to
adopt and to adapt many words directly from Latin, and ultimately
from Greek, particularly in the language of science. All these
influences on the vocabulary can be seen by comparing passages in a
tabular fashion, as below. The emergence in ME of "phrasal" verbs,
formed by verb + adverb (set out,
The following OE words are not used in the ME version: H lend,

cenned, tungolw tega, ( ast-)d l, ge- adm dan, ge-dr fed, ealdras, s cerd,
w tega, heretoga, sunderspr c, befr nan (befr n), æt owan (or æt wan), c
þan, f ran, fægenian, gef a, ðenian, unt nan, l c, r cels, f n ( f ngon),
hwyrfan, r ce, Drihten, engel, forspillan, forðs ð, reccan, sw ðe, gangan.
Many of these words did not survive long after the Conquest; some of
them (e.g., gang) lived on in dialects but were evidently not the most
acceptable to the ME translator. The following were extant in ME
(some still survive) but were not used by Purvey: cweðan of which the
past singular quoth, quod, is used by Chaucer; writeras; folc; xian
(used by the ME at 8), georne (the adverb is used by Chaucer), faran,
ge-m tan (MnE would probably say meet with), s þl ce, myclum,
goldhordas, br hton (from bringan), swefnum (frequent in Chaucer).
The OE engel, which would have given MnE *engle or *ingle, is from
Greek angelos ( ), the source of the later borrowing a(u)ngel
from French. Note that OE ge-fylled has been reinforced by ful- to
produce fulfilled.
A few words are found in the OE and ME versions but not later: 7, 15,
clypode, clepide, which survives later as a poetic archaism yclept
'named'; 8 xiað, axe (MnE ask); 12 andsware, aunswere (MnE answer)
translate Vulgate responso. The Greek New Testament seems to have
had a word meaning "warned."
It is very important to note that the Old English versions, Rolle's Psalter,
and the Wycliffite Bible are all based on the Latin Vulgate by Jerome
(fourth century), whereas later translations were made directly from the
121
Hebrew. The main differences are indicated in the Notes at the end of
each section; the apparatus would have been overburdened if notice had
been taken of all such variations—for instance, medieval MSS of the
Vulgate frequently differ, and tend to be contaminated by the Old Latin
version (pre-Jerome) and by the Greek Septuagint. On the whole
subject of biblical translations, see the collection of essays in The Bible
in its Ancient and English versions, ed. H. W. Robinson (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1940).
THE NEW TESTAMENT
For general remarks on English biblical translations, see the preface to

the Old Testament selections, p. 39-40. The Old English passages are
taken from the eleventh century late West-Saxon Gospels, ed. J. W. Bright
(Boston: Belles Lettres Series, St. John and St. Matthew, 1904, St. Luke,
1906). For a full reference to the Wycliffite (Purvey) translation into
Middle English, and to the King James Authorized Version of 1611, see p.
39 above. Passages are given from the 1534 revised version of Tyndale's
New Testament, ed. N. H. Wallis (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1938). The modern translation is from the New English Bible:
New Testament (London: Oxford University Press and Cambridge
University Press, 1961). The Old English (West-Saxon) Gospels and the
Wycliffite Bible are based on the Latin Vulgate by Jerome; later versions
(including Tyndale) are translated directly from the Original Greek. In
some minor cases the New English Bible differs from the King James and
Tyndale, because of modern textual revisions...
Therefore, in view of all these things, there is no one who can reasonably
deny that there was a king of this country called Arthur. For in all places,
both Christian and heAthen, he is reckoned and counted as One of the
Nine Worthies, and as the first of the Three Christians. Also he is more
spoken of abroad, and more books are written about his noble deeds
there, than in England, not only in French, but also in German,
Italian, Spanish and Greek. And still in his memory there survive in
Wales, at the town of Camelot, as witnesses to his existence, the huge
stones and marvellous works of iron lying under the ground, and the
royal vaults which many people still alive have seen. It is, therefore,
remarkable that he is no longer honored in his own country—except that
122
it is in accordance with the word of God which states that no man is

accepted as a prophet in his own country...
Ο Γεώργιος Γεμιστός Πλήθων και η Ιταλική Αναγέννηση [video]

σκηνοθεσία σενάριο Δήμος Θέος ; διεύθυνση παραγωγής Σταμάτης
Τσαρουχάς. - Αθήνα : ΝΕΤ, 1998. - - (Ελληνισμός και δύση)
Στο επεισόδιο αυτό της σειράς "ελληνισμός και δύση", γίνεται λόγος για
το Βυζάντιο και τον Κωνσταντίνο Παλαιολόγο, την εποχή που οι
Τούρκοι βρίσκονταν προ των πυλών. Σε μια απεγνωσμένη τους
προσπάθεια να λάβουν βοήθεια από τη Δύση, ο αυτοκράτορας μαζί με
τους πιο μορφωμένους άνδρες της εποχής πήγαν στη Ρώμη για να
συζητήσουν με τον πάπα και τους δυτικούς. Στην αποστολή ξεχώριζαν
για τη σοφία τους ο Πλήθων Γεμιστός και ο Βησαρίων. Ενώ κρατούσαν
οι διαδικασίες της συνόδου, ο Πλήθων Γεμιστός έδωσε σειρά
διαλέξεων για την Πλατωνική φιλοσοφία στους δυτικούς
διανοούμενους της εποχής που ήταν Αριστοτελικοί. Το σεμινάριο αυτό
τους εντυπωσίασε βαθύτατα, έγιναν Πλατωνιστές και έτσι το Βυζάντιο
επηρέασε την Ιταλική Αναγέννηση. Είχε τόσο φανατικούς οπαδούς ο
Γεμιστός στην Ιταλία, που όταν πέθανε αργότερα στον Μυστρά,
οργανώθηκε σταυροφορία για την απαγωγή των οστών του και την ταφή
τους σε Ιταλικό μοναστήρι.
ΕΛΕΩΝΟΡΑ ΣΚΟΥΤΕΡΗ-ΔΙΔΑΣΚΑΛΟΥ-Όρια και αντιστάσεις της

λαϊκής μνήμης : από τις πολιτιστικές αναβιώσεις στην
πολιτισμική επιβίωση.
Πάλι θα μπορούσαμε να προσφύγουμε στον Σεφέρη που μας καλεί να

'τοποθετήσουμε', να 'νιώσουμε' τον Καβάφη "... μέσα στην ελληνική
παράδοση, ολόκληρη.και αδιαίρετη, όχι όπως εκείνοι που βλέπουν
ορισμένα φωτεινά ακρωτήρια μόνο, κάποια λαμπερά κομμάτια, κάποια
μεγάλα ονόματα, αλλά όπως εκείνοι που αισθάνονται τα ψηφιδωτά μας
μικρής βυζαντινής εκκλησίας, τους Ίωνες φιλοσόφους, τους στίχους της
εποχής των Κομνηνών, τα επιγράμματα της Ανθολογίας, το δημοτικό
τραγούδι, τον Αισχύλο, τον Παλαμά, τον Σολωμό, τον Σικελιανό, τον
Κάλβο, τον Καβάφη, τον Παρθενώνα, τον Όμηρο [...]", Δόκιμα,, τόμ. Α',
ό.π., σελ. 362-363. Ο Γιάννης Κιουρτσάκης, σχολιάζοντας το
απόσπασμα, επισημαίνει πως "Ο Σεφέρης πιστεύει ότι κάθε στοιχείο που
απαρτίζει την [ελληνική πνευματική] 'τάξη' φωτίζει πιο ικανοποιητικά
όλα τα άλλα, καθώς και την 'τάξη' στο σύνολο της" Ι (Ελληνισμός και
Δύση στο στοχασμό του Σεφέρη, Κέδρος, Αθήνα 1979, σελ. 95). Αν
123
προς στιγμή παραβλέψουμε το ιδεολογικό στίγμα της 'τάξης' ή μια

ρομαντική λαϊκόστροφη προδιάθεση που χρωματίζει την ανάγκη για
'συνέχεια', μπορούμε να εντοπίσουμε τον πυρήνα μιας κατά βάση (ή:
προδιάθεση) ολιστικής προσέγγισης, όπου αντικρούεται εκ των έσω η
πρακτική του κατακερματισμού, του ακρωτηριασμού και της επιλεκτικής
άμβλυνσης ή: και κάθαρσης που κυριαρχούσε -και εξακολουθεί ακάθεκτα
να συνηθίζεται και στις μέρες μας- τόσο στις επιστημονικές όσο και τις
πολιτικές, αλλά ακόμη και στις καθημερινότερες πρακτικές γύρω από τα
λαογραφικά θέματα και τα λαϊκά πράγματα..
...H Eλένη Αρβελέρ, Καθηγήτρια της Βυζαντινής Ιστορίας στο

Πανεπιστήμιο της Σορβόννης, μας ξεναγεί στα μονοπάτια της Βυζαντινής
Ιστορίας. Η συγκεκριμένη σειρά ντοκιμαντέρ ακολουθώντας μια
χρονολογική σειρά, αναδεικνύει τη μεγάλη συμβολή του Βυζαντινού
πολιτισμού, στη διάρκεια του Μεσαίωνα και της Αναγέννησης, στη
ανάπτυξη του Ευρωπαϊκού Πολιτισμού, μέσω της διπλωματίας, της
τέχνης, της λογοτεχνίας και του Χριστιανισμού..
Ελένη Γλύκατζη - Αρβελέρ:
Οι ανθρωπιστικές σπουδές είναι να μάθεις να μη λες βλακείες στη

Τζοκόντα
Στη σύντομη επίσκεψή της στην Κύπρο η καθηγήτρια Ελένη

Γλύκατζη-Αρβελέρ, επισκέφθηκε το Πανεπιστήμιο Κύπρου και
μίλησε στον "Ενδείκτη" για την Ελλάδα, την Ευρώπη, το Βυζάντιο
και το Πανεπιστήμιο. Ένα πνεύμα ζωντανό και ακμαίο, μια παρουσία
δυναμική και γενναιόδωρη, μια συνέντευξη-ποταμός.
Συμμετείχατε ενεργά στην ίδρυση του Πανεπιστημίου Κύπρου. Ποια

θεωρείτε ότι ήταν η συμβολή σας;
Για μένα, το Πανεπιστήμιο Κύπρου ήταν η απόδειξη ότι υπάρχει μία

ενιαία παιδεία σ' έναν ελληνόφωνο χώρο όπως η Κύπρος - ένα χώρο
ελληνόφωνο και ελληνοπρεπή, όσον αφορά το ρίζωμα και όσον αφορά το
μέλλον. Όταν μου είπαν ότι έπρεπε να είναι αγγλόφωνο το
Πανεπιστήμιο, απάντησα ότι ένα Πανεπιστήμιο το οποίο δεν συνεχίζει τη
Γλώσσα και την παράδοση της μέσης εκπαίδευσης είναι ένα ξεριζωμένο
Πανεπιστήμιο, το οποίο είναι μόνο πελατειακό. Δηλαδή θα παίρναμε εδώ
το αμερικανικό Πανεπιστήμιο που δεν μπορούσε να λειτουργήσει στη
Βυρηττό εξαιτίας της κατάστασης στο Λίβανο εκείνη την εποχή και θα
ήμασταν οι υπο-αμερικανοί των υπο-αμερικανών μέσα σ' έναν κυπριακό
χώρο, ο οποίος πρέπει να διατηρεί την ελληνικότητά του ως ο πιο
ανατολικός αμύντορας του ευρωπαϊκού γίγνεσθαι. Γι' αυτούς τους
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λόγους, λοιπόν, όταν μου είπαν "θα γίνει εγγλέζικο το Πανεπιστήμιο",

δήλωσα ότι θα έφευγα. Δεν έχω κάνει τίποτε άλλο εκτός από το να
φωνάξω γι'αυτό.
Στον ελληνόφωνο χώρο θεωρούμε δεδομένη και αυτονόητη την αξία

των κλασικών ή αν προτιμάτε των ελληνικών σπουδών. Είναι
πράγματι αυτονόητη ή μήπως αυτό έχει σχέση περισσότερο με την
εθνοκεντρική και την ελληνοκεντρική μας άποψη;
Όταν μιλάμε για ελληνική παιδεία πρέπει να ξέρουμε ότι υπάρχει παιδεία
και παιδεία ελληνική. Λοιπόν, να σταθούμε πρώτα στην κλασική
ελληνική παιδεία, με όλη της την προέκταση στο ρωμαϊκό γίγνεσθαι -
γιατί δεν υπάρχει ρωμαϊκός πολιτισμός άνευ Ελλάδος, αυτό να το
προσέξουμε. Σ' αυτό το ρίζωμα εντάσσονται Αθήνα και Ρώμη, η
ελληνομαθημένη Ρώμη. Αυτή η παιδεία είναι οπωσδήποτε η καταβολή
του ευρωπαϊκού πνεύματος, όπως και να το κάνουμε, και το ευρωπαϊκό
πνεύμα έχει μια προέκταση στον αμερικανικό χώρο. Άρα, πρόκειται για
μια πνευματικοτητα που στηρίζεται μαζί στο αρχαιοελληνικό, κλασικό,
ρωμανοποιημένο δίδαγμα, όπως το πήρε στην Αναγέννηση η Ευρώπη,
πλην Ελλάδας.
Μήπως η Ευρώπη αναζητούσε ένα άλλοθι, ρίζες στο παρελθόν;
Η Ευρώπη δεν αναζητούσε τίποτα. Αυτά να τα σταματήσουμε. Η Ευρώπη

δεν αναζητάει τίποτα, η Ευρώπη είναι. Το ερώτημα είναι: τι είναι η
Ευρώπη, η Ευρώπη ως πνεύμα; Ο Πωλ Βαλερύ στα 1924, όταν ούτε
Κοινότητα υπήρχε, ούτε Ένωση, είπε: τρία πράγματα κάνουν το
ευρωπαϊκό πνεύμα: ο αρχαιοελληνικός ορθολογισμός, η νομοθετική και
διοικητική διευθέτηση της Ρώμης και η ιουδαϊκοχριστιανική
πνευματικότητα. Αυτές οι τρεις καταβολές είναι οπωσδήποτε οι
καταβολές που η Ευρώπη προώθησε, άσχετα από την όποια Ελλάδα.
Από τη στιγμή που η Ελλάδα γίνεται κάτι το ελληνοπρεπές υπάρχει και
διχασμός με την Ευρώπη. Αυτό συμβαίνει μόνο στα νεότερα χρόνια ως
κρατικό μόρφωμα, στα χρόνια που βγαίνει από την τουρκική σκλαβιά,
την οθωμανική κατάκτηση. Τότε οι Έλληνες έζησαν σ' ένα μαρασμό
πνευματικό, όταν οι άλλοι δίπλα έχουνε πάρει το ελληνικό και ρωμαϊκό
πνεύμα και το έχουν προωθήσει, είτε ως αναγεννησιακή τέχνη, είτε ως
φιλοσοφική σκέψη, μολονότι αναγνωρίζουν ότι κάθε φιλοσοφία δεν
είναι παρά ένας σχολιασμός στον Πλάτωνα και τον Αριστοτέλη.
Αναγνωρίζουν πάντοτε, αν θέλετε, το αρχαιοελληνικό δίδαγμα,
οδηγούμενοι προς την αρχαία Ελλάδα. Ο Σέλλεϋ θα πει "είμαστε όλοι
Έλληνες", ο Γκαίτε θα γράψει "ό,τι πολισμένο είναι ελληνικό", ο
Σατωμπριάν θα πει "θα πεθάνω σαν Έλληνας".
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Όλα αυτά για την αρχαία Ελλάδα, όταν θα γίνει νοητή και κατανοητή
από τους Έλληνες χάρη στον καθρέφτη που θα τους δείξουν οι ξένοι.
Απόδειξη ότι δεν υπάρχει ένα κείμενο αρχαίο που να έχει δημοσιευτεί
από Έλληνα. Αυτή η παιδεία, λοιπόν, που περνά στα ξένα χέρια, μας
ξαναέρχεται ως δυτικοευρωπαϊκό βίωμα. Εμείς εκείνη την εποχή ζούσαμε
τη χριστιανο-ορθόδοξη παράδοση και βρεθήκαμε εκείνη τη στιγμή με
δύο θεμέλιους λίθους: την ορθοδοξία - ορθοδοξία λέω, και όχι
χριστιανοσύνη - και την αρχαιότητα. Η Ελλάδα είναι η μόνη χώρα όπου
δεν ελευθερώθηκε η κοιτίδα του γένους, δηλαδή η Πόλη. Πήραν την
Αθήνα και θεωρούμε τώρα τον εαυτό μας κατευθείαν απόγονο του
Περικλή.
Λοιπόν, υπάρχει μια ασυνέχεια γνώσης της ελληνικής συνέχειας. Εδώ θα

βάλω το Βυζάντιο, γιατί όταν λέμε ότι Χριστιανοσύνη, Ελληνοσύνη και
Ρωμιοσύνη είναι τα τρία χαρακτηριστικά της Ευρώπης, και τα τρία αυτά
χαρακτηριστικά είναι παρόντα στο Βυζάντιο. Το Βυζάντιο είναι
χριστιανικό, είναι ρωμαϊκό - ουδέποτε ονομάστηκε Βυζάντιο όπως
ξέρετε - και είναι και ελληνικό, έχει την ελληνογνωσία του και την
ελληνοφωνία του ως βάση. … Ήμασταν αυτό που λέει και ο Παλαμάς: "η
Πόλη πόρνη και περίμενε τον Τούρκο να την πάρει". Οπότε, όλα αυτά τα
διχαστικά θέματα απόσχισαν τη μεταβυζαντινή Ελλάδα από το
ευρωπαϊκό γίγνεσθαι και μείναμε με αρχηγό την Εκκλησία ως
μεσολαβητή του γένους με τον κατακτητή.
Η καθηγήτρια Ελένη Γλύκατζη-Αρβελέρ είναι πρύτανης των

Πανεπιστημίων της Σορβόνης από το 1976, καγκελάριος των
Πανεπιστημίων του Παρισιού, διευθύντρια του Κέντρου Έρευνας
Βυζαντινής Ιστορίας και Πολιστισμού και πρόεδρος του Ευρωπαϊκού
Πολιτιστικού Κέντρου Δελφών. Στην πολύχρονη ακαδημαϊκή
σταδιοδρομία έχει αναλάβει τα ανώτερα αξιώματα και έχει τιμηθεί με
πλήθος διεθνών διακρίσεων. Στα βιβλία της περιλαμβάνονται η
"Πολιτική ιδεολογία της Βυζαντινής Αυτοκρατορίας" (1975), "Η Σμύρνη
ανάμεσα σε δύο τουρκικές κατοχές" (1975), "Η διασπορά στο Βυζάντιο"
(1995), "The Making of Europe" (2000).
Οι Ολυμπιακοί αγώνες-μηδ΄ Ολυμπίας αγώνα φέρτερον αυδάσομεν-

Πίνδαρος
Η καταγωγή των Ολυμπιακών αγώνων συνδέεται με πολλούς μύθους

που αναφέρονται από τις αρχαίες πηγές, αλλά στους ιστορικούς χρόνους
ως ιδρυτής τους αναφέρεται ο ΄Οξυλος και ανακαινιστής τους ο απόγονός
του ΄Ιφιτος.
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Σύμφωνα με την παράδοση, οι Ολυμπιακοί αγώνες άρχισαν το 776 π.Χ.

όταν ο ΄Ιφιτος συνήψε συμφωνία με τον βασιλιά της Σπάρτης και σοφό
νομοθέτη Λυκούργο και τον βασιλιά της Πίσας Κλεισθένη, το κείμενο
της οποίας γράφτηκε σε έναν δίσκο που φυλασσόταν στο Ηραίο.
Με την συνθήκη αυτή, που υπήρξε το αποφασιστικό γεγονός για την
εξέλιξη του Ιερού σε πανελλήνιο κέντρο, συμφωνήθηκε η "ιερή
εκεχειρία", δηλαδή η παύση των εχθροπραξιών σε όλον τον ελληνικό
κόσμο κατά την διάρκεια των Ολυμπιακών αγώνων.
Ως έπαθλο των νικητών καθιερώθηκε, ύστερα από εντολή του Μαντείου
των Δελφών, ο κότινος, δηλαδή ένα στεφάνι αγριελιάς που φύτρωνε πλάι
στον οπισθόδομο του ναού του Διός, στην ιερή ΄Αλτη.
To 1798, όταν θανατωνόταν στη Βιέννη ο Ρήγας Φεραίος γεννιόταν
στην Ζάκυνθο ο Διονύσιος Σολωμός. Πέρα από την ιστορική συγκυρία,
δεν μπορεί, ασφαλώς, να περάσει απαρατήρητη και η συμβολική
διάσταση μιας τέτοιας σύμπτωσης. Και αυτός ακριβώς ο συμβολισμός
υπήρξε η αφορμή για να ανακηρυχθεί το 1998 έτος Σολωμού,
ταυτόχρονα, όμως, και έτος Ρήγα.
Το γεγονός ότι ο Διονύσιος Σολωμός υπήρξε και παραμένει ένα ορόσημο
για την ελληνική ποιητική δημιουργία δεν οφείλεται αποκλειστικά στην
αναμφισβήτητη ποιητική του αξία. Ο Διονύσιος Σολωμός υπήρξε μια από
εκείνες τις εντελώς ξεχωριστές περιπτώσεις που εμπνέουν και
οργανώνουν την συλλογική συνείδηση. Εξέφρασε με οίστρο, μέτρο και
πάθος, τους πόθους και τις προσδοκίες ενός ολόκληρου λαού, και τους
εξέφρασε με την ποιητική του ιδιοφυία. Η συλλογική μνήμη και
συνείδηση του λαού μας ευγνωμονούσα, τον έχει τοποθετήσει στο βάθρο
του Εθνικού Ποιητή. Είναι ο ίδιος ο ποιητής άλλωστε, εκείνος που όρισε
ως εθνικό το αληθές.
Ο Διονύσιος Σολωμός όμως -έχω την πεποίθηση- ότι ανήκει στη χορεία
εκείνων των ποιητών που πολλοί θαυμάζουν, αλλά λίγοι πράγματι
γνωρίζουν. ΄Ισως η σκιά του Εθνικού Ποιητή να έπεσε βαριά πάνω στο
σύνολο του έργου του σκεπάζοντας έτσι με ένα πέπλο ελληνοκεντρισμού
την ποιητική του ιδιοφυία.
Το έργο του Σολωμού, όμως, είναι το πεδίο όπου συναντώνται -ίσως για
Πρώτη φορά ισότιμα- η λόγια και η λαϊκή παράδοση της πατρίδας μας,
καθώς πρόκειται για μία ποίηση έντεχνη, αλλά ταυτόχρονα, λαϊκότροπη.
Στο γλωσσικό σύμπαν του Σολωμού δεν υπάρχουν τα στεγανά της
προφορικής και γραπτής Γλώσσας ΄Ο,τι λέγεται, γράφεται καθώς η
ελευθερία και η Γλώσσα είναι έννοιες απολύτως συνδεδεμένες, και η
μία αποκτά το νόημά της, μέσα από την άλλη.
Πρώτο Συνέδριο
127
Το Πρώτο Παγκόσμιο Γλωσσικό Συνέδριο συνήλθε στο Δίον παρά τον

Όλυμπο στις 7-9 Σεπτεμβρίου 1990. Συμμετέσχον 8 Ξένοι ομιλητές από
5 Ευρωπαϊκές χώρες (Ιταλία, Ισπανία, Πορτογαλία, Γαλλία, Μάλτα) και
8 'Έλληνες ομιλητές. Γενικό θέμα του συνεδρίου ήταν «H Ελληνική
Γλώσσα, η ιστορία της, τα πλεονεκτήματά της και η επίδραση της
στην διαμόρφωση του Ευρωπαϊκού Πολιτισμού».
Τα παρακάτω κείμενα είναι απο άλλη πηγή του Internet;
Ινδοευρωπαϊκές-γλώσσες, επαφή της ελληνικής με τις προελληνικές

διαλέκτους
Η συγκριτική φιλολογία έδειξε καθαρά τρία πράγματα:
1. οι καλούμενες ινδοευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες ήταν κάποτε, στην

αρχαιότερη μορφή τους, διάλεκτοι που διαφοροποιήθηκαν η μια με
την άλλη, τις μιλούσαν λαοί που, σε όποια φυλετική ομάδα κι αν
ανήκαν από ανθρωπολογική άποψη, ζούσαν κοντά ο ένας στον
άλλο, σε μια περιοχή, που αν κι εκτεταμένη, είχε, παρόλα αυτά,
καθορισμένα όρια
2. οι λαοί αυτοί είχαν φθάσει, σχεδόν όλοι, στο ίδιο επίπεδο
πολιτισμού
3. όταν οι πολλές κι αλλεπάλληλες μεταναστεύσεις οδήγησαν τους
ινδοευρωπαϊκούς λαούς σε διασπορά, η διάλεκτος τους άρχισε να
διαφοροποιείται βαθμιαία, εν μέρει από δική τους πρωτοβουλία κι
εν μέρει εξαιτίας των επαφών τους με λαούς που είχαν άλλου
τύπου Γλώσσα.
Η αρχικά ομογενής ινδοευρωπαϊκή ομάδα με τις συνεχείς

μεταναστεύσεις της, που ουσιαστικά κράτησαν από την αρχή της εποχής
των Μετάλλων ως το τέλος του Μεσαίωνα, διασπάστηκε σε δύο
υποομάδες, τις εξής:
Η ανατολική ή «Άρια» ομάδα περιλαμβάνει πιθανότατα τους λαούς που
μιλούσαν ιρανικές διαλέκτους (παλαιοϊρανική, μηδική, σκυθική και
μεσοϊρανική) καθώς και ινδικές διαλέκτους. Η δυτική ομάδα από την
άλλη μεριά, περιλαμβάνει τη νεοχιττιτική διάλεκτο, την ελληνική, την
ιλλυρική, την ιταλική, την κελτική, τη γερμανική και άλλες. Οι μαρτυρίες
που διατηρήθηκαν ως σήμερα για τις πρώτες περιόδους των διαφόρων
ινδοευρωπαϊκών διαλέκτων είναι σχετικά νέες, μόνο για τη νεοχιττιτική
και την ελληνομυκηναϊκή μπορούμε να ανατρέξουμε στα μέσα της
δεύτερης χιλιετίας. Τα πρώτα ινδοϊρανικά, ιταλικά και παλαιοφρυγικά
κείμενα ανήκουν στην Πρώτη χιλιετία π.Χ. Για όλες τις άλλες
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διαλέκτους, τα αρχαιότερα κείμενα που διασώθηκαν προέρχονται από τις

περιόδους της χριστιανικής και της βουδιστικής επέκτασης.
Οι ινδοευρωπαϊκοί λαοί που κατέβηκαν στη κεντρική κι ανατολική
Μικρά Ασία κι ανήκαν στην δυτική ομάδα συνάντησαν εκεί παλαιότερα
φύλλα επηρεασμένα από την ανατολική ομάδα, όπως οι Χάλδοι, οι
Ουρρίτες, οι Ελαμίτες κι οι Κασσίτες. Παράλληλα με αυτή τη διείσδυση
διεξάγονταν άλλες δύο κινήσεις προς τα μικρασιατικά παράλια του
Αιγαίου, αυτή των Θρακοφρυγών και των Ελλήνων.
Οι Θράκες μιλούσαν μια ινδοευρωπαϊκή Γλώσσα, πιθανώς κάποια που
ανήκε στην ανατολική ομάδα. Κατά τον Ηρόδοτο (5,3), οι Θράκες ήταν ο
πιο πολυάριθμος λαός της γης, μετά τους Ινδούς («ΘΡΗΙΚΩΝ δε έθνος
μέγιστον εστι μετά γε Ινδούς πάντων ανθρώπων»). Το κομμάτι τους που
πέρασε τον Ελλήσποντο κι έμεινε στην Μ. Ασία ονομάστηκε Φρύγες.
Από τους τελευταίους κατέχουμε δύο σειρές επιγραφών, σε μια
παλαιοφρυγική επιγραφή είναι φανερή η επίδραση της ελληνικής
Γλώσσας, που προερχόταν από τις επαφές τους με τους Έλληνες
αποίκους.
Αρκετοί από τους ασιατικούς λαούς της δυτικής αυτής χώρας της Μ.
Ασίας υπέκυψαν σε νέες φυλετικές επιμειξίες και δέχθηκαν τις
επιδράσεις των ινδοευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών που μιλούσαν οι Φρύγες κι οι
Έλληνες γείτονες τους κι άλλες, λιγότερο καθορισμένες, ινδοευρωπαϊκές
ομάδες. Διατήρησαν παρόλα αυτά την αρχική μικρασιατική βάση της
λαλιάς τους. Οι λαοί αυτόι ήταν οι Λύδιοι, ή Μαίονες κατά τον Όμηρο, οι
Μυσοί, οι Κάρες προς τα νότια, ή οι «βαρβαρόφωνοι» κατά τον Όμηρο,οι
Λύκιοι κι οι Πισιδοί.
Περσική γραφή. H περσική Γλώσσα ανήκει κι αυτή στην ινδοευρωπαϊκή
ομάδα
Όταν οι δύο βασικές ινδοευρωπαϊκές ομάδες χωρίσθηκαν, θα γνώριζαν

ήδη, ασφαλώς, μερικά είδη μετάλλων, γιατί οι γλώσσες τους
χρησιμοποιούν συγγενείς όρους για κάτι που είναι άλλοτε χαλκός, άλλοτε
ορείχαλκος κι άλλοτε σίδηρος. Επομένως, ο αρχαιότεροι περίοδοι του
πολιτισμού της Λίθινης Εποχής, που λείψανα τους ανακαλύφθηκαν στην
Ελλάδα, υπήρξαν, χωρίς αμφιβολία, έργο όχι των Ελλήνων, αλλά
αυτόχθονων λαών που ζούσαν εκεί πριν από αυτούς. Κλασικοί
συγγραφείς στηριζόμενοι κυρίως σε πρόχειρα συμπεράσματα από
τοπωνύμια, αναφέρονταν συχνά στις αρχαίες φυλές, που, όπως υπέθεταν,
κατοικούσαν ανέκαθεν στην ελληνική χερσόνησο, στους Πελασγούς,
τους Λέλεγες, τους Κάρους κ.λπ.
Οι Έλληνες υποδούλωσαν αυτούς τους προελληνικούς πληθυσμούς
αλλά δεν τους εξόντωσαν τελείως. Δεν μπορούμε να καθορίσουμε
πλήρως ως ποιο βαθμό οι πληθυσμοί αυτοί επηρέασαν τις σωματικές,
129
ηθικές και πνευματικές ιδιότητες των ελληνικών λαών, στην ηπειρωτική

Ελλάδα ή στον κόσμο των ελληνικών αποικιών, αλλά οι μαρτυρίες που
έχουμε δείχνουν πως η επίδραση πάνω στα ήθη και έθιμα τους, μαζί και
στη Γλώσσα και και στη θρησκεία τους, ήταν σημαντική. Σε πλήρως
κλασσικούς χρόνους, ομάδες από μη Έλληνες ζούσαν ακόμη - και
μιλούσαν μη ελληνικές γλώσσες - σε περιοχές των κρητικών νήσων, της
Καρπάθου και της Κύπρου.
Οι πιο παλαιές και βασικές αυτές διαφορές επιτρέπουν την ταξινόμηση
των ελληνικών διαλέκτων σε τρεις κατηγορίες, που η καθεμιά τους έχει
δύο υποδιαιρέσεις: στην ιωνική, που περιλαμβάνει την αττική και την
κυρίως ιωνική, στην αιολική, που η βόρεια υποδιαίρεση της
περιλαμβάνει τη βοιωτική και τη θεσσαλική κι η νότια έχει τυποποιηθεί
στην αρκαδικά. Τέλος στη δωρική, όπως τη μιλούν στη βορειοδυτική
Ελλάδα και στις περιφερειακές περιοχές της Πελοποννήσου.
Οι διάλεκτοι της ελληνικής Γλώσσας, διαφοροποιημένες ήδη στην
ηπειρωτική χώρα, διαφοροποιήθηκαν φυσικά ακόμη περισσότερο στις
αποικίες. Κάθε αποικία είχε μικτό πληθυσμό, γιατί ήταν καταφύγιο
μεταναστών από διάφορα μέρη και ήταν πιο εκτεθειμένη στις
«βάρβαρες» επιρροές από ότι η μητροπολιτική Ελλάδα.
Μόνο μετά την εποχή του Περικλή απέκτησε η αττική διάλεκτος την
υπεροχή της, με μια κοινή που χρησιμοποιήθηκε σε όλα σχεδόν τα μέρη
της Ελλάδας.
ΤΙ ΕΙΝΑΙ, ΑΝ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΚΑΤΙ, ΕΝΑΣ ΒΥΖΑΝΤΙΝΟΣ;

Του-Clifton R. Fox-Καθηγητή Ιστορίας-Στο Tomball College-
Tomball, TX, USA-Σχόλια;
Μετέφρασε από τα Αγγλικά ο Δ. Ν. Λόγγου.-Αναθεώρηση 29-3-96.

Η αρχική έκδοση του άρθρου δημοσιεύθηκε στο Celator [Τόμος 10,
Αριθμός 3: Μάρτιος 1996]. Τμήμα του επίσης αναφέρεται στο βιβλίο
Ancient Coin Collecting του Wayne G. Sayles, έκδοση [Ιούνιος 1996]
Krause Publications.
Περιεχόμενα-Εισαγωγή -Νομίσματα και Συνέχεια -Η χώρα που

λεγόταν Ρωμανία –Συμπεράσματα. Εισαγωγή
Κατά τη τρέχουσα ορολογία η φράση "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία"
αναφέρεται σε μια πολιτική πραγματικότητα που κάποτε κυριάρχησε
στον κόσμο της Μεσογείου. Η πόλη που ονομάζεται
Κωνσταντινούπολη ή (στους σημερινούς χάρτες) Ισταμπούλ ήταν η
πρωτεύουσα της Αυτοκρατορίας. Η "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία"
γεννήθηκε με την ίδρυση της Κωνσταντινούπολης τον 4ο αιώνα στη
θέση του Βυζαντίου, της αρχαίας Ελληνικής αποικίας. Ο Ρωμαίος
130
αυτοκράτορας Κωνσταντίνος ο 1ος (πεθ. 337) ονόμασε τη πόλη Νέα

Ρώμη ή Κωνσταντινούπολη. Ο Κωνσταντίνος στην καινούργια πόλη
μετέφερε την πρωτεύουσα του και αργότερα της έδωσε και το όνομα
του. Οι διάδοχοι του Κωνσταντίνου του 1ου έζησαν στην
Κωνσταντινούπολη χωρίς διακοπή μέχρι το 1204. Το 1204, οι
Σταυροφόροι από τη Δυτική Ευρώπη, παρέκκλιναν από την πορεία
τους προς τα Ιεροσόλυμα, κυρίευσαν και λεηλάτησαν την
Κωνσταντινούπολη. Κράτησαν την πόλη μέχρι το 1261. Οι
"Βυζαντινοί" επανίδρυσαν τη "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία" στην
Κωνσταντινούπολη το 1261 μετά την εκδίωξη των " Φράγκων". Το
1453, οι Οθωμανοί Τούρκοι κατέλαβαν την Κωνσταντινούπολη. Η
"Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία έπαψε να υπάρχει.
Ο ρόλος της "Βυζαντινής Αυτοκρατορίας" στην Ευρωπαϊκή ιστορία
δεν έχει γίνει επαρκώς κατανοητός από τη σύγχρονη ακαδημαϊκή
κοινότητα. Η Κωνσταντινούπολη βρέθηκε στην οικονομική, πολιτική
και πολιτιστική καρδιά της Ευρώπης από την ίδρυση της μέχρι την
αδικαιολόγητη λεηλασία της από τους Σταυροφόρους. Η Νέα Ρώμη
άντεξε στις επιθέσεις πολλών επιδρομέων, προστατεύοντας όλη την
Ευρώπη από έναν χείμαρρο εισβολέων. Η "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία"
ήκμασε την εποχή που η Δυτική Ευρώπη ήταν απομονωμένη λόγω της
ανέχειας και της βίας. Δεν μπορεί επίσης κανείς να παραθεωρεί το
επιπρόσθετο γεγονός ότι η Κωνσταντινούπολη παραμένει ακόμη το
κέντρο των Ορθοδόξων Χριστιανών, της κυρίαρχης πίστης στη Ρωσία
και σε άλλες χώρες, που έχει τις ρίζες της στη Βυζαντινή εμπειρία.
Στην εποχή μας, με τις τελευταίες αλλαγές στη Ρωσία, οι βυζαντινές
της ρίζες είναι περισσότερο σημαντικές παρά ποτέ. Σε αντίθεση με την
πλούσια κληρονομιά και τον πολυσήμαντο ρόλο τους, τα επιτεύγματα
του Βυζαντινού πολιτισμού πολύ συχνά αποσιωπώνται και
υποβαθμίζονται, αυτό καθ’ αυτό το όνομα "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία"
είναι στην πραγματικότητα, προσβλητικό.
Ο όρος "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία" επινοήθηκε και διαδόθηκε από
Γάλλους ανθρωπιστές σαν τον Montesquieu, μία σημαντική μορφή της
διανόησης του 18ου αιώνα. Αυτός ήταν ο συγγραφέας του γόνιμου
έργου "Το Πνεύμα των Νόμων" που τόσο πολύ ενέπνευσε τους Ιδρυτές
των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών στη σύνταξη του Αμερικανικού
Συντάγματος. Όπως και άλλοι στοχαστές εκείνης της εποχής, ο
Montesquieu εκτιμούσε τους αρχαίους Έλληνες και τους Ρωμαίους με
υπερβολικό ενθουσιασμό ως μύστες της πολιτικής και του πολιτισμού
άξιους προς μίμηση. Ακολουθώντας την Δυτικοευρωπαϊκή παράδοση
που έχει τις ρίζες της στον πρώιμο Μεσαίωνα, ο Montesquieu
θεωρούσε την Αυτοκρατορία της Κωνσταντινούπολης διεφθαρμένη και
παρηκμασμένη. Αν και έγραψε μακροσκελή ιστορία της
Αυτοκρατορίας της Κωνσταντινούπολης, ο Montesquieu σε καμιά
131
περίπτωση δεν επέτρεψε στον εαυτό του να αναφερθεί στην

Αυτοκρατορία της Κωνσταντινούπολης χρησιμοποιώντας τα ένδοξα
ονόματα "Ελληνική" ή "Ρωμαϊκή". Από το αρχαίο όνομα "Βυζάντιον",
ο Montesquieu χρησιμοποίησε τη λέξη "Βυζαντινή". Η λέξη
"Βυζαντινή" προσδιόριζε την Αυτοκρατορία και υπονοούσε τα
υποτιθέμενα χαρακτηριστικά της: δολιότητα, υποκρισία και παρακμή.
Ο Άγγλος διαφωτιστής Edward Gibbon στο έργο του "Παρακμή και
Πτώση της Ρωμαϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας" παρουσιάζει την Αυτοκρατορία
μετά τον 6ο αιώνα ως ένα έπος μονότονης αθλιότητας και διαφθοράς.
Οι άνθρωποι που ζούσαν στη "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία" ποτέ δεν
ήξεραν ούτε και χρησιμοποίησαν τη λέξη "Βυζαντινός". Αυτοί ήξεραν
για τον εαυτό τους ότι είναι Ρωμαίοι, τίποτα παραπάνω και απολύτως
τίποτα λιγότερο. Με τη μεταφορά της πρωτεύουσας της
Αυτοκρατορίας από τη Ρώμη του Τίβερη στη Νέα Ρώμη του
Βοσπόρου, τη μετέπειτα Κωνσταντινούπολη, ο αυτοκράτορας
Κωνσταντίνος ο 1ος μετέφερε την πραγματική ταυτότητα της Ρώμης σε
καινούργια τοποθεσία. Πολύ πριν τον Κωνσταντίνο τον 1 ο, η ιδέα της
"Ρώμης" είχε αρχίσει να διαχωρίζεται από την Αιώνια Πόλη του
Τίβερη. Έτσι που το Ρωμαίος σήμαινε τον Ρωμαίο πολίτη, όπου κι αν
ζούσε. Πριν την Αυτοκρατορική περίοδο (89 π.Χ.), το Ρωμαϊκό Δίκαιο
χορήγησε δικαιώματα Ρωμαίου πολίτη σε όλους τους κατοίκους της
Ιταλίας. Κατόπιν, το δικαίωμα του Ρωμαίου πολίτη προσφερόταν σε
όλο και μεγαλύτερο αριθμό ανθρώπων παντού στην Αυτοκρατορία. Το
212, ο αυτοκράτορας Καρακάλας διακήρυξε ότι όλοι οι ελεύθεροι
πολίτες της Αυτοκρατορίας μπορούσαν να γίνουν Ρωμαίοι πολίτες,
δίνοντας τους τη δυνατότητα να αυτοαποκαλούνται Ρωμαίοι, και όχι
απλά υποτελείς των Ρωμαίων. Σε μερικές δεκαετίες οι άνθρωποι
αναφερόμενοι στην Αυτοκρατορία άρχισαν να χρησιμοποιούν
σπανιότερα (το Λατινικό) "Imperium Romanorum" (Κράτος των
Ρωμαίων) και συχνότερα το "Ρωμανία" (Χώρα των Ρωμαίων).
Στις επαρχίες κοντά στην Κωνσταντινούπολη, όπου επικρατούσε η
Ελληνική Γλώσσα επί της Λατινικής της Πρεσβυτέρας Ρώμης, η ιδέα
του Ρωμαίου πολίτη και της Ρωμαϊκής ταυτότητας ασκούσε μεγάλη
έλξη σε μεγάλο μέρος του πληθυσμού. Οι ελληνόφωνοι πολίτες ήσαν
υπερήφανοι να είναι Ρωμαίοι, στα Λατινικά "Romani". Η λέξη
"Ρωμαίοι" έγινε περιγραφική των ελληνόφωνων πληθυσμών της
Αυτοκρατορίας. Το παλιό εθνικό όνομα Έλληνες, παρέμεινε σε
αχρηστία. Στα αρχαία χρόνια και βέβαια το "Έλληνας" είχε εθνική
σημασία. Το Έλληνας, ως εθνικό όνομα των Ελλήνων
χρησιμοποιήθηκε από τον έβδομο π.Χ. αιώνα και μετά, αν όχι και
νωρίτερα. Αν και ο Όμηρος ονόμαζε τους Έλληνες με διάφορα
ονόματα, ο Ηρόδοτος, ο Περικλής, ο Πλάτων και ο Αλέξανδρος όλοι
ήταν "Έλληνες", όπως ήταν και οι ελληνόφωνοι κάτοικοι της
132
Ρωμαϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας τον Πρώτο και τον δεύτερο αιώνα μ.Χ. Τον
τέταρτο αιώνα μ.Χ., όσο η Αυτοκρατορία εκχριστιανιζόταν, ο όρος
"Έλληνας" άρχισε να επαναπροσδιορίζεται και κατέληξε να σημαίνει
τους ανθρώπους που ακόμη λάτρευαν τους αρχαίους θεούς και
σπούδαζαν τη φιλοσοφία με την ελπίδα να μπορέσουν να αντισταθούν
στη νέα Χριστιανική πίστη. Ο αυτοκράτορας Ιουλιανός ο 2 ος (361-
363), ένας αυτοκράτορας που προσπάθησε να σταματήσει τη
Χριστιανική παλίρροια, ονόμαζε τον εαυτό του "Έλληνα". Με το
"Έλληνας", ο Ιουλιανός υποδήλωνε τη σχέση του με τη Νέο-
Πλατωνική φιλοσοφία και τη λατρεία των θεών του Ολύμπου.
Στα τελευταία χρόνια του τέταρτου μ.Χ. αιώνα, ο αυτοκράτορας
Θεοδόσιος ο 1ος (379-39 5) έκανε τον Χριστιανισμό επίσημη θρησκεία
του κράτους μετά την καταστολή της εξέγερσης ενός "Έλληνα"
σφετεριστή του θρόνου, κάποιου δυτικού που ονομαζόταν Ευγένιος.
Μετά την κρίσιμη απόφαση του Θεοδόσιου, όλο και λιγότεροι
άνθρωποι επιθυμούσαν να αποκαλούν τον εαυτούς τους "Έλληνα". Για
πολλούς αιώνες, η λέξη "Έλληνας" ήταν κακόφημη, ταυτισμένη με
παράνομες θρησκευτικές ιδέες και απιστία προς το κράτος. Οι
ελληνόφωνοι προτίμησαν τη ταυτότητα του "Ρωμαίου" αντί του
"Έλληνα" ως σίγουρο καταφύγιο στους καιρούς που άλλαζαν.
Ελληνόφωνοι "Ρωμαίοι" κατοικούσαν την Αυτοκρατορία μέχρι την
πτώση της τον δέκατο πέμπτο αιώνα.
Η Αυτοκρατορία της Κωνσταντινούπολης σε καμιά περίπτωση δεν
θα μπορούσε να ονομαστεί "Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία". Αν χρειαζόταν
ιδιαίτερο όνομα, καλύτερα θα μπορούσαμε να ονομάσουμε την
Αυτοκρατορία της Κωνσταντινούπολης "Αυτοκρατορία Ρωμαίων" από
το ελληνικό "Βασιλεία Ρωμαίων".
Νομίσματα και Συνέχεια
Οι Αυτοκράτορες των Ρωμαίων φρόντιζαν να τονίζουν τη συνέχεια

και ενότητα της εξουσίας τους στην Κωνσταντινούπολη με τη
παράδοση της Πρεσβυτέρας Ρώμης πριν τον Κωνσταντίνο τον 1 ο. Για
παράδειγμα, τα νομίσματα συνέχιζαν να φέρουν επιγραφές στα
Λατινικά αιώνες μετά που οι άνθρωποι στην Κωνσταντινούπολη ούτε
μιλούσαν ούτε έγραφαν πλέον αυτή τη Γλώσσα. Ας παρατηρήσουμε
επιγραφές νομισμάτων από διαφορετικές αυτοκρατορικές περιόδους.
Για σημείο αναφοράς ας πάρουμε τα νομίσματα του τελευταίου
αυτοκράτορα που βασίλευσε για πολλά χρόνια στην Ιταλία, του
Βαλεντινιανού του 3ου (425-455). Μια τυπική επιγραφή σε ένα από τα
νομίσματα του Βαλεντινιανού είναι κάπως έτσι:
133
Αναπτύσσοντας τις συντμήσεις διαβάζουμε: "Dominus Noster

Placidius Valentinianus Pius Felix Augustus" (Ο Κύριος μας Πλακίδας
[Ειρηναίος] Βαλεντινιανός ο Ευσεβής και Μακάριος Αύγουστος
[Σεβαστός]). Ας συγκρίνουμε την επιγραφή του Βαλεντινιανού με τις
επιγραφές μεταγενέστερων Ρωμαϊκών νομισμάτων. Αρχίζουμε με την
επιγραφή του αυτοκράτορα Ιουστινιανού του 1 ου (527-565), ο οποίος
αφιέρωσε τη ζωή του στην προσπάθεια ανάκτησης των χαμένων
δυτικών επαρχιών, με περιορισμένη επιτυχία:
Υπάρχουν δύο μικρές αλλαγές μεταξύ του Βαλεντινιανού και του

Ιουστινιανού. Πρώτον, το "Pius Felix" έχει αντικατασταθεί με το
"Perpetuus" (Αιώνιος). Ο Αυτοκράτορας Λέων ο 1 ος (457-474) διέταξε
αυτή την αλλαγή. Θεώρησε ότι η φράση "Pius Felix" είχε πολύ μεγάλη
σχέση με το ειδωλολατρικό παρελθόν για να είναι αποδεκτή στη νέα
Χριστιανική Αυτοκρατορία. Άλλη διαφορά ήταν το ότι το "Αύγουστος"
συμβολίζεται με τη συντομογραφία "AVC" αντί της "AUG". Αυτή η
μικρή διαφορά δείχνει την επίδραση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Στα
Ελληνικά, ο ήχος του "g" εκφράζεται με το γράμμα "γάμμα" (Γ) το
οποίο είναι το τρίτο του Ελληνικού αλφαβήτου, ισοδύναμου με το
Λατινικό "C". Παρά τις μικρές αυτές αλλαγές, οι επιγραφές του
Ιουστινιανού διατηρούν τη συνέχεια με το Ρωμανικό παρελθόν. Τα
Λατινικά παραμένουν εν χρήσει. Ο αυτοκράτορας παραμένει
"Dominus Noster" και "Augustus". Έναν αιώνα μετά τον Ιουστινιανό
τον 1ο, οι τίτλοι αυτοί ακόμη παρέμεναν εν χρήσει. Η τυπική επιγραφή
του Κώνστα του 2ου (641-668) ήταν :
Να σημειωθεί ότι τα Ελληνικά γράμματα "δέλτα" και "ταύ" μπήκαν

στην επιγραφή. Το αμφιλεγόμενο "γάμμα" χάθηκε από τη
συντομογραφία του "Augustus". Παρ’ όλα αυτά, ο Λατινικός τίτλος
παραμένει. Η ρωμανική μορφή παραμένει και είναι ακόμη σεβαστή.
Το πέρασμα σε πιο ελληνότροπο στυλ επιγραφών μετά το 700 μπορεί
να έχει σχέση με την αλλαγή της δυναστείας. Η οικογένεια του
Ηράκλειου (610-641) καταγόταν από τη λατινόφωνη Βόρεια Αφρική.
Οι διάδοχοι του Ηράκλειου, συμπεριλαμβανομένου και του Κώνστα
του 2ου, άργησαν πιθανώς να εγκαταλείψουν τους Λατινικούς τίτλους
εν μέρει, τιμής ένεκεν στην οικογενειακή τους κληρονομιά. Η
Λατινικότητα της οικογένειας του Ηράκλειου δεν περιορίστηκε στις
μορφές και τους τίτλους. Ο Κώνστας ο 2 ος είχε αποφασίσει να
μεταφέρει την πρωτεύουσα της Αυτοκρατορίας από την
Κωνσταντινούπολη στις Συρακούσες της Σικελίας. Αν και οι
134
Συρακούσες ήταν Ελληνική πόλη όσο και η Κωνσταντινούπολη,

γνωστή από την αρχαιότητα, η μεταφορά της πρωτεύουσας δυτικά από
την Κωνσταντινούπολη στις Συρακούσες θα έστρεφε την
Αυτοκρατορία σε νέα κατεύθυνση, σε μια κατεύθυνση βασικά λιγότερο
Ελληνική. Ο Κώνστας ο 2ος πέθανε πρόωρα, και δεν ολοκλήρωσε το
σχέδιο του. Δολοφονήθηκε στις Συρακούσες, πιθανώς από κάποιους
που αντιδρούσαν στα σχέδια του για τη μεταφορά της πρωτεύουσας.
Παρά τον χαμό του Κώνστα, η οικογένεια του Ηράκλειου παρέμεινε
στην εξουσία στην Κωνσταντινούπολη για δύο γενιές ακόμη. Το τέλος
της εποχής του Ηράκλειου σήμανε περαιτέρω αλλαγή στον
προσανατολισμό της Αυτοκρατορίας προς τον Ελληνικό κόσμο. Η
επόμενη βασιλική οικογένεια, η δυναστεία των Ισαύρων (717-802)
ήταν εξ αρχής ελληνόφωνη. Κατά τη διάρκεια του όγδοου αιώνα, το
"Dominus Noster" εξαφανίστηκε από τα αυτοκρατορικά νομίσματα.
Την ίδια εποχή χάθηκαν και οι λέξεις "Perpetvus Augustus", και
αντικαταστάθηκαν από το Ελληνικό "Βασιλεύς".
Η λέξη "Βασιλεύς" είχε τη δικιά της ιστορία. Στην κλασική
αρχαιότητα το "Βασιλεύς" σήμαινε τον βασιλιά, ταυτόσημο με το
Λατινικό " Rex" . Από τον καιρό του αυτοκράτορα Αυγούστου (πεθ. 14
π.Χ.), οι Έλληνες αποκαλούσαν τον Ρωμαίο Αυτοκράτορα με το
όνομα "Βασιλεύς". Βέβαια στη Λατινική Γλώσσα ποτέ δεν
ονομάστηκε ο Αυτοκράτορας " Rex" , το οποίο θα ήταν προσβλητικό
για τις δημοκρατικές ευαισθησίες των Ρωμαίων, ο Αυτοκράτορας ήταν,
στη θεωρία, αρχηγός της δημοκρατικής κυβέρνησης. Παρά τη Ρωμαϊκή
δημοκρατικότητα, ο όρος "Βασιλεύς" έγινε ο τύπος μεταξύ των
ελληνόφωνων Ρωμαίων που περιγράφει τον Αυτοκράτορα. Δεν υπήρχε
τρόπος να μεταφραστούν στα Ελληνικά οι τίτλοι "Imperator" ή
"Augustus" και να μην ακούγονται επιτηδευμένοι ή γελοίοι. Η λέξη
"Αυτοκράτωρ" φτιάχτηκε για να αποδώσει το " Imperator",
"Σεβαστός" μεταφράστηκε το "Augustus", αλλά ποτέ το
"Αυτοκράτωρ" ή το "Σεβαστός" δεν έγιναν δημοφιλή. Αντίθετα
επικράτησε "Βασιλεύς" να σημαίνει "Emperor" αντί "Rex". Οι Ρωμαίοι
άρχισαν να χρησιμοποιούν το Λατινικό "Rex" εννοώντας "Βασιλιάς"
αναφερόμενοι σε μη Ρωμαίους άρχοντες υποβαθμίζοντας τους ως προς
τον δικό τους Αυτοκράτορα. Η νέα χρήση του "Βασιλεύς" επικράτησε
πολύ αργότερα. Τον έβδομο αιώνα, ο αυτοκράτορας Ηράκλειος
χρησιμοποίησε το "Βασιλεύς" ως τον επίσημο τίτλο του στα
ελληνόγλωσσα έγγραφα, αλλά η λέξη αντικατέστησε το "Augustus"
στα νομίσματα της εποχής των Ισαύρων (717-802).
Ώθηση στην υιοθέτηση του νέου τίτλου δόθηκε από την Αυτοκράτειρα
Ειρήνη (797-802). Ήταν η σύζυγος του Αυτοκράτορα Λέοντα Δ' (775-
780). Μετά το θάνατο του Λέοντα, η Ειρήνη ανέλαβε την εξουσία ως
αντιβασιλεύς του γιού τους Κωνσταντίνου ΣΤ' που ήταν νήπιο. Το 797
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η Ειρήνη εκθρόνισε και τύφλωσε το γιό της για να αποτρέψει την

ανάληψη της εξουσίας από αυτόν μόλις ενηλικιωνόταν. Η Ειρήνη
αυτοανακηρύχθηκε μόνος ηγεμόνας, ισχυρισμός εντελώς πρωτόγνωρος
για γυναίκα στην ιστορία της Αυτοκρατορίας. Η Ειρήνη αντιμετώπισε
προβλήματα γραφειοκρατικής φύσεως στην προώθηση του νεόκοπου
ισχυρισμού της, διότι ο Αυτοκρατορικός τίτλος "Αugustus" ήταν,
βεβαίως, αρσενικού γένους. Δεν θα μπορούσε να αποκαλείται
"Augustus" χωρίς να ακούγεται γελοίο. Η θηλυκή μορφή του
"Augustus", η "Augusta" θα μπορούσε να παίξει τον απαιτούμενο
ρόλο, αλλά στο παρελθόν η λέξη σήμαινε τη σύζυγο του Αυτοκράτορα
ή άλλη σημαντική συγγενή του, και όχι το νόμιμο ηγεμόνα. Η χρήση
της λέξης "Αugusta" για τον προσδιορισμό των γυναικείων μελών της
Αυτοκρατορικής οικογένειας χρονολογείται από τα πρώτα χρόνια της
Αυτοκρατορίας. Η χήρα του Αυτοκράτορα Αυγούστου, η Λίβια,
δέχθηκε το όνομα "Julia Augusta" από τη Γερουσία το 14 μ.Χ.. Σε όλη
τη διάρκεια των οκτώ αιώνων, η λέξη "Augusta" ούτε καν υπαινικτικά
δεν σήμαινε μια ηγεμόνα από μόνη της: η ύπαρξη "Αυγούστας"
συνεπαγόταν και την ύπαρξη ενός "Αυγούστου". Η Ειρήνη δεν
επιθυμούσε να υπενθυμίζει στους Ρωμαίους το γιο της Κωνσταντίνο.
έτσι, οι επιγραφές της Ειρήνης πάντα απέφευγαν τη λέξη "Augusta".
Αντί γι' αυτό, η Ειρήνη επέλεξε να ονομάζεται με τη θηλυκή μορφή
του "Βασιλεύς", η οποία είχε χρησιμοποιηθεί στο παρελθόν από
Βασίλισσες που κυβερνούσαν καθώς και από συζύγους και μητέρες
των Βασιλέων. Η πλήρης μορφή της επιγραφής ήταν:
Προσέξτε την ανάμιξη λατινικών και ελληνικών χαρακτήρων.
Στα κέρματα, στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις εμφανιζόταν η

συντετμημένη μορφή. Συνταρακτικό γεγονός στη βασιλεία της Ειρήνης
ήταν η στέψη στην Παλαιά Ρώμη του Φράγκου Βασιλιά Καρλομάγνου
[Carolus Rex Francorum] ως Αυτοκράτορα το 800. Πολλές αρχές στο
λατινόφωνο κόσμο συνέχιζαν να αναγνωρίζουν τους Αυτοκράτορες της
Κωνσταντινούπολης ως τους νόμιμους Ρωμαίους Αυτοκράτορες μέχρι
που η Ειρήνη εκθρόνισε το γιό της το 797. Στα μάτια της Λατινικής
Δύσης, ο θρόνος έμεινε κενός μετά την αποπομπή του Κωνσταντίνου
ΣΤ'. Για τρεις λόγους υπήρχε αντίδραση προς την Ειρήνη: ήταν
γυναίκα, είχε προβεί στην αποτρόπαιη πράξη της τύφλωσης του γιού
της και έμενε πιστή στις Ανατολικές θρησκευτικές συνήθειες τις οποίες
απέρριπτε η Δύση. Αν και ο Καρλομάγνος, ένας Γερμανός φύλαρχος
[είναι προτιμότερο να τον σκεφτόμαστε ως Καρλ, αντί για το
Γαλλοποιημένο Καρλομάγνος), δεν ήταν Ρωμαίος, είχε φέρει την
ενότητα σε μεγάλο τμήμα της Ευρώπης. Γιατί να μην ήταν αυτός, αντί
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για μια Ελληνίδα γυναίκα (Graeca), Αυτοκράτορας; έτσι σκέφτηκε ο

Πάπας και έθεσε το Αυτοκρατορικό στέμμα στην κεφαλή του
Καρλομάγνου τα Χριστούγεννα του 800. Μετά τη στέψη του, ο
Καρλομάγνος αποκαλούσε τον εαυτό του "Carolus Augustus Imperator
Romanorum gubernans Imperium" (Κάρολος Αύγουστος Αυτοκράτωρ
κυβερνήτης της Επικράτειας των Ρωμαίων). Οι αρχές της
Κωνσταντινούπολης δεν επιθυμούσαν να αναγνωρίσουν τις απαιτήσεις
του νεόκοπου Φράγκου στη Δύση, αν και η πολιτική πραγματικότητα
υποχρέωσε σε συμβιβασμό τον Αυτοκράτορα Μιχαήλ Α' (811-813). Ο
απεσταλμένος του Μιχαήλ από την Κωνσταντινούπολη χαιρέτησε τον
Καρλομάγνο στην αυλή του στο Άαχεν ως "Βασιλέα" και οι Δυτικοί το
μετέφρασαν με ικανοποίηση ως Αυτοκράτωρ. Φυσικά οι Ελληνόφωνοι
μπορούσαν να ανεχθούν την ασάφεια της λέξης "Βασιλεύς". Πίσω
στην Κωνσταντινούπολη, ο Μιχαήλ άρχισε να αποκαλείται (σε
σύντμηση):
(Μιχαήλ, Ρωμαίος Αυτοκράτωρ). Προσέξτε το ελληνικό "ύψιλον" (U),

"χι" (C), και "ήτα" (H). Στα κέρματα η συνηθισμένη μορφή ήταν
Πριν από αυτή την αλλαγή, κανείς Ρωμαίος Αυτοκράτορας δεν είχε
χρησιμοποιήσει ποτέ τη λέξη "Ρωμαίος" στον επίσημο τίτλο του: ο
Αυτοκράτωρ ήταν απλώς ο "Imperator Caesar Augustus". Οι
διπλωμάτες στην Κωνσταντινούπολη σύντομα θα ισχυρίζονταν ότι
"Βασιλεύς" και "Βασιλεύς Ρωμαίων" ήταν δυο διαφορετικά πράγματα.
Κατ' αυτή την άποψη, το "Βασιλεύς Ρωμαίων" ήταν ένας ανώτερος και
μοναδικός τίτλος αποκλειστικά για τον ηγεμόνα της
Κωνσταντινούπολης. Σύμφωνα με αυτή την έξυπνη θεωρία, ο Μιχαήλ
δεν είχε παραχωρήσει στον Καρλομάγνο τίποτα πέρα από ένα βασιλικό
τίτλο, "Βασιλεύς" με την έννοια του βασιλιά ("King"), ισοδύναμο του
λατινικού "Rex". Γι' αυτό άλλωστε και "Βυζαντινός" σημαίνει
διπρόσωπος. Οι Δυτικοί Αυτοκράτορες άρχισαν να αυτοαποκαλούνται
συστηματικά "Imperator Romanorum" (Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμαίων)
αμφισβητώντας άμεσα το "Βασιλεύς Ρωμαίων" της
Κωνσταντινούπολης μόλις από την εποχή του Αυτοκράτορα Όθωνα Γ'
(983-1002). Ο Όθων προχώρησε σ' αυτή την ενέργεια με την
παρακίνηση της μητέρας του της Θεοφανούς, μιας πριγκίπισσας από
την Κωνσταντινούπολη που καταλάβαινε τη λεπτομέρεια του
προβλήματος. Ο "Βασιλεύς Ρωμαίων" της εποχής, ο Βασίλειος Β'
(976-1025) δεν ήταν συγγενής της Θεοφανούς και αυτή επιθυμούσε να
εξυψώσει το γιο της πάνω από τους ανταγωνιστές στην
Κωνσταντινούπολη με το να αποκαλεί τον Όθωνα "Imperator
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Romanorum" (Αυτοκράτορα Ρωμαίων). Βεβαίως, οι καλά

πληροφορημένοι μεταξύ των Δυτικών γνώριζαν ήδη ότι ο καλύτερος
τρόπος για να προσβάλλουν την αυθεντία της Κωνσταντινούπολης, εάν
αυτός ήταν ο σκοπός τους, ήταν να αρνούνται την ρωμαϊκή της
ταυτότητα. Ονομάστε τους "Graecus" (Γραικούς): αυτό μεταφραζόταν
"Έλληνες" (Hellenes), που σήμαινε ειδωλολάτρες και μη Ρωμαίοι.
Η χώρα που ονομαζόταν Ρωμανία.
Αψηφώντας τις πολύπλοκες διπλωματικές συγκρούσεις, οι Δυτικοί

του μεσαίωνα αναφέρονταν στην επικράτεια της Ρωμαϊκής
Αυτοκρατορίας με το όνομα "Ρωμανία" (χώρα των Ρωμαίων).
Παραδείγματος χάριν: από τον έκτο μέχρι τον όγδοο αιώνα, η πόλη της
Ραβέννας ήταν η πρωτεύουσα της επαρχίας των Ρωμαίων της Ιταλίας,
η έδρα του Εξάρχου. Η περιοχή γύρω από τη Ραβέννα διοικούταν
απευθείας από την Αυτοκρατορική εξουσία. Στη σκέψη των
Λογγοβάρδων, του Γερμανικού λαού που απέσπασε μεγάλο τμήμα της
Ιταλίας από τον Αυτοκρατορικό έλεγχο, η περιοχή γύρω από τη
Ραβέννα ήταν Ρωμανία". Μέχρι σήμερα, αυτή η περιοχή της Ιταλίας
ονομάζεται "Romagna", που προέρχεται από το "Ρωμανία". Αιώνες
αργότερα, οι Φράγκοι της Τέταρτης Σταυροφορίας κατέλαβαν την
Κωνσταντινούπολη το 1204. Στο Αυτοκρατορικό κενό που
ακολούθησε, αυτοί οι τυχοδιώκτες, στην πλειοψηφία Γάλλοι, εξέλεξαν
τον δικό τους Αυτοκράτορα και εγκαθίδρυσαν τη δική τους Φραγκική
ή Λατινική Αυτοκρατορία. Ο Φραγκικός ή Λατινικός Αυτοκρατορικός
τίτλος: "Imperator Romaniae" (Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμανίας). Το
"Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμανίας" ήταν κάτι διαφορετικό από το "Imperator
Romanorum" (Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμαίων). Στη Δυτική Ευρώπη, ο τίτλος
"Imperator Romanorum" ανήκε στους Γερμανούς διαδόχους του
Καρλομάγνου και του Όθωνα Γ' όταν στεφανώνονταν από τον Πάπα
στη Ρώμη. Μετά τον Όθωνα Γ', οι Γερμανοί Βασιλείς ονομάζονταν
"Rex Romanorum" (Βασιλεύς Ρωμαίων) για το χρονικό διάστημα, που
μπορούσε να είναι και πολλά χρόνια, που μεσολαβούσε από την στιγμή
της εκλογής τους στη Γερμανία μέχρι τη στέψη τους στη Ρώμη Μετά
τα μέσα του 13ου αιώνα, πολλοί Γερμανοί Βασιλείς δεν έλαβαν ποτέ
το Αυτοκρατορικό στέμμα. Παρέμειναν "Rex Romanorum" σε όλη τη
βασιλεία τους. Τη στιγμή κατά την οποία οι Σταυροφόροι της Τέταρτης
Σταυροφορίας εξέλεξαν τον Πρώτο Αυτοκράτορά τους τον Βαλδουίνο
Α' (1204-1205), ο Δυτικός Αυτοκρατορικός θρόνος ήταν κενός. Ο
Γερμανός Βασιλιάς Φίλιππος δεν είχε στεφανωθεί Αυτοκράτωρ από
τον Πάπα και δεν επρόκειτο να στεφανωθεί ποτέ. Παρ' όλα αυτά, ο
Βαλδουίνος Α' σεβάστηκε τη Δυτική παράδοση: δεν τόλμησε να
προσβάλει τον Πάπα με το να διεκδικήσει τον τίτλο "Imperator
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Romanorum" αλλά μόνο τον τίτλο "Imperator Romaniae"

(Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμανίας). Στα μάτια των Δυτικών, μόνον ο Πάπας
μπορούσε να κάνει κάποιον "Imperator Romanorum".
Στη Δύση, η ιδέα του "Imperator Romanorum" επέζησε για να
περιγράφει τον εκάστοτε Ρωμαιοκαθολικό ηγεμόνα μέχρι το 19ο
αιώνα. Το 1508, ο Πάπας εξουσιοδότησε τον "Rex Romanorum"
(Βασιλιά) να αποκαλείται "Imperator Romanorum Electus"
(Εκλεγμένος Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμαίων) χωρίς την τελετή στέψης στη
Ρώμη. Ο τελευταίος "Εκλεγμένος Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμαίων "
παραιτήθηκε το 1806. Ο Βολταίρος χλεύαζε την Αγία Ρωμαϊκή
Αυτοκρατορία στη δύση της. Όπως σαρκαστικά έλεγε, η Αγία Ρωμαϊκή
Αυτοκρατορία "...δεν ήταν ούτε Αγία, ούτε Ρωμαϊκή, ούτε
Αυτοκρατορία". Όπως και σε άλλα θέματα, ο Βολταίρος γελοιοποιούσε
τα πράγματα στα οποία πίστευαν οι άλλοι. Μέχρι το τέλος, οι
περισσότεροι Ευρωπαίοι, ειδικά οι Καθολικοί, αναφέρονταν στην
"Sacrum Romanorum Imperium" (Aγία Ρωμαϊκή Αυτοκρατορία) ως
μια σοβαρή και σημαντική υπόθεση. Πάντως, οι Δυτικοευρωπαίοι δεν
αυτοαποκαλούνταν Ρωμαίοι ούτε ονόμαζαν την πατρίδα τους Ρωμανία.
Αυτές οι λέξεις αποδίδονταν, έστω και απρόθυμα, στην
Κωνσταντινούπολη.
Οι Δυτικοευρωπαίοι δεν ήταν οι μόνοι σφετεριστές της
Αυτοκρατορίας των Ρωμαίων που προσέβλεπαν στο όνομα της Ρώμης.
Τον 11ο αιώνα, ένας κλάδος των Σελτζούκων Τούρκων εγκαθίδρυσε
ένα Σουλτανάτο στη Μικρά Ασία, αποσπώντας εδάφη της Μικράς
Ασίας. Η επικράτεια του Σουλτανάτου είχε αποκοπεί από την
Αυτοκρατορία μετά τη μάχη του Ματζικέρτ (1071), στην οποία ο
Αυτοκράτωρ Ρωμανός Δ' (1067-1071) έπεσε αιχμάλωτος στα χέρια
των Τούρκων. Αυτό το Τουρκικό κράτος ονομαζόταν "Ρουμ", από το
Ρώμη. Το Σουλτανάτο του Ρουμ συνέχισε να υπάρχει μέχρι μετά το
1300 έχοντας ως πρωτεύουσα το Κόνια (Ικόνιο).
Οι μεταγενέστεροι Οθωμανοί Τούρκοι υιοθέτησαν τον όρο
"Rumelia" (Ρούμελη) για να ονομάσουν τα τμήματα της Βαλκανικής
χερσονήσου που κατέκτησαν από τους Ρωμαίους κατά το 14ο αιώνα.
Το " Ρούμελη " ήταν μια υποδεέστερη λέξη. Αν η Ανατολία ήταν η
Ρώμη (Ρουμ), τότε οι Ευρωπαϊκές κτήσεις ήταν η Μικρότερη Ρώμη
(Ρούμελη). Η λέξη "Ρούμελη" επέζησε μέχρι τον 19ο αιώνα. Ύστερα
από μια ήττα των Τούρκων από τους Ρώσους, οι δυο αντιμαχόμενοι
υπέγραψαν τη Συνθήκη του Αγίου Στεφάνου (1877). Η Συνθήκη
περιλάμβανε μια διάταξη για τη δημιουργία του "Πριγκιπάτου της
Ανατολικής Ρωμυλίας" υπό Ρωσική "προστασία" σε εδάφη που σήμερα
ανήκουν στη Βουλγαρία…
Οι σύγχρονοι Έλληνες (Greeks) αυτοαποκαλούνται "Έλληνες"
(Hellenes), όπως έκαμναν και οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες (Greeks). Η
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μεταστροφή από το "Ρωμαίοι" πίσω στο "Έλληνες", όπως και η

μεταστροφή από το "Βλάχοι" στο "Ρουμάνοι", προήλθε από την
πολιτική του εθνικισμού στα νεώτερα χρόνια. Οι Έλληνες (Greeks)
χρειάζονταν τη Δυτικοευρωπαϊκή βοήθεια για να πετύχουν την
ανεξαρτησία τους στις αρχές του 19ου αιώνα. Αυτή τη βοήθεια μάλλον
δύσκολα θα την προσείλκυαν εάν οι Δυτικοί έβλεπαν τους Έλληνες
(Greeks) ως Βυζαντινούς. Αν, ωστόσο, τους φαντάζονταν ως παιδιά
του Πλάτωνα και του Περικλή, οι συμπάθειες των μορφωμένων
Δυτικών, που είχαν εντρυφήσει στην Κλασική παράδοση, θα ήταν με
την Ελλάδα. Κατά την Ελληνική Επανάσταση του 1832,
"αναμίχθηκαν βαθύτατα οι Φιλελληνικές συμπάθειες της Βρετανίας
και άλλων Ευρωπαϊκών κυβερνήσεων. Η παρέμβαση υπέρ της
ελληνικής ανεξαρτησίας αποδείχθηκε καθοριστική. Το όνομα "Έλλην"
(Hellene) αναβίωσε με σκοπό να δημιουργήσει μια εθνική εικόνα που
απέρριπτε το "Βυζαντινό" παρελθόν.
Συμπεράσματα
Τα ονόματα που δίνουμε στα πράγματα είναι σημαντικά για την

εικόνα που σχηματίζουμε για την πραγματικότητα. Οι άνθρωποι συχνά
ξαφνιάζονται όταν ανακαλύπτουν ότι ιστορικοί χαρακτηρισμοί που
περιγράφουν το παρελθόν είναι νεολογισμοί που επέβαλε η
ιστοριογραφία και η ιδεολογία, και όχι πραγματικότητες αυτού του
ίδιου του παρελθόντος. Οι άνδρες και οι γυναίκες του Μεσαίωνα δεν
ήξεραν ότι ζούσαν στον Μεσαίωνα, όπως και όσοι ζούσαν στην
Κλασική Αθήνα ή την Ιταλική Αναγέννηση. Οι άνθρωποι της
"Βυζαντινής Αυτοκρατορίας" δεν είχαν ιδέα ότι ήταν Βυζαντινοί.
Γνώριζαν ότι είναι αυθεντικοί συνεχιστές του Ρωμαϊκού κόσμου, οι
Ρωμαίοι που ζούσαν στη Ρωμανία.
Enc. Britannica-On Line internet…Greek Mathematics and its

Modern Heirs
Classical Roots of the Scientific Revolution
For over a thousand years--from the fifth century B.C. to the fifth century
A.D.--Greek mathematicians maintained a splendid tradition of work in
the exact sciences: mathematics, astronomy, and related fields. Though
the early synthesis of Euclid and some of the supremely brilliant works
of Archimedes were known in the medieval west, this tradition really
survived elsewhere. In Byzantium, the capital of the Greek-speaking
Eastern empire, the Original Greek texts were copied and preserved. In
the Islamic world, in locales that ranged from Spain to Persia, the texts
were studied in Arabic translations and fundamental new work was
140
done. The Vatican Library has One of the richest collections in the world
of the products of this tradition, in all its languages and forms. Both the
manuscripts that the Vatican collected and the work done on them in
Rome proved vital to the recovery of ancient science--which, in turn, laid
the foundation for the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th
centuries. In the Roman Renaissance, science and humanistic scholarship
were not only not enemies; they were natural allies.
..Euclid's "Optics" is the earliest surviving work on geometrical optics,

and is generally found in Greek manuscripts along with elementary
works on spherical astronomy. There were a number of medieval Latin
translations, which became of new importance in the fifteenth century
for the theory of linear perspective. This technique is beautifully
illustrated here in the miniature of a street scene in this elegant
manuscript from the library of the Duke of Urbino. It may once have been
in the possession of Piero della Francesca, who wrote One of the
principal treatises on perspective in painting.
…In Latin, Translated by William of Moerbeke, ca. 1270
William of Moerbeke was the most prolific medieval translator of

philosophical, medical, and scientific texts from Greek into Latin. This
is the holograph of his translation of the greatest Greek
mathematician, Archimedes, with the commentaries of Eutocius. The
translations were made in 1269 at the papal court in Viterbo from two of
the best Greek manuscripts of Archimedes, both of which have since
disappeared. Shown here is a part of Eutocius's commentary on
Archimedes' "On the Sphere and the Cylinder" in which he reviews
solutions to the Classical problem of the duplication of the cube, i.e. how
to construct a cube twice the volume of a given cube.
Ptolemy's Geography-The Science of the Earth's Surface
Ptolemy, who gave Greek astronomy its final form in the second century
A.D., did the same--and more--for geography and cartography. His
massive work on the subject, which summed up and criticized the work
of earlier writers, offered instruction in laying out maps by three different
methods of projection, provided coordinates for some eight thousand
places, and treated such basic concepts as geographical latitude and
longitude. In Byzantium, in the thirteenth century, Ptolemic maps were
reconstructed and attached to Greek manuscripts of the text. And in the
fifteenth century, a Latin translation of this text, with maps, proved a
sensation in the world of the book. A best seller both in the age of
luxurious manuscripts and in that of print, Ptolemy's "Geography"
141
became immensely influential. Columbus-- one of its many readers--

found inspiration in Ptolemy's exaggerated value for the size of Asia for
his own fateful journey to the west.
Greek AstronomyThe Revival of an Ancient Science
One of the most powerful creations of Greek science was the

mathematical astronomy created by Hipparchus in the second century
B.C. and given final form by Ptolemy in the second century A.D.
Ptolemy's work was known in the Middle Ages through imperfect Latin
versions. In fifteenth-century Italy, however, it was brought back to life.
George Trebizond, a Cretan emigre in the curia, produced a new
translation and commentary. These proved imperfect and aroused much
heated criticism. But a German astronomer, Johannes Regiomontanus, a
protege of the brilliant Greek churchman Cardinal Bessarion, came to
Italy with his patron, learned Greek, and produced a full-scale "Epitome"
of Ptolemy's work from which most astronomers learned their art for the
next century and more. Copernicus was only One of the celebrities of the
Scientific Revolution whose work rested in large part on the study of
ancient science carried out in fifteenth-century Italy.
Greek literature- Encyclopædia Britannica Article

body of writings in the Greek language, with a continuous History
extending from the 1st millennium BC to the present day. From the
beginning its writers were Greeks living not only in Greece proper but
also in Asia Minor, the Aegean Islands, and Magna Graecia (Sicily and
southern Italy). Later, after the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek
became the common language of the eastern Mediterranean lands
and then of the Byzantine Empire. Literature in Greek was produced
not only over a much wider area but also by those whose mother tongue
was not Greek. Even before the Turkish conquest (1453) the area had
begun to shrink again, and now it is chiefly confined to the territory of the
republic of Greece.
Greek language- Encyclopædia Britannica Article

Indo-European language spoken primarily in Greece. It has a long and
well-documented History—the longest of any Indo-European language
—spanning 34 centuries. There is an Ancient phase, subdivided into a
Mycenaean period (texts in syllabic script attested from the 14th to the
13th century BC) and Archaic and Classical periods (beginning with the
adoption of the alphabet, from the 8th to the 4th century BC); a
Hellenistic and Roman phase (4th century BC to 4th century AD); a
Byzantine phase (5th to 15th century AD); and a Modern phase.
142
…Separate transliteration tables for Classical and Modern Greek

accompany this article. Some differences in transliteration result from
changes in pronunciation of the Greek language; others reflect
convention, as for example the  (chi or khi), which was transliterated by
the Romans as ch (because they lacked the letter k in their usual
alphabet). In Modern Greek, however, the standard transliteration for 
is kh. Another difference is the representation of  (beta or víta); in
Classical Greek it is transliterated as b in every instance, and in Modern
Greek as v. The pronunciation of Ancient Greek vowels is indicated by
the transliteration used by the Romans.  (upsilon) was written as y by
the Romans, indicating that the sound was not identical to the sound of
their letter i. Modern Greek  (ípsilon) is transliterated as i, indicating
that the sound used today differs from that of the ancient . (See the
tableClassical Greek Alphabet and Numeralsand the table Modern
Greek Alphabet .)
Differences Between Classical and Hellenistic Greek-A Quick

Introduction by Jay C. Treat-
In order to read the Greek correctly, first download and install

the Greek font SPIonic, One of the freeware fonts from SBL.
Sources -General Characterization -Orthography-Vocabulary

-Accidence -Syntax –Sources..Blass, Friedrich and A. Debrunner.
A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature. Translated and revised by Robert W. Funk.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1961.
Dana, E. H., and Mantey, J. R. A Manual Grammar of the Greek

New Testament. New York: MacMillan Co., 1927.
Gingrich, F. Wilbur. "The Greek New Testament as a Landmark in

the Course of Semantic Change." Journal of Biblical Literature 73
(1954): 189-196.
Robertson, A.T. A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the

Light of Historical Research. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1934.
Conybeare, F. C. and St. G. Stock. "Grammar of Septuagint

Greek." Selections from the Septuagint. Boston: Ginn & Company,
1905.
General Characterization
143
The sources listed above indicate ways in which Koinê (or

Hellenistic) Greek differs from Classical Greek. The following is
a summary of some of the main points they raise.
Robertson characterizes Koinê Greek as a later development of
Classical Greek, that is, the dialect spoken in Attica (the region
around Athens) during the Classical period.
To all intents and purposes the vernacular Koinh is the later

vernacular Attic with normal development under Historical
environment created by Alexander's conquests. On this base
then were deposited varied influences from the other
dialects, but not enough to change the essential Attic
character of the language (Robertson 71).
If the Koinê is an outgrowth of Classical Greek, what are the

differences between the two? Robertson states the basic differences
succinctly. Koinê was more practical than academic, putting the
stress on clarity rather than eloquence. Its grammar was simplified,
exceptions were decreased and generalized, inflections were
dropped or harmonized, and sentence-construction made easier.
Koinê was the language of life and not of books.
Orthography
Orthographic changes are relatively minor. Attic tt usually

becomes ss. There is a tendency to change rough breathing to
smooth breathing, except in words that once contained a digamma
(or words used in analogy with them). Elision is not as common in
the Koinê but there is even more assimilation than in Classical
usage. There is less concern for rhythm. The -mi forms are
beginning to drop out. The movable consonants in ou3twj and
e0stin are added regardless of whether the next word begins with a
vowel, as Classical usages required. Accent by pitch gives way to
accent by stress.
Vocabulary
Changes in vocabulary are of course too numerous to list here.

Generally, it may be said that there are many shifts in the meaning
of words and in the frequency of their usage. Some examples that
Gingrich gives are as follows. Kalw~j nearly replaces eu], e1sxatoj
has taken over teleutai=oj and u3statoj, pro/baton replaces oi]j, and
144
afi/hmi overshadows e9a/w. A dramatic example of a word that

shifts meanings is ba/sanoj, which shifts from "touchstone," to
"test," to "torture," to "disease." We notice other important shifts.
The cardinal numeral ei[j loses some of its numeric force and
become equivalent to the indefinite pronoun tij in many cases.
Also, i1dioj is used as a possessive pronoun. e9autw~n is
substituted for the Classical first and second person plural
reflexive pronouns. Robertson points out that Koinê is not adverse
to useful foreign words.
Accidence
There is quite a bit of difference with reference to accidence. The

Ionic substantive form -rhj takes precedence over the Attic form
-raj. Possessive adjectives, which Classical Greek used for the
emphatic possessive genitive of the personal pronoun, have to a
great extent disappeared in Koinê and have been replaced by the
personal pronoun in the genitive. The system used to express
degrees of comparison in adjectives has been simplified, since
superlative forms have mostly disappeared (comparative forms
being used in their place) and what vestigial superlatives remain
are used mostly in the elative sense.
It is with respect to the verb that most change is accidence has
occurred. First, there are no dual forms in Koinê. Secondly, the
future tense has retreated. That is, alternative forms are eliminated
in that tense; the (non-periphrastic) future perfect is mostly
eliminated; the simple perfect is limited mostly to the indicative
mood; and the future participle is becoming disused. However, the
future indicative is taking on some of the functions of the aorist
subjunctive. Thirdly, the optative has a very limited use (which will
be discussed later). Fourthly, verbal adjectives in -te/oj are lacking
(the only NT example is in Luke 5:38), and those in -to/j have been
crystallized into a set group. Fifthly, periphrastic construction is on
the increase. Sixthly, the pluperfect in Koinê no longer requires the
augment, and the tense sign becomes -kei- instead of -ke-. Lastly,
the passive is beginning to gain the ascendancy over the middle
voice. Most of these trends can be seen to have carried on into
Modern Greek. In the Septuagint, the verbal ending -san is used
with thematic aorists and imperfects;
Syntax
145
There are many differences between Classical Greek and Koinê in

syntax. Koinê has shorter sentences, more parataxis and less hypotaxis, a
sparing use of participles, and a growth in the use of prepositions
(although some old ones have died out). Variations of nouns, adjectives,
and verbs are often according to sense, and a neuter plural substantive
may be used with either a singular or a plural verb. Koinê used personal
pronouns in oblique cases much more often, whereas writers in Attic used
them only when they were necessary for clarity.
One of the biggest syntactical differences involves the use of the

optative mood. Blass notes three Classical uses of this mood. The first is
to denote an attainable wish. This use still occurs in the Septuagint, the
New Testament, and the papyri, but there is a strong tendency to use the
imperative in requests and imprecations. Attic ei1qe and ei0 ga/r do not
occur with the optative in Koinê (nor do they occur with the indicative to
show an unattainable wish); rather o1felon with the future indicative is
employed. The second use is the potential optative in a main clause with
a1n to denote what is thought. This use has mostly disappeared, although
it does occur in some apodoses of conditional sentences. The future
indicative or the subjunctive often replaces the potential optative. The
third use of the optative is that in indirect discourse. Koinê uses this
function very little; in fact, it uses indirect discourse very little. The
iterative optative in subordinate clauses is supplanted by a1n and the
imperfect or aorist indicative. Dana says the optative in indirect discourse
occurs only three times in the NT but he makes no mention at all of the
optative with a secondary tense of verbs of fearing.
In Classical Greek there were five types of conditional sentences
(using Blass's classification): 1) real conditions (ei0 with the indicative),
2) contrary-to-fact conditions (ei0 with an augmented tense of the
indicative), 3) conditions of more vivid expectation (e0a/n with the
subjunctive), 4) conditions of less vivid expectation (e0a/n with the
potential optative), and 5) repetition in past time (ei0 with the optative).
In Koinê, type 1 (real conditions) has lost ground, type 2 (contrary-to-fact
conditions) persists, type 3 (more vivid conditions) prevails, type 4 (less
vivid conditions) is barely represented, and type 5 (repetition in past time)
has disappeared. One Classical feature Koinê does not have is the
conditional relative clause, in which the indefinite pronoun substitutes for
the conditional conjunction.
Another syntactical feature of Classical Greek missing in Koinê is the

object clause. After a verb of striving, caring, or effecting, Classical
Greek uses o3pwj with the future indicative for the object, but Koinê
does not.
146
Το Παρακάτω έχω χρησιμοποιήσει πολλές φορές με την ενδειξη

TLG, οταν παραθέτω άρχαία ελληνικά κείμενα.
The Thesaurus Linguae Graecae is a research center at the University of

California, Irvine. Founded in 1972 the has already collected and
digitized all ancient texts from Homer to A.D. 600 and a large number
of texts from the period between A.D. 600 and the fall of Byzantium in
A.D. 1453. Its goal is to create a comprehensive digital library which will
include the entire corpus of Greek literature from Homer to the present
era.
TLGTM text materials are currently disseminated in CD ROM format. The

most recent edition of the TLGTM disk was released in February 2000 and
contains 76 million words of text (6,625 works/work collections from
1,823 authors). In addition to CD ROM access, institutions with a site
license can now search all TLGTM texts and Canon materials online. If
your institution does not have a site license you can try out the TLG
Demo site which contains a representative selection of texts and the
complete Canon of Greek Authors and Works.
Perseus-Primary Text Index: Greek
Here are the primary texts currently available on our web site. They have
been broken into chunks for ease of browsing, with links and a lookup
tool to help you navigate through the texts quickly. Clicking on any
Greek word in the text which is a link will take you to the
morphoLogical analysis for that word, and from there you can use the
other text tools. Please see Text Help if you are unsure how to display
Greek properly or how to use text tools.
Note: Textual reference appearing after titles in parentheses gives their
standard scholarly abbreviations, and provides a template for how to look
up other passages in that author while browsing. Index of Authors..
What is a little Greek?
A "Little Greek" is someone who is still learning Greek. The phrase

originated when someone on the B-Greek Mailing List suggested that "a
little Greek is a dangerous thing". I replied that I am a Little Greek, and I
am dangerous, but so are some of the Big Greeks. Most Greek grammars
say a few things that are completely wrong, and most noted authorities on
the Greek language have said at least one stupid thing. But there is good
news: even Really Incredibly Awesome Big Greeks can be Little Greeks
too, as long as they realize one thing:
147
Little Greek 101:Learning New Testament Greek
This is an evolving online textbook for beginning New Testament

Greek. Each chapter has two sections; you should always read both of
them, but it doesn't matter which you read first:
 Tables and such This section summarizes the material that the
chapter covers. If you are a top-down, analytical person, you may
want to start by reading this section, then proceed to the "Exploring
real Greek" section.
 Exploring real Greek This section introduces the concepts one
step at a time, using real Greek taken mainly from the New
Testament. If you are an exploratory, inductive person, you may
want to start with this section, then review the material by reading
the "Tables and such" section.
The first chapter was posted on 29 October, 1997. I will be working on

this as I find time. I think that it will take me about a year to finish the
basic course. If you register, you will be notified via email whenever I
add a lesson or change this page. To register, enter your email address and
push the button:
Εδώ τελειώνει η παράθεση αποσπασμάτων απο την On Line enc.

Britannica..
Παρακάτω παραθέτω αποσπάσματα απο το Sites; Project

Gutemberg.
Poe, Edgar Allan, 1809-1849-AKA: -ADD. AUTHOR: -LIBRARY-OF

CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION:
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURES > American literature
SUBJECT: NOTES: Contents: Philosophy of Furniture -- A Tale of
Jerusalem -- The Sphinx -- Hop Frog -- The Man of the Crowd -- Never
Bet the Devill Your Head -- Thou Art the Man -- Why the Little
Frenchman Wears his Hand in a Sling -- Bon-Bon -- Some words with a
Mummy -- The Poetic Principle -- Old English Poetry ---- Poems of
Later Life: The Raven -- The Bells -- Ulalume -- To Helen -- Annabel Lee
-- A Valentine -- An Enigma -- To my Mother -- For Annie -- To F---- --
To Frances S. Osgood -- Eldorado -- Eulalie -- A Dream within a Dream
-- To Marie Louise (Shew) -- To the Same -- The City in the Sea -- The
Sleeper -- Bridal Ballad ---- Poems of Manhood: Lenore -- To One in
Paradise -- The Coliseum -- The Haunted Palace -- The Conqueror Worm
-- Silence -- Dreamland -- Hymn -- To Zante -- Scenes from "Politian"
---- Poems of Youth: Introduction (1831) -- Sonnet--To Science -- Al
Aaraaf -- Tamerlane -- To Helen -- The Valley of Unrest -- Israfel -- To --
148
("The Bowers Whereat, in Dreams I See") -- To -- ("I Heed not That my

Earthly Lot") -- To the River -- -- Song -- A Dream -- Romance --
Fairyland -- The Lake To-- -- "The Happiest Day" -- Imitation -- Hymn.
Translation from the Greek -- "In Youth I Have Known One" -- A Paean
---- Doubtful Poems: Alone -- To Isadore -- The Village Street -- The
Forest Reverie..
AUTHOR: Lang, Andrew, 1844-1912-AKA: ADD. AUTHOR: -

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION: PN LANGUAGE
AND LITERATURES > Literature: General, Criticism, Collections
SUBJECT: Literature -- History and criticism English

literature -- 19th century -- History and criticism.
NOTES: Contents: Alexandre Dumas -- Mr. Stevenson's works --

Thomas Haynes Bayly -- Theodore de Banville -- Homer and the study of
Greek -- The last fashionable novel -- Thackeray -- Dickens --
Adventures of Buccaneers -- The sagas -- Charles Kingsley -- Charles
Lever: his books, adventures and misfortunes -- The poems of Sir Walter
Scott -- John Bunyan -- Letter to a young journalist -- Mr.Kipling's
stories…
Ερευνα στο Search του παρακάτω sites για τη λέξη Greek:

at the Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia
Search: for the phrase "Greek " within Entire Bible

ref Found: 13 matches -Results-1-13-
Group by work
2 Maccabees (Apocrypha), chapter 4 as the height of Greek fashions, and
increase of heAthenish manners, Acts, chapter 16 his father was a Greek:
Which was well reported of b
Acts, chapter 16 s father was a Greek. And as they went through the
Acts, chapter 21 Canst thou speak Greek? Art not thou that Egyptia
Colossians, chapter 3 there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor
uncircumcision, Romans, chapter 1 nd also to the Greek. For therein is
the righteou Romans, chapter 10 the Jew and the Greek: for the same
Lord over all is rich unto all.
Capital: A Critique of Political Economy by Karl Marx-1867.
Volume One: The Process of Capitalist Production

Part One: Commodities and Money-Chapter One: Commodities
149
Section One: The Two Factors of a Commodity: Use-Value and Value

(The Substance of Value and the Magnitude of Value).
1. There was, however, an important fact which prevented

Aristotle from seeing that, to attribute value to commodities, is
merely a mode of expressing all labour as equal human labour, and
consequently as labour of equal quality. Greek society was
founded upon slavery, and had, therefore, for its natural basis,
the inequality of men and of their labour-powers. The secret of
the expression of value, namely, that all kinds of labour are
equal and equivalent, because, and so far as they are human
labour in general, cannot be deciphered, until the notion of
human equality has already acquired the fixity of a popular
prejudice. This, however, is possible only in a society in which
the great mass of the produce of labour takes the form of
commodities, in which, consequently, the dominant relation
between man and man, is that of owners of commodities. The
brilliancy of Aristotle's genius is shown by this alone, that he
discovered, in the expression of the value of commodities, a
relation of equality. The peculiar conditions of the society in
which he lived, alone prevented him from discovering what, "in
truth," was at the bottom of this equality.
…. "The economists have a singular manner of proceeding. There
are for them only two kinds of institutions, those of art and
those of nature. Feudal institutions are artificial institutions,
those of the bourgeoisie are natural institutions. In this they
resemble the theologians, who also establish two kinds of
religion Every religion but their own is an invention of men,
while their own religion is an emanation from God... Thus there
has been History, but there is no longer any." Karl Marx, The
Poverty of Philosophy, A Reply to 'La Philosophie de la Misere'
by Mr Proudhon. 1847, p. 100. Truly comical is M. Bastiat, who
imagines that the ancient Greeks and Romans lived by plunder
alone. But when people plunder for centuries, there must always
be something at hand for them to seize; the objects of plunder
must be continually reproduced…
… The two latter peculiarities of the equivalent form will
become more intelligible if we go back to the great thinker who
was the first to analyze so many forms, whether of thought,
society, or Nature, and amongst them also the form of value. I
mean Aristotle.
…Aristotle therefore, himself, tells us, what barred the way to
150
his further analysis; it was the absence of any concept of value.

What is that equal something, that common substance, which admits
of the value of the beds being expressed by a house? Such a
thing, in truth, cannot exist, says Aristotle. And why not?
Compared with the beds, the house does represent something equal
to them, in so far as it represents what is really equal, both in
the beds and the house. And that is -- human labour.
…There was, however, an important fact which prevented
Aristotle from seeing that, to attribute value to commodities, is
merely a mode of expressing all labour as equal human labour, and
consequently as labour of equal quality. Greek society was
founded upon slavery, and had, therefore, for its natural basis,
the inequality of men and of their labour-powers. The secret of
the expression of value, namely, that all kinds of labour are
equal and equivalent, because, and so far as they are human
labour in general, cannot be deciphered, until the notion of
human equality has already acquired the fixity of a popular
prejudice. This, however, is possible only in a society in which
the great mass of the produce of labour takes the form of
commodities, in which, consequently, the dominant relation
between man and man, is that of owners of commodities. The
brilliancy of Aristotle's genius is shown by this alone, that he
discovered, in the expression of the value of commodities, a
relation of equality. The peculiar conditions of the society in
which he lived, alone prevented him from discovering what, "in
truth," was at the bottom of this equality.
… If a giant thinker like Aristotle
erred in his appreciation of slave labour, why should a dwarf
economist like Bastiat be right in his appreciation of wage
labour? - I seize this opportunity of shortly answering an
objection taken by a German paper in America, to my work,
"Critique of Political Economy, l859." In the estimation of that
paper, my view that each special mode of production and the
social relations corresponding to it, in short, that the economic
structure of society, is the real basis on which the juridical
and Political superstructure is raised, and to which definite
social forms of thought correspond; that the mode of production
determines the character of the social, Political, and
intellectual life generally, all this is very true for our own
times, in which material interests preponderate, but not for the
middle ages, in which Catholicism, nor for Athens and Rome, where
Politics, reigned supreme. In the first place it strikes one as
an odd thing for any one to suppose that these well-worn phrases
151
about the middle ages and the ancient world are unknown to anyone
else.
… Trading nations, properly
so-called, exist in the ancient world only in its interstices,
like the gods of Epicurus in the Intermundia, or like Jews in the
pores of Polish society. Those ancient social organisms of
production are, as compared with bourgeois society, extremely
simple and transparent. But they are found either on the immature
development of man individually, who has not yet severed the
umbilical cord that unites him with his fellow men in a primitive
tribal community, or upon direct relations of subjection…
… nor for Athens and Rome, where
Politics, reigned supreme. In the first place it strikes one as
an odd thing for any one to suppose that these well-worn phrases
about the middle ages and the ancient world are unknown to anyone
else. This much, however, is clear, that the middle ages could
not live on Catholicism, nor the ancient world on Politics. On
the contrary, it is the mode in which they gained a livelihood
that explains why here Politics, and there Catholicism, played
the chief part. For the rest, it requires but a slight
acqusintance with the History of the Roman republic, for example,
to be aware that its secret History is the History of its landed
property. On the other hand, Don Quixote long ago paid the
penalty for wrongly imagining that knight errantry was compatible
with all economical forms of society.
… In Homer, for instance, the value of an article is expressed

in a series of different thing. Iliad, VII., 472-475.
…The two latter peculiarities of the equivalent form will
become more intelligible if we go back to the great thinker who
was the first to analyze so many forms, whether of thought,
society, or Nature, and amongst them also the form of value. I
mean Aristotle.
Enc. Cd Rom Encarta 97
English Language, chief medium of communication of people in the

United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa, and numerous other countries. It is the official language
of many nations in the Commonwealth of Nations and is widely
understood and used in all of them. It is spoken in more parts of the
world than any other language and by more people than any other
152
tongue except Chinese.English belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group

within the western branch of the Germanic languages, a sub-family of
the Indo-European languages. It is related most closely to the Frisian
language, to a lesser extent to Netherlandic (Dutch-Flemish) and the
Low German (Plattdeutsch) dialects, and more distantly to Modern
High German. Its parent, Proto-Indo-European, was spoken around
5,000 years ago by nomads who are thought to have roamed the south-
east European plains.
Vocabulary
The English vocabulary has increased greatly in more than 1,500 years
of development. The most nearly complete dictionary of the language,
the Oxford English Dictionary (13 vols., 1933), a revised edition of A
New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (10 vols., 1884-1933;
supplements), contains 500,000 words. It has been estimated, however,
that the present English vocabulary consists of more than 1 million
words, including slang and dialect expressions and scientific and
technical terms, many of which only came into use after the middle of
the 20th century. The English vocabulary is more extensive than that of
any other language in the world, although some other languages—
Chinese, for example—have a word-building capacity equal to that of
English. It is, approximately half Germanic (Old English and
Scandinavian) and half Italic or Romance (French and Latin) and
extensive, constant borrowing from every major language, especially
from Latin, Greek, French, and the Scandinavian languages, and from
numerous minor languages, accounts for the great number of words in
the English vocabulary. From Old English have come cardinal and
ordinal numbers, personal pronouns, and numerous nouns and
adjectives: from French have come intellectual and abstract terms, as
well as terms of rank and status, such as duke, marquis, and baron. In
addition, certain processes have led to the creation of many new words
as well as to the establishment of patterns for further expansion. Among
these processes are onomatopoeia, or the imitation of natural sounds,
which has created such words as burp and clink; affixation, or the
addition of prefixes and suffixes, either native, such as mis- and -ness,
or borrowed, such as ex- and -ist; the combination of parts of words,
such as in brunch, composed of parts of breakfast and lunch; the free
formation of compounds, such as bonehead and downpour; back
formation, or the formation of words from previously existing words,
the forms of which suggest that the later words were derived from the
earlier ones—for example, to jell, formed from jelly; and functional
change, or the use of one part of speech as if it were another, for
example, the noun shower used as a verb, to shower. The processes that
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have probably added the largest number of words are affixation and
especially functional change, which is facilitated by the peculiarities of
English syntactical structure.
Spelling
English is said to have One of the most difficult spelling systems in the
world. The written representation of English is not phonetically exact
for two main reasons. First, the spelling of words has changed to a
lesser extent than their sounds; for example, the k in knife and the gh in
right were formerly pronounced (see Middle English Period below).
Second, certain spelling conventions acquired from foreign sources
have been perpetuated; for example, during the 16th century the b was
inserted in doubt (formerly spelled doute) on the authority of dubitare,
the Latin source of the word. Outstanding examples of discrepancies
between spelling and pronunciation are the six different pronunciations
of ough, as in bough, cough, thorough, thought, through, and rough; the
spellings are kept from a time when the gh represented a back fricative
consonant that was pronounced in these words. Other obvious
discrepancies are the 14 different spellings of the sh sound, for example,
as in anxious, fission, fuchsia, and ocean.
Role of Phonemes
Theoretically, the spelling of phonemes, the simplest sound elements
used to distinguish one word from another, should indicate precisely the
sound characteristics of the language. For example, in English, at
contains two phonemes, mat three, and mast four. Very frequently,
however, the spelling of English words does not conform to the number
of phonemes. Enough, for example, which has four phonemes (enuf), is
spelled with six letters, as is breath, which also has four phonemes
(breu) and six letters. See Phonetics.
The main vowel phonemes in English include those represented by the
italicized letters in the following words: bit, beat, bet, bate, bat, but,
Botany, bought, boat, boot, book, and burr. These phonemes are
distinguished from one another by the position of articulation in the
mouth. Four vowel sounds, or complex nuclei, of English are
diphthongs formed by gliding from a low position of articulation to a
higher one. These diphthongs are the i of bite (a glide from o of Botany
to ea of beat), the ou of bout (from o of Botany to oo of boot), the oy of
boy (from ou of bought to ea of beat), and the u of butte (from ea of
beat to oo of boot). The exact starting point and ending point of the
glide varies within the English-speaking world.
Stress, Pitches, and Juncture
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Other means to phonemic differentiation in English, apart from the

pronunciation of distinct vowels and consonants, are stress, pitch, and
juncture. Stress is the sound difference achieved by pronouncing one
syllable more forcefully than another, for example, the difference
between ' record (noun) and re' cord (verb). Pitch is, for example, the
difference between the pronunciation of John and John? Juncture or
disjuncture of words causes such differences in sound as that created by
the pronunciation of blackbird (one word) and black bird (two words).
English employs four degrees of stress and four kinds of juncture for
differentiating words and phrases.
Inflection
Modern English is a relatively uninflected language. Nouns have
separate endings only in the possessive case and the plural number.
Verbs have both a strong conjugation—shown in older words—with
internal vowel change, for example, sing, sang, sung, and a weak
conjugation with dental suffixes indicating past tense, as in play,
played. The latter is the predominant type. Only 66 verbs of the strong
type are in use; newer verbs invariably follow the weak pattern. The
third person singular has an -s ending, as in does. The structure of
English verbs is thus fairly simple, compared with that of verbs in
similar languages, and includes only a few other endings, such as -ing
or -en; but verb structure does involve the use of numerous auxiliaries
such as have, can, may, or must. Monosyllabic and some disyllabic
adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison, such as larger or
happiest; other adjectives express the same distinction by compounding
with more and most. Pronouns, the most heavily inflected parts of
speech in English, have objective case forms, such as me or her, in
addition to the nominative (I, he, we) and possessive forms (my, his,
hers, our).
Parts of Speech
Although many grammarians still cling to the Graeco-Latin tradition of
dividing words into eight parts of speech, efforts have recently been
made to reclassify English words on a different basis. The American
Linguist Charles Carpenter Fries, in his work The Structure of English
(1952), divided most English words into four great form classes that
generally correspond to the noun, verb, adjective, and adverb in the
standard classification. He classified 154 other words as function
words, or words that connect the main words of a sentence and show
their relations to one another. In the standard classification, many of
these function words are considered pronouns, prepositions, and
conjunctions; others are considered adverbs, adjectives, or verbs.
155
Development of the Language

Three main stages are usually recognized in the History of the
development of the English language. Old English, known formerly as
Anglo-Saxon, dates from AD 449 to 1066 or 1100. Middle English
dates from 1066 or 1100 to 1450 or 1500. Modern English dates from
about 1450 or 1500 and is subdivided into Early Modern English, from
about 1500 to 1660, and Late Modern English, from about 1660 to the
present time.
Old English Period
Old English, a variant of West Germanic, was spoken by certain
Germanic peoples (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) of the regions comprising
present-day southern Denmark and northern Germany who invaded
Britain in the 5th century AD; the Jutes were the first to arrive, in 449,
according to tradition. Settling in Britain (the Jutes in Kent, southern
Hampshire, and the Isle of Wight; the Saxons in the part of England south
of the Thames; and the Angles in the rest of England as far north as the
Firth of Forth), the invaders drove the indigenous Celtic-speaking
peoples, notably the Britons, to the north and west. As time went on, Old
English evolved further from the Original Continental form, and regional
dialects developed. The four major dialects recognized in Old English are
Kentish, Originally the dialect spoken by the Jutes; West Saxon, a branch
of the dialect spoken by the Saxons; and Northumbrian and Mercian,
subdivisions of the dialects spoken by the Angles. By the 9th century,
partly through the influence of Alfred, king of the West Saxons and the
First ruler of all England, West Saxon became prevalent in prose
literature. The Latin works of St Augustine, St Gregory, and the
Venerable Bede were translated, and the native poetry of Northumbria
and Mercia were transcribed in the West Saxon dialect. A Mercian mixed
dialect, however, was preserved for the greatest poetry, such as the
anonymous 8th-century epic poem Beowulf and the contemporary elegiac
poems.
Old English was an inflected language characterized by strong and
weak verbs; a dual number for pronouns (for example, a form for “we
two” as well as “we”), two different declensions of adjectives, four
declensions of nouns, and grammatical distinctions of gender. These
inflections meant that word order was much freer than in the language
today. There were two tenses: present-future and past. Although rich in
word-building possibilities, Old English was sparse in vocabulary. It
borrowed few proper nouns from the language of the conquered Celts,
primarily those such as Aberdeen (“mouth of the Dee”) and Inchcape
(“island cape”) that describe geographical features. Scholars believe
that ten common nouns in Old English are of Celtic origin; among these
156
are bannock, cart, down, and mattock. Although other Celtic words not
preserved in literature may have been in use during the Old English
period, most Modern English words of Celtic origin, that is, those
derived from Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, or Irish, are comparatively recent
borrowings.
The number of Latin words, many of them derived from the Greek,
that were introduced during the Old English period has been estimated
at 140. Typical of these words are altar, mass, priest, psalm, temple,
kitchen, palm, and pear. A few were probably introduced through the
Celtic; others were brought to Britain by the Germanic invaders, who
previously had come into contact with Roman culture. By far the
largest number of Latin words was introduced as a result of the spread
of Christianity. Such words included not only ecclesiastical terms but
many others of less specialized significance.
About 40 Scandinavian (Old Norse) words were introduced into Old
English by the Norsemen, or Vikings, who invaded Britain periodically
from the late 8th century on. Introduced first were words pertaining to
the sea and battle, but shortly after the initial invasions other words
used in the Scandinavian social and administrative system—for
example, the word law—entered the language, as well as the verb form
are and such widely used words as take, cut, both, ill, and ugly.
Middle English Period
At the beginning of the Middle English period, which dates from the
Norman Conquest of 1066, the language was still inflectional; at the
end of the period the relationship between the elements of the sentence
depended basically on word order. As early as 1200 the three or four
grammatical case forms of nouns in the singular had been reduced to
two, and to denote the plural the noun ending -es had been adopted.
The declension of the noun was simplified further by dropping the final
n from five cases of the fourth, or weak, declension; by neutralizing all
vowel endings to e (sounded like the a in Modern English sofa), and by
extending the masculine, nominative, and accusative plural ending -as,
later neutralized also to -es, to other declensions and other cases. Only
one example of a weak plural ending, oxen, survives in Modern
English; kine and brethren are later formations. Several representatives
of the Old English modification of the root vowel in the plural, such as
man, men, and foot, feet, also survive.
With the levelling of inflections, the distinctions of grammatical gender
in English were replaced by those of natural gender. During this period
the dual number fell into disuse, and the dative and accusative of
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pronouns were reduced to a common form. Furthermore, the

Scandinavian they, them were substituted for the Original hie, hem of
the third person plural, and who, which, and that acquired their present
relative functions. The conjugation of verbs was simplified by the
omission of endings and by the use of a common form for the singular
and plural of the past tense of strong verbs.
In the early period of Middle English, a number of utilitarian words,
such as egg, sky, sister, window, and get, came into the language from
Old Norse. The Normans brought other additions to the vocabulary.
Before 1250 about 900 new words had appeared in English, mainly
words, such as baron, noble, and feast, that the Anglo-Saxon lower
classes required in their dealings with the Norman-French nobility.
Eventually the Norman nobility and clergy, although they had learned
English, introduced from the French words pertaining to the
government, the church, the army, and the fashions of the court, in
addition to others proper to the arts, scholarship, and medicine. Another
effect of the Norman Conquest was the use of Carolingian script and a
change in spelling. Norman scribes write Old English y as u and  as
ou. Cw was changed to qu, hw to wh, and ht to ght.
Midland, the dialect of Middle English derived from the Mercian
dialect of Old English, became important during the 14th century, when
the counties in which it was spoken developed into centres of university,
economic, and courtly life. East Midland, One of the subdivisions of
Midland, had by that time become the speech of the entire metropolitan
area of the capital, London, and probably had spread south of the
Thames River into Kent and Surrey. The influence of East Midland was
strengthened by its use in the government offices of London, by its
literary dissemination in the works of the 14th-century poets Geoffrey
Chaucer, John Gower, and John Lydgate, and ultimately by its adoption
for printed works by William Caxton. These and other circumstances
gradually contributed to the direct development of the East Midland
dialect into the Modern English language.
During the period of this Linguistic transformation the other Middle
English dialects continued to exist, and dialects descending from them
are still spoken in the 20th century. Lowland Scottish, for example, is a
development of the Northern dialect.
The Great Vowel Shift
The transition from Middle English to Modern English was marked by a
major change in the pronunciation of vowels during the 15th and 16th
centuries. This change, termed the Great Vowel Shift by the Danish
Linguist Otto Jespersen, consisted of a shift in the articulation of
158
vowels with respect to the positions assumed by the tongue and the lips.
The Great Vowel Shift changed the pronunciation of 18 of the 20
distinctive vowels and diphthongs of Middle English. Spelling,
however, remained unchanged and was preserved from then on as a
result of the advent of printing in England in about 1475, during the
shift. (In general, Middle English orthography was much more
phonetic than Modern English; all consonants, for example, were
pronounced, whereas now letters such as the l preserved in walking are
silent).
All long vowels, with the exception of /i:/ (pronounced in Middle
English somewhat like ee in need) and /u:/ (pronounced in Middle
English like oo in food), came to be pronounced with the jaw position
one degree higher. Pronounced previously in the highest possible
position, the/i:/ became diphthongized to “ah-ee”, and the/u:/ to “ee-
oo”. The Great Vowel Shift, which is still in progress, caused the
pronunciation in English of the letters a, e, i, o, and u to differ from that
used in most other languages of Western Europe. The approximate date
when words were borrowed from other languages can be ascertained
by means of these and other sound changes. Thus it is known that the
old French word dame was borrowed before the shift, since its vowel
shifted with the Middle English /e:/ from a pronunciation like that of the
vowel in calm to that of the vowel in name.
Modern English Period
In the early part of the Modern English period the vocabulary was
enlarged by the widespread use of one part of speech for another and by
increased borrowings from other languages. The revival of interest in
Latin and Greek during the Renaissance brought new words into
English from those languages. Other words were introduced by English
travellers and merchants after their return from journeys on the
Continent. From Italian came cameo, stanza, and violin; from Spanish
and Portuguese, alligator, peccadillo, and sombrero. During its
development, Modern English borrowed words from more than 50
different languages.
In the late 17th century and during the 18th century, certain important
grammatical changes occurred. The formal rules of English grammar
were established during that period. The pronoun its came into use,
replacing the genitive form his, which was the only form used by the
translators of the King James Bible (1611). The progressive tenses
developed from the use of the participle as a noun preceded by the
preposition on; the preposition gradually weakened to a and finally
disappeared. Thereafter only the simple ing form of the verb remained
159
in use. After the 18th century this process of development culminated in

the creation of the progressive passive form, for example, “The job is
being done”.
The most important development begun during this period and
continued without interruption throughout the 19th and 20th centuries
concerned vocabulary. As a result of colonial expansion, notably in
North America but also in other areas of the world, many new words
entered the English language. From the indigenous peoples of North
America, the words raccoon and wigwam were borrowed; from Peru,
llama and quinine; from the West Indies, barbecue and cannibal; from
Africa, chimpanzee and zebra; from India, bandanna, curry, and punch;
and from Australia, kangaroo and boomerang. In addition, thousands of
scientific terms were developed to denote new concepts, discoveries,
and inventions. Many of these terms, such as neutron, penicillin, and
supersonic, were formed from Greek and Latin roots; others were
borrowed from modern languages, as with blitzkrieg from German and
sputnik from Russian.
20th-Century English
In Great Britain at present the speech of educated persons is known as
Received Pronunciation. A class dialect rather than a regional dialect, it
is based on the type of speech cultivated at public schools and at such of
the older universities as Oxford and Cambridge. Many English people
who speak regional dialects in their childhood acquire Received
Pronunciation while attending school and university. Its influence has
become even stronger in recent years because of its use by such public
media as the British Broadcasting Corporation.
RP is not intrinsically superior to other varieties of English, and is,
itself, only one particular dialect. It has just achieved more extensive
use than others.
Widely differing regional and local dialects are still employed in the
various counties of Great Britain. Other important regional dialects
have also developed; for example, the English language in Ireland has
retained certain individual peculiarities of pronunciation, such as the
pronunciation of lave for leave and fluther for flutter; certain syntactical
peculiarities, such as the use of after following forms of the verb be;
and certain differences in vocabulary, including the use of archaic
words such as adown (for down) and Celtic borrowings such as
banshee. The Lowland Scottish dialect, sometimes called Lallans, first
made known throughout the English-speaking world by the songs of the
18th-century Scottish poet Robert Burns, contains differences in
pronunciation also, such as neebour (“neighbour”) and guid (“good”),
160
and words of Scandinavian origin peculiar to the dialect, such as braw

and bairn. The English spoken in Australia, with its marked
diphthongization of vowels, also makes use of special words, retained
from English regional dialect usages, or taken over from indigenous
Australian terms.
American English
An important development of English outside Great Britain occurred
with the colonization of North America. American English may be
considered to include the English spoken in Canada, although the
Canadian variety retains some features of British pronunciation,
spelling, and vocabulary. The most distinguishing differences between
American English and British English are in pronunciation and
vocabulary. There are slighter differences in spelling, pitch, and stress
as well. Written American English also has a tendency to be more rigid
in matters of grammar and syntax, but at the same time appears to be
more tolerant of the use of Neologisms. Despite these differences, it is
often difficult to determine—apart from context—whether serious
literary works have been written in Great Britain or the United
States/Canada—or, for that matter, in Australia, New Zealand, or South
Africa.
Basic English
A simplified form of the English language based on 850 key words was
developed in the late 1920s by the English psychologist Charles Kay
Ogden and publicized by the English educator I. A. Richards. Known as
Basic English, it was used mainly to teach English to non-English-
speaking persons and promoted as an international language. The
complexities of English spelling and grammar, however, were major
hindrances to the adoption of Basic English as a second language.
The fundamental principle of Basic English was that any idea, however
complex, may be reduced to simple units of thought and expressed
clearly by a limited number of everyday words. The 850-word primary
vocabulary was composed of 600 nouns (representing things or events),
150 adjectives (for qualities and properties), and 100 general
“operational” words, mainly verbs and prepositions. Almost all the
words were in common use in English-speaking countries; more than
60 per cent were one-syllable words. The abbreviated vocabulary was
created in part by eliminating numerous synonyms and by extending the
use of 18 “basic” verbs, such as make, get, do, have, and be. These
verbs were generally combined with prepositions, such as up, among,
under, in, and forward. For example, a Basic English student would use
the expression “go up” instead of “ascend”.
161
Pidgin English
English also enters into a number of simplified languages that arose
among non-English-speaking peoples. Pidgin English, spoken in the
Melanesian islands, New Guinea, Australia, the Philippines, and Hawaii
and on the Asian shores of the Pacific Ocean, developed as a means of
communication between Chinese and English traders. The Chinese
adopted many English words and a few indispensable non-English
words and created a means of discourse, using a simple grammatical
apparatus. Bκche-de-Mer, a pidgin spoken in the southern and western
Pacific islands, is predominantly English in structure, although it
includes many Polynesian words. Chinook Jargon, used as a lingua
franca by the Native Americans, French, and English on the North
American Pacific coast, contains English, French, and Native American
words; its grammatical structure is based on that of the Chinook
language. The use of pidgin is growing in Africa, notably in Cameroon,
Sierra Leone, and East Africa.
Future of the English Language
The influence of the mass media appears likely to result in a more
standardized pronunciation, more uniform spelling, and eventually a
spelling closer to actual pronunciation. Despite the likelihood of such
standardization, a unique feature of the English language remains its
tendency to grow and change. Despite the warnings of Linguistic
purists, new words are constantly being coined and usages modified to
express new concepts. Its vocabulary is constantly enriched by
Linguistic borrowings, particularly by cross-fertilizations from
American English. Because it is capable of infinite possibilities of
communication, the English language has become the chief
international language…
Bookshelf 95 Cd Rom
language
language systematic communication by vocal symbols. It is a universal
characteristic of the human species. The earliest forms of language
known are no more “primitive” than modern forms. Because language is
a cultural system, individual languages classify objects and ideas
differently. There are some 6,500 spoken languages, but about 2,000
162
have fewer than 1,000 speakers. The smallest have only a few members;
the largest, in approximate descending order based on the number of
native speakers, are North Chinese vernacular (Mandarin), English,
Spanish, Hindustani, Bengali, Arabic, Russian, and Portuguese.
Differences within languages are DIALECTS. Languages change
continuously, but various factors, especially literacy, lead to the
development of a community's standard language, usually one dialect,
e.g., London English. Literary and colloquial standards may differ, and a
group jargon may be unintelligible to outsiders; the differences are
primarily in vocabulary. Groups of related languages are called families
and stocks. For a survey of the important languages by family, see the
MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES, MAJOR NATIVE AMERICAN
LANGUAGES, and MAJOR LANGUAGES OF EUROPE, ASIA,
AND OCEANIA tables. See also LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
Greek -Greek (grκk) noun-Abbr. Gr., Gk.

1. a. The Indo-European language of the Greeks. Greek, the sole
member of the Hellenic branch, consists of several groups of ancient
and modern regional, social, and literary dialects and is divided into
several Historical periods. b. Greek language and literature from
the middle of the eighth century B.C. to the end of the third century
A.D., especially the Attic Greek of the fifth and fourth centuries
B.C..
2. a. A native or inhabitant of Greece. b. A person of Greek ancestry.
3. Informal. A member of a fraternity or sorority that has its name
composed of Greek letters.
4. Informal. Something that is unintelligible: Quantum mechanics is
Greek to me.
Adjective Of or reLating to Greece or its people, language, or culture.

[Middle English Grek, from Old English Grκcas, the Greeks, from
Latin Graecus, Greek, from Greek Graikos, tribal name.]
American Imperialism and Language Barriers

I saw this topic addressed in the French zine My World Is... (the article
was written in English), but I don't want to just reprint it because I have
some things to say/add. The topic: people writing their zines in English
even tho it isn't their first language. As Yves (the guy who does MWI…)
said, a lot of English-speaking zine reviewers comment on the bad
163
English in foreign zines and say that the writer should just speak their
own language, which they are most likely more familiar with. Of course,
then the reviewer wouldn't be able to read the zine at all, and they'd be
complaining even more.
What these reviewers don't understand is that zine editors use English in
their zines to try to be more internationally accessible. (However, in
doing this they might actually make their zines less accessible to people
locally--case in point, my own zine, even though I don't actually speak
Filipino.) I think that people should be able to speak their own language
without worrying about accessibility. I'm going to have to compare this to
how most people (including me) charge US dollars for zines because that
currency, just like English, has gained some sort of universal status. And
while people in the US always expect me to pay them US$ for their zines,
I never expect anyone outside of the Philippines to pay me pesos for my
zine.*
Both of these are about American domination. I know that English started
in Britain, but most people who are learning English now don't use
British spelling (with the 'added' U's, etc.). Not only that, but I know that
in the Philippines (and probably a few other countries), English is
considered the language for "educated" people. Well, I can only speak
English fluently, but I really don't think I should be considered educated
if I can't even speak my own country's language! And what is happening
in non-English speaking countries is that people feel they should learn
English to be able to communicate more and so that their options are
open, and because more people are learning English, more people are
learning English (if you get what I mean, I'm sorry I can't think of a
clearer way to word it).
I know a vicious cycle when I see one, how about you?
*On the currency topic: I basically charge $ for my zine, but I never
actually exchange them. I spend the equivalent in pesos to send out zines,
and save the $ to buy US zines that don't accept trades--because I would
be doing that anyway in pesos, if I had the option. I wish more people
would accept IRCs for their zines because that's what they're there for. I
guess this is what I get for living in a country with an "obscure" currency
Greek
[Before 10c: from the Old English plural Grecas, Latin Graeci]. A
language of south-eastern Europe, a Classical language of the Western
world, and a member of the Indo-European language family. It is
commonly divided into Ancient or Classical Greek (often thought of as a
164
dead language) and Modern Greek, the language of Greece, Cyprus

(with Turkish), enclaves in the Soviet Union and the eastern
Mediterranean, and Greek and Cypriot immigrants in Australia,
Britain, Canada, and the US. Greek has One of the longest unbroken
Linguistic traditions in the world, divided by scholars into six phases
over c. 3,500 years: (1) Mycenaean Greek (14 - 12c BC) the language of
Mycenae and Linear B writing. (2) Archaic or Pre-Classical Greek (11 -
8c BC) the language of the Homeric epics, Hesiod, and the early lyric
poets. (3) Classical Greek (7 - 5c BC), with several forms: Attic in
Athens, Doric in the Peloponnese, Ionic in the Ionian islands and parts
of Asia Minor, and Aeolic in Asia Minor, Thessaly, and Boeotia. (4)
Hellenistic Greek (4c BC-4c AD), also known as koine, the 'common
language', a widely-used tongue of the Mediterranean and West Asia, a
result of colonial settlement and the campaigns of Alexander the Great,
one form of which was New Testament Greek, the language of the
Gospels and St Paul. (5) Byzantine or Romaic Greek (5c - 15c), the
language of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. (6) Modern
Greek, divided into Demotic or Demotiki (popular) and Katharévousa
(purified, a Classicized language of education). Since the early 1980s, a
homogenizing Standard Modern Greek has developed, based on the
usage of moderately educated people in the large urban centres of
Greece.
Greek in English.
The influence of Classical Greek on English has been largely indirect,

through Latin and French, and largely lexical and conceptual, with some
orthographic and other effects. For speakers of English, Greek has been
traditionally perceived as remote, esoteric, and yet worth a certain
respect: compare the idiom It's Greek to me (I can't understand it) and the
saying The Greeks had a word for it (expressing a traditional view of the
richness of the language). Greek word-forming patterns, words, and word
elements were adopted and adapted into Latin over c. 1,500 years, and
passed through Latin into many European and other languages, being
used in the main for scholarly and technical purposes. The flow into
English was at first limited and largely religious, such as Old English
cirice and its descendant church (from kuriakón dôma the Lord's house).
The significant influx was in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance,
as with catalogue 1460, rhetorical 1476, stratagem 1489, psalmodize
1513, analytical 1525.
Greek in Latin dress.

165
The spelling of Greek words in English has been shaped by the

orthographies of Latin and French: Greek kalligraphia becomes Latin
calligraphia, French calligraphie, English calligraphy. Occasionally,
however, a more Greek look survives: kaleidoscope, not calidoscope,
kinetic, not cinetic. Synonymous variants sometimes occur: ceratin,
keratin, both from kéras horn. Contrasts occur when a k survives in some
usages but not in others: ceratosaurus horned lizard, keratogenous
producing horny tissue; cinematography making moving pictures,
kinematograph (obsolete) a film projector. Although most Greek
personal and place-names have a Latinate look in English (Achilles,
Hercules; Athens, Crete), they can, for literary and other purposes, take
forms closer to the Classical (Akhilleus, Herakles) or the modern
(Athinai, Kriti). The use of ph as a marker of Greek words in Latin
survives in English because it was favoured by French writers, the ph
representing the Greek letter phi. English philosophy and French
philosophie contrast with Italian filosofia and Spanish filosofia, which
did not keep the Latinism: see F, P. English neuralgia, neurosis are
closer to Greek than both French névralgie, névrose and Italian
nevralgia, nevrosi, which have been influenced by the pronunciation of
Modern Greek.
Hybridized Greek.
Because it has been filtered into English through Neo-Latin, the Greek
contribution has been liable to hybridization. However, because some
loans (diuretic, deontology, dogmatism) are fairly close to their
Originals, and other forms are virtually identical with them (diphtheria,
dogma, drama), the effects of Latinization and the easy creation of
hybrids have tended to be overlooked. The words rhetorical and
analytical are largely Greek, but they end with the suffix -al, an
adaptation of Latin -alis. Scholars have tended to minimize such
adaptations, because Latin and Greek were equally Classical, sometimes
discussing Greek as if it were a self-contained and pure source of
technical vocabulary for English. Henry Bradley put it as follows:
So well adapted is the structure of the Greek language for the formation
of scientific terms, that when a word is wanted to denote some
conception peculiar to modern science, the most convenient way of
obtaining it usually is to frame a new Greek compound or derivative,
such as Aristotle himself might have framed if he had found it needful to
express the meaning (The Making of English, 1904).
166
This is only partly true. A new formation is likely to be more Neo-Latin

than Classical Greek. It was circumstance rather than inherent worth that
made Greek a prime source of terms for European academic discourse.
Other Classical languages, such as Arabic and Sanskrit, are comparably
extensive in systems of word-formation exploited in their own scholarly
traditions, but have had little impact on English because no such channels
as Latin and French were open to them. Elsewhere, however, they have
had a comparable impact. The word-creating capacity of Greek, while
prodigious, is not unique; nor has it usually had a direct channel into the
Western European languages. As a result, even the most rigorous
scientific terminologies are hybrid, such as the names of the geoLogical
eras, created in English as an ad-hoc system unlikely to have been
Aristotle's choice.
Part-Greek terminology.
The names of the major eras of geology are Greek, labelled according to
position in time: Pal(a)eozoic of old life, Mesozoic of middle life,
Cenozoic of recent life. However, most of the terms for the periods into
which the Paleozoic and Mesozoic divide are Latinate and none refers to
time. Three refer to rocks in Wales (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian), one
each to rocks in England (Devonian), Russia (Permian), Germany
(Triassic), and France (Jurassic), and two to physical features
(Carboniferous to coal, Cretaceous to chalk). The divisions of the
Cenozoic, however, return to Greek and to time, marking vague degrees
of recentness by turning the cen(o)- of Cenozoic into -(o)cene: Paleocene
ancient recent, Eocene dawn recent, Oligocene few recent, Miocene less
recent, Pliocene more recent, Pleistocene most recent, Holocene entirely
recent. The mix of Greek, Latin, and English is marked in such
subsidiary formations as Early Prepaleozoic, Infracambrian,
Eocambrian, Upper Silurian, Permo-Triassic. Such a system, constructed
to serve the ends of geology, is typical of how Greek is used in Modern
English.
Dog-Greek?
The subsystem of -cene terms did not endear its creator, the 19c Scottish
geologist Sir Charles Lyell, to the English usage critic Henry Fowler,
who makes the following comment under the entry barbarism: 'A man of
science might be expected to do on his great occasion what the ordinary
167
man cannot do every day, ask the philologist's help; that the famous
eocene-pleistocene names were made by "a good Classical scholar"
shows that word-formation is a matter for the specialist' (Modern English
Usage, ed. Ernest Gowers, 1965). More in sympathy with the needs and
practices of scientists and engineers, the English philologist Simeon
Potter noted that electricians have abstracted from electron a new noun-
forming suffix -tron, for terms like dynatron, kenotron, phanotron,
magnetron, thyratron. He observed: 'I once heard an unkind critic
allude disparagingly to these Neologisms as dog-Greek. To a lover of
the language of Sophocles and Plato these recent coinages may indeed
appear to be Greek debased. More appropriately, perhaps, they
might be termed lion-Greek or chameleon-Greek. They are Neo-
Hellenic in the genuine Renaissance tradition' (Our Language,
1950/66). Such flexible Greek is fully integrated into the vocabulary and
word-formation of English: alone though Frenchified in biosphere, with
Latin and again Frenchified in bio-degradable, and increasingly at ease
with the vernacular in such forms as biofeedback and megabucks.
Language and the New Capitalism
Colin Lankshear -Published in 1997, -The International Journal of

Inclusive Education. 1(4): 309-321. Introduction
In 1976, Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis published their landmark

work, Schooling in Capitalist America, in which they argued that the
education system "helps integrate youth into the economic system ...
through a structural correspondence between its social relations and those
of [capitalist] production" (Bowles and Gintis 1976: 131). According to
Bowles and Gintis, the social relations of schooling replicate the
hierarchical division of labor under capitalism and develop forms of
personal demeanour, self-image, and social class identification in parallel
with capitalist constructions of job adequacy. Likewise, alienated labor
can be seen as reflected in the lack of control students have over their
education and their estrangement from curriculum. And so on.
The "correspondence principle" was subsequently challenged by many
critics in respect of its alleged explanatory power and what was widely
perceived as its reductionist character, its undue structuralist
determinism, and its theoretical rigidity. Of course, hindsight reveals that
Schooling in Capitalist America and the debate it stimulated made an
enduring contribution to our understanding of the extent to which, and
ways in which, social relations, practices, and outcomes of formal
education are enmeshed with the (re)production of economic life under
168
capitalism. In a period when we increasingly hear talk of "the new global

economy", "information and services economies", and "post capitalist
society" (Drucker 1993), we do well to remember that the organisation of
productive life in societies like our own remains, implacably, capitalist:
albeit in new, restless, complex, and profoundly re-invented ways.
Drawing on examples from the U.S. and Australia, but which I believe to
be much more widely applicable, this paper invites readers to ponder how
far conceptions and practices of language and literacy in school are
currently undergoing change in conjunction with an emerging "new
capitalism" (c.f., Gee, Hull and Lankshear 1996), and what implications
these changes may have for inclusive education and inclusive literacy.
The argument describes some key features of the new capitalism and
what we have elsewhere referred to as "the new work order" (ibid). It
then describes some trends apparent in language and literacy education at
school and adult-vocational levels. These include the apparent emergence
of a new word order which may mediate access by individuals and
groups to places and rewards within the new work order. Of course, any
such relationship will prove to be complex, and any further Empirical
exploration and analysis must build on the many theoretical advances
made within critical social theory since the days of the correspondence
principle. The following argument is still at an early stage of
development. Nonetheless, I am hopeful that some of its ideas will merit
further exploration.
Some comments on "capital" and "capitalism"
To appreciate what, if anything is "new" about the new capitalism, and to

get angles on the significance of the relationship between language and
the new capitalism, it is helpful to begin with some general comments
about capitalism per se.
In broad terms, capitalism may be understood as a system which uses
wage labour to produce commodities for sale, exchange, and for
generating profit, rather than for the meeting the immediate needs of the
producers. As such, the distinction between use value (X's value comes
from using it) and exchange value (its value is for exchange and what we
can get for it) is fundamental.
Capital is seen as one of four main production factors, the others being
land, labour, and enterprise. Capital consists of such things as machinery,
infrastructure/plant, tools and technologies, other human creations (from
ideas to exchange media like money, synthetics, etc.) that are applied to
the production process. Capital is used to purchase commodities - raw
materials and labour, mainly - in order to produce commodities for sale at
169
a profit; which profit is turned back into capital: the process of capital
accumulation.
Of course, this highly general notion of capitalism can accommodate
many different specific forms of activity, as well as many debates about
what is central to and distinctively characteristic of capitalism (Marshall
ed. 1994: 38-40). For Marx, the emphasis was on labour as the engine of
value creation. i.e., it was adding labour to the other productive forces
that was the key: by generating surplus value from the worker's labour,
the capitalist could accumulate. This presupposed exploitation of the
worker and, in Marx’s view, class conflict was thereby structured into
capitalism as a contradiction which would ultimately result in the
Historical transcendence of capitialim. Weber, by contrast, focused more
centrally on markets and various institutions which enable market
exchange as being the key to capitalism - notably, such institutions as
private property, market networks, monetary systems, and appropriate
"socialising mechanisms" by which to shape up attitudes conducive to
capital accumulation. Historically, a range of capitalist forms and a range
of scales and grounds of operation have been evident (c.f., ibid). These
include agrarian, industrial, financial, and post-industrial or
informationalist forms. Scales and grounds of operation range over small-
scale/private, entrepreneurial, corporate, monopoly, and transnational
variants. While some of these variations in type and scope have been
around for a very long time - who, for instance, was the first farmer to
grow corn for sale at a profit?; who were the early entrepreneurs who
drove a system(at)ic wedge between owners of capital and wage
labourers? - they all remain in evidence today. They are all part of the
larger "scene" of capitalism, so to speak. And at some time or another
each could have been regarded as a "new" capitalism.
A brief account of key features of the "new" capitalism
So, what is "new" in today’s new capitalism? What features is "new"

credited with drawing out? Much has been written on this theme, many
accounts dealing with specific aspects, while others attempt to gain a
larger overview. The most satisfactory succinct synthesis I have found to
date on themes discussed at length in the literature is provided by
Manuel Castells (1993). Castells identifies five systematically related
features of what may be called the new capitalism: features which have
been emerging and aligning during the last half century.
1. Sources of productivity depend increasingly on the application of
science and technology and the quality of information and management in
the production process: applied knowledge and information. "The greater
the complexity and productivity of an economy, the greater its
170
informational component and the greater the role played by new

knowledge (as compared with the mere addition of such production
factors as capital or labor) in the growth of productivity" (ibid: 16-17).
Producers are forced to build their activities around "higher value-added
production", which depends on increased use of high technology and
abstract thinking - or what Reich (1992) refers to as the work of
Symbolic analysts. Major innovations during the past thirty years, which
have underwritten new spheres of production and vastly enhanced
productivity, are all the results of "applying theoretical knowledge to the
processes of innovation and diffusion" (Levett and Lankshear 1994: 31).
2. An increasing proportion of GNP is shifting from material production
to information-processing activities. The same holds for the working:
whether "foot soldiers of the information economy ... stationed in ‘back
offices’ at computer terminals linked to world wide information banks"
(Reich 1992:175), or as ‘Symbolic analysts’ involved in the high order
‘problem solving, problem identifying and strategic brokering activities’
performed by research scientists, design and software engineers,
management consultants, writers and editors, architects and architectural
consultants, marketing strategists, and many others besides (c.f., Reich
1992: 175). "An ever-growing role is played by the manipulation of
symbols in the organization of production and in the enhancement of
productivity" (Castells 1993: 17).
3. Major changes in the organization of production has occurred along
two axes. First, goods production has shifted from standardised mass
production to flexible specialisation and increased innovation and
adaptability. This allows for optimal customisation and diversification of
products, and enables quick shifts to be made between different product
lines - reflect the postmodern predilection for "difference" (that makes no
difference) and diversity; plus the so-called flat hierarchies. Second, a
change has occurred in the social relationships of work. The "vertically
integrated large-scale organisations" of ‘old’ standardised mass
production capitalism have given way to "vertical disintegration and
horizontal networks between economic units" (ibid: 18). This is partly a
matter of flatter and increased devolution of responsibility to individual
employees, and the creation of quality circles, multi-skilled work teams
with interchangeable tasks, and enlarged scope for workers to participate
in decision-making (within definite parameters). It is also a matter of
horizontal relationships of co-operation, consultation, co-ordination, in
the interests of flexibility, decentralisation, and adaptability in production,
which extend beyond the confines of a specific business or firm to
include other `partners' within an integrated productive enterprise: such as
collaborative arrangements between manufacturers and suppliers which
171
help keep overheads and stock inventories down, allowing competitive

pricing which can undercut opponents.
4. The new capitalism is global in "real time". National economies no
longer comprise the unit of analysis or strategic frame of reference for
companies and workers. For enterprises and workers alike, work is
increasingly about playing on the whole world stage. For many individual
workers, their competition comes from all over the world. And, of
course, many companies are "all over the world and all at once". Robert
Reich says with respect to individual American workers that their
prospects are now indexical to the global market. Individual American
workers whose contributions to the global economy are more highly
valued in world markets will succeed, while others, whose contributions
are deemed far less valuable, fail" (Reich 1992: 172).
5. The context of this change - which reflexively spearheads and responds
to it - is the information technologies revolution. The new capitalism is
dynamically and inseparably linked to the current technological
revolution - especially with the information-communications dimension
of this revolution. In addition to informatics, microelectronics and
telecommunications, this encompasses scientific discoveries and
applications in biotechnology, new materials, lasers, renewable energy,
and the like (Castells 1993: 19). The dynamism of the relationship is such
that demands generated by the kinds of economic and organisational
changes already identified stimulate ongoing developments in
information and communications technologies. These technologies (in
their earlier manifestations), however, themselves provided many of the
material conditions needed for the emergence of the global economy in
the first place. Set in train, as they are, the dynamics continue apace,
creating a situation where a crucial factor - if not the fundamental source
- of wealth generation resides in the "ability to create new knowledge and
apply it to every realm of human activity by means of enhanced
technoLogical and organizational procedures of information processing"
(ibid: 20).
To these features identified by Castells, I would add that the new
capitalism is unfolding in the context of a powerful, intrusive, highly
regulatory "techno-rationalist business world view", which - as
manifested in education reform as well as in wider changes at the level of
the state - has impacted powerfully on language processes and practices.
This world view is an assemblage of values, purposes, beliefs, and ways
of doing things that originated in the world of business. It has now been
embraced by many governments as the appropriate modus operandi for
public sector institutions, including those of compulsory and post-
compulsory education and training. The Logic of this world view is now
172
powerfully inscribed on how literacy is conceived and taught within

publicly funded and maintained educational institutions.
The concept of a techno-rationalist business world view is an amalgam of
several ideas.
The "techno" component refers to privileging technicist approaches to
realising social purposes. It captures what critical social theorists call the
triumph of technocratic or instrumental rationality within the everyday
conduct of human affairs (Aronowitz and Giroux 1993). This is the idea
of reducing human goals and values to constructs which can be broken
down into material tasks, steps, categories, processes, etc., and tackled in
systematic ways using appropriate tools, and techniques applied in a
means to ends fashion. It includes such procedures as operationalising
qualities (e.g., competence) into measurable and observable behavioural
objectives and outcomes; defining values in terms of commodities which
can be produced technoLogically; framing goals in terms of programs,
packages, and recipes which can be delivered as means to attainment; and
the like.
In the sense intended here, "rationalist" refers to the currently pervasive
tendency to analyse and measure institutional processes and provisions in
cost-benefits terms, with a view to "rationalising" them accordingly. This
involves quantifying, measuring, and comparing different options for
producing particular outcomes, benefits, and performances, and
exercising (rational) preferences in the light of the costs or inputs
incurred in producing various levels of result. Having performed the
calculation, the individual or organisation exercises preference in the
manner of profit or benefit maximiser.
"Business" refers to a gamut of values and characteristics associated
with the preferred institutional style of (so called) leading-edge profit-
driven organisations. These include such ideas and qualities as being
"cost effective", "lean and mean", "quality-controlled", "quality-
assuring", "focused on the bottom line", "value-adding", "competitive-
edged", "efficient", "rationalised", and committed to "uniform standards
across all sites of activity". Organisations of this type value
"transferability" (of knowledge, skills, expertise), emphasise
"accountability", privilege "competence" over time on the job, and insist
on "audit trails" as means of verifying "performance". They are oriented
toward quantifiable outcomes, subscribe to a "portfolio and project"
approach to life, and generally prefer individual enterprise agreements to
collective awards and bargaining procedures at the point of hiring.
New capitalism and language: some macro social processes1. A new

word order?
173
Themes addressed in literature on the new capitalism resonate in current

educational reform discourse. At the level of language learning, this is
apparent in the emphasis on four broad "types" of literacy. I call these the
"lingering basics", the "new basics", "elite literacies", and "foreign
language literacy". An overarching emphasis on standard English
literacy is presupposed in the first three types.
At the school level, "lingering basics" refers to mastery of generalisable
techniques and concepts of decoding and encoding print, presumed to be
building blocks for subsequent education in subject content and "higher
order skills". At the adult level they refer to functional capacities with
everyday texts enabling citizens to meet basic print needs for being
incorporated into the economic and civic "mainstream". These
conceptions "linger" from an earlier period.
The "new basics" reflect recognition that major shifts have occurred in
social practices with the transitions from: an agro-industrial economy to
a post-industrial information/services economy; "Fordism" to "post-
Fordism"; personal face-to-face communities to impersonal metropolitan
and "virtual" communities; a paternal (welfare) state to a more devolved
state requiring greater self-sufficiency. These shifts are seen to demand on
the part of all individuals qualitatively more sophisticated ("smart"),
abstract, Symbolic-Logical capacities than were needed in the past.
Hence, "the percentage of all students who demonstrate ability to reason,
solve problems, apply knowledge, and write and communicate effectively
will increase substantially (U.S. Congress 1994, Goal 3 B (ii) ).
"Elite literacies" refer to higher order scientific, technoLogical, and
Symbolic practices grounded in excellence in academic learning. Here
"literacy" denotes advanced understanding of the Logics and processes of
inquiry within disciplinary fields, together with command of state of the
art work in these fields. This allegedly permits high level critique,
innovation, diversification, refinement, etc., through application of
theory and research. The focus here is "knowledge work" (Drucker
1993), construed as the real "value-adding" work within modern
economies (Reich 1992).
"Foreign language literacy" is seen ultimately in terms of proficiency
with visual and spoken texts integral to global dealings within the new
economic and strategic world order, thereby serving "the Nation’s needs
in commerce, diplomacy, defense, and education" (NCEE 1983: 26) -
genuflections toward more "humanist" rationales notwithstanding. This
calls, minimally, for communicative competence allowing functional
cross-cultural access to a range of discursive practices and, optimally, for
levels of fluency and cultural awareness equal to being persuasive,
diplomatic, and strategically effective within sensitive high risk/high gain
contexts.
174
An unsettling harmony exists between these broad literacy types and

trends within "the new work order" (Gee, Hull and Lankshear 1996).
Increasingly, work is becoming polarised between providing "Symbolic
analytic services" at one extreme, and "routine production" and "in-
person" services at the other (Reich 1992). At the same time, modern
enterprises seek to infuse a sense of responsibility for the success of the
enterprise throughout the entire organisation, and to push decision-
making, problem-solving, and productive innovation as far down toward
"front line" workers as possible.
Symbolic analytic work is seen as "substantial value-adding" work (ibid:
177) and is well paid. It provides services delivering data, words, visual
and non-visual representations. This is the work of research scientists, all
manner of engineers (from civil to sound), management consultants,
investment bankers, systems analysts, authors, editors, art directors,
video and film producers, and the like. It involves high level problem-
identifying, problem-solving, and strategic brokering activities (ibid).
Routine production and in-person service work, by comparison, are
construed as "low value-adding", and are poorly paid. Beyond demands
for basic numeracy and the ability to read, "routine" work often calls
primarily for reliability, loyalty, and the capacity to take direction, and, in
the case of in-person service workers, "a pleasant demeanour" (ibid). The
gulf between this and Symbolic analytic work marks the difference
between "elite literacies" and the "lingering basics".
Between these extremes, work is impacted by the "changed rules of
manufacturing and competition" (Wiggenhorn 1990), whereby frontline
workers must increasingly solve problems as they arise, operate self-
directed work teams, understand and apply concepts and procedures of
quality assurance and control, and assume responsibility for many tasks
previously performed by lower level management. Such work is agreed
to require a "higher level basics’ than previously. Yet, this work also is
often not well paid. To this extent, both the "lingering basics" and the
"new basics" sanction systematic exploitation in the workforce. From
this perspective, it becomes very important that we explore the complex
interplays between developments in the economy, education reform
policies, and their uptake in literacy education emphases and practices
within specific sites.
2. The gross instrumentalization of literacy: economized language
A brazen instrumentalism is never far from the surface in the policy

pronouncements and supportive rhetoric of educational reform
pertaining to literacy. The emphasis and value attached to these elite
literacies is most explicitly in virtue of the fact that high impact
175
innovation comes from the application of theoretical knowledge.

Whereas the new industries of the last century, such as "electricity, steel,
the telephone and automobile ... were invented by ‘talented tinkerers’
(Bell 1974) rather than through the application of scientific theory"
(Levett and Lankshear 1990:4), the big impact inventions of this century,
like the computer, jet aircraft, laser surgery, the birth control pill, the
social survey ... and their many derivations and application, come from
theory-driven scientific laboratories. Symbolic analysts manipulate,
modify, refine, combine, and in other ways employ symbols contained in
or derived from the language and literature of their disciplines to
produce new knowledge, innovative designs, new applications of theory,
and so on. These can be drawn on to "add maximum value" to raw
materials and labour in the process of producing goods and services.
Increasingly, the critical dimension of knowledge work is valued mainly,
if not solely, in terms of value-adding economic potential. It is critical
analysis and critical judgment directed toward innovation and
improvement within the parameters of a field or enterprise, rather than
criticism in larger terms which might hold the field and its applications
and effects, or an enterprise and its goals, up to scrutiny.
Much the same is true of foreign language and literacy proficiency.
Justifications for increased emphasis on foreign language proficiency
advanced in policy documents and supporting texts often foreground
"humanist" considerations in support of foreign language proficiency and
bilingualism: whether by increasing foreign language enrolments, or by
maintaining community languages and ensuring ESL proficiency among
Linguistic minority groups. Sooner or later, however, economic motives
generally emerge as the "real" reasons behind efforts to promote foreign
language proficiency. Australia’s Language gives as its first reason the
fact that it enriches our community intellectually, educationally and
culturally; and second, that it contributes to economic, diplomatic,
strategic, scientific and technological development (DEET 1991: 14-15).
However, Australia’s location in the Asia-Pacific region and its patterns
of overseas trade are the only relevant factor explicitly mentioned with
respect to developing a strategy which "[strikes] a balance between the
diversity of languages which could be taught and the limits of resources
that are available (ibid: 15).
Elsewhere, influential statements are direct and unambiguous: for
example, US Senator Paul Simon’s reference to tongue-tied Americans
trying to do business across the globe, in a world where there are 10,000
leading Japanese business persons speaking English to less than 1,000
Americans, and where "you can buy in any language, but sell only in the
customer’s" (Kearns and Doyle 1991: 87).
176
Two main factors have generated the emergence of second language

literacy education as a new (and pressing) capitalist instrumentality.
First, trading partners have changed greatly for Anglophone economies,
and many of our new partners have not been exposed to decades (or
centuries) of colonial or Neo-colonial English language hegemony.
Second, trade competition has become intense. Many countries now
produce commodities previously produced by relatively few. Within this
context of intensified competition, the capacity to market, sell, inform,
and provide after sales support in the customer’s language becomes a
crucial element of competitive edge.
3. Individualization and commodification of language and literacy
In the grip of the techno-rationalist business world view, literacy

performance is measured and reported ad nauseam and compiled into
personal portfolios. At a time when individuals must be prepared to move
around to find employment, "portable certified literacy competence"
assumes functional significance.
This is a facet of "possessive individualism", a key operating principle of
current reform discourse, and grounded in a liberal conception of people
and society, according to which: "society is composed of free, equal
individuals who are related to each other as proprietors of their own
capabilities. Their successes and acquisitions are the products of their
own initiatives, and it is the role of institutions to foster and support their
personal development" - not least because national revitalization
(economic, cultural, and civic) will "result from the good works of
individuals" (Popkewitz 1991: 150).
... where it is proposed that industry sectors build literacy competencies
into their respective "competency standards". The idea behind local
competency standards, and associated competency-based training, is to
make Australian industry as competitive as possible by creating a "smart"
workforce of high quality and efficient performers by means of up to date
training programs that prepare workers cost effectively for the kinds of
tasks they will be doing on the job. Competency standards comprise so
many "units of competence": e.g., "participates in daily team meetings
and discussions". ..."analysis of the workplace", these various options
can be exercised - drawing on the information gathered to determine the
best combinations of options to meet the literacy performance
requirements of work at the different competency levels. Once this is
done, vocational education and training programs can provide courses,
modules, materials and resources for teaching and assessing literacy as a
component of competency-based training initiatives.
177
4. The domestication of language as critical practice
While educational reform discourse emphasises critical forms of literate

practice, couched in terms of a "critical thinking" component of
effective literacy, or as text-mediated acts of problem solving, it is
important to recognise the nature and limits of the critical literacies
proposed. They are typically practices which permit subjecting means to
critique, but take ends as given. References to critical literacy, critical
analysis, critical thinking, problem solving, and the like, have, "in the
current climate ... a mixture of references to functional or useful
knowledge that relates to demands of the economy and labor formation,
as well as more general claims about social inquiry and innovation"
(Popkewitz 1991: 128). The nearer that literacy approaches the world
beyond school, the more functional and instrumental critique becomes,
with emphasis on finding new and better ways of meeting institutional
targets (of quality, productivity, innovation, improvement), but where
these targets are themselves beyond question. The Logic here parallels
that described by Delgado-Gaitan (1990: 2) as operating in notions of
empowerment construed as "the act of showing people how to work
within a system from the perspective of people in power". The fact that
standards are specified so tightly and rigidly within the current reform
agenda reveals that the ends driving these standards are to be taken as
beyond critique.
5. A new "doublespeak"?
In The New Work Order (1996), Jim Gee, Glynda Hull and I look at some
of the language behind the new capitalism. A new genre of "fast capitalist
texts" heralds the new capitalism, and its new work order and revamped
workplaces, using language in ways very often not borne out on the
ground. These texts are replete with talk of "enchanted workplaces",
"self-directed work teams", "empowered workers", and other equally
positive and attractive terms. Empirical investigation, however,
regularly betrays a less expansive reality. Self-direction and
empowerment often amount to little more than the right of workers to
discharge accountability for finding (the most) efficient and effective
ways of meeting goals, performance levels, quality schedules, etc., laid
down by the real decision-makers within so-called flat hierarchies.
Workers are "empowered" to accept and enact such liberatory notions as
that of "the working week", defined as "however long it takes to get the
job done". Glynda Hull’s graphic accounts of migrant workers in a
Silicon Valley electronics company falling behind their schedules
working to faulty specifications the work team did not believe they were
178
at liberty to challenge or overrule - despite knowing the specifications

were wrong and despite having recently been through a workplace
education program intended to enhance "self-directed teamness" - is a
clear case of language that has as much relationship to the particular
workplace reality as the notion of educational "reform" has to Empirical
learning conditions under current policies.
6. The clamour to technologise literacy
EscaLating dependence of work and other daily tasks and processes on

computer-mediated texts is associated with prominent references to
technoLogical literacy and technologised curricula in educational reform
pronouncements. Indeed, according to Aronowitz and Giroux (1993: 63),
"the whole task set by contemporary education policy is to keep up with
rapidly shifting developments in technology". A National Science Board
publication, Educating Americans for the 21st Century (1983; see Toch
1991: 16) claimed that "alarming numbers of young Americans are ill-
equipped to work in, contribute to, profit from, and enjoy our
increasingly technoLogical society". The "Technology Literacy
Challenge" package of February 1996 voted US$2 billion over five years
to mobilize "the private sector, schools, teachers, parents, students,
community groups, state and local governments, and the federal
government" to meet the goal of making all US children
"technoLogically literate" by "the dawn of the 21st century". The strategy
aims to ensure all teachers receive the necessary training and support "to
help students learn via computers and the information superhighway"; to
develop "effective and engaging software and on-line learning resources"
as integral elements of school curricula; to provide all teachers and
students with access to modern computers; and to connect every US
classroom to the Internet (Winters, 15 February 1996).
Promoting technoLogical literacies in tune with labour market needs is
only part of the story. New electronic technologies directly and indirectly
comprise key products of new capitalist economies. As "direct products",
they consist in all manner of hardware and software, for which worldwide
markets need to be generated and sustained. As "indirect products", new
technologies consist in information and communications services, such as
Internet access provision, on-line ordering and purchasing facilities,
manuals and guides, networking and repair services, web page design,
and so on. Educational reform agendas serve crucially here as a means to
creating and maintaining enlarged markets for products of the
information economy - extending beyond curricular exhortations to
advocate also the extensive use of new technologies within administrative
tasks of restructured schools (Kearns and Doyle 1991).
179
Ending Apologists for the new capitalism, like apologists for the
magical educational powers of new technologies, are currently surfing the
tide of History with seemingly unbounded confidence. They have
assumed the right to define the role and purposes of education in terms of
service to the unfolding new work order. Their confidence is backed with
the power of educational policies decreed, enforced, and policed by
administrators high on the waft of the techno-rationalist business world
view. The choice facing educators who are committed to alternative
educational visions is clear cut. Either we "put up and shut up", or we
struggle to live out the belief that education is not the servant of any
single end or purpose - recognising that:
In the new capitalism words are taking on new meaning, language

and communication are being recruited for new ends ... and
multiple literacies are being distributed in new ways ... [This new
capitalism] makes us confront directly, at a fundamental level, the
issue of goals and ends, of culture and core values, of the nature of
language, learning and literacy in and out of schools. (Gee, Hull
and Lankshear 1996: 158).
My aim here has been to present a focus for discussion about desirable
and defensible relationships between classroom-based language and
literacy education and the world beyond the classroom. This is not (yet) a
closed issue, and the stakes are high. The new correspondences indicated
here between work and literacies seem likely to diminish prospects for
inclusive education, inclusive literacy and, indeed, for an inclusive
society. The question of the range of social purposes to be served by
language and literacy education needs to be kept open and current
tendencies to limit them contested. Educators committed to the principle
of inclusive education must engage actively in the struggle to keep this
issue alive, and be prepared to debate it long and hard from informed
standpoints.
Acknowledgment
My thanks to Lew Zipin for pointing out some avoidable glitches in the
Original version. He is not responsible for any that remain, and I look
forward to further conversations with him.
1.The Greeks were the first to use an alphabet that include vowels. It is
thought that the Greeks first enounted the alphabet around 1000 BC
throughtrade with the Phoenicians, who inhabited what is now Lebanon..
180
2.Ready to have another bubble burst? You no doubt knew that most
major wester world holidays have their origins among the celebrations of
the ancient world, e.g. Halloween (cf. Druid festivals in honor of their
god of the dead), Christmas (cf. Roman Saturnalia), Easter (cf. sun
worship festivities among the Romans, Greeks and Druids), Mother's
Day (cf. Roman festival in honor of Maia, the mother of Mercury), etc. If
however, you are like most students in Latin, you were probably always
told that Thanksgiving Day was truly an American celebration, started by
the Pilgrims, with no ancient precedent -- NOT!
It can now be told that the Greeks did it first. Yes, they celebrated a
feast of thanksgiving. Yes, they celebrated it in November. Yes, the
celebration involved a banquet. Yes, there was a Thanksgiving Day
parade. There you have it -- Thanksgiving Day, Greek style.
The Greeks called their Thanksgiving Day ELEUTHERIA, and they

celebrated it in the month they called Maemacterion (November on our
calendar). They did not, however, feast on turkey. Their "kill" to be
shared by all present at the banquet was a black bull -- much more
practical since the whole town was expected for dinner.
3.Greeks, police meeting first step
By Wildcat Opinions Board -Arizona Daily Wildcat,

April 17, 2000 Talk about this story
Instead of letting the UAPD's relocation be a source of tension, the

fraternities are making an effort to build a relationship with the campus
police. As long as the effort is genuine, it is a positive one that will help
foster relations between the campus cops and all campus fraternities.
"We thought that it would be a good idea for our members to be

acquainted with our new neighbors," said FIJI president Scott Hunter.
"On the surface I'm sure it looks like kind of a snow job, but really the
focus is, they're going to be our neighbors."
Furthermore, having the police so close to the fraternity will be an added

safety measure. The police have long patrolled the area and know it well,
and can continue to give the neighborhood good security.
While the presence of the police may not directly change the fraternities'
social events, it will most likely encourage the frats to take greater
precautions during their parties. Having the police close by at all times
might make the frats think twice about serving underage students alcohol,
181
binge drinking, and engaging in any other harmful behavior that might
get them into trouble with the police.
As long as the fraternities' effort is genuine and is not merely an attempt

to "kiss up" to the police, improving the relationship between fraternities
and the UAPD is an important safety measure for the entire UA campus.
Obviously, one dinner with a fraternity is not going to change how the
campus police do their job, and the police will not lend any favors to the
fraternity simply because they are making an effort to make friends.
4. Greeks of Afghanistan-By Bernt Glatzer.
As much as the new "Macedonists" of FYROM are trying to deny the

nationality of the ancient and modern Macedons, they cannot argue
against the historic evidence that has reached even to our age.
As many know Alexander the Great reached all the way to India, some
parts of his force settled in what is the modern day Afghanistan. Although
it is strange to behold History coming alive , here is a little reminder of
how History and the traditions of people can survive through the
centuries of struggles and the decades of falsifications and propaganda.
Please notice how the ihnabitants of that region were unquestionably
characterized as Greeks,even though there is still scepticism as to
whether the ancients have survived to the modern times.
Highlighting by yours trully :-)
This is certainly a subject I would also like to know more about.
My own experience was in a Tourist show in Berlin when me and a friend
went past the Afgan stand and got talking to some of the exibitors there.
One of them said that there is a village in Western Afganistan
(unfortunately I don't remember the name) and the villagers there
consider themselfs decendants of Alexander the Great and his army.
Their dialect incorporates a large number of ancient Greek words and
their area is strewn with remnants of Greek culture.
Recently there were a number of questions about descendants of ancient

Greeks surviving in Afghanistan:
Although Afghan - Greek relations are as old as 2400 years there are no
Greeks living in Afghanistan (apart from some Greek staff of
international organizations), and there is also no community in
Afghanistan which can trace a Greek origin.
During the Greek expansion even before Alexander the Great (Iskandar)
(4th Cent. BC) Greek colonists settled all over the Persian Empire
including in the territory of present Afghanistan. Alexander founded a
number of Alexandrias in Afghanistan, one at Herat, one at Kandahar
182
(Iskandaria ?) one or two north of Kabul. Afghan and French

archaeologists excavated an important and fully Greek city in northeast
Afghanistan at a place called locally Ai Khanum. They excavated Greek
temples, gymnasions and inscriptions in fine Classical Greek etc etc.
This centre of Greek civilization was destroyed at the end of the 2nd
Cent BC. when new and stronger Political forces invaded from the north.
Nobody knows what happened to the Greek settlers, may-be some went
back west, others probably got absorbed by the local population and/or by
the new invaders. However, Greek culture and art lived on influencing
heavily the new empires and the Buddhist Art which spread throughout
Northwest India (present Pakistan) and Afghanistan during the first
Centuries AD. This Graeco-Roman Art is also called Gandharan Art
(after Gandhara the easternmost province of the ancient Persian Empire)
with its Classical Buddha statues in Roman - Greek style. Gandharan art
can be admired in the Museums of Peshawar, Swat, Taxila and Lahore
and in some Western Museums, it used to be on display in the Kabul
Museum and in Hadda (Afghanistan), but these places are destroyed now.
Two giant Buddha statues in Bamyan (Central Afghanistan), although
post-Gandharan, still witness Greek-roman stylistic influence.
Archaeologists believe that Roman and Greek artisans traveled to
Afghanistan, present-day Pakistan and India during the early First
millennium AD but no Roman or Greek communities are known from
that time onward in this part of the world.
In the 19th Century British officers and scholars serving in India kept a
romantic belief, or rather wished to believe, that like the lost tribes of
Israel also a lost tribe of Europe, i.e. of Alexander΄s Greeks, may have
survived in Afghanistan or in the high mountain valleys northwest of
India. Candidates were the Kafirs of present Nuristan in Eastern
Afghanistan, or the Kalash Kafirs in adjacent Chitral of present Pakistan.
The Afghan Kafirs were islamized in the 1890-s and re-named to
Nuristani ("of the Land of Light"). Two reasons served for mistaking the
Kafirs/Nuristanis as descendants of Alexander's Greeks: Their
polytheistic ancient religion and their high rate of blondism and fair skin.
Religion: Unfortunately, if we look closer at the religion of the Kafirs
which to a certain extent is still preserved by the Kalash of Chitral, all
resemblance to the ancient Greek religion fades away, apart from the
fact of polytheism which is also common in nearby India. In fact the
Kalash religion resembles much more to Proto-Hindu or to the peripheral
folk religions in remote rural areas of North India. Some scholars see in
the Nuristani/Kafir religion remnants of the ancient Aryan, pre-vedic
religion. Others see parallels with ancient Persian beliefs. Whatever it is,
there is no point in reLating this religion to the Ancient Greeks.
183
Blondism: First of all: What has blondism to do with Greeks? Look at

the paintings of Classic Greek pottery, are there any blondes? I have not
done research on blondism but during my trips in Greece the only
blondes I saw were Tourists or chemically blonded ladies. So I simply fail
to understand the blond argument. … I read somewhere that blondism
may also be caused by nutritional deficiency of which highland people
may suffer more than others. Perhaps a specialist can tell us more about.
But even for non-experts on blondism simple Logic precludes the
argument of Hellenism-Blondism.
Sorry for disappointing some nice dreams of ancient Hellenes in
Afghanistan. Linguists and Anthropologists have searched through every
nook and corner of Afghanistan - believe me, even the smallest group of
Afghans with even the slightest traces of Greek origin would not have
remained unnoticed.
Literature:
There is a huge amount of literature on Afghan pre-History,
archaeology, History, anthropology and Linguistics in English, but the
best and easiest available introduction is:
5.The First Greeks in Egypt
When upon the death of Necho Assurbanipal reconquered Egypt he re-

established the system of numerous vice-kings, who “came to meet me
and kissed my feet.” We are informed by Assurbanipal that this
governmental organization was discontinued a few years later, when One
of the vice-kings took all the power to himself, accomplishing this with
the help of the soldiers who arrived in Egypt from Sardis on the Aegean
shore of Asia Minor. Gyges was at that time king of Sardis in Lydia.
At first Gyges sent messengers to Assurbanipal: “Guggu (Gyges), king of
Lydia, a district of the other side of the sea, a distant place, whose name
the kings, my fathers, had not heard, he dispatched his messengers to
bring greetings to me.”(1)
But after a few years, Gyges ceased to ally himself with Assurbanipal.
“His messengers, whom he kept sending to me to bring greetings, he
discontinued.” According to Assurbanipal, Gyges sent his forces to the
aid of the king of Egypt,(2) “who had thrown off the yoke of my
sovereignty.”
Herodotus wrote that Psammetichos, One of the twelve vice-kings,
deposed his eleven co-rulers, and he did it with the help of Ionian and
Carian mercenaries. According to Herodotus, the Greek and Carian
mercenaries arrived in Egypt in the days of Psammetichos, brought by a
gale.
184
The Egyptian sovereign placed them in two camps on opposite

shores of the Pelusian branch of the Nile and “paid them all that he
had promised."
Moreover he put Egyptian boys in their hands to be taught the

Greek tongue; these, learning Greek, were the ancestors of the
Egyptian interpreters.
The lonians and Carians dwelt a long time in these places, which
are near the sea, on the arm of the Nile called the Pelusian, a little
way below the town of Bubastis.
Herodotus states they “were the first men of alien speech to settle in that
country” (II, 154).
A glance at a Historical map of the western shore of Asia Minor reveals
that the tiny maritime states of lonia and Caria jutted well into the border
of Lydia, whose capital was Sardis. Gyges was able to provide Egypt with
Ionian mercenaries because he had recently occupied Colophon in Ionia.
(4)
Thus it appears that lonians and Carians arrived at the shores of Egypt
in mail of bronze, not because of a gale, but because of an agreement with
King Gyges of Sardis, as stated by Assurbanipal.
Diodorus of Sicily, too, wrote about the first meeting of the Egyptians
with the Greeks on the soil of Egypt, when lonians and Carians arrived
and were hired as mercenaries.
He [Psammetichos] was the first Egyptian king to open to

other nations the trading places throughout the rest of Egypt.
. . . For his predecessors in power had consistently closed
Egypt to strangers.(5)
Diodorus also said that Psammetichos was a great admirer of the

Hellenes and gave his son Necho (the future Ramses II), a Greek
education.
Greek arms, utensils and vases, and the very bones of the Greek
mercenaries in their peculiar sarcophagi, have been found in and near the
Delta, often together with objects of the Nineteenth Dynasty.(6)
Formations of mercenaries from Sardis, called Shardana or Sar-an, were
in the service of Seti the Great.
The time of Seti is, in the conventional scheme, the end of the fourteenth
century; of Psammetichos, the seventh century. Herodotus, who lived in
the fifth century, wrote that in the days of Psammetichos, only two
hundred years before, Greeks for the first time came to live in Egypt. He
must have been well informed, for not merely the History of Egypt was
involved but that of his own people likewise: his birthplace was
185
Halicarnassus in Ionia-Caria. Also, in Beth-Shan in Palestine, where the

excavators were able to determine the successive layers of the tell
(mound), tombs of mercenaries from the Aegean-Anatolian region have
been unearthed. “Doubtless among all these troops [of Seti] were many
Mediterranean (Aegean-Anatolian) mercenaries, including the
redoubtable Sherdenen [Shardana]; these must have formed the major
part of the garrison left at Beth-shan by Seti. “ (7) Thus wrote the
archaeologist of that place.
Does this mean that Lydians and Ionians were present in Egypt when the
Israelites were there in bondage? If, as many scholars believe, Ramses II
was the Pharaoh of Oppression, the presence of soldiers from the Aegean-
Anatolian region in the Delta in his days in the days of his father Seti
would signify a meeting of Greek and Israelite peoples in pre-Exodus
Egypt. The problem thus stated will not appeal to those same historians.
The explanation of the presence of Greek mercenaries in the army of
Seti, seven hundred years before Psammetichos, is simple: Seti was the
Psammetichos of Herodotus and other Greek writers, and he lived seven
hundred years after the time assigned to him by modern historians.
References
1. Luckenbill, Records of Assyria, II, Sec. 784.

2. Ibid., Sec. 785. Assurbanipal called the Egyptian king who
received military support from Gyges, Tusharniiki. It is known that
at that time Psammetichos became the sole king of Egypt. The
Assyrian kings occasionally gave Egyptian cities and Egyptian
kings Assyrian names. Assurbanipal called Sais Kar-bel-matate.
3. Herodotus, II, 152 ff.
4. Herodotus, 1, 14. See E.M. Smith, Naukratis (Vienna, 1926), p.

14, n. 16.
5. Diodorus (trans. C.H. Oldfather, 1933), 1, 66-67.
6. See Naville, The Mound of the Jew (London, 1893), Plate 13; cf.
A. Rowe, The Topography and History of Beth-shan
(Philadelphia, 1930), pp. 2, 26, 39.
7. Rowe, Topography and History of Beth-shan, p. 26.
6. Political
186
The Greeks had the first democracy. The democracy (in its early
stages) was not as fair as today's.They also had the First trials and the
First juries in Greece. All of these things are present in today's society.
Many of the ancient Greeks participated in the Olympics,which
originated in Greece. The Olympics originated as a festival to the gods.
There were many events in the Olympics such as the discuss throw,
hammer throw,200 meter dash, and other events such as these. We can see
how important they were because there were buildings built for the games
specificly. Events have been added since the Olympics first appeared.
Many Greeks went to plays in the theaters that they had built a long time
ago.
7. Page 1, Greeks: Safety comes first
Party problems: System leaders want bar entrance age to remain at 19-
News Story by Rebecca Johnson, 01/26/94-
Representatives from the University's Greek system said Tuesday they
fear the safety of their members, and all students could be at risk if the
bar entrance age is raised from 19 to 21.
Mike Shannon, junior in commerce and president of the Interfraternity
Council, said the demand for entertainment for 19- and 20-year-olds will
still exist and will probably shift to the Greek system if the bar age is
increased from 19 to 21.
Fraternity presidents are especially concerned with avoiding this
unnecessary responsibility, he said. While bars are equipped with the
personnel and facilities to handle large groups of students, Shannon said,
fraternities are not.
Sorority and fraternity members said they are also concerned with
increased membership for the wrong reasons if the bar entrance age goes
up. Fraternities might be flooded with members who only join to "party,"
Shannon said, instead of members who have the best intentions for their
chapters and the Greek system.
Blake said she is concerned as a member of the Greek system that other
people will join for "solely social purposes."
Also, many more people would probably attend fraternity parties who
would
not be a member of the Greek system and would not have a personal
stake in
the responsibilities of the chapter, Shannon said. This could lead to
increased incidents at parties.
Lenny Ostach, senior in LAS and One of the heads of the Greek Risk
Management Committee, said that while the fraternities now patrol
themselves for violations, the increased attendance would make it
187
difficult to effectively deal with underage drinkers and other rule

violators.
"I personally think the bars need to discriminate between underage and
legal drinkers, because if they don't and the proposal (to increase the
entrance age) is legislated, they will be forcing that responsibility on
the unequipped fraternities," Shannon said. Daily Illini Online -- UIUC
-- 1994/January/26 1994 Illini Media Company,.
8. Ancient Greece The First Theoretical Thinkers
The Greek were the first to try to disentangle sicence and magic. They
were the First to think about the world without First thinking of God.
From the First (the Pre-Socratics), they attempted to explain the natural
world in a critical and rational (non-supernatural way).
The Greeks also are the first to attempt a generalized science, a
theoretical body of knowledge that explores general principles rather
than an Empirical set of rules to be used for practical problems. No area
of study shows this better than Geometry. Whereas previous cultures had
focused on specific problems such as a finding the area of a field with
particular dimensions, the Greeks were the First to arrived at general
solutions that would provide answers to multiple situations.
9. Government & Leaders
Welcome to the Government in Ancient Greece. City-states are

democracies. Earliest city-states were ruled by warlords & (in Sparta)
kings. There are several hundred city-states. Greeks did not treat women
& poor fairly. For example women could not be part of the government.
Greeks were the first to compare governments and decide which one was
the best. Adult men were citizens. Greeks eliminated the monarchy that
had ruled Greece.
The rich and wealthy lived a good life. They settled in small towns called
city- states. There were 700 city-states. some were city-states some were
Kings. Many of the city-states were Democracies. Only adult men were
untitled to be citizens. Some city-states were ruled by rich and powerful
landowners. Poor workers were paid a full days wages to attend the
government assemblies. There were no Politicians or lawyers in Athens.
Every citizen took part in Politics and legal affairs.
10. Re: Romans Greeks and Byzantines
James Dimos Dimarogonas Mon, 22 Jul 1996 On Mon, 22 Jul 1996,

Giorgos Georgatos wrote:
188
> As an answer to Paul's Halsall message about the names:

> Greek and the like was first used by the Franks to describe the
Romans.
Greek was first used by the romans to describe all the "Hellenes" since
the "Greeks" was the first Greek tribe they encountered in Epirus (?)
> That was made because the Franks would like to cut the enslaved
Romans of the
> west part of the empire from the tights thay have with their brothers of
the
> east part.> Greek meant the heretic, the illeterate. Later the Byzantine
replaced Greek. > The real name although of the Greeks were Roman.
The real name of Byzantine > was Roman too.
Wow! Let us not get mixed up in such crude translation errors. Roman
in Greek is "Rwmaios". Greeks were "Rwmanoi" or "Rwmioi". There
was a clear distinction between the two. As for Byzantine, the word was
never used during the Byzantine years, but was invented in the 18th?
century.
During the Byzantine times they refered to the empire quite often as
"Rwmania". Let me refer you also to the chapter of the Koran titled
"Al-Rum", and is translated in all the standard editions as "the Greeks"
and not the Romans (it is interesting to see that Muhammeds sympathies
in
this chapter are revealed to be with the Christians against the
idololatric persians). There is a huge mix-up with the names of that
time, since it was not an Ethnic empire, therefor Ethnic epithets were not
very well defined (although there was from time to time a clear racism
against the Armenians, see a poem against them by Cassiani, the
Sklavenoi, the Latins, etc. etc., which shows a kind of predominately
Greek consiousness, or rather Greek speaking).
Anyways, I still tend to think that Byzantine, a word used by German

scholars to diminish the importance of this period, is not appropriate,
especially since the word did not even exist in the vocabulary of time, or
any time close to that. And if the people of that era, liked to be called
"romanoi" or "romioi" for 1.000 years, who are we to argue with that?
Regards-Dimos Dimarogonas
11. 1st International Conference -"Greeks in English Speaking

Countries"
189
The Greek were not first in everything, and perhaps they were not
First in the most important things. The First human beings came
from Africa, not Greece. The Greeks did not discover agriculture, did
not produce the First civilization, did not invent law, or religion, or
myth, or art, or writing, or literature. The First civilizations were in
Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Egypt, and the Greeks learned much from these
peoples. Other civilizations--such as those in China and those in the
Americas, would arise independently both from the Greeks and from
those in the Near East. But one can make a good argument to credit the
Greeks with some very important stuff:
democracy –science-mathematics-philosophy-(naturalistic) art-

drama
History-western style warfare
Why does first mater? It ought not to be a matter of pride, or of some

competition for cultural supremacy. None of us are ancient Greeks;
almost all of our ancestors would have been considered barbarians by the
Greeks. For me it matters that the Greeks were First in some things
because in studying the Greeks we can study the earliest phases of these
things, see them coming into being. We can thus understand the
conditions necessary for a democracy to come into being, for example,
or the reasons why people begin to study their own History; or why some
people make great drama out of their myths.
An example. We will have a chance this semester to study the first

historian, Herodotus. By studying the First person we know who wrote
something at least many scholars consider a legitimate Historical text,
we'll be able to ask a host of questions:
What distinguishes History from story-telling? Or epic poetry? -What is

the purpose of History?-What method should the historian follow?-What
should the historian report?
2. The Greeks have often been most influential.
For better and for worse, Western civilization is dominant in the world
today, and when it comes to the influences on Western civilization, only
the Judaeo-Christian tradition can rival the Greeks in importance. Often
Greek influence was transmitted through the Romans; but most Romans
would have readily admitted their debt to the Greeks. Democracy and
the freedom only it can bring is in large part a Greek invention. Most of
the subjects you study at this or any university--and, indeed, even the
190
idea of higher education itself--are in large part the gifts of the Greeks;
they originated with the Greeks, even if there were precursors elsewhere
and even in those fields where tremendous progress has been made since
the Greeks. Nor were the Greeks only intellectuals: we also owe many of
our most important athletic traditions to them, for example: it was the
Greeks who came up with the Olympics. We cannot hope to understand
these aspects of our lives, indeed, we cannot hope to understand
ourselves, unless we know something about the Greeks.
Greek influence on our culture has not always been of a positive sort.
Sciences textbook have a habit of starting with the errors of the Greeks,
errors which were often taken as Gospel truth for centuries, preventing
progress. This is, of course, a gross mistreatment of Greek science, which
made important discoveries and has much to teach us, but if you want to
be cured of your disease I wouldn't recommend an ancient Greek doctor.
Other negative aspects of Greek culture have also taken their part in
preventing positive change. The Greeks allowed their women almost no
Political, social, or economic rights. The Greeks also practised slavery.
Although Greek slavery differed in some important aspects from the later
Western version--Greek slavery was not based on race in the same way--
it was still a horrible practice, as all slavery is, and the Greeks were cited
by defenders of slavery in later centuries. I might note in defense of the
Greeks that a few of them questioned the role of women or the justice of
slavery. But they didn't change their ways.
Still, we can perhaps learn just as much from the Greeks when they were
wrong as when they were right. Sexism in Ancient Greek society, for
example, is much easier to spot than it is in our own, because it strikes us
as far more blatant.. But it also has striking similarities to more subtle
forms of sexism in our own culture. By studying gender relations among
the Greeks, then, we both better understand our current views of such
issues and see how we've come--or how we've gotten into the mess we're
in.
3. The Greeks are different.
The Greeks can often seem familiar to us--naturally enough, since they
have influenced us so much. But we shouldn't be misled into considering
them too familiar. Let me take give one example.
The study of Classics (i.e., of the ancient Greeks and Romans) is

sometimes attacked as being a sort of reactionary worship of dead white
men. But the terms of modern identity Politics do not even translate into
ancient Greek. Take the dominant group in our culture: straight white
191
male. Only one term from that phrase really translates into ancient
Greek: male. As I've already admitted, the Greeks were very sexist. But
they did not divide the world into black and white as so many modern
cultures do (in large part, probably, because the Greeks never associated
slavery with black people and thus never had to invent a dogma of black
inferiority to justify that practice). They also viewed sexuality rather
differently than we do. This is--surprise!--a touchy subject, but it seems
fair to say that most Greek considered what we would call "bisexuality"
more the norm than the exception. That is, at least in different stages of
one's life, it was considered perfectly natural for a single person to be
erotically attracted to both men and women.
For more on issues of sexuality and gender in the ancient

world, try the Diotima website:
4. The Greeks are often best.
The Greeks are not only pioneers and ancestors: in many fields we have
not bettered them. These sorts of judgments are inherently difficult to
make, of course, but that won't stop me. Greek art--though we have but
pitiful fragments of it--reached levels of excellence which may have been
equalled 2000 years later in the Renaissance but have in many respects
never been surpassed. Greek tragedy (Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus),
Greek epic (Homer), and Greek comedy (Aristophanes) are unbeatable:
it is more moving, more profound, and funnier than anything since.
Greek Historical writing has been bettered in use of detailed sources and
new fields of analysis, perhaps, but when it comes to the combination of
fidelity to the truth, literary excellence, and profound Historical and
human insight it has perhaps not been surpassed. Let me give you one
more detailed example, from Greek philosophy.
Much modern thinking about morality is based on the notion of duty. We
have a duty (imposed on us by God, or by some idea of what rationality
requires) to do the right thing even when it is not in our best interest, even
when it will lead us to be unhappy ourselves. Most Greek systems of
ethical thinking, on the other hand, were based on the notion of virtue.
Good people have good qualities: they are just, self-controlled, wise,
courageous, etc. But they make use of these qualities not in service of
some duty directed toward others, but for their own sake. It is better for
each of us to be just, for example, for being just means that one has a
well-adjusted soul and will be happier in the long run. While moderns
may think of morality as being in direct competition with more selfish
ideas about happiness, then, the Greeks thought that the virtuous person
192
would be the happiest. Many modern philosophers believe the Greeks

had it right and later philosophers have confused the issue.
For an introduction to ancient philosophy, try the Internet

encyclopedia of philosophy:
II. The Physical environment and its effects.

1. Raw materials. Greece had ample stone for building (unlike
Mesopotamia, where it was rare) and fine clay for pottery. But it was
lacking in most precious metals, which induced still more trade.
2. Mountains. Greece is a very mountainous country; while the
mountains are not terribly high, they are rugged enough to make travel on
land challenging, and they greatly reduce the amount of land available for
farming. In large part as a result of this the Greeks, unlike the Egyptians,
never developed a single unified state, but were always divided into
smaller communities which were all too often at war with one another.
Greece became a set of independent cities, not a nation with one
government.
3. The sea. Few spots on mainland Greece are more than 40 miles from
the sea, and most Greek cities were close enough to the sea to have a
port. Travel by sea--while always risky--was thus far easier than travel by
land, and the sea unitied the Greeks more than it divided them. It also
linked them to their neighbors, particularly to the East and South (since
there are few good harbors in Western Greece).
4. The Mediterranean triad. The Greeks has just enough good soil and
just enough water to make a go of it through the mediterranean triad of
grain, grapes, and olives. Grapes made the wine the Greeks loved, and
olives made the oil they needed in their diet and for other purposes. Both
wine and olive oil were exported. The Greeks had few cattle, mainly
oxen used for plowing; their main domestic animals were goats and
sheep, which could graze on land unsuitable for framing, and then could
come down and fertilize the fallow fields. Sheep provided wool and meat;
goats cheese, skins, and meat. Horses were a luxury, and a status item for
the rich, the sports cars of their day.
5. Small scale farmers. The lack of large chunks of land, and the labor
intensive forms of Greek farming, meant that most Greeks were small-
scale farmers owning a bit of land, a team of oxen to plow it, and a few
sheep and goats. Many would also have owned a slave or two. These folk
made up the majority of the Greek citizen body, and were the active
participants in Politics, warfare, and public life in general. The Greeks
tended to look down upon traders--all businessmen were viewed in
something like the way we view used car dealers. In part because of this
bias the Greek economy remained rather primitive by our standards.
193
III. The neighbors. Mesopotamia and Egypt

The Greeks did not develop the first civilization. The honor goes, it
would seem, to the Mesopotamians, with the Egyptians coming in a close
second. Large Mesopotamian city-states were up and running by around
3500 BC (Egypt circa 3200), at least 1500 years before the Greeks
produced anything worthy of the name. In both Mesopotamia and Egypt
the civilization was based along river valleys, which produced much
fertile land for farming and made for a natural unity of culture (although
the Mesopotamians were divided into independent city-states much like
the Greeks). Irrigation was important in both locales, though it was more
intenseively practiced in Mesopotamia. Both civilizations developed
large, complicated, hierarchical palace systems. The palaces (together
with the temple complexes which also played an important role) took in
raw materials from commoners and manufactured them into more
valuable items for trade. In return they provided the commoners with
some security, and, at least sometimes, provided sustenance from their
stores during hard times. Both civilization developed sophisticated
architecture (especially the Egyptians), art, legal systems, religions, and
literatures (especially Mesopotamia); many of these would have a great
impact on the Greeks in the future.
IV. A Basic timeline.
3000 Early Bronze Age: increasing complexity
Bronze, which is made up of roughly 10% tin and 90% copper, was first
produced in the Near East. It reached Greece by roughly 3000, which
therefore marks the beginning of the Greek Bronze Age. Bronze was
important for at least two reasons. It produced better tools than copper or
stone; and it also produced luxury goods, which led to an increase in trade
and a more highly structured society. Elites were willing to pay for fine
bronze jewlery, armor, and the like, and more complex societies were
developed to allow them to do so.
2100 Middle Bronze Age: arrival of the Greeks; palaces on Crete
The Middle Bronze Age begins with a decline in the archaeoLogical
record. But it apparently marks the arrival of a new people on the
scene, people who spoke a early version of Greek. Earlier inhabitants
of Greece did not speak Greek: non-Greek place names survive in
Greece much as some native American place names survive in the
US. These new arrivals are usually called Indo-Europeans, after the
language group to which Greek together with Latin, Sanskrit (the
Classical language of India), German, English, and most other
European languages belongs. They came from the North and East, it
would seem, though no one knows precisely where the Indo-Europeans
originated. Their arrival--as the arrival of large groups of folks tends to--
produced disorder. But eventually these newcomers (or at least their
194
language) won out, and mainland Greece began to increase its standard
of living.
While the mainland was going through tough times, the people of Crete
(who were not speakers of Greek) developed the first European
civilization, called Minoan after the legendary king Minos. More about
them in a moment.
1600 Late Bronze Age: the Mycenaeans It wasn't until roughly 1600 that
the mainland Greeks developed a civilization rivalling that of Crete. It is
called Mycenaean, after the site of Mycenae which is the most famous
city of the day.
V The Minoans
1. Trade and contact with the NE.
Why did the people of Crete develop civilization? One reason is external.
Crete is located on major trade routes linking the civilization of Egypt
and Mesopotamia. The Cretan civilization--which we call Minoan after
the legendary king Minos--was a miniature transplant version of the
palace socieites of the Near East.
2. Orchard husbandry
The second is more internal. The major inovation in the bronze age is
advent of orchard husbandry of olives, olive oil, figs and vines. Because
these did not compete with crops for land, they provided essential means
for growth in producing commodities for exchange, thus cultural
advance. These crops, especially the olive, require effort of many years
before there is significant return, and therefore demand largish
communities and considerable storage capacity. This means palaces for
the most part.
3. Palaces and the redistributive economy
The Minoan palaces seemed to have played a major role in the overall
economy. They organized at least a large chunk of the production of
grapes, olives, and grain, and much of it was brought to the central palace
to be stored and redistributed. The palace staff--largely women, perhaps--
would manufacture finished goods from raw materials like hides and
these, together with the olive and wine, would be used for trade for
luxury items not available locally: gold, bronze, etc.
4. Social classes and religion
Why would folks bring their products to the palaces to be redistributed?
Only a small elite could live in such palaces, and be the direct
beneficiaries of the system: the vast majority must have been small
farmers. They may have gained some security from the palace regime--
rather like the feudal system in medieval Europe. Perhaps the palace
stored up excess for use in times of drought, although I know of no direct
evidence for this in Greece. Our text suggests that the religious function
of the palace is important here. Religion and Politics were never separate
195
in Greece, and the king was responsible for ensuring his people's well-
being with the gods as well for protecting them from attack.
13.HELLAS MYSTERY -THE SITE OF CULTURE AND RESEARCH
THIS IS A PROJECT SITE WHICH IS DESIGNED BY SOME

STUDENTS OF THE ARCHAEOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS.THIS SITE IS MADE TO MAKE KNOWN
TO THE WORLD THE GREEK PHENOMENON.THIS SITE IS NOT
ONLY FOR GREEKS but for people from all over the world IT'S MADE
TO MAKE KNOWN IDEAS AND FACTS THAT ANYONE COULD
CHARACTERIZE MYSTERIES.
Many things have been told about the origin of Greeks or
HELLINES.THE MOST ACCEPTABLE TODAY VIEW SAYS THAT
THEIR ROOTS ARE NOWHERE IN THIS PLANET!did you know that
OLYMPUS the tallest Greek mountain, is the first rock that came off the
sea?GREEK tribe is absolute the most ancient tribe of the world so where
they are from?IS HELLAS THE First COUNTRY EVER...?
article of the month:Greeks- THE First EVER?...
Archaelogy has brought in the light the last elements that MAKE CLEAR
that HELLINES (Greeks) were the first who EVER lived on Earth! The
truth has brought in the light One of the greatest archaeologists ever- Aris
Poulianos. The Man of the Cave of Petralonon is the biggest discovery
for the History of humanity. The skeleton that was found in the cave of
Petralonon which age is 700000 years old has overthrown the theory of
the African origin of human. Unfortunately the fact of this Historical
discovery has been kept in the darkness by the international Press. We
geuss that now is the the right time to let the people know the truth -THE
REAL HISTORY! IF YOU THINK SO, PLEASE COMMUNICATE
WITH US AND GIVE US ELEMENTS OR ASK FOR MORE
INFORMATION IF YOU HAVE DOUBTS!
ARE REALLY GREEKS FROM THE UNIVERSE? Of course we can't
speak surely.BUT WE CAN'T AVOID THE FACT THAT HELLAS IS
14. Project Description
The Greeks represented the first "Golden Age" of mathematics. The

foundations of Logical method, proof and deduction. Their influence is
as strong now as it was in the heady days of the Graeco-Roman empire.
The Greeks are considered the cradle of modern mathematics, and the
196
following mathematicians were the greatest of the Greeks. The Great

Mathematician series of projects is going to be a warts and all set of
biographies of the life and times of some of the past three millenia's
greatest mathematicians. Marvel at their stories that drove them through
maths.
15. Ancient Greece, the cradle of western civilisation, was a land of

small city-states whose people shared a language and a set of religious
beliefs. Here, for a brief moment in the long History of humanity, men of
genius, men of spirit, men of vision lived, created and set foundations.
Words that they spoke more than 2,000 years ago are still vital and
inspiring today.
Before the Greeks came into the Mediterranean world, man was
primarily oriented toward death and built his monuments in honor of
death. The zigurats of Babylon and the pyramids of Egypt testify to the
hold of death upon these early civilizations.
To the Greeks, however, life is the most significant fact in the world, and
human life is the greatest wonder on earth. The Greeks were the first
people to play. Their famous Olympic Games are witness to their
boundless enthusiasm for living. Their art speaks of the pleasure they
derive from the form of the human body. But the Greeks were also well
known for their achievments in sciences such as philosophy and
medicine.
Man was a miracle above the other creatures because he possessed what
they called logos. Logos in Greek means a word by which a thought is
expressed. It can also mean the thought itself, or reason. The Greeks
were the first people to say that the world was knowable, because they
believed in man's power of reason. They had no idea of changing their
own life or the world around them through the knowledge acquired by
reason. The world was something to be understood and admired as it was.
Through understanding the nature of the universe and the nature of man,
a Greek believes he has the key to understanding man's own place in the
scheme of things.
16. For the record, I was using the word 'literate' rather loosely, in the
sense that the Greeks were the first western culture that bothered to write
down anything. i.e. they left us stuff to read; my 'glorification of the

individual' comment was also text-based -- they (the History writers, at
least) wrote about individuals and their accomplishments within the
197
cultural milieu of their day, not about how the 'system' itself was so
wonderful
Which 'great (wo)Man' view of History got me to thinking: if we had

deciphered hieroglyphics earlier, would Egypt have been classed as a
'western culture'? Or is/was culture so inextricably tied to llanguage?
(pardon the welsh typo there)
17. On the History of Dietetics -from Antiquity to Our Time -Peter

Schneck-(Berlin, Germany)
Celsius, a Roman encyclopaedist of the old times (the 1st cent.) wrote:
"Medical practice consists of three parts: the first part embraces
treatment by the way of life; the second one - treatment by drugs
and the third - treatment by a hand. Greeks called the First part a
dietetics, the second one - pharmaceutics, the third - surgery".
This system had been preserved for one and a half thousand years. Then
the physician''s opinion, especially in the field concerning the
mode of life, i. e. dietetics as a component of his medical activity,
was highly appreciated. Only in the second half of the 19th
century, when medicine reckoned itself to the number of natural
sciences, the physician''s authority as an adviser in common
principless of the way of life considerably dwindled. Term
dietetics passed from the far horizons of main principles which
provided for health to the "Diet", a one-sided and pure study of
nutrition.
In ancient times medical side of dietetics, which originated from the

Greek word "dieta"(mode of life), was turned to a healthy man. It
was called to make prescriptions and to give advices in the
healthy way of nutrition, dressing and care for the body, to
fulfilment and duration of physical exercises, massages and baths,
sleep, sexual activity within reasonable limits.
High appreciation of the health value in the ancient world led to

comprehension of the fact that the man should care for his hPeter
Schneck (Berlin, Germany) Celsius, a Roman encyclopaedist of
the old times (the 1st cent.) wrote: "Medical practice consists of
three parts: the first part embraces treatment by the way of life;
the second one - treatment by drugs and the third - treatment by a
hand. Greeks called the First part a dietetics, the second one -
pharmaceutics, the third - surgery". This system had been
preserved for one and a half thousand years. Then the physician''s
198
opinion, especially in the field concerning the mode of life, i. e.

dietetics as a component of his medical activity, was highly
appreciated. Only in the second half of the 19th century, when
medicine reckoned itself to the number of natural sciences, the
physician''s authority as an adviser in common principless of the
way of life considerably dwindled. Term dietetics passed from
the far horizons of main principles which provided for health to
the "Diet", a one-sided and pure study of nutrition. In ancient
times medical side of dietetics, which originated from the Greek
word "dieta"(mode of life), was turned to a healthy man. It was
called to make prescriptions and to give advices in the healthy
way of nutrition, dressing and care for the body, to fulfilment and
duration of physical exercises, massages and baths, sleep, sexual
activity within reasonable limits. High appreciation of the health
value in the ancient world led to comprehension of the fact that
the man should care for his health and promote the recovery from
diseases himself. … He succeeded in creating a general system,
which embraced all the spheres of medical practice and was
based on a rich depository of knowledge of different ancient
schools. Galen''s works were influential in the Middle Ages and
up to now. Both all these knowledge and dietetics regulations
entered later in the formula of "sex res non naturales" (six
innatural things) and to the depository of knowledge of numerous
generations of physicians. These six factors which can be
influenced by the will of a man and his own actions (to
counterbalance of "natural factors", such as complexion, climate,
etc. which a man cannot change) were as follows: 1. Air; 2.
Motion and rest; 3. Sleeping and waking; 4. Food and drinks; 5.
Filling and evacuation; 6. Emotional excitation. These so-called
unnatural factors may be influenced by dietetical measures and
thus one can control his state and body condition. Such dietetical
mode of life had to help one to overcome the unhealthy extremes.
Galen''s dietetical scheme with his 6 factors can be briefly
explained as follows. 1. The air, including light and environment
in a broad sense, is the most important factor of health care in
ancient medicine. It exerts direct influence on the body life
functions through respiration. It works to produce vital power and
can become a direct cause of epidemic and other diseases in a
form of miasms. … The retain or noncomplete removal of these
substances lead to the disturbance in juices balance, to acute
conditions and, at last, to diseases. 6. Emotional excitations are
can agitate the life of human mind are harmful for the body state.
However, natural psychoLogical inclinations of a man may be
199
influenced. Here they involve the study of 4 temperaments well-

known in psychology even now. It was especially developed by
Medieval Arabian-Mohammedan medicine and was based on
humoral-pathoLogic principles of succus prevalence. Thus, a
raging essence full of temperament is ascribed to a person,
inclined to sanguinity (borrowed from Lat. sanguis - blood). A
phlegmatic person is one with dominating inert phlegma,
sputums. A choleric person suffers from excessiveness of yellow
bile and, consequently, has a tendency to captious shrewishness. A
melancholic person is characterized by the prevalence of black
bile, which has grave consequences: he often suffers from
depressions. Traditional trends of dietetics of ancient medicine
through Arabian-Islamic medical practice and Latin scholastics,
saved and modified, were at last brought in the Medieval code of
health regulations and then to educational literature about health
of the 15-16th centuries, to printed calendars and popular
magazines of the 18-19th centuries. Meanwhile, a problem of life
prolongation comes to the foreground. A well-known book by K.
F. Gufeland (1762- 1836) Macrobiotics or the Art to Continue the
Human Life was still based on the Classical scheme of "six
unnatural factors". Some methods of the present medical
prophylaxis, education in the problems of health and science of
health still imperfectly appeal to the millenial study of dietetics. ..
Roman encyclopaedists modified the grounds of dietetics. They critcised

the thirst for enjoyments and dissoluteness of Roman ruling
clique whose symbols were "balneum, vinus, venus" (i. e. bathes,
wine and dissolute sex).
The basic principles of Hippocrate's' dietetics were generalized and

developed by Galen (129-199), a Roman physician, and that was
his great deserve. He succeeded in creating a general system,
which embraced all the spheres of medical practice and was
based on a rich depository of knowledge of different ancient
schools.
Galen''s works were influential in the Middle Ages and up to now. Both
all these knowledge and dietetics regulations entered later in the
formula of "sex res non naturales" (six innatural things) and to the
depository of knowledge of numerous generations of physicians.
These six factors which can be influenced by the will of a man
and his own actions (to counterbalance of "natural factors", such
as complexion, climate, etc. which a man cannot change) were as
200
follows: 1. Air; 2. Motion and rest; 3. Sleeping and waking; 4.

Food and drinks; 5. Filling and evacuation; 6. Emotional
excitation. These so-called unnatural factors may be influenced
by dietetical measures and thus one can control his state and body
condition. Such dietetical mode of life had to help one to
overcome the unhealthy extremes.
Galen''s dietetical scheme with his 6 factors can be briefly explained as

follows.
1. The air, including light and environment in a broad sense, is the
most important factor of health care in ancient medicine. It exerts
direct influence on the body life functions through respiration. It
works to produce vital power and can become a direct cause of
epidemic and other diseases in a form of miasms.
…6. Emotional excitations are can agitate the life of human mind are
harmful for the body state. However, natural psychoLogical
inclinations of a man may be influenced. Here they involve the
study of 4 temperaments well-known in psychology even now. It
was especially developed by Medieval Arabian-Mohammedan
medicine and was based on humoral-pathoLogic principles of
succus prevalence.
Thus, a raging essence full of temperament is ascribed to a person,

inclined to sanguinity (borrowed from Lat. sanguis - blood).
A phlegmatic person is one with dominating inert phlegma,
sputums.
A choleric person suffers from excessiveness of yellow bile and,
consequently, has a tendency to captious shrewishness.
A melancholic person is characterized by the prevalence of black
bile, which has grave consequences: he often suffers from
depressions.
Traditional trends of dietetics of ancient medicine through
Arabian-Islamic medical practice and Latin scholastics, saved
and modified, were at last brought in the Medieval code of health
regulations and then to educational literature about health of the
15-16th centuries, to printed calendars and popular magazines of
the 18-19th centuries. Meanwhile, a problem of life prolongation
comes to the foreground. A well-known book by K. F. Gufeland
(1762- 1836) Macrobiotics or the Art to Continue the Human Life
was still based on the Classical scheme of "six unnatural factors".
201
Some methods of the present medical prophylaxis, education in the

problems of health and science of health still imperfectly appeal
to the millenial study of dietetics. To-day's patient as well as most
physicians still one-sidedly give credence to pharmaceutics,
surgeon''s knife and , not in the last place, to medical facilities (i.
e. extended hand of a physician). However a slow and gradual
turn to these traditional medical doings, to the integral oriented
dietetic thinking may be observed in our days.
18. Greek Drama
INTRO:
Generalization last time that Greeks most important of ancient peoples
in terms of contributions to subsequent civilization. Last time, some
important areas of Greek achievement--History, art, Political science,
athletics, poetry. Today, three areas in which the Greeks made perhaps
even more important contributions.
DRAMA
Greeks first true dramatists. First actor and playwright known to

History: Thespis. But Greeks not only First playwrights, also best.
Ask any drama teacher to name four greatest tragic playwrights: 3/4
Greeks! Ask same drama teacher to name greatest comic playwrights--
probably top of list two Greeks Aristophanes and Menander.
Now some say, "I read this stuff--not so great!" I'll admit that, on first
reading, rather difficult stuff, lucky if you can figure out the plot. But if
you stick with the plays long enough, you see why they are something
special.
The Greeks themselves believed there was something extraordinary

going on in these plays. They called them "theopneutos," god-breathed,
insisting that there was something of the divine voice to be heard if
listened. And I'm inclined to agree.
One begins to here that divine voice in the first of the great Greek
playwrights, Aeschylus. Aristotle tells us that is was Aeschylus who
First introduced the use of the second actor to the theater--and this alone
would be an important contribution: dramatic possibilities increase
tremendously. But more important, Aescylus introduces to the stage an
exploration of some of the great issues of life. As in almost all great
theater, the plays of Aeschylus center around some conflict, but there's
something a bit unusual in the conflicts Aescylus depicts. Most of the
time on stage, we see a conflict between right and wrong. In Aeschylus'
case, the conflict is between right and right. (Right and Right??!!) Right
202
and right often do come into conflict. We all have many duties--duties to
gods, duties to state, to our families, to those we love. Usually, it's pretty
easy to tell what one's duty is. Where we get into difficulties is when the
duties conflict--and that's where we need help--maybe even divine
guidance. This is where the Greek playwrights help--by depicting the
conflict of right and right on the stage, we get some idea how we might
handle such conflicts in our own life.
Perhaps best example, Sophocles' Antigone. Many would agree with
Aristotle in calling Sophocles the greatest of all playwrights. Certainly
his contributions to theatrical form are important: introducing the third
actor, limiting the role of the chorus. But even more important,
Sophocles' handling of great human themes, as in play Antigone. In
Antigone, we see right from the beginning a conflict of right vs. right.
Antigone's brothers have killed each other. The one, Eteocles, has been a
hero--dying in defense of Thebes. The other is a traitor, the leader of an
enemy army who had almost succeeded in capturing the city. The king,
Creon, has ordered that Polynices not be buried. Antigone has a choice:
obey the law, or give her brother the burial that custom and duty to one's
relatives require. Not an easy choice. Both are right, and Sophocles does
not present this as a no-brainer. Notice that Ismene, who is every bit as
brave as Antigone and loves her family just as much, chooses to follow
Creon's decree. Nevertheless, one tends to think that, all things
considered, Antigone's action is probably the best course. Far more
difficult in Creon's choice. Creon has made a law. His soon-to-be
daughter-in-law breaks the law. What should he do? Quite clearly, it's
important that he enforce the law. He argues that law can't work if you
play favorites and let your relatives and in-laws break the law. (I used to
ask, how would it be if Governor Mikelson's son got away with breaking
law, but that's not funny anymore.)
And speaking of unheeded prophets, we come now to Euripides, my
favorite of the three great Greek playwrights. Euripides reminds me of
the Old Testament prophets, particularly the prophet Jeremiah, a man
who sees clearly the problems of society, and who, because of his
splendid images and incredible command of language makes people see
and understand what they don't want to see and understand--the evil of
their own conduct.
In no play is this more clear than in the Trojan Women. Euripides'
chooses for his subject an episode in the Trojan war--but his choice is
rather an odd one. Not a great battle scene, or a great argument omong
men, but an episode that at first wouldn't seem particularly good theater,
the women of Troy waiting to see what would become of them now that
the long war is over.
203
It's a miserable scene. The women expect nothing good, but what
actually happens is worse than they anticipate. The young girl Polyxena
is butchered as a sacrifice over the tomb of Achilles--and Polyxena is
maybe the luckier than those who survive. Hecuba, once the proud queen
of Troy, has to watch all the horrible things happening to her children,
and will spend her last days as a miserable slave. Andromache, once the
happy wife of the greatest of Trojan heroes, has to go through the pain of
having her son thrown to his death. Not only that, she has to become the
concubine of the son of the man who killed her beloved husband and is
partly responsible for the death of her son.
Unbroken misery for these women--but so what? Why is Euripides
showing this scene, an event from a war that had taken place 800 years
before his own time? The answer is, that's not what he's doing. You
remember prophet Nathan? (Tell story). This is what Euripides is doing.
He shows them this pitiful picture, forcing the Athenians to understand
how horrible such treatment of people is, making them realize that
whoever acts this way deserves to die--and then turning the finger on
them--YOU ARE THE MEN. How so? Euripides produced this play
during the middle of the Pelop. War, just at the time when the Athenians
had voted to kill all the men of Melos and sell all the women and children
into slavery. Euripides incredibly clever at forcing them to see the horror
of the thing they had done.
Did it do any good? Perhaps not. I suspect that of all the characters in
the play, the one Euripides identifies with the most is Cassandra.
Cassandra given gift of prophecy by Apollo. When she refused his
advances, he didn't take away gift, made it so no one would believe her.
Incredibly frustrating! Frustration Euripides himself must have felt.
Frustration of everyone that loves truth--and yet, for Euripides, there may
be some consolation. James Russell Lowell "Once to Every Man and
Nation." "Though the cause of evil prosper, yet tis truth alone is strong.
Though its portion be the scaffold, and upon the throne be wrong. Yet
that scafold sways the future and behind the dim unknown, standeth god
within the shadow keeping watch above his own."
Perhaps Euripides, despite his tears and his frustration, had the same
confidence in the eventual victory of truth. Nevertheless, truth often
enough goes to the scaffold, as we see in the case of a man who was
perhaps an even greater prophet than Euripides--Socrates. Oracle at
Delphi "wise is Sophocles, wise is Euripides, wisest of all Socrates."
To understand Socrates, important to undertand area that is the greatest
of all of Greeks contributions, philosophy.
19. Overview of Ancient Greek Mathematics

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Although the mathematical methods developed by the Mesopotamians

and Ancient Eygptians were impressive and constitute a great
leap forward in mathematical skills, by far the most impressive
mathematical advancements were those made by the Ancient
Greeks. Whereas the Mesopotamians and Egyptians were content
with knowing how mathematics worked, the Greeks were the
first people to ask why it worked. In other words, the Greeks
were the First people to prove things about mathematics instead
of just using mathematics to prove things about the world and
solve problems.
One important difference between Greece and most of the other cultures
and civilizations that came before it was that Greece was an open
society. That is, people were more free to choose what they
wanted to do. They were not necessarily born into their parents'
jobs, but rather had some chance to direct their own lives. This
allowed for people who were naturally interested in intellectual
pursuits to direct their energies towards study and discovery, a
phenomenon that would lead to the development of demonstrative
mathematics.
Demonstrative mathematics was a leap forward in thinking. Early

proponents of demonstrative mathematics such as Thales and
Pythagoras were not content to see a list of instructions with the
words, 'do it thus' when tackling a mathematical problem.
Rather, they wanted to be convinced that the directions that they
were following would indeed lead to the correct result. In effect,
Ancient Greek mathematicians started to look at mathematics
in a truly sophisticated way, and devised rigorous proofs and even
axiomatic systems for defining and working with mathematics.
This new way of looking at mathematics spread greatly and
remains with us to this day.
Although Greeks such as Archimedes were able number crunchers and

were talented with arithmetic, their main interest and strength was
Geometry. The Greeks developed an incredibly sophisticated
Geometry, some of which is on par with today's knowledge. The
Greeks worked with conics, geometrical construction, solid
Geometry, planar Geometry, and much more. They developed
and proved many ideas concerning number theory. All in all, they
contributed more to mankind's knowledge of mathematics than
any previous culture, and would remain unrivaled in this respect
up until relatively modern times.
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20. Chapter Three Selected Quotations -Collected by Sammi Dawson

and Josh Weckesser
Early Greece
 In literature, art, and architecture, proportion, simplicity and

nobility as their criteria for beauty. Yet, their view of human beings
was not cold or merely rationalistic. The whole person was very
much in focus; and, if reason was to dominate the passions, the
emotional ecstatic side of human nature was also recognized as
essential.
Hellenism: The rise of Greek Culture

 In context of world History, Greek civilization is a relative
latecomer.
 The ways in which they developed the humanities and sciences
were unique.
 The Greeks were the first to express themselves in ways that can
be designated as characteristically Western.
 Theirs was the first culture that we can truly call humanistic. The
Greeks were the First to be interested in, and indeed to glorify,
human beings simply as human beings.
 Greek culture changed rapidly and was short-lived.
 The Greeks’ emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual has
been particularly significant for the development of the Western
humanities.
Crete
 The first civilization to exist in the country now called Greece
developed on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea around
2000 BC
 The form of government in Crete seems to have been matriarchal;
the island was ruled by a queen whose husband, the king, was
ritually sacrificed each year.
 A mother-earth goddess was the principal deity in Minoan religion.
 Their loosely structured, vividly colorful designs suggest a deep
love for, and profound observation of, nature.
 In 1400 BC Crete was conquered by a more warlike people, the
first we can truly call Greek.
 Historians today believe that the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC) was
actually fought, but probably for economic reasons. The legendary
material, however, is more important for our cultural roots: it has
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spawned a wealth of Western literature, beginning with the Iliad

and the Odyssey.
The Archaic Period

 The next epoch of Greek Culture is sometimes referred to as the
archaic period.
 Archaic refers to something in its initial stages. This period, which
we can date from approximately 700 to 480 BC.
 In Politics the unit of the city-state, or polis, was formed; and the
type of government known as democracy, which means in Greek
"rule by the people," evolved.
 Philosophers began to speculate and reason about the nature of the
universe.
 Early forms of Drama evolved throughout this period; and
Thespis, the founder of Greek drama as we know it, won the first
dramatic contest in Athens in the sixth century BC
Greek and Roman Mythology

 The Greeks did not have what we might call a religious genius.
They seem to have been too much oriented toward this world to
have devised either a great theology or a literature of mystical
experience.
 The Greek gods are comprehensible.
 Created through prescientific attempts to explain the universe, they
embody deep, intuitive understandings of human psychology.
 The Greeks believed that the universe was created from Chaos, a
great mass in which everything now existing was jumbled.
 It is worth noting here that nearly all myths of creation and
religious systems except Judaism and Christianity have seen the
need for a divine female role in creation.
 Above the gods was a concept of fate or destiny.
 Although the gods could predict what it would be, they could not
alter fate.
 The gods, for the Greeks, could take part in human affairs.
 Religious observances became intermingled with Political life in
complex way that enhanced the city’s vitality and cohesiveness.
Homer and the Epic

 The poet Homer, who probably lived around 800 BC, has been
traditionally revered in the first writer of Western literature.
 The Original purpose of this epic poetry was to "sing, the famous
deeds of men."
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 The epic hero, although he may have human faults, must be almost
superhuman in courage, strength, and greatness of character.
 The epic as a literary form began to die out in the nineteenth
century when it was replaced by the novel.
 It could be argued that our culture no longer produces events and
heroes of "epic" proportions.
 The Illiad has thus been called the epic of war and Odessey the
epic of peace; yet both investigate the nature of these two
fundamental states of human society.
The lyric
 The trend toward individual expression of personal sentiment so
characteristic of modern poetry came to perfection with the
development of the lyric about two centuries after Homer.
 The lyric spirit seems to have developed almost in opposition to the
heroic, warlike ethos of earlier times.
21
…his book Dipnosofistes, the author Athineos, who lived in the 3rd
century A.C., describes the dinner offered by the wealthy Karanos, on the
occasion of his wedding . At the beginning, the recounts, a silver goblet
and gold diadem were offered to each dinner-guest. Then came the food
on silver and bronze platters.
Chickens, ducks, roas, geese, lamps, hares, pigeons, turtledoves and
partridges. Then there was a break with musicians and flute-girls. In the
second part of the dinner there was roast piglet on its back on a silver
platter. It was stuffed with roast thrush and figeaters, oysters and scallop
topped with egg-yolk.
Today, we are well-aware that our ancestor, especially the

Macedonians and the Thessalians enjoyed great meals! The Mycenaeans,
since the 15th and 14th century B.V., had cereals as their staple diet, and
used the words sitos and crithi ( "wheat" and "barley"). They also ate a
lot of figs, honey and cheese.
The ancient Greeks were the first to record different culinary

methods in the 5th century. From salvaged scrolls we know that our
ancestors created the First gastronomic record in the world. They even
had sweet-sour tastes, which we had been ignorant of until they came
from... China!
The ancient Greeks might not have know what rice, sugar, corn,
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potatoes, tomatoes and lemons were like, but they used a wide variety of
spices for their game, a lot of onions, pure olive oil flavored with mint
and thyme. They also prepared pastry from finely sifted flour topped with
must!
They also prepared delicious salads to accompany fish while in their

wine, as Homer mentions, they grated cheese from goat milk.
Theofrastos mentions 5 different kinds of radishes, pointing out that the
radish from Viotia was the sweetest. We know that the ancient Greeks
used to eat radishes with bread for breakfast!
We have a lot of descriptions of ancient dinners from Plato, Hisiod

and Plutarch.
The ancient Greek diet is the basis of every healthy diet in most areas
of the world. But how many people are aware of this? The scientific
research, the knowledge of our specialised chefs and the passion of an
enterprise whice opens restaurants with concept only, like the well-known
and well-established "Beer Academy", are the ingredients we have used
to create a unique restaurant.
The Arheon Gevsis (Tastes of the Greeks) invites you taste its unusual
dishes which come directly from the ancient times, with little
interference so that they live up to the present-day demands for taste,
quality and wholesomeness.
These are dishes with pleasant tastes. Tastes unknown to our mouth
and to our palate. Each of these tastes is a surpassingly unusual
experience which you will remember for ever!
22. INTRODUCTION AND GREEK GEOGRAPHYThe heritage of

Greece is extremely significant to the development of
WesternCivilization.
1. Greeks were the first people to think and act like modern man.
2. Greeks were the first people to experiment with self-government.
3. Greeks made significant advances in scientific thought.
4. Greek cultural and artistic achievements are very similar to those
of modern man.
A. Greek geography had a significant impact on the development of

their unique
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civilization.
1. Greece is divided into three main regions.
a. Peloponnesus Peninsula to the south and home to Sparta and

Corinth.
b. Attica in the middle; a plains area and home of
Athens,Thebes and Delphi.
c. Macedonia to the north; a rough and rugged area that
connects via the Hellespont to Asia Minor.
1. Greeks became a sea-going people due to the close proximity of

the sea to most early Greek city-states.
2. Greek merchants and traders developed a sense of freedom
and independence not seen before.
A. The terrain of Greece was not conducive to unification of the
Greek people.
1. Mainland Greece is divided by a short but rugged mountain range.

2. Greek rivers are shallow and non-navigable.
3. Soil is rocky and poor.
4. Coastline is very irregular with many excellent natural harbors.
A. The climate of Greece, while moderate, did not allow for Greeks
to grow ample food.
1. Mild climate means a long growing season.

2. Rain, while sufficient, was not ample to grow grain crops.
3. Greeks resorted to growing dates, fruits and olives.
4. Many Greeks raised sheep.
5. Their inability to raise sufficient crops prompted the Greeks to
become a sea-going nation which relied on foreign trade for grain
to feed a growing population.
23. Regimens and Aging: Remnants of a Greek Legacy
The physical appearance of the body is of paramount importance in

modern society. Whether it be a cultural icon such as Kate Moss on the
thin side, or the remarkable attention paid to the ever-changing waistline
of an Oprah on the other, our actual physical bodies hold for us an
incredible fascination. Our conception of ourselves changes over time;
perhaps most notably in our conception of what makes a woman
"beautiful." I would venture to say that our fascination with our bodies,
and our attempts to preserve them in their "youthful" state, reflect the
same ideals as found in Hellenistic society; indeed, while we may vary as
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to the exact application, we have retained the value placed on the state of
the body first set down by the Greeks.
Granted, the Greeks are not the first civilization to have attached
importance to the body, or the condition of the body. The Old Testament
makes reference to not inflicting wounds upon oneself, for example.
However, the Greeks are the First to quantify the body in such
magnitude; to assign it a regimen for maintaining "health," and, with the
invention of applied medicine, to apply changes in diet to retain that
youth. Foucault, in his The Use of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality Vol.
2 discusses the regimen of the Greeks: "Medicine thus came into being
as an appropriate ‘diet’ for the sick, emerging from a search for the
specific regimen for their condition." (99) Interestingly enough, as we
shall see later, Plato gave another reason for the genesis of medicine,
namely "…it was designed for mismanaged lives that sought to prolong
themselves."(100) Foucault then discusses the specifics of the Greek
regimen, drawing from various sources, illustrating a daily schedule that
reflects the Greek search for harmony, as applied to their daily lives (for
example, hot baths in the cold of winter, et al.).
Regimens, however, are not to be taken to extremes. With reference to

physical fitness, Plato, in his Laws, Plato assumes his legislator will
decide the following: "The body that deserves to be honored is not the
handsome one or the strong or the swift…He will say that the body which
achieves a mean between all these extreme conditions is by far the
soundest and best balanced." (192, italics mine) We see this today, in the
extreme reactions which cultural icons on one end or the other provoke;
Kate Moss and other "heroin chic" models, and extreme bodybuilders on
the other hand. While they may be found attractive, certainly they would
not be "the body which deserves honor," not as long as Kate is associated
with starvation, and the "Ah-nuld" body types continue to be associated
with steroid abuse.
The mind-body dualism is an important part of Plato’s philosophy, and

may offer an explanation for the emphasis on caring for the body.
Hellenistic civilization is responsible for the introduction of the
gymnasium, and while it may have been male dominated in Athens, it
was not so in Sparta, nor in Cretian bull-games (Eisler, 35) nor is it today
at the Jerome Coles Sports Center. If the body is a temple for the soul,
then it must be taken care of, but again, as indicated earlier, in
moderation. The soul, or mind, may be closer to the gods, but we had
better take good care of it. Today, caring for the body is important in
much the same way: schools (on both the secondary and collegiate levels
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– look at Brandeis University’s phys-ed requirement) have mandatory

physical education classes, and "health" often is a part of a student’s
curriculum.
Foucault takes the ideas of extreme regimens a bit further: "The distrust
of excessive regimens shows that the purpose of diet was not to extend
life as far as possible in time nor as high in performance, but rather to
make it useful and happy within the limits that had been set for it." This I
find particularly pertinent, especially in light of a recent New Yorker
article on aging, entitled "The New Age of Man." The article discusses
recent advances in prolonging human life, such as "methusalean fruit
flies," and telomere research (research involving part of the cell pertinent
to the aging process). The author, Malcolm Gladwell, turns the article
from reporting on research to a criticism of the enthusiasm for longer
life, by admitting that longer life does not mean better life. He recalls
Swift’s Gulliver, who, once enthusiastic as to the prospect of an immortal
race, finds their brittle bodies to be nothing more than "the most
mortifying sight I had ever beheld."
Timaeus (or Plato) reflects that same philosophy, namely, that longer life
does not imply better life, or as he says: "…those who produced our
species…decided that a shorter and better life was in all respects
preferable to a longer but poorer one." (103) The infirmity of old age
must have been as anathema to the Greek mindset as an Alzheimer’s
patient is to our modern view. Death was taken as a part of natural life in
the Timaeus, "So a death by disease or injury is painful and unwelcome,
but one that brings life to its natural close by old age is of all deaths the
least distressing." (111) Again, like today, as US News & World Report
polls on aging constantly indicate, the fear of dying alone, in a hospital
bed, is perhaps the most "distressing."
Not only is it a fear now, it seems that it will be a greater fear in the
future. According to this week’s New York Times Magazine, specifically
an article entitled "Children Will Pay," "…we can expect America’s
attention to be focused increasingly on its aging population." Indeed, with
the rising costs of American systems designed to care for the elderly,
Medicare, and the Social Security system, the elderly begin to shift into
mainstream focus. The aging population will bring to the forefront our
"quality-of-life" questions, many of which find their basis Originally in
the Greek attempt to better their own lives.
The Greeks took the concept of caring for the body to a new level,
codifying it within their philosophy, and constructing elements of their
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society around it. They did this to better their earthly existence, to live
"better." This is a concept prevalent in modern America, with our focus
on iconic bodies, and our fears of prolonging life at the expense of
quality. The Greek value of a "good" life, and pro-active maintenance to
keep it that way, lives on today.
24. GREEK GEOGRAPHY
Instructional Goal: Students will know the significant traits of Greek

geography and will understand their impact on the development of
civilization of Classical Greece.I. The Heritage of Greece is extremely
significant to the development of western civilization.
1. Greeks were the first people to think and act like modern man.
2. Greeks were the first people to experiment with self-government.
3. Greeks made significant advances in scientific thought.
4. Their cultural and artistic achievements are very similar to those of

modern man.
II. Greek geography had a significant impact on the development of

their unique civilization.
1. Greece is divided into three main regions; (A) Peloponnese

peninsula to the south and home of Sparta and Corinth; (B) Attica
in the middle; a plains area and home of Athens, Thebes and
Delphi; Macedonia to the north; a rough and rugged area that
connects via the Hellespont to Asia Minor.
2. Greeks became a sea-going people due to the close proximity of
the sea to most early Greek city-states.
3. These merchants and traders developed a sense of freedom and

independence not seen before.
III. The terrain of Greece was not conducive to unification of the Greek
people.
1. Mainland Greece is divided by a short but rugged mountain range.

2. Greek rivers are shallow and non-navigable.
3. Soil is rocky and poor.
4. Coastline is very irregular with many excellent natural harbors.

213
IV. The Climate of Greece, while moderate, did not allow for Greeks to
grow ample food.
1. Mild climate has a long growing season.

2. Rain, while sufficent, was not ample to produce grain crops.
3. Greeks resorted to growing dates and fruits.
4. Many Greeks raised sheep.
5. Their inability to raise sufficent food prompted the Greeks to

become a sea-going nation which relied on foreign trade for grain
to feed a growing population.
Assignment: Students will begin work on map of Ancient Greece.
25. Technology-By Ian, PHILOSOPHICAL DISCUSSION
Greek men gathered to discuss important Political and philosophical

ideas. The works of the Greek philosophers are written in the form of
dialogues. In these books an Idea is developed in form of conversation
between a numbers of men.
HERODOTUS -THE "FATHER OF HISTORY"

Herodotus lived in the 5th century BC. He is the first author to write the
First great book of History, on the Greco Persian wars. Herodotus
traveled widely; he was very interested in the customs and History of the
Greeks and their enemies, the Persians. His History remains the leading
source of information for Greeks History between 550-479 BC.
HIPPOCRATES - THE "FATHER OF MEDICINE"

Hippocrates was the first to think that illness came form a natural
phenomenon, rather than being caused by the "gods" or other
"supernatural forces". From this time onward doctors began to look for
physical causes and cures for sickness. The Hippocrates oath, an ethical
code of conduct for doctor, has guided the practice of western medicine
for more than 2,000 years…
THE GREAT THREE - SOCRATES, PLATO AND ARISTOTLE.

Socrates (470-399 BC) was the first of the great trio of ancient Greek
philosopher. He was a good man, believing that no one should ever do
wrong. He also thought that if people really know what was right and
good they could never do wrong. Plato (428-348 BC) was a disciple of
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Socrates. After Socrate's death, he traveled widely, before founding the

Academy for philosophy in Athens. Plato is still considered One of the
greatest philosophical writers. Aristotle (384-322 BC) studied at the
Academy for twenty years until Plato died. Much later Aristotle founded
the Lyceum, an important center for study and research into every branch
of knowledge. He was both a philosopher and a scientist.
MATHMATICS
The ancient Greeks are sometimes called "the inventors of
mathematics" because they were the first to make it a theoretical
discipline, though some of theories that they developed were invented by
earlier civilizations, such as the Babylonians and Egyptians. The works
of Greek machinations such as Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes, and
Apollonius (among others) lies at the basis of modern mathematics.
THE GOLDEN NUMBER

The Greeks were the first to express the idea of the golden number. It
occurs when a rectangle is divided in two unequal parts and the ratio of
the smaller part to the larger part is the same as the larger part to the
whole. According to Classical ideas, this is a perfect expression of
proportion. They used it in architecture and other arts "; - Atlas of The
CLASSICAL WORLD
PHILOSOPHY
The word philosophy means "love of wisdom''. Thales of Miletus, who
lived in the 6th century BC, is considered the earliest Greek philosopher
because he give a natural explanation of the origin of the world, rather
than a mythoLogical one. Many serious thinkers whose aim was to
explain the world on the basis of what they could observe followed him.
THE ATOM
" The atom" Around 2,500 years ago a man named Democritus of Abdera
stated that all matter was made up of particles called "atoms". Many
people thought this was a nonsense even great philosopher like Plato
and Aristotle. But then it was researched by a Greek philosopher school
and then centuries later it was modified and elaborated, it was shown to
be correct.". Atlas of The CLASSICAL WORLD
INVENTIONS
many of the scientific discoveries were used to invent new and wonderful
machines. Sadly many were planned but never built. Those that were
built were often used for entertainment than for practical purposes.
WEAPONS AND TOOLS
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weapons were simple and yet very effective including: the bow & arrows,
spears, swords, and blunt instruments like: wooden clubs, slings &
stones, and large boulders. Tools were so simple: chisel, hammers, and
such.
26. The Greek Foundation of Modern Education
The roots of modern America’s educational system and traditions are

from the Greeks. They were the first to separate wisdom from religious
control.
Two contrasting types of education appeared early in ancient Greece:
that of Sparta, wholly controlled by the state, and that of Athens, left
almost entirely to the home and to private schools. Up to the age of seven,
the education of both boys and girls was left to the home; at the age of
seven, boys were gathered in barracks, where emphasis was placed upon
physical development through games, exercises, and the pentathlon
(running, jumping, throwing the discus, casting the javelin, and wrestling)
and upon memorizing the laws of Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, and
selections from Homer. The whole process was designed to develop
endurance, resourcefulness, and discipline. At eighteen, definite training
in the use of arms and warfare began; from twenty to thirty, service in the
army and guarding the borders of the state were required, and even after
thirty, men were required to live in barracks and assist in the training of
the boys. Physical training was also emphasized in the education of girls
and women, so that they might bear sturdy children. The whole purpose
of education was to subordinate the individual to the needs of the state.
The ancient Greeks, interest in learning is evident in their art, Politics,
and philosophy. They had teachers live in their households; these
teachers were often slaves from conquered states. Later, when the Roman
Empire was at its height, its citizens also followed the practice of having
teacher-slaves, usually Greeks, attached to their households. Several
Greek writers served as the model for the educational systems of ancient
Greece, which stressed gymnastics as well as mathematics and music.
Have you ever wondered where we got the subject divisions: literature,
History, language? The Greeks divided God’s creation into topics.
When you divide life into topics you can separate the topic from the
Creator.
The basic divisions of knowledge were: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic -
these were meant to help students communicate effectively, and included
a study of literature and language - Arithmetic, Music, Geometry and
Astronomy. These seven subjects later on became known as the Liberal
Arts. They survive in one form or another in many universities today.
Anatomy, Biology and Botany were also valid fields of study.
216
Education, in general was considered a leisure pursuit only available to

the privileged few. The majority of the population, Greek or Roman
slaves, received no education. The pursuit of literature was considered
the ultimate goal--an idle life of leisure void of manual labor. This pagan
goal of the idle rich is in America today.
The Greeks were History's first humanists, believing that man was the
measure of all things. The Greek aim was to prepare intellectually well
rounded young people to take leading roles in the activities of the state
and of society. Greek concepts served as the basis for the liberal arts, the
teaching of the various branches of philosophy, the cultivation of the
aesthetic ideal, and the promotion of gymnastic training. There is a
problem with the education system based on the philosophies of these
non-believers!
Christendom
After the peace of the church, in the reign of Constantine, Christianity
began to make converts of the educated classes. More than ever before,
the church was brought into direct confrontation with the dilemma
offered by pagan ideals of education and the perfect man. To a large
extent the confrontation, took place over Classical literature. A majority
of citizens were of the literary/rhetorical tradition. The issue was entire
Classical world view. Was the church to discard all pagan culture, or was
it to attempt a synthesis between Christian and Classical thought.?
Within the circle of orthodoxy many answers were given. That which,
after long trail and debate, was finally settled upon has affected our
intellectual culture to this day.
By the time the church confronted the issue of education on an
institutional level, several important things already occurred:
The Church had transferred from Jewish to Gentile soil
The standard of orthodoxy was moving in a more theoLogical
direction. The Judaic roots of Christianity were radically de-emphasized
as the Gospel message was universalized. The Biblical wisdom tradition
was discarded in exchange of Greek education.
Wisdom was redefined in Classical terms
As the Church became more and more Gentile, less and less Judaic, an
education system arose. The Bible standards that would have caused
friction with the Classical paideia [education] had retreated into the
distance. The Church had undergone a strange transformation. The
Church begins to define itself apart from Judaism beginning about 160
A.D., the time of Justin Martyr. The Church began to turn arrogant and,
during the second, third and fourth centuries, Greek thought swept into
the Church like a flood. A whole series of events led to the de- Judaizing
of the Church. Unfortunately, Christian hostility toward Judaism also
developed hostility toward the Jews. Jews by Jews. In the second century,
217
it became Anti-Jewish to win Gentiles by Gentiles. In the first place, we

have Jews against Jews; in the second, we have Gentiles against Jews.
27. The History of Health and Health Education
3. Code of Hammurabi - contained laws pertaining to health

practices and physicians including the first known fee schedule
III. Egyptians
D. Hebrews extended Egyptian hygienic thought and formulated in
the Biblical Book of Leviticus the world's first written hygienic code
IV. Greeks
A. First people to emphasize prevention rather than treatment of
disease
D. Asclepian mythology evolved into Asclepiads where practice of

medicine was based on a more rational basis
E. Hippocrates
1. Atomic theory
2. Hippocratic Oath
3. First epidemiologist and the father of modern medicine
V. Romans
A. Great engineers, builders and administrators
B. First to build hospitals
C. Furthered the work of the Greeks in study of Anatomy and
physiology
VI. Middle Ages

A. With collapse of Roman Empire, much Political and social unrest
B. Little emphasis on cleanliness or hygiene
C. Christian beliefs impacted health
D. Women's Christian Temperance Union
28. "The Humapan"-by Hans Schicht-page 24-History coming full

Circle.
In the sixth and fifth century BC, the Greeks ousted their tyrants and
their philosopher Solon gave Athens the first democratic constitution.
218
During the same period the Greeks introduced the first ever standardized
coinage, which became accepted throughout the whole of the
Mediterranean basin and the Middle East. It gave a phenomenal boost to
trade, travel and cultural exchange.
In the fourth century BC, the Athenian League was established and the
combined treasuries of the member states, as if it were a modern reserve
bank, were put under joint custody on the island of Delos.
The liberation of civil initiative, coupled with democratic laws and a free
floating means of exchange, brought One of the greatest advancements
in human History. The arts, culture, construction, philosophy and
learning, inventions, all thrived and prospered.
When the Romans began clipping their coinage, lowering its metal
content, it helped to bring the Classic Roman-Greek civilization to an
end.
29. The Greek alphabet came from the Phoenicians around the year 900
BC When the Phoenicians invented their alphabet there were around 600
symbols. Those symbols took up too much room on papyrus, so they
narrowed down to 22 symbols. The Greeks borrowed some of the
symbols and then they made up some of their own in the creation of their
language.
The Greeks were the first people to have separate symbols (or letters) to
represent vowel sounds. Even the name "alphabet" comes from the First
two letters of the Greek alphabet -- "alpha" and "beta."
There are several interesting facts about Greek words and letters. One
concerns the words "Greece" and "Greeks". The people we call
"Greeks" never called themselves by that name. In Homer's story the
Iliad, these people were called Achaeans. Later they were called
Hellenes. The country was called Hellas.
Our words for Greece and Greeks come from the Latin language. There
was a minor Greek tribe that founded a colony at Cumae. The Romans
called these people "Graeci" and were soon using this term for the
people and the country we today call Greece.
Approximately 12% of our words have roots in the Greek language.

'School', 'Stoic', 'drama', 'barbarian', 'academy', 'History' and
'chronology' are all words that get their origins from the Greek
language.
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Activities
1. Using a dictionary, look up each of the words below; write down the
Greek word it came from.
A. school -C. barbarian - B. calm - D. academy -
3. On the next page of your spiral, create a Greek alphabet key.

When you finish, colorfully decorate the rest of the page with Greek
figures and scenes.
30.Orthographic Origins
The ability to communicate language through writing is a relatively

modern phenomenon. Most historians refer to four distinct stages in the
evolution of writing: picture writing, word-based writing, sound-based
writing, and sound-based syllabic writing. Scholars also agree that there
are two distinct "histories" of writing. One began with the development
of Sumerian Cuneiform and the other began with Chinese Characters.
The writing style most familiar in the Western world began in 8000 BC
with the evolution of Cuneiform. The Sumerians began using symbols
carved into tokens as "bills of lading" to help merchants remember sales
transactions. These symbols then began to evolve into symbols that
represented sounds in the Sumerian Language. The Greeks added to the
development of Cuneiform first by the development of Linear B in 1400
BC. Linear B consistently used symbols to represent syllables. In the 2 nd
Century BC, the Greeks created the First alphabet called the Semetic
Alphabet. This alphabet was the First writing style which also included
vowles. Semetic Alphabet is also the predecessor of all western
alphabets.
31. Islandia, The Odyssey, and Classical Greece
During Wright's youth George Herbert Palmer, Professor of Philosophy

at Harvard and a scholar of Greek, was involved in preparing a
translation of Homer's Odyssey to recreate the experience of hearing it
as a work of oral literature. Palmer read his translation Book by Book
at Harvard for a number of years (and later at Wellesley for his soon-to-be
wife AliceFreeman and her students, and at Radcliffe when Harvard
balked at inviting women to his Harvard readings). He published his first
translation in 1884 and continued to revise it through his life. Surely
Austin Wright, whose father was Professor of Greek as well as Dean of
Graduate Studies at Harvard, was acquainted with this work, and may
220
well have heard Palmer's own readings of the work presented on

successive evenings.
Palmer's translation went through a number of printings and editions,
including one in 1929 with illustrations by N.C. Wyeth. Palmer's is a
prose translation that yet tries to maintain the rhythm and flavor of the
Greek; the first thing that struck me on beginning it was the way the
descriptions reminded me of Islandia...
"They took the sweating horses from the yoke, tied them securely at
the mangers, threw them some corn and mixed therewith some white
barley, then tipped the chariot up against the bright face wall and brought
the men into the lordly house. ... Now after they had satisfied their eyes
with gazing, they went to the polished baths and bathed. And when the
maids had bathed them and anointed them with oil, and put upon them
fleecy coats and tunics, they took their seats by Menelaus, son of Attreus.
And water for the hands a servant brought in a beautiful pitcher made of
gold, and poured it out over a silver basin for their washing, and spread a
polished table by their side. Then the grave housekeeper brought bread
and placed before them, seting out food of many a kind, freely giving of
her store..." (Odyssey, Book IV)
I have sometimes wondered why a writer whose father who wrote on

Plato's cave, who made a visit to Greece after graduation, and who might
while young have heard George Herbert Palmer reading Homer, would
make so little use of things Greek in Islandia, except maybe as the ideal
of the city-state. The buildings don't seem Greek, nor does the culture I
thought. But on reading in Palmer and in Edith Hamilton (The Greek
Way), I am finding that maybe I don't know Greek culture when I see it.
A possible Greek influence and the origins of the beautiful descriptive
passages in Islandia have both puzzled for me for a while, but now it
feels as if both puzzles been solved all at once.
Hamilton says that the Greeks were the first people to elevate a joy in
present life over a longing for an afterlife, to play, and to celebrate
everyday beauty in their writing.
"Egypt is a fertile valley of rich river soil, low-lying, warm, monotonous,

a slow-flowing river, and beyond, the limitless desert. Greece is a country
of sparse fertitlity and keen, cold winters, all hills and mountains sharp cut
in stone, where strong men must work hard to get their bread. And while
Egypt submitted and suffered and turned her face toward death, Greece
resisted and rejoiced and turned full-face to life. For somewhere among
those steep stone mountains, in little sheltered valleys where the great
hills were ramparts to defend and men could have security for peace and
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happy living, something quite new came into the world; the joy of life
found expression. ... The Greeks were the first people in the world to
play and they played on a great scale. ... If we had no other knowledge of
what the Greeks were like, if nothing were left of Greek art and
literature, the fact that they were in love with play and played
magnificently would be proof enough of how they lived and how they
looked at life. ... To rejoice in life, to find the world beautiful and
delightful to live in, was a mark of the Greek spirit that distinguished it
from all that had gone before. It is a vital distinction. The joy of life is
written upon everything the Greeks left behind..."
Recall Don in Islandia? Was he not pure Greek... famous athlete,

defender of mountain passes? How could I have missed that before?
She goes on to say "the Greeks were keenly aware, terribly aware, of
life's uncertainty and the imminence of death. ... But never, not in their
darkest moments, do they lose their taste for life. It is always a wonder
and a delight, the world a place of beauty, and they themselves rejoicing
to be alive in it."
"The little pleasures too that daily living holds, were felt a such
keen enjoyment: 'Dear to us ever', says Homer, 'is the banquet and
the harp and the dance and changes of raiment and the warm bath
and love and sleep.' Eating and drinking have never agin seemed so
delightful as in the early Greek lyrics, nor a meeting with friends,
nor a warm fire of a winter's night--- 'the stormy season of winter, a
soft couch after dinner by the fire, honey-sweet wine in your glass
and nuts and beans at your elbow'--- nor a run in the springtime
'amid a fragrance of woodbine and leisure and white poplar, when
the plane tree and elm whisper together'..." [Odyssey, Bk VIII.]
All this might have been enough, but when I came to her descriptions and
examples of Greek writing style there was that exact resonance that says
to me that there is a connection to Islandia there. She says that the Greek
way in writing is a way of directness and simplicity that we, with a
language rich in words and a poetic tradition of elaboration, find
jarringly spare.
"Greek is a very subtle language, full of delicately modifying

words, capable of the finest distinctions of meaning."
There follows after this a discussion on the difficulties of transLating

Greek to be readable and enjoyable to a mind schooled in English writing
and the tendency to elaborate to make it acceptable. Would be interesting
to hear George Palmer's reactions.
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She contrasts great English writing, especially Shakespeare and the later
English poets, with matching examples from the Greek. What follows is
from The Iliad, but could it not just as well be from Islandia?
"As flakes of snow fall thick of a winter's day, and the crests of the
high hills are covered, and the farthest headlands and the meadow
grass and the rich tillage of men. Over the inlets and the shore of
the gray sea fast it falls and only the onsweeping wave can ward it
off."
"The English method is to fill the mind with beauty; the Greek
method was to set the mind to work."
The more I think about it, the more I see the same at work in Islandia.
What are remembered as poetic descriptions of great beauty are not
poetic in our usual sense at all, they are simply cumulations of detail that
leave an impression of beauty. And even the views on life and love are
never really elaborated I think; simply presented in many small details
and left to develop in your mind. One more bit from The Greek Way I
can't resist...
"Our word for school comes from the Greek word for leisure. Of
course, reasoned the Greek, given leisure a man will employ it in
thinking and finding out about things. Leisure and the pursuit of
knowledge, the connection was inevitable--to a Greek."
And to an Islandian, I think. Now finally, there is this that I think applies
as much to Islandia as to Greece...
" 'The exercise of vital powers along lines of excellence in a life

affording them scope' is an old Greek definition of happiness."
1999 C. T. Tahk
32. The Ancient Greeks, Part One: -The Pre-Socratics
Dr. C. George Boeree -"Know thyself." - -- inscribed on the Temple of

Apollo at Delphi
The Greeks
Western intellectual History always begins with the ancient Greeks.

This is not to say that no-one had any deep thoughts prior to the ancient
Greeks, or that the philosophies of ancient India and China (and
elsewhere) were in any way inferior. In fact, philosophies from all over
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the world eventually came to influence western thought, but only much
later. But it was the Greeks that educated the Romans and, after a long
dark age, it was the records of these same Greeks, kept and studied by
the Moslem and Jewish scholars as well as Christian monks, that
educated Europeans once again.
We might also ask, why the Greeks in the first place? Why not the
Phoenicians, or the Carthaginians, or the Persians, or the Etruscans?
There are a variety of possible reasons.
One has to do with the ability to read and write, which in turn has to do
with the alphabet. It is when ideas get recorded that they enter
intellectual History. Buddhism, for example, although a very
sophisticated philosophy, was an oral tradition for hundreds of years
until the Brahmi alphabet was developed. It was only then that it spread
throughout Asia.
The alphabet was invented by the Semites of the Mediterranean coast,

including the Hebrews and the Phoenicians, who used simple drawings to
represent consonants instead of words. The Phoenicians apparently
passed it on to the Greeks. The Greeks put their own spin on the idea by
inventing vowels, using some extra letters their language had no use for.
Prior to the invention of the alphabet, reading and writing was the
domain of specialized scribes, concerned mostly with keeping
government records. Even in the case of the Phoenicians, writing was
more a tool of the merchant class, to keep track of trade, than a means of
recording ideas. In Greece, at least in certain city-states, reading and
writing was something “everyone” did.
By everyone, of course, we mean upper class males. Women, peasants,

and slaves were discouraged from picking up the skill, as they would be
and still are in many places around the world. If you wonder where all
the women philosophers are, well, there were very few indeed! The poet
Sappho of Lesbos is the closest we get to a female philosopher in the
ancient world.
Still, the alphabet does not explain everything. Another thing that made
the Greeks a bit more likely to start the intellectual ball rolling was the
fact that they got into overseas trading early. Their land and climate was
okay for agriculture, but not great, so the idea of trading for what you
can’t grow or make yourself came naturally. Plus, the Greece is
practically all coastline and islands, so seafaring came equally naturally.
224
What sea trading gives you is contact with a great variety of civilizations,
including their religions and philosophies and sciences. This gets people
to thinking: If this one says x, and that one says y, and the third one says
z, what then is the truth? Traders are usually skeptics.
Still, the Phoenicians (and their cousins, the Carthaginians) had the
alphabet first, and were excellent sea traders as well. Why weren’t they
the founders of western intellectual History? Perhaps it had to do with
centralization. The Phoenicians had an authoritarian government
controlled by the most powerful merchants. The Carthaginians had the
same. Perhaps being surrounded by powerful authoritarian empires
forced them to adopt that style of government to survive.
The Greeks, on the other hand, were divided into many small city-states,
each unique, each fiercely independent, always bickering and often
fighting. It may seem disadvantageous, but when it comes to ideas,
diversity and even conflict can be invigorating! Consider that when
Greece was finally united under Macedonian rule, the flurry of
intellectual activity slowed. And when the Romans took over, it
practically died.
The Basics
The ancient Greek philosophers gave us the basic categories of

philosophy, beginning with metaphysics. Metaphysics is the part of
philosophy that asks questions such as “What is the world made of?"
and "What is the ultimate substance of all reality?”
In fact, the ancient Greeks were among the first to suggest that there is a
“true” reality (noumenon) under the “apparent” reality (phenomenon), an
“unseen real” beneath the “unreal seen.” The question is, what is this true
reality? Is it matter and energy, i.e. something physical? This is called
materialism. Or something more spiritual or mental, such as ideas or
ideals? This is called idealism. Materialism and idealism constitute the
two extreme answers. Later, we will explore some other possibilities.
A second aspect of philosophy is epistemology. Epistemology is the

philosophy of knowledge: How do we know what is true or false, what
is real or not? Can we know anything for certain, or is it ultimately
hopeless?
225
Again, the Greeks outlined two opposing approaches to the problemof

knowledge. One is called empiricism, which says that all knowledge
comes through the senses. The other is called rationalism, which says
that knowledge is a matter of reason, thought. There are other answers in
epistemology as well. In fact, empiricism and rationalism have never
been entirely exclusive.
The third aspect of philosophy that we will be concerned with is ethics.

Ethics is the philosophical understanding of good and bad, right and
wrong. It is often called morality, and most consider the two words
synonymous. After all, ethics comes from ethos, which is Greek for
customs, and morality comes from mores, which is Latin for customs!
As we shall see, ethics is the most complex of the three aspects of

philosophy. For the present, we might want to differentiate the extremes
of hedonism and cynicism. Hedonism says that good and bad come
down to what I like and what I don’t like, what gives me pleasure and
what gives me pain. Cynicism says that world is essentially evil, and we
can only work at distancing ourselves from it and towards the ultimate
good, which is God.
There are many other aspects of philosophy -- Logic, for example, and
esthetics, the study of beauty. But metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics
are sufficient for now.
The Ionians
Greek philosophy didn’t begin in Greece (as we know it); It began on

the western coast of what is now Turkey, an area known then as Ionia. In
Ionia’s richest city, Miletus, was a man of Phoenician descent called
Thales (624-546). He studied in Egypt and other parts of the near east,
and learned Geometry and astronomy.
His answer to the great question of what the universe is made of was
water. Inasmuch as water is a simple molecule, found in gaseous, liquid,
and solid forms, and just about everywhere, especially life, this is hardly
a bad answer! It makes Thales not only the nominal first philosopher,
but the First materialist as well. Since ultimate nature was known in
Greek as physis, he could also be considered the First physicist (or, as
the Greeks would say, physiologist).
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We should note, however, that he also believed that the whole universe of
material things is alive, and that animals, plants, and even metals have
souls -- an idea called pantheism.
His most famous student was Anaximander (611-549), also of Miletus.

He is probably best known as having drawn the first known map of the
inhabited world.
Like Thales, Heraclitus (540-475) was an Ionian, from Ephesus, a little

north of Miletus. And, like Thales, he was searching for the ultimate
substance that unifies all reality. He decided on fire, or energy -- again,
not a bad guess at all.
Fire is also associated in his theory with mind or spirit. And, just like
any other fire, he points out that our individuality eventually dies. There
is no personal immortality, but God -- the divine fire -- is eternal.
In many ways, Heraclitus reminds me of a Greek Taoist. He believed

that, although ultimate reality is one, the world we know is made of up
dualities, with each pole requiring the existence of its opposite: Up
requires down, white requires black, good requires bad, and so on.
And he sees these oppositions as being the source of harmony, pointing

out that, unless you stretch your lyre strings in two opposing directions,
you cannot play music.
And, again like the Taoists, he believed that the best way to live one’s life
is in harmony with nature. But he died alone, at the age of 70, due to his
intense dislike for human company!
The Greeks of Italy
Another Ionian was Pythagorus (582-500). After travelling everywhere

from Gaul (modern day France) to Egypt and India, he settled down in
Crotona, a sea port of southern Italy. Southern Italy was the greatest
settlement of Greeks outside of Greece, to the point that the Romans
referred to the area as Magna Grecia (“greater Greece”). There, he set up
his famous school.
His school was more like a large commune, and his philosophy more
like a religion. Because they believed in reincarnation, all his followers
were vegetarians. They avoided wine, swearing by the gods, sexual
misconduct, excesses and frivolity. For the first five years, a new pupil
227
took a vow of silence. Women were treated as equals -- a true rarity in

the ancient world!
His philosophy was rooted in mathematics, which meant Geometry to

the ancient Greeks. Pythagorus is credited with a number of geometric
proofs, most notably the pythagorian theorum: The sum of the squares
of the two sides of a right triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenus.
He discovered the mathematical basis of music, and saw the same
patterns in the movements of the planets. He is the first person to realize
that the earth, moon, and planets are all spheres (hence, the "music of the
spheres!"). He saw the elegant lawfulness of Geometry as the
foundation of the entire universe.
So, rather than look for an understanding of the universe in the movement
of matter and energy, he looked for laws of nature, the form rather than
the material. But, since these laws exist only in the mind as ideas, we
call Pythagorus an idealist.
Although his life remains mysterious, his school lasted 300 years, and
had a profound influence on all who followed, most particularly Plato.
In Elea, another Greek seaport in the south of Italy lived Xenophanes

(570-475). He is best known for his denial of the existence of the Greek
gods.
“Mortals fancy that gods are born, and wear clothes, and
have voice and form like themselves. Yet if oxen and lions
had hands, and could paint and fashion images as men do,
they would make the pictures and images of their gods in
their own likenesses; horses would make them like horses,
oxen like oxen. Ethiopians make their gods black and snub-
nosed; Thracians give theirs blue eyes and red hair.” (from
Diogenes Laertes “Xenophanes,” iii.)
There is only one god, he said, and that is the universe, nature. This
perspective is known as pantheism. Nevertheless, said Xenophanes, all
things, even human beings, evolved from earth and water by means of
natural laws. But things and people remain forever secondary to the
ultimate reality that is God-or-Nature.
Parmenides (540-470) of Elea, was a disciple of Xenophanes, and would
have a particularly potent influence on Plato. He extended Xenophanes’
concept of the one God by saying “Hen ta panta,” all things are one.
Ultimate reality is constant. What we believe to be a world of things and
motion and change is just an illusion.
228
One of Parmenides’ disciples was Zeno of Elea (490-430, not to be

confused with Zeno of Citium). Zeno wrote a book of famous paradoxes,
including the story of Achilles and the tortoise: Let’s give the tortoise a
head start. By the time Achilles gets to where the tortoise started, the
tortoise will have move a little further. By the time Achilles gets to where
the tortoise had moved, the tortoise will have moved a little further still,
and so on. Hence, Achilles can never catch up with the tortoise. The
point of the story, and all the stories, is that motion is an illusion.
Besides making his point, he invented the form of argument known as
"reduction to absurdity." Note, however, that his arguments don’t hold up
in the long run, because he mistakenly takes motion, time, and space as
made up of an infinite number of points, rather than being continuous.
The Abderans
Leucippus (fl. c. 440) was from Miletus in Ionia, home of Thales and
Anaximander. He studied with Zeno at Elea, then started teaching in
Abdera, an Ionian Greek colony on the southern shore of Thrace...
Although only one sentence of his actual teachings remains, Leucippus
will always be remembered as the man who invented the ideas of the
atom, empty space, and cause-and-effect. Even the soul, he said, is made
up of atoms!
It was Leucippus’ student, Democritus (460-370) of Abdera, who would
take these ideas and develop them into a full-bodied philosophy. He
travelled extensively, wrote books on every subject, and was considered
the equal of the great Plato and Aristotle. But he never founded a
school, and so his ideas never had quite the same impact as Plato’s and
Aristotle’s on later civilization.
Democritus was quite skeptical of sense data, and introduced the idea of
secondary qualities: Things like color and sound and taste are more in
your mind than in the thing itself. Further, he said that sensations are a
matter of atoms falling on the sense organs, and that all the senses are
essentially forms of touch.
He also introduced the idea that we identify qualities by convention -- i.e.
we call sweet things “sweet,” and that is what leads us to group them
together, not some quality of the things themselves. This is called the
nomothetic approach, from the Greek work nomos, meaning convention.
The soul or mind, he said, is composed of small, smooth, round atoms, a
lot like fire or energy atoms, which can be found throughout the bodies of
both humans and animals, and even the rest of the world.
Happiness comes from acquiring knowledge and ultimately wisdom.
Sensual pleasure is way too short-lived and fickle to depend on. Instead,
the wise man or woman should seek peace of mind (ataraxia) through
cheerfulness, moderation, and orderly living. His moral theory is based
229
on the sense of integrity: “A man should feel more shame in doing evil
before himself than before all the world.”
Democritus did not believe in gods nor an afterlife. In fact, he formed an
atheist organization called the Kakodaimoniotai -- “the devils’ club.” He
is sometimes called the laughing philosopher, because he found life
much more cheerful without what he considered to be these depressing
superstitions.
He took Leucippus’ materialism very seriously, noting that matter can
never be created nor destroyed, that there were an infinity of worlds like
our own, and that there was no such thing as chance -- only causation. It
would be many centuries before these ideas would again become well-
known.
A little older than Democrates was Protagorus (480-411), also of
Abdera. He is the most famous of the group of philosophers known as
the sophists. The word comes from the Greek sophistai, which means
teachers of wisdom -- i.e. professor. Because some of these professors
taught little more than how to win arguments in court, and did so for
exorbitant fees, the name has become somewhat derogatory. Sophistry
now means argument for argument’s sake, or for the sake of personal
gain. But then, it is also the root of the word sophisticated!
Protagorus, although his teaching fees were in fact high, was a serious
philosopher. He can be credited with founding the science of grammar,
being the first to distinguish the various conjugations of verbs and
declensions of nouns. He was also a major contributor to Logic and was
using the Socratic method (teaching by question and answer) before
Socrates.
He was a skeptic, and believed that there were no ultimate truths, that
truth is a relative, subjective thing. “Man is the measure of all things,” is
his most famous quote, meaning that things are what we say they are.
Applying this skepticism to the gods, he scared the Athenian powers-
that-be, and he was ordered to leave Athens. Apparently, he drowned on
his way to Sicily.
C. George Boeree 2000

33. Liberal Studies 304 – Section 6-Dr. Mark H. Shapiro
Exam #1-September 21, 2000-Answer Key (correct answer is in red)
Instructions: Please choose the best answer to each question, but do not
guess. Each correct answer is worth 5 points. 1.25 points will be
deducted for each wrong answer. You have 40 minutes to complete the
test.
230
10) Many early civilizations observed the stars. What distinguishes

Greek astronomy from the astronomy of other early civilizations?
a) a) The Greeks were the only early civilization to develop

models of the solar system.
b) b) The Greeks understood the difference between
astronomy and astrology.
c) c) The Greeks were the first to prove that the sun was the
center of the solar system.
d) d) The Greeks were the first to use telescopes to observe
the stars.
16) The heliocentric model of the solar system proposed by Copernicus

was an improvement over the geocentric system of the ancient Greeks
because:
e) a) It was able to account for the retrograde motion of

planets like Mars without the need for epicycles.
f) b) It showed that the planets had to move on circular
paths.
g) c) It agreed with the predictions of Aristotelian physics.
h) d) It had greater mathematical simplicity.
THE EARLY DAYS OF SURVEYING
 1400 B.C.
The Egyptians first used it to accurately divide land into plots for
the purpose of taxation.
 120 B.C.
Greeks developed the science of Geometry and were using it for
precise land division.
Greeks developed the first piece of surveying equipment
(Diopter).
Greeks standardized procedures for conducting surveys.
THE EARLY DAYS OF SURVEYING
 1800 A.D. Beginning of the industrial revolution.

The importance of "exact boundaries" and the demand for public
improvements (i.e. railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying into
a prominent position.
231
More accurate instruments were developed.

Science of Geodetic and Plane surveying were developed.
II. The Greeks

--------------
* The Greeks were the first civilization to create geometric models to

explain the world around them - especially the motions of the
planets.
* Pythagoras (sixth cent. B.C.) was among the first to develop a

Geometry - based cosmology:
A stellar sphere rotated east to west and drove other spheres.

The sun and planets each lay on their own spheres, and
each moved from west to east at different rates. The Earth
was located at the center - this is a geocentric model.
* Pythagoras' idea was based on symmetry and the perfection

represented
by the sphere. People were so obsessed with the aesthetic
appeal of this "perfect" model that Plato (427-347B.C.)
mentioned that the goal of astronomy was to "save the
appearances" to describe observed motions.
* Aristotle (384-322BC), Plato's student, based his model on uniform,

circular motion. He also tried to explain the retrograde
motion - but resulted in a messy theory involving 56 spheres
centered on Earth, and even this complex model didn't match
observations very well.
* Despite it's failings, Aristotle's model was the first to use the
physical concept of motion.
* This model was also divided into two regions - one of earth, air
fire and water, and the other (the heavens) consisting of an
immutable, crystalline material.
* Aristotle believed that in the heavens, terrestrial laws did not apply.
* Aristotle did show that Earth was a sphere (based on the shape
232
of its shadow during lunar eclipses.) He calculated its

diameter to: 5100km
* After Alexander the Great (356-323BC), Greek Science was centered

on
the Great Library at Alexandria.
* There, Eratosthenes calculated the size of the Earth (13,400 km)

comparing the angle of the Sun's rays at two places on Earth.
* Aristarchus also developed a heliocentric model of the universe.

Much later, the library burned and all of his major works were
destroyed.
* Aristarchus also measured the Earth - Sun distance relative to the

Earth - Moon distance, and realized that the Sun was very large.
* Aristarchus' model was challenged: It countered Aristotle, and it

required a (then undetected) stellar parallax.
* Hipparchus of Rhodes (160 - 127 BC) added eccentrics, epicycles,

and deferents to the geocentric model to explain planetary
motion.
* Hipparchus also created the first star maps that included the
brightnesses of the stars - measured in magnitudes which we
still use today.
* Claudius Ptolemy (~100AD) wrote the Almagest, the first professional

astronomy textbook. In it, he carefully refined the geocentric
model to be able to predict planetary positions to < 5o.
* Ptolemy still used physical, heavenly spheres and so the universe

was finite, with the stars approximately 20000 earth radii
away (assuming an earth-moon distance of 59 earth radii -
though this model had no set distance scale.)
* Even after it was discredited, Ptolemy's model was still in use -

because it did predict the locations of the planets
rather well.
36. From: xpolakis@hol.gr (Antreas P. Hatzipolakis)
Subject: G.H. Hardy about Aeschylus (was: Aeschylus quote)
233
Speaking on Aeshylous quote, I recall what a great mathematician wrote

in
his famous "Apology":
"The Greeks were the first mathematicians who are still 'real' to us to-
day.
Oriental mathematics may be an interesting curiosity, but Greek
mathematics
is the real thing. The Greeks first spoke a language which modern
mathema-
ticians can understand; as Littlewood said to me once, they are not clever
schoolboys os 'scholarship candidates', but 'Fellows of another college'.
So Greek mathematics is 'permanent', more permanent even than Greek
literature.
Archimedes will be remembered when Aeschylus is forgotten, because
languages
die and mathematical ideas do not. 'Immortaliy' may be a silly word, but
probably a mathematician has the best chance of whatever it may mean."
In the end of the book, in the "Note", he added:

"Dr. Snow has also made an interesting minor point about $8. Even if we
grant that 'Archimedes will be remembered when Aescylus is forgotten',
is not mathematical fame a little too 'anonymous' to be wholly
satisfying?
We could form a fairly coherent picture of the personality of Aeschylus
(still more, of course of Shakespeare or Tolstoi) from their works alone,
while Archimedes and Eudoxus would remain mere names."
The mathematician was the English Godfrey Harold Hardy (1877-1947).

His famous _A Mathematician's Apology_ was published first in 1940.
The mathematician Littlewood, mentioned in the excerpt above, was

another famous English mathematician: John Edensor Littlewood (1885-
1977).
Hardy and Littlewood wrote jointly a number of significant math. papers.
That's the "why" of the following saying (mentioned by B. Bollobas in
his edition of _Littlewood's Miscellany_):
"Nowdays, there are only three really great English mathematicians:
Hardy, Littlewood and Hardy-Littlewood".
Antreas
234
37. Chapter 2 :The GREEKS- Death of Socrates and Plato’s Theory

of the Ideal Forms- Plato describes the death of Socrates in the
dialogue, the PHAEDO.
In that dialogue Plato becomes the first human to set into written form
an attempt to prove that human beings have souls which are spiritual and
immortal. Many cultures have such a belief. It can be found all around
the world. However, the Greeks were the First to attempt to offer a
proof for its existence and a proof based upon reasoning. In order to
understand the PHAEDO and its arguments one must First be aware of
Plato’s Theory of the Forms. This is needed for Plato makes use of
them in attempting to prove that the soul exists and that it survives the
death of the body.
In the PHAEDO Plato uses the Theory of the Forms. Aristotle

made it clear that Socrates did not use that theory, it was
developed later by Plato. So what is most likely is that Plato
probably began the dialogue right after the death of Socrates. He
must have taken notes. He was not present at the death; he was ill.
He probably recorded what others told him occurred and then years
later returned to the notes and finished the dialogue. So the
PHAEDO is a mix of what Socrates actually said and words Plato
placed into the mouth of Socrates to complete the arguments and
offer stronger ones consistent with Plato’s views. It is likely a
Dialogue from Plato’s middle period of creativity.(see mini-lecture
on Plato’s Dialogues) The dialogue contains four different
arguments to prove the existence of the soul. Socrates states at the
conclusion of the first that it is sufficient. The other three were
probably added later by Plato and utilize references to Plato’s
theory of the forms.
The THEORY of the FORMS
For many years I presented this theory in class utilizing a series of

questions and practical demonstrations. In this medium we shall attempt
to get as close as possible to that.
38. 17 A Realist History
The Greeks are the first to have written a realist History

where the writers seek to consult witnesses to the events they
describe or to explain them as a result of human decisions
rather than merely the will of the Gods or explained by
myth/story; for reference to all Greek historians
235
 Herodotus (484 - 420 BC) called the "father of History"

wrote The Histories which deals with the rise of the Persians to
power and the invasions of Greece
o when he cannot choose between oral sources he often
gives alternative explanations
 Xenophon (? - 355/4 BC) most famous for his Anabasis, an
account of Greek mercenaries, between 401 and 399 BC, in the
army of Cyrus the Younger, the Persian King, and fighting their
way out from Persia to reach the sea and safety.
 Thucydides (later 5th century) is most famous for his
account of the Peloponnesian War in his Histories in which he
describes:
o the "real causes of the war (Athenian imperialism)
o he includes the famous "Pericles' funeral oration
o the effects of the plague at Athens in which Pericles
died
o the dialogue with the ctizens of Melos (later sold into
slavery or killed)
o the battle in the Great Harbour at Syracuse, and the
destruction of the Athenians
o Plutarch excelled in biography
 Works by these writers available in English on the Web
39. Almanac—Cool Stuff—Fashion and Dress -Figure Control-Corsets
In Florence during the Renaissance, Catherine de Medici decreed it

bad manners to have a thick waist and designed a hinged corset that
narrowed the waist to 13 inches.
Corsets and girdles were first worn outside of clothing. This is evident in
many European national costumes, such as that of Bavaria.
The ancient Greeks were the first to wear girdles. They called them
zones. A band of linen or soft leather was bound around a woman's waist
and lower torso to shape and control her mid-body.
The iron corset was devised in 1579 and was worn by women for about
10 years. The first modern corset was made in Britain in the 1700s. A
short and light corset was made in America in 1911 for women to have
the freedom of movement to dance the tango.
Bras
The first bra or breast band was worn by the ancient Greeks. It was
called a mastoeides (“shaped like a breast”).
236
Bust improvers or padded bras were popular in 1840. These bras have
been called falsies, cuties, bosom friends, waxen bosoms, lemon loves,
and pneumatic breasts.
It wasn't until 1935 that bras were made with both cup and band sizes.
The British called the cup measures junior, medium, full, and full with
wide waist.
40.Λίγη ιστορία
Ο άνθρωπος από αρχαιοτάτων χρόνων δοκίμασε να ξεπεράσει τα υδάτινα

εμπόδια που βρήκε στο δρόμο του. Ξεκινώντας από τα ποτάμια και τις
λίμνες έφτασε σε σημείο να διασχίσει τους απέραντους ωκεανούς.
Ξεκίνησε με τα πιο απλά μέσα (έναν κορμό δέντρου, μερικά κλαδιά,
χόρτα δεμένα μαζί, ακόμα και φουσκωμένα τομάρια ζώων) και έφτασε
στην κατασκευή μεγάλων σε όγκο και χωρητικότητα πλοίων που
επέτρεψαν στο εμπόριο να απλωθεί και να γίνει ο κινητήριος μοχλός για
την πρόοδο και την εξέλιξη. Οι λαοί που ζούσαν στα παράλια της
Μεσογείου, όπως οι Αιγύπτιοι, οι Φοίνικες, οι Κρήτες, και φυσικά οι
Ελληνες, εξελίχθηκαν σε ικανότατους ναυτικούς. Στη Βόρεια Ευρώπη
έχουμε το παράδειγμα των Βίκινγκ. Αρχικά, οι ναυτικοί δεν
απομακρύνονταν ποτέ από τις ακτές. Επλεαν κοντά στα παράλια για
ασφάλεια και επειδή έτσι είχαν τη δυνατότητα να χρησιμοποιούν
σταθερά σημάδια για να βρίσκουν τη θέση τους… Ομως, ο άνθρωπος
είναι από τη φύση του ον περίεργο και κατακτητικό με τάση να ξεπερνά
τα εμπόδια. Οι Ελληνες και οι Φοίνικες ήταν οι Πρώτοι ναυτικοί της
Μεσογείου, οι οποίοι ταξίδεψαν στην ανοιχτή θάλασσα, ακόμα και τη
νύχτα. Παρατηρούσαν τις θέσεις του ήλιου και του πολικού αστέρα και
τις χρησιμοποιούσαν ως οδηγό. Κατόρθωσαν ακόμα να υπολογίσουν
αποστάσεις με βάση το χρόνο, την πορεία και τη θέση των πλανητών
στον ουρανό. Οι εξελίξεις στη ναυτική τέχνη, την τέχνη δηλαδή του
χειρισμού ενός πλοίου, έγιναν ταυτόχρονα με τις εξελίξεις στη
ναυσιπλοΐα. Κάθε λαός προσέθετε κάτι καινούριο. Οι Αιγύπτιοι, εκτός
από τα πρωτόγονα πανιά, χρησιμοποιούσαν και κωπηλάτες. Οι Ελληνες
και οι Φοίνικες βελτίωσαν τα πανιά των πλοίων τους και αύξησαν
τον αριθμό των σειρών των κωπηλατών. Περίφημο παράδειγμα
τέτοιου πλοίου είναι η Αθηναϊκή Τριήρης με τρεις σειρές κωπηλατών.
Με τον καιρό (το 12ο αιώνα) εμφανίστηκε η μαγνητική πυξίδα που
αποτέλεσε σταθμό στην εξέλιξη των θαλάσσιων μεταφορών. Τον
επόμενο αιώνα οι Ιταλοί έμαθαν να κατασκευάζουν ναυτικούς χάρτες.
Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν και άλλα όργανα, όπως ο αστρολάβος και το
κλισιοσκόπιο, συσκευές τις οποίες Πρώτοι οι Ελληνες είχαν
ανακαλύψει αιώνες πριν. Οι μεγάλοι θαλασσοπόροι και εξερευνητές,
όπως ο Μαγγελάνος και ο Κολόμβος, πραγματοποιούσαν τα ταξίδια τους
237
χάρη σε αυτά τα όργανα (ένα απαραίτητο στη ναυσιπλοΐα όργανο, το

ρολόι, εμφανίστηκε πολύ αργότερα, το 17ο αιώνα). Αργότερα, οι μηχανές
αντικατέστησαν τα πανιά και έγιναν η κύρια πηγή δύναμης. Ετσι, τα
μεγάλα ιστοφόρα πέρασαν στην ιστορία. Οχι όμως και τα μικρά. Αυτά
επιβίωσαν κυρίως για λόγους αθλητικούς και αναψυχής, αφού το ταξίδι
με μόνο σύντροφο τον αέρα και τη θάλασσα πάντα συγκινούσε και πάντα
θα συγκινεί την ψυχή και το μυαλό των ανθρώπων.
ΓΛΩΣΣΙΚΟΣ ΥΠΟΛΟΓΙΣΤΗΣ
Χαρτογραφώντας την Ελληνόφωνη πραγματικότητα: Λίβανος και
Συρία
Η ελληνική Γλώσσα.
Η γλωσσική εκπαίδευση των ελλήνων μεταναστών στην

Ευρώπη.
ΝεοΕλληνική Γλώσσα και λογοτεχνία στην

Ιταλία."ESPOLIGNUA-ROMA 1996" (6-8/12)
Τα νέα ελληνικά στη γαλλική εκπαίδευση.
"Institutions Offering Courses of Modern Greek in Greece and

Abroad". A brief guide updated and revised
Διαλεκτικοί θύλακοι της ελληνικής Γλώσσας
Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και οι διάλεκτοι της
Γλώσσα, γλώσσες στην Ευρώπη
Νεότερη ευρωπαϊκή λογοτεχνία Ανθολόγιο μεταφράσεων
42. Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Γλώσσα, γλώσσες στην Ευρώπη

-ISBN 960-85931-9-0 -Aθήνα 2001, 96 σελ.
Στον τόμο διερευνάται ένα βασικό ζήτημα που τίθεται σήμερα στην
Eυρωπαϊκή Ένωση: το ζήτημα της πολιτισμικής φυσιογνωμίας, μέσα
από τη σύνθεση του μερικού με το γενικό, του ειδικού με το καθολικό,
στο χώρο της Γλώσσας και του πολιτισμού. Eπιπλέον εξετάζονται
ειδικότερα ζητήματα που αφορούν την προβολή και τη στήριξη της
238
νέας ελληνικής στο ευρωπαϊκό πλαίσιο (πιστοποίηση της επάρκειας

της ελληνομάθειας, διδασκαλία της μητρικής και των ξένων γλωσσών
στην Eλλάδα). Tα κείμενα τυπώνονται στα ελληνικά -
γαλλικά/αγγλικά.
43. ΚΕΝΤPΟ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ
Έδρα: Καλαμαριά, Θεσσαλονίκη.
Το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας είναι νομικό πρόσωπο ιδιωτικού

δικαίου, που ιδρύθηκε το 1994, εδρεύει στη Θεσσαλονίκη και
εποπτεύεται από το Υπουργείο Παιδείας. Πρόεδρος και Γ. Διευθυντής:
ο καθηγητής Δ.Ν. Μαρωνίτης.
Το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας δεν είναι διδασκαλείο εκμάθησης

της ελληνικής. Αποτελεί κυρίως Κέντρο Γλωσσικής Τεκμηρίωσης:
παρακολουθεί και καταγράφει την εξέλιξη της Ελληνικής και τις
τάσεις της Νέας Ελληνικής, με αυστηρώς επιστημονικό τρόπο και
σύγχρονη τεχνολογία. Συγχρόνως λειτουργεί ως το συντονιστικό,
συμβουλευτικό και επιτελικό όργανο του Υπουργείου Παιδείας σε
θέματα γλωσσικής πολιτικής. Η ύπαρξή του δηλώνει εμπράκτως τη
μέριμνα της Πολιτείας προπάντων για τη γλωσσική στήριξη και
αγωγή των ομογενών, των παλιννοστούντων και των αλλοδαπών,
παρεμβαίνοντας συστηματικά σε ευαίσθητο χώρο, όπου εκδηλώθηκαν
και εκδηλώνονται πολλαπλές πρωτοβουλίες, που απαιτούν όμως
καλύτερο συντονισμό.
Το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας έχει τέσσερα επιστημονικά τμήματα:
Τμήμα Λεξικογραφίας, με Διευθυντή τον καθηγητή Ι. Ν. Καζάζη,
Τμήμα Γλωσσολογίας, με Διευθυντή τον καθηγητή Α.-Φ. Χρηστίδη,
Τμήμα Στήριξης και Προβολής της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (στο

Εξωτερικό και στο Εσωτερικό, εξειδικευμένο στους Αποδήμους, τους
Αλλοδαπούς και τους Παλιννοστούντες), με Διευθυντή τον καθηγητή
Α. Μέγα και με Επιστημονικό Σύμβουλο τον Π. Νεάρχου
Τμήμα Γλώσσας και Λογοτεχνίας, με Διευθυντή τον επίκ. καθηγητή

Π. Καγιαλή και με Επιστημονικό Σύμβουλο τον Ν. Βαγενά.
Α. Πρόγραμμα Έρευνας-Συγγραφής
239
Το ίδιο το Κέντρο αναλαμβάνει τη διεξαγωγή μόνον βασικού τύπου

έρευνας. Το βασικό ερευνητικό-συγγραφικό έργο του
προγραμματίστηκε για την τριετία 1995- 97 ως εξής:
1. Συγγραφή νέας Ίστορίας της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (:Έρευνα και

συγγραφή επιστημονικώς συγχρονισμένου εγχειρίδιου Ιστορίας της
Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, προορισμένου για τη Μέση Εκπαίδευση και για
το ευρύ αναγνωστικό κοινό. Η εξιστόρηση θα συνοδεύεται από
εκτεταμένη ανθολόγηση πρωτοτύπων (και, όπου χρειάζεται,
μεταφρασμένων) κειμένων από όλες τις φάσεις της Ελληνικής).
2. Χαρτογράφηση των εστιών εκμάθησης της Ελληνικής στο

Εξωτερικό και στο Εσωτερικό [Έκδοση Ειδικού Οδηγού](: Συλλογή
από έμμεσες πηγές και επεξεργασία δεδομένων για τις υπάρχουσες
εστίες εκμάθησης της Ελληνικής στο εξωτερικό και στο εσωτερικό).
3.-4. Τhreshold Level για τη Νέα Ελληνική Γλώσσα και συγγραφή

Γενικού Εγχειριδίου Βασικών Ελληνικών (: Εκπόνηση μοντέλου για
το Βασικό Επίπεδο Γλωσσικής Συμπεριφοράς ("Τhreshold Level")
των χρηστών της Νέας Ελληνικής. Το περιγραφικό μοντέλο
αποτυπώνει όλο το φάσμα των αναγκών της προφορικής
επικοινωνίας. Στα χνάρια του μοντέλου: θα εκπονηθεί Εγχειρίδιο
Βασικών Ελληνικών. Για τις ανάγκες σπουδαστών διαφορετικών
χωρών, ηλικιών και επαγγελμάτων προβλέπονται ειδικά εγχειρίδια).
5. Πιστοποίηση Εκμάθησης της Νέας Ελληνικής [επίσημοι τίτλοι

ελληνομάθειας με κρατική κατοχύρωση] (: Η πιστοποίηση
ελληνομάθειας, με εφαρμογή ενιαίου μέτρου για την αξιολόγηση των
επιπέδων γλωσσικής επάρκειας κατά τα ισχύοντα στις χώρες της
Ευρώπης, θα αποτελέσει εφεξής τον επίσημο οδηγό της Πολιτείας για
την οργάνωση της σπουδής της Νέας Ελληνικής, ως ξένης Γλώσσας,
και για την εξέτασή της στο εσωτερικό και στο εξωτερικό).
6. Εγχειρίδιο μεταφρασμένης Ξένης Λογοτεχνίας Έρευνα και μελέτη

των μεταφράσεων στα Ελληνικά ξένων λογοτεχνικών έργων και
παραγωγή έγκυρου και εύχρηστου Ανθολογίου για τη Μέση
Εκπαίδευση και το ευρύτερο αναγνωστικό κοινό.
7. Ανθολογία Νεοελληνικής Λογοτεχνίας μεταφρασμένης στα

Αγγλικά (: Έρευνα των Αγγλικών μεταφράσεων νεοελληνικών
λογοτεχνικών κειμένων και παραγωγή δίτομης Ανθολογίας, η οποία
αφενός θα εξυπηρετεί διδακτικές ανάγκες σε αγγλόφωνα εκπαιδευτικά
Ιδρύματα, και αφετέρου θα προβάλλει τη Νεοελληνική Λογοτεχνία
240
στο ευρύτερο αγγλόφωνο κοινό. Η Ανθολογία θα καλύπτει την

περίοδο 1821-1980).
8. Ανθολογία Σύγχρονου Ελληνικού Διηγήματος στα Ολλανδικά (:

Ανθολόγηση του Ελληνικού Διηγήματος της μεταπολιτευτικής
περιόδου, 1974 έως σήμερα, και μετάφραση των ανθολογημένων
κειμένων στην Ολλανδική Γλώσσα).
Β. Πρόγραμμα δράσης 1995-1997
1. Ημερίδα αξιολόγησης διδακτικών βιβλίων της Νέας Ελληνικής ως

ξένης Γλώσσας (Θεσσαλονίκη, 9 Δεκεμβρίου 1995).
2. Προσυνέδριο (το 1996) και Διεθνές Συνέδριο (το 1997): "Ισχυρές

και ασθενείς γλώσσες στο πλαίσιο της Ενωμένης Ευρώπης" (σε
συνεργασία με τον Οργανισμό "Θεσσαλονίκη Πολιτιστική
Πρωτεύουσα 1997").
Μετά τη δώρηση του Αρχείου Γεωργακά από την κ. Β. Γεωργακά

(περιλαμβάνει αρχείο και βιβλιοθήκη) προς το Κέντρο Ελληνικής
Γλώσσας, προγραμματίστηκε η μεταφορά του από την Αμερική στη
Θεσσαλονίκη, όπου θα αξιοποιηθεί αφενός για την εκπόνηση του
Πρώτου μεγάλης κλίμακας Ελληνοαγγλικού λεξικού, και αφετέρου
για τη συγκρότηση Ηλεκτρονικής Βάσης Δεδομένων, η οποία, στη
συνέχεια, θα συνδεθεί με το διεθνές δίκτυο Ιnternet.
Το Ίδρυμα, νομικό πρόσωπο ιδιωτικού δικαίου, δεν είναι σχολή

εκμάθησης ελληνικών. Ιδρύθηκε το 1992 με σκοπό την "προβολή,
διάδοση και καλλιέργεια στο εξωτερικό, κατά συστηματικό τρόπο,
του ελληνικού πολιτισμού". Τα Παραρτήματα, τα οποία ανοίγει σε
πόλεις του εξωτερικού, αποσκοπούν στην ενημέρωση του κοινού για
τον ελληνικό πολιτισμό γενικότερα, και, ειδικότερα, στην προβολή,
μελέτη και διάδοση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην ιστορική της
διαδρομή. Πρόεδρος: ο καθηγητής Αδαμάντιος Πεπελάσης.
Σε δύο από τα έξι ως τώρα Παραρτήματά του (στην Οδησσό και τη Ν.

Υόρκη), έχει αρχίσει ήδη η διδασκαλία της νέας ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
Επιπλέον το ΙΕΠ στηρίζει τη διδασκαλία της Γλώσσας μας σε ξένα
πανεπιστήμια και προβλέπεται να ενισχύει τις προσπάθειες
ελληνογενών πληθυσμών του εξωτερικού να διδαχτούν τη σύγχρονη
κοινή ελληνική Γλώσσα. Συνεργάζεται προς τον σκοπό αυτόν με το
Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, που εδρεύει στη Θεσσαλονίκη.
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Διευκρινίζεται ότι στα Παραρτήματα του ΙΕΠ δεν διδάσκεται η Νέα

Ελληνική Γλώσσα υπό πανεπιστημιακούς όρους ή υπό σχολικές
συνθήκες. Ωστόσο αυτά είναι αρκετά ευέλικτα, ώστε να
αντιμετωπίζουν και το ενδεχόμενο της διδασκαλίας της νέας
ελληνικής σε ελληνόπουλα της διασποράς. Επίσης, είναι δυνατόν να
αντιμετωπιστεί το θέμα της διδασκαλίας της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας και
σε περιοχές cπου δεν λειτουργούν Παραρτήματα, μέσω ειδικών
Γραφείων του Ιδρύματος, ή ακόμη και σε συνεργασία με τους
εκπαιδευτικούς φορείς του τόπου.
44. Αποσπάσματα για το Γλωσσικό Ζήτημα: Μελέτες για γλωσσικά,

γλωσσολογικά και εκπαιδευτικά θέματα. Οι οκτώ τόμοι των Απάντων
καλύπτουν το σύνολο σχεδόν της πενηντάχρονης συγγραφικής
δραστηριότητας του Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη. Σε χωριστό τόμο
κυκλοφορεί αναλυτικό ευρετήριο.
Πρώτος Τόμος: Ερευνητικά Α'. Μελέτες για τη Γλώσσα και τα

ιδιώματα. Ανατύπωση με διορθώσεις, 1986, σελ. κ'+496.
Ανατύπωση δύο μελετών για τις ξένες λέξεις στη νέα ελληνική:
«Ξενηλασία ή ισοτέλεια; Μελέτη περί των ξένων λέξεων της νέας
ελληνικής», Αθήνα 1905-1907. «Die Lehnworter der mittelgrie
chischen Vulgarliteratur», Στρασβούργο, 1909 (διδακτορική
διατριβή).
E-On Line Ελευθεροτυπία.. 20 XPΟNIA ΓΛΩΣΣIKH

METAPPYΘMIΣH
«Eγώ δεν ξέρω παρά να υπάρχει μία και ενιαία ελληνική Γλώσσα,
από τον Ομηρο έως σήμερα», έλεγε ο Οδυσσέας Eλύτης, όταν
δημοτικιστές και καθαρευουσιάνοι χρησιμοποιούσαν τους
κονδυλοφόρους σαν «μαχαίρια» για να υπερασπιστούν την
«καθαρότητα» της μιας ή της άλλης γλωσσικής μορφής με την οποία
εκφράζονταν.
«Eπί 20 αιώνες δεν υπάρχει ούτε ένας αιώνας που να μη γράφτηκε

ποίηση σε ελληνική Γλώσσα», είχε πει πάλι ο Eλληνας ποιητής, την
ημέρα που του απονεμήθηκε το βραβείο Nόμπελ. Kαι δεν υπήρξε
βέβαια Eλληνας πολίτης που να αμφισβήτησε το μεγαλείο της
Ελληνικής Γλώσσας σε όποιο στρατόπεδο κι αν ανήκε.
Σήμερα, που το περίφημο γλωσσικό ζήτημα έχει πια λυθεί οριστικά,

ακόμη και οι πιο φανατικοί καθαρευουσιάνοι ή δημοτικιστές, εάν
φυσικά ζούσαν, θα αγκάλιαζαν τη ρήση του Οδυσσέα Eλύτη περί μιας
και ενιαίας ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
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Σήμερα, είκοσι χρόνια μετά την καθιέρωση της δημοτικής ως

επίσημης Γλώσσας του κράτους, δεν υπάρχει Eλληνας, αγρότης ή
αστός, πλούσιος ή φτωχός, που να χωρίζει τη Γλώσσα σε δύο μορφές.
Οι ταμπέλες, δημοτικιστής άρα αριστερός, καθαρευουσιάνος άρα
δεξιός, έχουν πέσει.
H ιστορική απόφαση της κυβέρνησης K. Kαραμανλή, με υπουργό

Παιδείας τον Γ. Pάλλη, που ψηφίστηκε το 1976 από όλη την ελληνική
Bουλή και καθιέρωνε τη δημοτική Γλώσσα ως επίσημη Γλώσσα του
κράτους, έβαλε τέλος στο τεράστιο γλωσσικό ζήτημα, που ταλάνισε
τον τόπο τούς δύο τελευταίους αιώνες.
Φτάσαμε λοιπόν στην ώρα του απολογισμού. Ωφέλησε ή όχι η

μεταρρύθμιση στην εξέλιξη της ελληνικής Γλώσσας; Mιλάμε,
σήμερα, καλά ελληνικά ή βρισκόμαστε μπροστά στον κίνδυνο μιας
γλωσσικής συρρίκνωσης; H επικράτηση των νέων τεχνολογιών της
πληροφορικής στη ζωή μας, αποδυναμώνει τη Γλώσσα από ύψιστο
μέσο έκφρασης και επικοινωνίας; Tα Mέσα Mαζικής Eπικοινωνίας
διαμορφώνουν Γλώσσα ή «τσαλακώνουν» την ελληνική, στην
πλειονότητά τους; Γιατί μια σειρά βιβλίων εξακολουθεί να εκδίδεται
σήμερα στο πολυτονικό σύστημα, αφού έχει καταργηθεί από το 1982
τόσο στην εκπαίδευση όσο και στη διοίκηση;
Στα ερωτήματα αυτά επιχειρεί να απαντήσει η έρευνα που ξεκινάει

σήμερα η «E», με αφορμή το συνέδριο για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα
που ολοκλήρωσε τις εργασίες του χθες στη Φιλοσοφική Σχολή του
Πανεπιστημίου Aθηνών. Mιλούν στην «E», ο πρόεδρος του Tομέα
Γλωσσολογίας του Πανεπιστημίου Aθηνών Γ. Mπαμπινιώτης και η
λογοτέχνις Mάρω Δούκα.
Νικ. Σαραντάκος. Some words of (non-obvious) Greek origin
I am listing here more than 50 English words beginning with A and B

with an origin that can be traced to a Greek word. I have deliberately
excluded all words whose Greek origin is obvious, all scientific
terms, as well as words that describe a specific Ancient Greek
notion. Also excluded are most cases where the Greek origin is
disputed –I have retained a few of those, and they are marked by an
asterisk. Yes, some of the words are extremely infrequent, but perhaps
they correspond to frequent words in other language(s). Note that I
tried to exclude antique
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English word, παραλείπονται..
Nikos Sarantakos
Τι λένε για μας: λέξεις και (εκ)φράσεις από ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες

γύρω από την Ελλάδα και τους Eλληνες
Χωρίς να χρονοτριβήσουμε σε φιλοσοφικές σκέψεις γύρω από τη

μακραίωνη πορεία και τα πεπρωμένα της φυλής, στο σημείωμα αυτό
θα εξετάσουμε ορισμένες, πιθανώς ενδιαφέρουσες, εμφανίσεις του
εθνικού ονόματος των Ελλήνων στις ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες.
Για να ξεκινήσουμε, το όνομα με το οποίο γνωρίζουν τη χώρα μας

όλοι οι εταίροι μας είναι το Greece, Grèce, Griechenland ή κάποιο
άλλο από τις παραλλαγές του, πάντοτε παρόμοιο και αναγνωρίσιμο
-από τις γλώσσες της ΕΕ, τη μεγαλύτερη απόκλιση την έχουμε στα
φινλανδικά: εκεί η Ελλάδα λέγεται Kreikka (και ο έλληνας
Κreikkalainen), καθότι οι φινλανδοί δεν πολυσυμπαθούν τον φθόγγο
g- στην αρχή των λέξεων.
Πολύ μελάνι έχει χυθεί γύρω από την προέλευση του ονόματος αυτού
επειδή δεν είναι αυτό το αντικείμενό μας, ας πούμε μόνο ότι η
προέλευση της λέξης Greece, Greek είναι ελληνική. Η λέξη γραικός
απαντά, έστω και σπάνια, σε αρχαία κείμενα, πχ. στον Αριστοτέλη,
που λέει για την αρχαία (γι' αυτόν) Ελλάδα, την περιοχή μεταξύ
Αχελώου και Δωδώνης, την οποία κατοικούσαν οι Σελλοί "και οι
καλούμενοι τότε μεν Γραικοί νυν δ' Ελληνες" (Μετεωρολογικά 352b).
Μπαίνοντας επιτέλους στο θέμα, πολύ γνωστή είναι η αγγλική

έκφραση That's Greek to me, δηλαδή αυτά είναι ακαταλαβίστικα,
αλαμπουρνέζικα, κινέζικα όπως θα λέγαμε εμείς. Τα ελληνικά ήταν
μεν ακατάληπτα στους πολλούς, όχι όμως και άγνωστα: ήταν μια
Γλώσσα που ακόμα διδασκόταν, που ήταν κτήμα των λίγων και
εκλεκτών (μην ξεχνάμε ότι η τεράστια πλειοψηφία του κόσμου ήταν
αναλφάβητοι). Ο πολύς κόσμος γνώριζε την ύπαρξη της ελληνικής
Γλώσσας, δηλαδή. Την ίδια εποχή ο Σάμουελ Τζόνσον αποφαίνεται
ότι ο άνδρας προτιμά μια γυναίκα που μαγειρεύει καλά παρά μια που
να μιλάει ελληνικά, και είναι προφανές ότι αν καμιά αγγλίδα δεν
ήξερε ελληνικά, το (πολιτικώς απρεπές σήμερα :-) ευφυολόγημα δεν
θα είχε αντικείμενο.
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Η έκφραση αυτή υπήρξε και στα ισπανικά. Εκεί, ο ξένος που μιλούσε
μια Γλώσσα ακατάληπτη ονομαζόταν έλληνας, griego. Ύστερα η
λέξη παρεφθάρη και η προέλευσή της ξεχάστηκε. Με τους
Κονκισταδόρες, πέρασε στην Αμερική, τώρα πια ως gringo. Ναι,
σωστά καταλάβατε. Ο "γκρίνγκο" των μεξικάνων στα γουέστερν, ο
ξένος, που μιλάει μια άλλη Γλώσσα, έχει την αφετηρία του στα
ελληνικά!
Αντίθετα, στα γαλλικά, δεν είναι διαδεδομένη ανάλογη έκφραση.

Υπάρχουν όμως πολλές γαλλικές εκφράσεις με το εθνικό μας όνομα,
και για να ξεκινήσουμε απ' τις κολακευτικές, ας αναφέρουμε την être
Grec â ... που σημαίνει "ξέρω από...". Η έκφραση γεννήθηκε τότε που
Grec σήμαινε "ελληνιστής" και κατά συνέπεια "σοφός, μορφωμένος"
και χρησιμοποιείται και αρνητικά: je ne suis pas grand Grec en
chimie, δηλ. δεν πολυσκαμπάζω από χημεία. Ωστόσο, αυτή η
έκφραση έχει πια παλιώσει.
Επίσης παλιωμένη, και όχι κολακευτική, είναι η χρήση της λέξης

Grec με τη σημασία χαρτοκλέφτης, απατεώνας. Μερικά λεξικά λένε
ότι υπαίτιος για την "αντεθνική" αυτή εξέλιξη υπήρξε κάποιος
Θεόδωρος Απουλος, ένα είδος Νικ Δε Γκρηκ της εποχής του
Λουδοβίκου του 14ου, που είχε μαδήσει στο λανσκενέ, χαρτοπαίγνιο
της εποχής, όλους τους αυλικούς του Βασιλιά Ηλιου με μια
σημαδεμένη τράπουλα. Αυτή η εξήγηση πιθανότατα φτιάχτηκε εκ των
υστέρων. Αλλωστε, με την ίδια σημασία χρησιμοποιούσαν τη λέξη
και οι άγγλοι (όπου η χαρτοκλεψία λεγόταν παλιότερα Greekery) και
οι Ισπανοί δύσκολο να έφτασε ως εκεί η χάρη του Απουλου. Πολλοί
ανώνυμοι συμπατριώτες μας θα ευθύνονται, σε συνδυασμό με τη
φήμη ελευθεριασμού που είχαν αποκτήσει οι αρχαίοι Ελληνες ήδη
από την εποχή των Ρωμαίων. Θυμάμαι πως παλιά είχα διαβάσει σε
μετρίως αναξιόπιστη πηγή ότι, κατόπιν διαμαρτυρίας των ελληνικών
πνευματικών φορέων, το έγκυρο λεξικό του Ρομπέρ έπαψε να
αναφέρει στο λήμμα Grec την "προσβλητική" σημασία που είπαμε.
Δεν ξέρω αν αυτό είναι αλήθεια, πάντως οι τωρινές εκδόσεις του
λεξικού όντως δεν την αναφέρουν, αν και έχουν το λήμμα grigou, που
σημαίνει τσιγκούνης, και προέρχεται από παλιά λαγκεντοκιανή λέξη
που σήμαινε "έλληνας".
Ενδιαφέρον είναι ότι κανείς πνευματικός άνθρωπος δεν έχει σχολιάσει

μια άλλη έκφραση για τους Έλληνες: εννοώ τη γαλλική βρισιά Va te
faire voir chez/par les Grecs η οποία βεβαίως σημαίνει ότι και το
ελληνοτουρκικόν "άει σιχτίρ" και ξεκινάει από τη φήμη για τις
παιδεραστικές επιδόσεις των αρχαίων προγόνων μας -ένα θέμα στο
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οποίο δεν θα υπεισέλθουμε. Είναι άλλωστε γνωστό τι σημαίνουν οι

αγγελίες περί 'ελληνικού σεξ' στις ειδικές στήλες ορισμένων
ευρωπαϊκών εφημερίδων.
Μια άλλη όχι κολακευτική έκφραση είναι η αγγλική Greek gift, που
λέγεται για κάτι που προσφέρεται με οπισθοβουλία και με πονηρό
σκοπό. Η αρχή είναι φυσικά το Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes της
Αινειάδας, το οποίο εμείς μεταφράσαμε "Φοβού τους Δαναούς και
δώρα φέροντας" (κατά λέξιν είναι "φοβούμαι..."), αλλά στα αγγλικά,
π.χ., λέγεται Βeware of Greeks bearing gifts. To προκείμενο δώρο
ήταν, εννοείται, ο Δούρειος ίππος.
Βλέπουμε ότι οι περισσότερες από τις εκφράσεις αυτές έχουν την

αρχή τους ή αντίστοιχό τους στη ρωμαϊκή εποχή, όπου η αμηχανία
των νικητών μπροστά στην πολιτισμική ηγεμονία των ηττημένων, σε
συνδυασμό με την τάση της ρωμαϊκής ελίτ να χρησιμοποιεί
εξεζητημένες ελληνικές εκφράσεις για επίδειξη -όπως έκανε
παλιότερα η δική μας αριστοκρατία με τα γαλλικά- προκάλεσε
εχθρότητα απέναντι σε ό,τι το ελληνικό και επέβαλε την εικόνα του
γλεντζέ, του ελευθεριάζοντα, του ψεύτη για τους Έλληνες. Το
λατινικό ρήμα graecari σήμαινε "γλεντοκοπώ", ενώ σε αντίδραση για
την ελληνική μόρφωση της ελίτ γεννήθηκε η βρισιά Γραικύλος, που
σήμαινε τελικά τους "υποδουλωμένους" στο ελληνικό πνεύμα
Ρωμαίους, και η παροιμία Graeci sunt, non legintur ("ελληνικά είναι,
δεν διαβάζονται").
Μια και φτάσαμε στην παροιμιολογία, μπορούμε να αναφέρουμε την

ιταλική παροιμία "Τέσσερις Έλληνες, πέντε καπεταναίοι" ή την
τούρκικη "Η γνώση του έλληνα έρχεται ύστερα", ενώ ο χώρος δεν
επαρκεί για πολλές άλλες τουρκικές όχι ιδιαίτερα υμνητικές,
εννοείται, όπως δεν είναι επαινετικές και οι δικές μας παροιμίες για
τους γείτονές μας -και ίσως κανενός λαού για κανέναν γειτονικό του,
θέμα που ανήκει σε άλλο σημείωμα.
Ας κλείσουμε τον κύκλο καταλήγοντας στην ετυμολογία: υπάρχουν

μερικές λέξεις ευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών που αφετηρία έχουν την
Ελλάδα ή τους Ελληνες. Για παράδειγμα, στα ουγγαρέζικα, το
καρπούζι λέγεται görögdinnye ό εστί μεθερμηνευόμενον "ελληνικό
πεπόνι", αν λάβουμε υπόψη ότι ο έλληνας λέγεται Görög και το
πεπόνι dinnye. Στα ισπανικά, gresca λέγεται ο καυγάς, η φασαρία
-αρχή της λέξης είναι το εθνικό μας όνομα και η φήμη καυγατζήδων
που είχαμε, ως φαίνεται, αποκτήσει. Πιο γνωστή είναι η αντιδάνεια
λέξη γρέγος, ο βορειοανατολικός άνεμος, από το ιταλικό Greco,
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μ'άλλα λόγια, ο "ελληνικός" άνεμος, αυτός που φυσάει από την

Ελλάδα. Οι γαλλομαθείς ή η μεταλλειολόγοι, τέλος, θα γνωρίζουν το
grisou, το επίφοβο εκρηκτικό αέριο των ορυχείων -λιγότερο γνωστή
είναι όμως η ελληνική προέλευσή του: αποτελεί τη βαλλονική μορφή
του γαλλικού (feu) grégeois, μ' άλλα λόγια "πυρ ελληνικό". Ηταν η
εποχή που το βυζαντινό ναυτικό κυριαρχούσε στη Μεσόγειο, έχοντας
σαν μυστικό όπλο του το υγρόν πυρ...
1998 Νίκος Σαραντάκος ΜΙΛΤΟΣ ΚΟΥΝΤΟΥΡΑΣ (1889-1940)
Ο Μίλτος Κουντουράς γεννήθηκε στο Σκόπελο της Λέσβου το 1889

και είχε την τύχη να μεγαλώσει μέσα σ' ένα καλλιεργημένο
περιβάλλον: Από τη μια μεριά ο πατέρας του φρόντιζε πολύ για τη
μόρφωση των παιδιών του και από την άλλη η ίδια η πατρίδα του, η
Μυτιλήνη, είχε μεγάλη πνευματική και οικονομική ανάπτυξη και
αξιόλογο λαϊκό πολιτισμό. Όλα αυτά τα στοιχεία επέδρασαν θετικά
στη διαμόρφωση της προσωπικότητας του Κουντουρά στα πρώτα
χρόνια της ζωής του.
Το 1907 ο Κουντουράς τελειώνει το Γυμνάσιο της Μυτιλήνης και

γράφεται, ύστερα από επιμονή του πατέρα του, στη Φαρμακευτική
Σχολή του Πανεπιστημίου της Αθήνας. Ύστερα από δύο μήνες όμως
μεταγράφεται στη Φιλοσοφική.
Επιμέλεια: Γιώργος Τσεκερίδης
Ideas can be functions of social practice and still be just chemicals

in the brain. The philosopher Wilfred Sellars defended this view (and so
do I-- I have a paper on it if I can find it somewhere in the attic
behind the stacks of half-read Henry James novels.)
If ideas are not physical matter then they must be Platonic universals
of some kind. There probably have been attempts to marry Marx and a
weak Platonism but I can't think of any. The closest I can think of is the
work of Scott Meickle on Aristotle and Marx though Aristotle was of
course Plato's opposite number (recall that famous painting by Raphael
with Plato pointing to the sky meaning the answers lie in the 'forms'
and Aristotle pointing to the ground meaning the answers lie in material
forces.)
247
> Just as chemistry can't be reduced to physics and Biology can't be

reduced > to chemistry, sociology can't be reduced to Biology, chemistry,
or >physics. > Different "levels of aggregation" (to use econ-speak) have
different "laws > of motion" based on the complex of relationships
between the "atoms" so > that these laws of motion can't be reduced
simply to those of the atoms > alone. Putting a bunch of carbon atoms
together to make graphite produces > results that cannot be simply
explained by looking at the carbon atoms as > individuals. This can be
seen because one can see those atoms combined to > form a diamond,
which has quite different characteristics than graphite.
ideas and "mental" things are physical matter but can't be reduced to
brain science in an explanation.Sam Pawlett
Andy's Reading Notes on Aristotle
Antioch College: Philosophy Class: Philosophy 107g: History of

Western Philosophy (Spring 1999): Week Five Posts (2/8 - 2/12):
Andy's Reading Notes on Aristotle
By Andy Carpenter
I hope that you will find the ETHICS easier to read than the PHYSICS
OR METAPHYSICS. I think you will, for you now have a solid week of
Aristotle decoding under your belt, and in any case the subject matter
(and some of the argumentation) is less abstruse in the Ethics.
Have any of you heard of the expression of the "golden mean" or sayings
along the lines of "take the middle road" or "find the reasonable
compromise"? This is one of Aristotle's (dubious? deep? demeaning?
trivial?) gifts to us, as you'll see this week....
As I did last week, I'll include a summary of the text from the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Our own library also has two excellent
Encyclopedias of philosophy, so if you want to know more, or want to
see alternative viewpoints, by all means take the five minutes it take to
walk over there and do a little research.
First, however, I'll give my own brief summary. Aristotle takes

knowledge for its own sake to be the supreme good, the life of
contemplation (by which he means what we would call a life of scientific
investigation) the best life. Social arrangements must be such that this
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best life is possible, at least for some: slavery is justified, Aristotle

infamously argued, because some must be in slavery if even a few are to
have the time for the contemplative life.
Strangely enough, I think Aristotle was a model for Marx. Marx and
Aristotle share a remarkably similar account of human flourishing. For
both of them, a lack of technology and economic development is the key
factor keeping most people from flourishing -- if Socrates had lived in a
time where technoLogical and economic advances made possible leisure
without slavery, he would be all for it. Similary, Marx beleived that even
the worst capitalist excesses were necessary because they were an
essential step in reaching the economic/technoLogical promised land
where everyone could flourish. To be sure, Aristotle didn't base his ideas
on Marxist notions of the relations and the modes of production, but his
defense of slavery was based on something quite similar. Both Marx and
Aristotle defended the "least harm necessary" principle: both were
convinced that the goal of "human flourishing" sadly required that some
peoples' interests be sacrificed, but both tried to defend a Political
philosophy where this sacrifice was as minimal as possible.
As you can see from the opening of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle
also shared with Marx a central fixation with the notion of Historical
progresss toward an end.
The reading discusses a number of big topics, including criticims of

Plato's ethics, discussion of the human good (the good person takes
pleasure in viruous activity), discussion of the nature of virtue (the
highest virtue turns out to be a disposition to make the right sort of
choices), an analysis of choice (we can't be held ethically responsible for
actions we do not make voluntarily), friendship, pleasure, and the best life
(complete happiness is the activity of contemplation -- we should strive to
be like God, who is purely activity and whose activity consists of
thinking about thinking).
Here is a longer summary, taken from the Internet Encyclopedia of

Philosophy:
22.4 Aristotle and the Lyceum
Plato taught in the Academy. To him in his old age came a certain good-
looking youngster from Stagira, in Macedonia, Aristotle, who was the
son of the Macedonian king's physician, and a man with a very different
249
type of mind from that of the great Athenian. He was naturally sceptical
of the imaginative will, and with a great respect for and comprehension of
established fact. Later on, after Plato was dead, he set up a school at the
Lyceum in Athens and taught, criticizing Plato and Socrates with a
certain hardness. When he taught, the shadow of Alexander the Great lay
across the freedom of Greece, and he favoured slavery and constitutional
kings.
… He questions Plato when Plato would exile poets from his Utopia, for
poetry is a power; he directs his energy along a line diametrically
opposed to Socrates' depreciation of Anaxagoras. He anticipates Bacon
and the modern scientific movement in his realization of the importance
of ordered knowledge. He set himself to the task of gathering together
and setting down knowledge. He was the first natural historian. Other
men before him had speculated about the nature of things, but he, with
every young man he could win over to the task, set himself to classify and
compare things. Plato says, in effect: "Let us take hold of life and
remodel it"; this soberer successor: "Let us First know more of life and
meanwhile serve the king." It was not so much a contradiction as an
immense qualification of the master.
The peculiar relation of Aristotle to Alexander the Great enabled him to

procure means for his work such as were not available again for scientific
inquiry for long ages. He could command hundreds of talents (a talent ==
about ₤240) for his expenses. At one time he had at his disposal a
thousand men scattered throughout Asia and Greece, collecting matter for
his natural History. They were, of course, very untrained observers,
collectors of stories rather than observers; but nothing of the kind had
ever been attempted, had even been thought of, so far as we know, before
his time. Political as well as natural science began. The students of the
Lyceum under his direction made an analysis of 158 Political
constitutions. . . .
This was the first gleam of organized science in the world. The early
death of Alexander and the breaking up of his empire almost before it had
begun, put an end to endowments on this scale for 2,000 years. Only in
Egypt at the Alexandria Museum did any scientific research continue, and
that only for a few generations. Of that we will presently tell. Fifty years
after Aristotle's death the Lyceum had already dwindled to
insignificance.
Related Books (In-Print)
Jon Pike: Career and Research Interests

250
I joined the Open University in 1998, as Staff Tutor in the

South East Region, but my origins as a philosopher probably lie
in the lively arguments that were common around the supper table
as I grew up. My parents' humane Christianity was one influence,
another was the Political scene at the time - the early eighties. My
studies before university encouraged rather than weakened my
adoption of a critical standpoint - I began to question the starting
points of textbook market economics, and to take an interest in the
History of Political thought.
The obvious degree for someone of my bent was in

philosophy, Politics and economics, and I went to Trinity College
at Oxford in 1984. That was a particularly interesting time: not
only was the miners' strike at its height, but also Oxford had just
made a Marxist - Jerry Cohen - its professor of Political theory.
Questions about fundamental moral values were raised by the
strike; about principles of distributive justice and about the
problems of Political action: prisoners' dilemmas were played out
on the evening news and Political actors all seemed to have dirty
hands.
At the same time I began to study philosophy seriously.

Frankly, I struggled. I scoured Blackwells for help and fortunately I
hit on some Open University units on Hume, which gave me a kick
start: the more I read, the more I understood. I soon realised that
what was important was actually doing philosophy - that
philosophy was not a body of knowledge to be remembered, but
an activity to practice. This suited me well. The attractions of that
activity never go away - I continued trying to be a philosopher
because I couldn't be fully satisfied doing anything else.
When I moved up to Glasgow University to embark on

research on Marx and Aristotle, I was able to use my background
in both Politics and Philosophy by teaching undergraduates in
both departments. I also taught for Stirling University and for the
Open University in Scotland. Nevertheless, there was still a time
when I needed to work as a bouncer in one of Glasgow's less
salubrious nightclubs, in order to pay the rent.
My main area of teaching is Political Philosophy, on

the new course AA311 Reading Political Philosophy Machiavelli
to Mill and on the forthcoming MA in Philosophy. I have also
contributed to the BBC's Open Minds programme, discussing
251
Evil, Science and Beauty - in an afternoon - and I am contributing

to a short programme on Machiavelli.
Research Interests
I still have an interest in Marx, and in the philosophical

problems involved in various forms of Political action, but I have since
dropped the aspiration to be a Marxist. My first book From Aristotle to
Marx which was published in 1999, gives an exposition, and defence of
the Aristotelian underpinnings for Marx's thought. I argue there that some
basic notions from Aristotle's Metaphysics, like the form/matter contrast
and the notions of 'coming-to-be' and 'passing-away' are embedded in
Marx's account of how the world is. I am now writing a paper on
Aristotle and self-ownership. My other research interests are in the
theories of rights and their application, and in the History of Political
philosophy more generally.
Karl Marx (1818-1883)-Selections from Capital-Study Questions
Why does Marx begin his book with the analysis of the commodity?
What is the "double-character of the commodity? (Recall Aristotle's
distinction between use value and exchange value). Is use value a
specific social form of wealth? Is exchange-value? Is the commodity?
Do all use values have value? Do all products of human labor have
value? What is the significance of Marx's statement: "Nothing can have
value, without being an object of utility. If the thing is useless, so is the
labour contained in it; the labor does not count as labour, and therefore
creates no value" (260).
How does Marx argue that "exchange value, generally, is only the mode
of expression, the phenomenal form, of something contained in it, yet
distinguishable from it" (257). What is this common "something"? What
does Marx call it? Why can it not be any "natural property" (257) of
commodities?
Marx argues that just as the commodity has a "double character" the
labor that produces commodities has a "double character." In fact, Marx
prides himself on discovering this point and he calls it "the pivot on
which a clear comprehension of Political economy turns" (260). What is
it and why is it so important?
252
What sort of labor is it that all commodities have in common? What is

the significance of Marx's calling the substance that all commodities have
in common, namely value, a "social" (258) substance, and "the same
unsubstantial reality in each" (258)? Note Marx's statement "exchange
value is the only form in which the value of commodities can manifest
itself or be expressed" (258). Why is that? Why can't value be expressed
and measured directly?
What does the following sentence suggest about a commercial society:

"But the exchange of commodities is evidently an act characterised by a
total abstraction from use-value" (257)? Surely use-value does matter in
individual exchanges-though one wonders what's going on when people
"go shopping"-but Marx seems to be talking about the social practice of
generalized commodity exchange. What purpose is served by that
collective practice if it has nothing to do with use-value? Is it possible,
on the other hand, that (contrary to Marx's supposition) there is after all a
component of use-value in exchanges but that such use-value is just as
bound in a social form as exchange value? Is usefulness or utility then
also a social form like the commodity, capital, wage-labour, etc.? What
determines it? How does it relate to or is is factored into exchange value?
What conditions the productivity of labor? If Marx's analysis is correct,

what should we expect from the ever increasing productivity brought
about by technology? What would eventually be the role of labour in the
productive process? What would eventually be the share of the product
apportioned to labourers? In such circumstances, do labourers have an
incentive to increase their productivity? What does this imply in reference
to Marx's theory of value which is determined by labour? Is he correct in
suggesting that labour is a necessary condition of life, "an eternal nature-
imposed necessity," "independent of all forms of society" (261)? Under
certain conditions of production, is it possible to imagine value which is
completely independent of human labour? What would determine value
in such circumstances?
What role does a labour theory value play in traditional economics? By

supposing that the magnitude of value derives from labor time, what
becomes a necessary condition for labourers having any access to a share
of the goods produced in the economy? Can the size of that share
change? How? Do increases in productivity result in larger shares of the
product for labourers? Why does Marx seem to adhere to such theories?
Is his critique of capitalism in some way tainted by the influence of
invisible capitalist social forms? What aspects of his thinking seem thus
affected?
253
How has Marx shown that a commodity is "a very queer thing, abounding
in metaphysical subtleties and theoLogical niceties" (274). From what,
according to Marx, does this "mystical character of commodities" (274)
arise? What does it not arise from? Why is the commodity "a mysterious
thing" (274)?
Is commodity-producing labor alienated labor? Why does Marx think

that to understand commodity production that he must "have recourse to
the mist-enveloped regions of the religious world" (275)? Why is
Christianity, with its "cultus of abstract man" (280), and Protestant
Christianity in particular, the most fitting religion for a capitalist society,
according to Marx?
What is significant in Marx's noting of an analogy between the functions

of language and the fetishizing of commodities? What does that suggest
concerning words (and implicit social forms) such as "money," "capital,"
"labour," "productiveness," etc.? Are such terms in need of defetishizing
and deciphering? What may lie under the wraps of such language?
Where should the analysis stop? Is Marx's own discovery of certain
forms of labour underlying value in need of further analysis? How about
"technology"? Has it become a fetishized concept in our own times?
What processes underlie and explain the seemingly magical powers of
technology?
What is revealing and what is problematic in the fiction of Robinson

Crusoe's one-man economy and self-sufficiency (278)? What role do
such fictions play in the arguments of traditional economists?
Part II (Ch. IV & VI)
How and when does capital come into being according to Marx? What
are its Historical origins? What practices underlie and give rise to the
form of capital? What is the first concrete form which capital assumes?
What different models of commodity circulation does Marx indentify?

How do they differ? What are their aims?
How are the two different commodity circulation models related to the
issues of use value and exchange value? How do the end products of the
the two circulation processes differ? How do those end products differ
with reference to their starting points?
In the C-M-C model, can the second C be larger (in terms of exchange
value) than the first? Under what circumstances would that be possible?
254
How do Marx's dismissal of such cases relate to Aquinas's ideas on

buying and selling?
What are the peculiar features of the M-C-M process? How does the
second M (or M')come to be larger than the first? What is Marx's term
for the difference between M and M'? What creates it? Following the
Logic of the C-M-C case, what must then be true about the process by
which M' comes to exceed M? In the last analysis, what does the form
M-C-M' boil down to? Are there substantial differences in the cases of
merchant, industrial, and financial capital?
How does Marx incorporate Aristotle's ideas on household management

vs money making (and their respective goals) into his own distinction
between different commodity circulation models? How does he employ
Aristotle's notions of boundless vs limited accumulation of wealth?
According to Marx, what is the difference between a miser and a
capitalist?
How does capital "enter into private relations with itself" (286)? What is
Marx suggesting? Why and how does he use the father-and son-analogy?
What has Marx deliberately omitted from that analogy? What does this
suggest about the production (and reproduction) of value under
capitalism? How does this relate to Aristotle's and Dante's notions of the
natural and the unnatural? Is Marx inviting us to consider the sexual or
asexual, natural or perverse, character of capitalist production? In those
terms, what is capitalism?
Is it possible to have products which are not commodities? How? What

according to Marx is essential to the existence of commodities? How do
these arguments relate to the ideas of Aristotle on use and exchange
values?
What are the functions of money which Marx enumerates? How do these
functions relate to the stages of the development of production in human
society?
Are the circulation of money and commodities sufficient conditions for

the appearance of capitalism? What according to Marx is essential for
capitalism to come about? How does capitalism constitute "a new epoch
in the process of social production" (289)?
What determines the value of labor power? Is this different from what
determines the value of other commodities?
255
How are basic needs and wants determined, according to Marx? Are they
the same for all people, all societies, and all Historical periods?
Is Marx being ironic in his singing of the praises of the free market (291)?
Are those passages sarcastic? Why?
Does Marx's reference to what awaits the worker once he or she has
concluded the sale of labor power in the sphere of simple comodity
production and is headed into the production site as "a hiding" have any
resonance with what we saw in the Genesis narrative or the tale of
Tantalus?
Marx and Aristotle, Nineteenth-Century German Social Theory and

Classical Antiquity, Edited by George E. McCarthy
"Marx's Vision' a poem by Jeffrey Collins
Introduction Visions and Vertigo: Viewing Modernity from the Acropolis

by George E. McCarthy
Part I Hegel and the Greeks: Remembrance of Things Past
Chapter One Karl Marx and the Influence of Greek Antiquity on

Eighteenth-Century German Thought by Horst Mewes
Chapter Two The Polis Transfigured: Aristotle's Politics and Marx's

Critique of Hegel's "Philosophy of Right"
by David Depew
Chapter Three The Origins of the Dialectic: Hegel's Appropriation of

the Ancient Skeptics by Steven Smith
Part II Marx and Epicurus: Materialism, Ethics, and Greek Physics
Chapter Four The Greek Accent of the Marxian Matrix

by Michael DeGolyer
Chapter Five Karl Marx and Greek Philosophy: Some Explorations

into the
Themes of Intellectual Accommodations and Moral Hypocrisy
by Laurence Baronovitch
Part III Marx and Aristotle: Human Capabilities and Social Structures
256
Chapter Six Nature, Function, and Capability: Aristotle on Political

Distribution by Martha Nussbaum
Chapter Seven Aristotle, Kant, and the Ethics of the Young Marx
by Philip Kain
Chapter Eight Households, Markets, and Firms by William James

Booth
Part IV Marx and Aristotle: Morality and Praxis
Chapter Nine Marx and Aristotle: A Kind of Consequentialism

by Richard Miller
Chapter Ten Marx's Moral Realism: Eudaimonism and Moral Progress

by Alan Gilbert
Chapter Eleven Praxis and Meaning: Marx's Species-Being and

Aristotle's Political Animal by Joseph Margolis
Chapter Twelve Marxian Subjectivity, Idealism, and Greek Philosophy

by Tom Rockmore -About the Authors
Marx And Aristotle: Nineteenth-Century German Social Theory And

Classical Antiquity-Paperback -379 pages-Publication Date: May
1992
Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
by Hiroshi UchidaPreface
Doctrine of Notion -Doctrine of Being -Doctrine of Essence
This book deals with the relation between Karl Marx's Grundrisse and the
Logic of G. W. F. Hegel. I attempt to prove that the relation is more
profound and more systematic than hitherto appreciated.
Marx's application of Hegel's Logic to the Grundrisse was first

mentioned in a letter, written around 16 January 1858, to Friedrich
Engels:
In my method of working it has given me great service that

by mere accident I had again leafed through Hegel's Logic -
Freiligrath found some volumes of Hegel which Originally
belonged to Bakunin and sent me them as a present.
257
Many students of Marx have referred to the letter and have discussed it,
but Marx's use of Hegel's Logic in the Grundrisse has not been fully
examined. Let us consider some representative writers who have
concerned themselves with the relationship.
There are the editors of the Original German edition of the Grundrisse
(1953). This photocopy edition of the Original two volumes of 1939 and
1941 has end-notes, many of which refer to Hegel's Logic. A reader using
these notes, however, inevitably fails to find the hidden use of Hegel's
Logic in the Grundrisse, because the notes are not based on a correct
understanding of Marx's critique. These notes only create confusion.
Roman Rosdolsky wrote The making of Marx's 'Capital', the pioneering

study of the Grundrisse, whilst 'inhabiting a city whose libraries
contained only very few German, Russian or French socialist works', and
so he was able to use only 'the few books in his own possessions He
nevertheless became aware of the relation of Hegel's Logic to Marx's
Grundrisse, and wrote:
The more the work advanced, the clearer it became that I

would only be able to touch upon the most important and
theoretically interesting problem presented by the 'Rough
Draft' - that of the relation of Marx's work to Hegel, in
particular to the Logic - and would not be able to deal with it
in any greater depth.
Although he thought that he could only 'touch upon' the problem, and that
he could not 'deal with it in any greater depth', he ventured to remark:
If Hegel's influence on Marx's Capital can be seen explicitly

only in a few footnotes, the 'Rough Draft' must be designated
as a massive reference to Hegel, in particular to his Logic
irrespective of how radically and materialistically Hegel was
inverted! The publication of the Grundrisse means that the
academic critics of Marx will no longer be, able to write
without first having studied his method and its relation to
Hegel.
The fact that Hegells influence on Marx's Capital is largely implicit was
suggested in Marx's letter of 9 December 1861 to Engels: '. . . the thing
[Critique of Political economy 1861 -3] is assuming a much more
popular form, and the method is much less in evidence than in Part I' [i.e.
A contribution to the critique of Political economy of 1859]. This letter
relates to the manuscripts of 1861 - 3, but the case is the same with
258
Capital. Compared with Capital (or the manuscripts of 1861 - 3), the
Grundrisse has many explicit references to Hegel, to the Logic.
Rosdolsky, who studied with 'a number of difficulties', suggested that
Marx critically utilised Hegel's Logic in writing the Grundrisse.
However, Rosdolsky did not fulfil the task of proving this in his book.
Rosdolsky referred eight times to Hegel in his study of the 'Chapter on

Money' from the Grundrisse, and nine times when he considered the
'Chapter on Capital'. He indicated a few specific points where Marx's
critique of Political economy was carried out in reference to the Logic.
Most of the examples which Rosdolsky gave his readers are arbitrary and
not relevant to the theoretical context of the Grundrisse. This should be
said, albeit in the light of the difficulties which he endured whilst writing
his study of the Grundrisse, the first variant of Capital.
Martin Nicolaus, the English translator of the Grundrisse in the Pelican

Marx Library, has a similarly high opinion of the importance of Hegel's
Logic in the 'Rough Draft'. In the Foreword to the English translation of
the Grundrisse Nicolaus wrote as follows:
If one considers not only the extensive use of Hegelian

terminology in the Grundrisse, not only the many passages
which reflect self-consciously on Hegel's method and the use
of the method, but also the basic structure of the argument in
the Grundrisse, it becomes evident that the services rendered
Marx by his study of the Logic were very great indeed.
Readers of Nicolaus's introductory Foreword naturally expect him to

refer to the crucial points where the Grundrisse contains a critical
application of the Logic. However, this expectation is not fulfilled,
though the Grundrisse contains several footnotes to the Logic. Those
footnotes are never sufficient to explain how the Logic was critically
absorbed as a whole and in detail in the Grundrisse. For example, though
Nicolaus properly noted that Marx relates 'production' to Hegel's 'ground',
he failed recognise that the reference is intimately connected with Marx's
conception of money in its third determination as 'a contradiction which
dissolves itself'. The same expression appears just before 'ground' in the
Logic.
Nor did Nicolaus notice that Marx refers 'means of production' to 'matter'
(Materie) and 'labour-power' to 'form' (Form) in the Logic, and he
mistranslated the German term Materie as 'material'. Therefore it may be
helpful to remind readers of the Nicolaus translation that they should
259
consult the Original German text if they wish to rediscover Hegel's

Logic in the Grundrisse.
Besides Hegel, Aristotle should be considered in connection with

philosophical aspects of the Grundrisse. Alfred Schmidt commented on
this in his excellent work, The concept of nature in Marx: 'Although the
Grundrisse contains an extraordinary amount of new material on the
question of Marx's relation to Hegel and, through Hegel, to Aristotle,
they have so far hardly been used in discussions of Marx's philosophy.'
Marx's comments in his letter of 21 December 1857 to Ferdinand Lassalle
are evidence that he was most interested in Aristotle whilst writing the
Grundrisse: 'I always had great interest in the latter philosopher
[Heraclitus], to whom I prefer only Aristotle of the ancient
philosophers.'
Schmidt is correct to point out the use of Aristotle in the 'Rough Draft',
remarking that Marx approached Aristotle through Hegel. However,
Schmidt failed to find any direct use of Aristotle by Marx. As we will
see later, Marx does refer directly to him, for instance, when he posits the
commodity at the beginning of the 'Chapter on Money' as the concrete
instantiation (synolon) of the primary substance (prote ousaia) and the
secondary substance (deuterai oustai).
However, Schmidt made a noteworthy suggestion concerning the use of

Aristotle in the Grundrisse:
Here [in the Grundrisse] Marx tried to grasp the relation of

Subject and Object in labour by using pairs of concepts, such
as 'form-matter', or 'reality-possibility', which stem from
Aristotle, whom he rated highly as a philosopher. In an
immediate sense, of course, Marx depended on the
corresponding categories of Hegel's Logic, but as they are
interpreted materialistically their Aristotelian origin shines
more clearly through than it does in Hegel himself.
According to Schmidt, Marx used Aristotle to construct a materialist

basis for his theory, and he used Hegel to inquire why and how modern
life is alienated and appears in an idealist form. Hegel, though thinking
himself to be the greatest Aristotelian, actually deformed Aristotle's
philosophy. He changed what Aristotle defined as 'active reason', which
existed in every individual, into 'substance as subject'.
In my view, Marx attempts to reform Hegel's philosophy using

materialist aspects of Aristotle's philosophy, in order to prove why and
260
how modern life is developed through the force of capital. His critique of
Hegel does not simply reduce his idealism to a materialist basis, but
consists in converting his philosophy of alienation and reification into
Historical categories. He uses these to clarify perverted life in capitalism,
and he reads Hegel's 'idea' as a form of bourgeois consciousness.
Marx's use of Hegel's Logic in the formation of Capital can be

summarised as follows:
1. In the Economic and philosophical manuscripts (1844) he studies

not only the Phenomenology of spirit and the Philosophy of right,
but also the Encyclopaedia. He characterises the Shorter Logic as
'the money of the spirit'. This means that the Logic is the most
abstract philosophical expression of the bourgeois spirit or
consciousness of value. This consciousness of value forms the
basic economic relation of bourgeois society.
2. In The holy family of 1845 he discusses Hegel's mode of
presentation, writing, for example, that many forms of fruit really
exist, so 'man' may abstract 'fruit in general' as an idea. Hegel,
however, reverses the process, insisting that at the beginning 'fruit
in general' exists as substance, and it posits many particular forms
of fruit as positive subjects. Marx reveals the secret of Hegel's
philosophy, which presupposes an ideal subject par excellence,
even though this subject is in reality a 'thought-product' or
abstraction that exists merely in the mind.
3. In the Poverty of philosophy of 1847, Marx implies a simultaNeous
critique of Political economy and of Hegel's philosophy,
especially the Logic, when he criticises Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's
System of economic contradictions, or the philosophy of poverty
of 1846.
4. In the Grundrisse of 1857-8 Marx at last develops his critique of
Political economy and of Hegel's philosophy, especially the
Logic, which he claims Proudhon misread. In Marx's view
Proudhon grounded his socialism falsely. Marx uses a critical
reading of the two Classics to undermine Proudhon's theory of
socialism.
5. Whilst writing the Critique of Political economy 1861 - 3, Marx
re-reads the Shorter Logic and takes notes from it. Although his
method of working in these manuscripts is 'much less in
evidence', as already mentioned, the fact that he seems to apply the
Logic to these manuscripts should not be overlooked.
261
6. As is well known, in the Afterword to the second German edition

of Capital, Marx recalls his criticism of 'the mystificatory side of
the Hegelian dialectic' in The holy family,and announces:
I . . . openly avowed myself the pupil of that mighty thinker,

and even, here and there in the chapter on the theory of
value, coquetted with the mode of expression peculiar to
him. The mystification which the dialectic suffers in Hegel's
hands by no means prevents him from being the first to
present its general forms of motion in a comprehensive and
conscious manner. With him it is standing on its head. It
must be inverted, in order to discover the rational kernel
within the mystical shell.
Terrell Carver correctly suggested that Marx's 'rational kernel' is Hegel's

analysis of Logic and the 'notion', and 'the mystical shell' is Hegel's
confusion of categorial movement with reality. The difficulty in reading
Hegel's Logic, however, consists in making a clear distinction between
these two aspects and giving concrete examples from the text. In the text
Hegel describes the process of 'becoming' of the 'notion' as
simultaNeously the process in which the 'idea', the mystical subject,
posits itself as reality. The Grundrisse is the first text in which Marx
attempts to relate the 'becoming' of the 'subject' to the categories of
Political economy, and therefore there is more evidence of his analysis
in it than in Capital, which displays his solution. The Grundrisse is the
most suitable text for studying the relation of the critique of Political
economy to the Logic.
The themes of the Grundrisse can be summarised in the following way:
For Marx, Hegel's Logic is 'the money of the spirit', the speculative
'thought-value of man and nature'. This means that in bourgeois society
'man' and nature, and body and mind, are separated and reconnected
through the relation of private exchange. Their relation is alienated from
the persons who form the relation, which is mediated by value. They
become 'value-subjects', and those who possess enough value also rule
the society. The Logic in fact describes the value-subject abstractly.
In bourgeois society the value-subject also rules nature, the indispensable

condition of life, because the subject monopolises physical as well as
mental labour, so the non-possessor of nature is forced to engage in
physical work. This coercion is seemingly non-violent and is legally
mediated through the value-relation on which modern property is
founded. In modern society there is wide-spread acceptance of the
262
legitimacy of one person controlling the product of another's labour, and

the other's labour itself, in order to appropriate a surplus product. This
approval is founded on the value-relation and the 'form' of the
commodity. Value is abstract and imagined in the mind, and also
embodied in money. Hegel's Logic implicitly ascribes a sort of power to
money, and Marx presents it as the demiurgos of bourgeois society. That
is why he characterises the Logic as 'the money of the spirit'. His task in
the Grundrisse therefore consists in demonstrating that the genesis of
value and its development into capital are described in the Logic, albeit in
a seemingly closed system which reproduces itself, and overall his work
is directed towards transcending capitalism in practice.
MARX, MARXISM AND ANTIQUITY
Advanced-15
Successful completion of any Preliminary Level Philosophy module.
CONTEXT
The module builds on Preliminary studies in Philosophy, and relates to

Advanced modules on Plato and Aristotle and moral and Political
philosophy.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
 To explore Marx's views on antiquity and inform students of

Historical materialist approaches to its study.
 To offer an opportunity for comparative study of the theories of
Plato, Aristotle and Marx on justice, value, and self-realisation.
 To familiarise students with the influence of ancient thought,
particularly that of Aristotle, on contemporary interpretation of
Marxist philosophy.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the module students:

1. will have acquired a knowledge of the Marxist perspective of the
society and culture of antiquity, and a sense of the ways in which
Classical thought has informed a body of work remote from it in
time and remains in critical engagement with it;
2. be in a position to make intelligent selection of a particular topic
within the module's remit for extended study, and to draw on a
range of primary and secondary sources in critical discussion of it;
3. be able to demonstrate, by way of a reasoned and articulate essay
on its subject matter, the way in which their chosen topic reflects
the interplay between Classical and Marxist thought.
263
CONTENT
Instruction in the principles and methodology of Historical materialism,

and readings from Marx illustrating his engagement with the History and
philosophy of antiquity, will provide the basis for consideration of
selected Marxist interpretations of aspects of Classical society and
culture.
Comparative studies will be undertaken of the Political argument of

Plato, Aristotle and Marx with special attention paid to concepts of
justice and equality, and to the views of Marx and Aristotle on value,
need and distribution.
Attention will also be given to Aristotelian interpretations of Marxist

theory with a view to assessing the insight they shed on Marx's ontology
and his conceptions of human 'species-being' and Historical
development.
Teaching and Learning Methods
Assessment Instruments
100% Coursework Assessment: one essay of 2,500 - 3,000 words.
A.T.Fomenko, G.V.Nosovskij, NEW HYPOTHETICAL

CHRONOLOGY AND CONCEPT OF THE ENGLISH
HISTORY.BRITISH EMPIRE AS A DIRECT SUCCESSOR OF
BYZANTINE-ROMAN EMPIRE.(SHORT SCHEME).
This article is devoted to the investigation of

traditional version of English chronology and English History. It
should be mentioned that this tradition was established only in
15-17th cc.(and especially by Scaliger and Petavius) as a result
of attempts to construct the global chronology of Europe and Asia
at that time.
The results of our investigation show that modern version of
English History (which is in fact a slightly modernized version
of 15-16th cc.), was artificially prolonged backward and became
much more long as it was in reality. The real History of England,
as it was reflected in written documents, was much more short.
The same is true for other countries.
In correct version, ancient and medieval English events are
264
to be transferred to the epoch which begins from 9-10th cc.

Moreover, many of these events prove to be the reflections of
certain events from real Byzantine-Roman History of 9-15th cc.
Consequently, the Great Britain Empire is a direct successor of
medieval Byzantine Empire.
This effect for English History corresponds to the similar
"shortening effects" for traditional histories of other countries
(Italy, Greece, Egypt, Russia etc.). Such effects were discovered
earlier by the authors (see our previous publications). A
discussion of the whole problem of global chronology and a
History of this problem one can find in [1],[24]. English History
is not an exemption from the "rule".
We do not think that all speculations which are suggested
here are final ones. Surely, they are subject to further
corrections and clarification. Nevertheless, the general concept
is quite clear and seems to be a final one.
The aim of present work is only to present main points of our
new version of reconstruction of the real English History.
Π. ΣOYKAKOΣ-Oμιλία στα αγγλικά με ελληνικές λέξεις(κάτι

παρόμοιο έκανε ο Ξ. Ζολώτας)
(This writing is published to demonstrate that one can write a

sophisticated article by using exclusively words of Greek origin)
The genesis of Classical drama was not symptomatic. Aneuphoria of

charismatic and talented protagonists showed fantastic scenes of historic
episodes. The prologue, the theme and the epilogue, comprised the trilogy
of drama while synthesis, analysis and synopsis characterized the
phraseology of the text. The syntax and phraseology used by scholars,
academicians and philosophers in their rhetoric, had many grammatical
idioms and idiosyncrasies.
The protagonists periodically used pseudonyms. Anonymity was a

syndrome that characterized the theatrical atmosphere.
The panoramic fantasy, the mystique, the melody, the aesthetics, the use
of the cosmetic epithets are characteristics of drama.
Eventhrough the theaters were physically gigantic, there was noneed for
microphones because the architecture and the acoustics would echo
isometrically and crystal - clear. Many epistomologists of physics,
aerodynamics, acoustics, electronics, electromagnetics can not analyze -
explain the ideal and isometric acoustics of Hellenic theaters even today.
265
There were many categories of drama: Classical drama, melodrama,

satiric, epic, comedy, etc. The syndrome of xenophobia or dyslexia was
overcome by the pathos of the actors who practiced methodically and
emphatically. Acrobatics were also euphoric. There was a plethora of
anecdotal themes, with which the acrobats would electrify the ecstatic
audience with scenes from mythical and Historical episodes.
Some theatric episodes were characterized as scandalous and

blasphemous. Pornography, bigamy, hemophilia, nymphomania,
polyandry, polygamy and heterosexuality were dramatized in a
pedagogical way so the mysticism about them would not cause phobia or
anathema or taken as anomaly but through Logic, dialogue and analysis
skepticism and the pathetic or cryptic mystery behind them would be
dispelled.
It is Historically and chronoLogically proven that theater emphasized

pedagogy, idealism and harmony. Paradoxically it also energized
patriotism a phenomenon that symbolized Ethnically character and
phenomenal heroism.
A SPECIAL THANK YOU FROM OMOGENIA INTERNET
Thank you DR John Karalas for writing such article, Thank you
National Hellenic for posting it and thank you Mr. Theofanides from
the Bank of Cyprus for searching and finding this article.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANCIENT GREEK WORDS ON THE

-ENGLISH LANGUAGE-Π. ΣOYKAKOΣ-Oμιλία στα αγγλικά με
ελληνικές λέξεις Συγκίνηση προκάλεσε η ομιλία του καθηγητή
Oρθοπεδικής κ. Παναγιώτη Σουκάκου, στην εναρκτήρια τελετή του 5ου
Πανευρωπαϊκού Συνεδρίου Oρθοπεδικής που γίνεται στη Pόδο.
Παρουσία 6.000 ορθοπεδικών από 64 χώρες του κόσμου, ο κ. Σουκάκος
μίλησε στα αγγλικά, χρησιμοποιώντας ωστόσο πλήθος ιατρικών όρων και
λέξεων ελληνικής προέλευσης, με αποτέλεσμα ακόμη και ο πλέον αδαής
περί την αγγλική Γλώσσα να είναι σε θέση να καταλάβει το σύνολο της
ομιλίας του καθηγητή.Tο «Eθνος» παραθέτει το πλήρες κείμενο της
ομιλίας:
The Hellenic orthopaedic physicians have synchronized their dynamism

and energy with the European Organization of Orthopaedics and
Traumatology, to generate this symbiotic and not ephemeral synthesis of
charismatic, academic scholars, and are enthusiastic with the atmosphere
266
of euphoria and analogous ecstasy in Dodecanisa, Rodos.

Rodos is a graphic Hellenic metropolitan center in the Aegean
archipelagos, with myriads of archaeoLogical and Historical sites.
Rodos is a geographical paradise of cryptic and chimerical icons of
idyllic charm, amalgamated with Hellenic gastronomy of mousaka,
souvlaki, ouzo emporia and euphoria of the rhyme and rhythm of
bouzouki, Byzantine and Spanoudakis music.
A plethora of basic and didactic themes in the sphere of orthopaedics and
traumatology, such as trauma of the musculoskeletal system, arthroscopic
and arthroplasty surgery, pediatric orthopaedics, poly-trauma, podiatric
surgery, carpus and dactylic surgery with traumatic and genetic
anomalies, microsurgery, spondylopathies like scoliosis, kyphosis and
spondylolisthesis, osteoporosis and pharmacoLogic and prophylactic
therapeutic policies with be emphasized.
Diagnostic methods and etioLogical therapy of traumatic, non -
physioLogical and pathoLogical syndromes, therapeutic schemes and
strategies, will be analyzed and synthesized at this academic symposium
on the basis of a democratic climate and with the scope of a non-
dogmatic and egocentric dialogue, which I prophesize will be an historic
phenomenon and paradigm of dynamic synergy and harmony between
polyEthnic orthopaedic physicians of the European Epirus.
To paraphrase, with the phobia and dilemma of being tautoLogical, let
me emphasize that the logistics and machinations in this academic
symposium, will generate the scheme and type of our harmonic synergy
and syndesmosis.
Pragmatically, it is my thesis and not hypothesis that the next phase and
programmed orthopaedic symposium in Helsinki, which I eulogize, will
be as dynamic and with colossal kyros, as in Rodos, Hellas.
I apologize for my eulogistic demagogy and if my etymoLogical glossary

is based on philosophic or Symbolic metaphors and lexical hyperbole,
please sympathize with me and I apologize for the idiosyncrasy of a
zealous Hellenic, practicing orthopaedic physician who is also fanatically
enthusiastic about the giant anode of European propaedutics and
academics in orthopaedics and traumatology.
Essai sur l'origine des langues
Η επιλογή και επισήμανση των ελληνικής προέλευσης λέξεων έγινε

από μένα.J. J. Rousseau, Δοκίμιο για την καταγωγή της
Γλώσσας.
267
Le second morceau ne fut aussi d'abord qu'un fragment du discours sur

l'inιgalitι que j'en retranchai comme trop long et hors de place. Je le
repris ΰ l'occasion des Erreurs de M. Rameau sur la musique, titre aux
deux mots prθs que j'ai retranchιs prafaitement rempli par l'ouvrage qui
le porte. Cependant retenu par le ridicule de disserter sur les langues
quand on en sait ΰ peine une et d'ailleurs peu content de ce morceau
j'avais rιsolu de le supprimer comme indigne de l'attention du public.
Mais un magistrat illustre qui cultive et protθge les lettres en a pensι plus
favorablement que moi. Je soumets donc avec plaisir, comme on peut
bien croire, mon jugement au sien, et j'essaie ΰ la faveur des deux autres
ιcrits de faire passer celui-ci que je n'eusse peut-κtre osι risquer seul.
Esasai sur l'origine des langues

oω il est parlι de la mιlodie et de l'imitation musicale
CHAPITRE 1er Des divers moyens de communiquer nos pensιes
La parole distingue l'homme entre les animaux : le langage distingue les

nations entre elles ; on ne connaξt d'oω est un homme qu'aprθs qu'il a
parlι. L'usage et le besoin font apprendre ΰ chaqu'un la langue de son
pays ; mais qu'est-ce qui fait que cette langue est celle de son pays et non
pas d'un autre? Il faut bien remonter pour le dire ΰ quelque raison qui
tienne au local, et qui soit antιrieure aux moeurs mκmes : la parole ιtant la
premiθre institution sociale ne doit sa forme qu'ΰ des causes naturelles.
Sitτt qu'un homme fut reconnu par un autre pour un κtre sentant, pensant
et semblable ΰ lui, le dιsir ou le besoin de lui communiquer ses
sentiments et ses pensιes lui en fit chercher les moyens. … Ce que les
anciens disaient le plus vivement, ils ne l'exprimaient pas par des mots
mais par des signes ; ils ne le disaient pas, ils le montraient.
Ouvrez l'histoire ancienne vous la trouverez pleine de ces maniθres
d'argumenter aux yeux, et jamais elles ne manquent de produire un effet
plus assurι que tous les discours qu'on aurait pu mettre ΰ la place : l'objet
offert avant de parler ιbranle l'imagination, excite la curiositι, tient l'esprit
en suspens et dans l'attente de ce qu'on va dire. J'ai remarquι que les
Italiens et les Provenηaux, chez qui pour l'ordinaire le geste prιcθde le
discours, trouvent ainsi le moyen de se faire mieux ιcouter et mκme avec
plus de plaisir. Mais le langage le plus ιnergique est celui oω le signe a
tout dit avant qu'on parle… Et la Tribu de Benjamin fut exterminιe*. …
Le prophθtes des Juifs, les lιgislateurs des Grecs offrant souvent au
peuple des objets sensibles lui parlaient mieux par ces objets qu'ils
n'eussent fait … peut dιrober son organe pιnθtrent par lui jusqu'au fond
du coeur, y portent malgrι nous les mouvements qui les arrachent, et nous
268
font sentir ce que nous entendons. Concluons que les signes visibles
rendent l'imitation plus exacte, mais que l'intιrκt s'excite mieux par les
sons.
CHAPITRE II Que la premiθre invention de la parole ne vint pas des

besoins mais des passions
Il est donc ΰ croire que les besoins dictθrent les premiers gestes et que les
passions arrachθrent les premiθres voix. En suivant avec ces distinctions
la trace des faits, peut-κtre faudrait-il raisonner sur l'origine des langues
tout autrement qu'on n'a fait jusqu'ici. Le gιnie des langues orientales, les
plus anciennes qui nous soient connues, dιment absolument la marche
didactique qu'on imagine dans leur composition. Ces langues n'ont rien
de mιthodique et de raisonnι ; elles sont vives et figurιes. On nous fait du
langage des premiers hommes des langues de Gιomθtres, et nous voyons
que ce furent des langues de poθtes.
CHAPITRE III Que le premier langage dut κtre figurι
Comme les premiers motifs qui firent parler l'homme furent des passions,
ses premiθres expressions furent des tropes. Le langage figurι fut le
premier ΰ naξtre, le sens propre fut trouvι le dernier. On n'appela les
choses de leur vrai nom que quand on les vit sous leur vιritable forme.
D'abord on ne parla qu'en poιsie ; on ne s'avisa de raisonner que
longtemps aprθs.
Or je sens bien qu'ici le lecteur m'arrκte, et me demande comment une
expression peut κtre figurιe avant d'avoir un sens propre, puisque ce n'est
que dans la translation du sens que consiste la figure. Je conviens de cela
; mais pour m'entendre il faut substituer l'idιe que la passion nous
prιsente, au mot que nous transposons ; car on ne transpose les mots que
parce qu'on transpose aussi les idιes, autrement le langage figurι ne
signifierait rien. Je rιponds donc par un exemple.
CHAPITRE IV Des caracteres distinctifs de la premiθre langue et des

changements qu'elle dut ιprouver
Les simples sons sortent naturellement du gosier, la bouche est

naturellement plus ou moins ouverte ; mais les modifications de la langue
269
et du palais qui font articuler exigent de l'attention, de l'exercice, on ne les

fait point sans vouloir les faire, tous les enfants ont besoin de les
apprendre et plusieurs n'y parviennent pas aisιment. Dans toutes les
langues les exclamations les plus vives sont inarticulιes ; les cris, les
gιmissements sont de simples voix ; les muets, c'est ΰ dire les sourds ne
poussent que des sons inarticulιs : le Pθre Lamy ne conηoit pas mκme
que les hommes en eussent pu jamais inventer d'autres si Dieu ne leur eϋt
expressιment appris ΰ parler. Les articulations sont en petit nombre, les
sons sont en nombre infini…, en figures ; mais dans sa partie mιcanique
elle devrait rιpondre ΰ son premier objet, et prιsenter au sens ainsi qu'ΰ
l'entendement les impressions presque inιvitables de la passion qui
cherche ΰ se communiquer.
CHAPITRE V De l'ιcriture
Quiconque ιtudiera l'histoire et le progrθs des langues verra que plus les
voix deviennent monotones plus les consonnes se multiplient, et qu'aux
accents qui s'effacent, aux quantitιs qui s'ιgalisent, on supplιe par des
combinaisons grammaticales et par de nouvelles articulations : mais ce
n'est qu'ΰ force de temps que se font ces changements. A mesure que les
besoins croissent, que les affaires s'embrouillent, que les lumiθres
s'ιtendent le langage change de caractere ; il devient plus juste et moins
passionnι ; il substitue aux sentiments les idιes, il ne parle plus au coeur
mais ΰ la raison. Par lΰ mκme l'accent s'ιteint, l'articulation s'ιtend, la
langue devient plus exacte, plus claire, mais plus traξnante plus sourde et
plus froide. Ce progrθs me paraξt tout ΰ fait naturel.
Il ne faut donc pas penser que cette derniθre invention soit une preuve de
la haute antiquitι du peuple inventeur. Au contraire il est probable que le
peuple qui l'a trouvιe avait en vue une communication plus facile avec
d'autres peuples parlant d'autres langues, lesquels du moins ιtaient ses
contemporains et pouvaient κtre plus anciens que lui. On ne peut pas dire
la mκme chose des deux autres mιthodes. J'avoue, cependant, que si l'on
s'en tient ΰ l'histoire et aux faits connus, l'ιcriture par alphabet paraξt
remonter aussi haut qu'aucune autre. Mais il n'est pas surprenant que nous
manquions de monuments des temps oω l'on n'ιcrivait pas.
Il est peu vraisemblable que les premiers qui s'avisθrent de rιsoudre la
parole en signes ιlιmentaires aient fait d'abord des divisions bien exactes.
Quand ils s'aperηurent ensuite de l'insuffisance de leur analyse les uns,
comme les Grecs, multipliθrent les caracteres de leur alphabet, les
autres se contentθrent d'en varier le sens ou le son par des positions ou
combinaisons diffιrentes. Ainsi paraissent ιcrites les inscriptions des
270
ruines de Tchelminar, dont Chardin nous a tracι des Ectypes. On n'y

distingue que deux figures ou caracteres* mais de diverses grandeurs et
posιs en diffιrents sens. Cette langue inconnue et d'une antiquitι presque
effrayante devait pourtant κtre alors bien formιe, ΰ en juger par la
perfection des arts qu'annoncent la beautι des caracteres* et les
monuments admirables oω se trouvent ces inscriptions. Je ne sais
pourquoi l'on parle si peu de ces ιtonnantes ruines : quand j'en lis la
description dans Chardin je me crois transportι dans un autre monde. Il
me semble que tout cela donne furieusement ΰ penser.
* Des gens s'ιtonnent, dit Chardin, que deux figures puissent faire tant de
lettres, mais pour moi je ne vois pas lΰ de quoi s'ιtonner si fort, puisque
les lettres de notre alphabet, qui sont au nombre de vingt-trois, ne sont
pourtant composιes que de deux lignes, la droite et la circulaire, c'est ΰ
dire, qu'avec un C. et un I. on fait toutes les lettres qui composent nos
mots.
L'art d'ιcrire ne tient point ΰ celoui de parler. Il tient ΰ des bosoins d'une
autre nature qui naissent plutτt ou plutard selon des circonstances tout ΰ
fait indιpendantes de la durιe des peuples, et qui pourraient n'avoir jamais
eu lieu chez des nations trθs anciennes. On ignore durant combien de
siθcles l'art des hιrogliphes fut peut-κtre la seule ιcriture des Egyptiens, et
il est prouvι qu'une telle ιcriture peut suffire ΰ un peuple policι, par
l'exemple des Mιxicains qui en avaient une encore moins commode.
En comparant l'alphabet cophte ΰ l'alphabet syriagque ou phιnicien on
juge aisιment que l'un vient de l'autre, et il ne serait pas ιtonnant que ce
dernier fut l'Original ni que le peuple le plus moderne eut ΰ cet ιgard
instruit le plus ancien. Il est clair aussi que l'alphabet Grec vient de
l'alphabet phιnicien ; l'on voit mκme qu'il ne doit venir. Que Cadmus ou
quelques autre l'ait apportι de Phιnicie, toujours parait-il certain que les
Grecs ne l'allθrent pas chercher et que les Phιniciens l'apportθrent eux-
mκmes : car des peuples de l'Asie et de l'Affrique ils furent les premiers
et presque les seuls** qui commercθrent eu Europe et ils vinrent bien
plutτt chez les Grecs que les Grecs n'allθrent chez eux : ce qui ne prouve
nullement que le peuple Grec ne soit pas aussi ancien que le peuple de
Phιnicie.
**Je compte les Carthaginois pour Phιniciens, puisqu'ils ιtaient une
colonie de Tir.
D'abord les Grecs n'adoptθrent pas seulement les caracteres des
Phιniciens mais mκme la direction de leus lignes de droite ΰ gauche.
Ensuite ils s'avisθrent d'ιcrire par sillons, c'est-ΰ-dire, en retournant de la
gauche ΰ la droite, puis de la droite ΰ la gauche alternativement*. Enfin
ils ιcrivirent comme nous faisons aujourd'hui en recommenηant toutes les
lignes de gauche ΰ droite. Ce progrθs n'a rien que de naturel : l'ιcriture par
sillons est sans contredit la plus commode ΰ lire. Je suis mκme ιtonnι
271
qu'elle ne se soit pas ιtablie avec l'impression, mais ιtant difficile ΰ ιcrire
ΰ la main, elle dut s'abolir quand les manuscrits se multipliθrent.
*V.Pausanias Arcad : les Latins dans les commencements ιcrivirent de
mκme, et delΰ selon Marius Victorinus est venu le mot de versus.
Mais bien que l'alphabet Grec vienne de l'alphabet phιnicien il ne
s'ensuit point que la langue Grecque vienne de la phιnicienne. Une de ces
propositions ne tient point ΰ l'autre, et il parait que la langue Grecque
ιtait dιjΰ fort ancienne, que l'art d'ιcrire ιtait rιcent et mκme imparfait
chez les Grecs. Jusqu'au siθge de Troye ils n'eurent que seize lettres, si
toutefois ils les eurent. On dit que Palamιde en ajouta quatre et
Simonide les autres autres. Tout cela est pris d'un peu loin. Au contraire
le Latin, langue plus moderne eut presuqe dθs sa naissance un alphabet
complet, dont cependant les premiers Romains ne se sevaient guθre,
puisqu'ils commencθrent si tard d'ιcrire leur histoire et que les lustres ne
se marquaient qu'avec des clouds.
Du reste il n'y a pas une quantitι de lettres ou ιlιments de la parole
absolument dιterminιe ; les uns en ont plus, les autres moins selon les
langues et selon les diverses modifications qu'on donne aux voix et aux
consonnes. Ceux qui ne comptent que cinq voyelles se trompent fort : les
Grecs en ιcrivaient sept, les premiers Romains six**, Mrs de Port-Royal
en comptent dix, M. Duclos dix-sept, et je ne doute pas qu'on ne'en
trouvβt beaucoup davantage si l'habitude avait rendu l'oreille plus
sensible et la bouche plus exercιe aux diverses modifications dont elles
sont susceptibles. A proportion de la dιlicatesse de l'organe on trouvera
plus ou moins de ces modifications, entre l'a aigu et l'o grave, entre l'i et
l'e ouvert etc.
CHAPITRE VI S'il est probable qu'Homere ait su ιcrire
Quoi qu'on nous dise de l'invention de l'alphabet Grec, je la crois

beaucoup plus moderne qu'on ne la fait, et je fonde principalement cette
opinion sur le caractere de la langue. Il m'est venu bien souvent dans
l'esprit de douter non seulement qu'Homere sϋt ιcrire, mais mκme qu'on
ιcrivit de son temps. J'ai grand regret que ce doute soit si formellement
dιmenti par l'Histoire de Bellerophon dans l'Iliade; comme j'ai le
malheur aussi bien que le Pθre Hardouin d'κtre un peu obstinι dans mes
paradoxes, si j'ιtais moins ignorant je serais bien tentι d'ιtendre mes
doutes sur cette Histoire mκme et de l'accuser d'avoir ιtι sans beaucoup
d'examen interpolιe par les compilateurs d'Homθre. Non seulement dans
le reste de l'Iliade on voit peu de traces de cet art ; mais j'ose avancer que
toute l'Odyssιe n'est qu'un tissu de bκtises et d'inepties qu'une lettre ou
deux eussent rιduit en fumιe, au lieu qu'on rend ce poθme raisonnable et
272
mκme assez bien conduit en supposant que ses hιros ayent ignorι
l'ιcriture. Si l'Iliade eut ιtι ιcrite, elle eut ιtι beaucoup moins chantιe, les
rapsodes eussent ιtι moins recherchιs et se seraient moins multipliιs.
Aucun autre poθte n'a ιtι ainsi chantι si ce n'est le Tasse ΰ Venise, encore
n'est ce que par les gondoliers qui ne sont pas grands lecteurs. La diversitι
des dialectes employιs par Homere forme encore un prιjugι trθs fort. Les
dialectes distinguιs par la parole se rapprochent et se confondent par
l'ιcriture, tout se rapporte insensiblement ΰ un modθle commun. Plus une
nation lit et s'instruit, plus ses dialectes s'effacent, et enfin ils ne restent
plus qu'en forme de jargon chez le peuple, qui lit peu et qui n'ιcrit point.
Or ces deux poθmes ιtant postιrieurs au siθge de Troye, il n'est guθre
apparent que les Grecs qui firent ce siθge connussent l'ιcriture, et que le
poθte qui le chanta ne la connϋt pas. Ces poθmes restθrent longtemps
ιcrits seulement dans la mιmoire des hommes ; ils furent rassemblιs par
ιcrit assez tard et avec beaucoup de peine. Ce fut quand la Grece
commenηa d'abonder en livre et en poιsie ιcrite que tout le charme de
celle d'Homere se fit sentir par comparaison. Les autres poθtes ιcrivaient,
Homere seul avait chantι, et ces chants divins n'ont cessι d'κtre ιcoutιs
avec ravissement que quand l'Europe s'est couverte de barbares qui se
sont mκlιs de juger ce qu'ils ne pouvaient sentir.
CHAPITRE VII De la prosodie moderne
Nous n'avons aucune idιe d'une langue sonore et harmonieuse qui parle
autant par les sons que par les voix. Si l'on croit supplιer ΰ l'accent par les
accents on se trompe : on n'invente les accents que quand l'accent est dιjΰ
perdu*. Denis d'Halycarnasse dit que l'ιlιvation du ton dans l'accent aigu
et l'abaissement dans le grave ιtaient d'une quinte ; ainsi l'accent
prosodique ιtait aussi musical, surtout le circonflexe, oω la voix aprθs
avoir montι d'une quinte descendait d'une autre quinte sur la mκme
syllabe*. On voit assez par ce passage et par ce qui s'y rapporte que M.
Duclos ne reconnaξt point d'accent musical dans notre langue mais
seulement l'accent prosodique et l'accent vocal ; on y ajoute un accent
orthographique qui ne change rien ΰ la voix, ni au son, ni ΰ la quantitι,
mais qui tantτt indique une lettre supprimιe comme le circonflexe et tantτt
fixe le sens ιquivoque d'un monosyllabe, tel que l'accent prιtendu grave
qui distingue oω adverbe de lieu de ou particule disjonctive, et ΰ pris pour
article du mκme a pris pour verbe : cet accent distingue ΰ l'oeil seulement
ces monosyllabes, rien ne les distingue ΰ la prononciation**. Ainsi la
dιfinition de l'accent que les Franηais ont gιnιralement adoptιe ne
convient ΰ aucun des accents de leur langue.
273
CHAPITRE VIII Diffιrence gιnιrale et locale dans l'origine des langues
Tout ce que j'ai dit jusqu'ici convient aux langues primitives en gιnιral et
aux progrθs qui rιsultent de leur durιe, mais n'explique ni leur origine ni
leurs diffιrences. La principale cause qui les distingue est locale, elle
vient des climats oω elles naissent et de la maniθre dont elles se forment,
c'est ΰ cette cause qu'il faut remonter pour concevoir la diffιrence gιnιrale
et caractιristique qu'on remarque entre les langues du midi et celles du
nord. Le grand dιfaut des Europιens est de philosopher toujours sur les
origines des choses d'aprθs ce qui se passe autour d'eux.
CHAPITRE IX Formation des langues mιridionales
Delΰ les contradictions apparentes qu'on voit entre les pθres des nations :
tant de naturel et tant d'inhumanitι, des moeurs si fιroces et des coeurs si
tendres, tant d'amour pour leur famille et d'aversion pour leur espθce.
Tous leurs sentiments concentrιs entre leur proches en avaient plus
d'ιnergie. Tout ce qu'ils connaissaient leur ιtait cher. Ennemis du reste du
monde qu'ils ne voyaient point et qu'ils ignoraient, ils ne haοssaient que
ce qu'ils ne pouvaient connaξtre.
Ces temps de barbarie ιtaient le siθcle d'or ; non parce que les hommes
ιtaient unis, mais parce qu'ils ιtaient sιparιs. Chacun, dit-on, s'estimait le
maξtre de tout ; cela peut κtre ; mais nul ne connaissait et ne dιsirait que
ce qui ιtait sous sa main : ses besoins loin de le rapprocher de ses
semblables l'en ιloignaient. Les hommes, si l'on veut, s'attaquaient dans la
rencontre, mais ils se rencontraient rarement. Par tout rιgnait l'ιtat de
guerre, et tout la terre ιtait en paix.
…Durant la premiθre dispersion du genre humain, jusqu'ΰ ce que la
famille fϋt arrκtιe et que l'homme eut une habitation fixe il n'y eut plus
d'agriculture. Les peuples qui ne se fixent point ne sauraient cultiver la
terre ; tels furent autrefois les Nomades, tels furent les Arabes vivant sous
des tentes, les Scithes dans leurs chariots, tels sont encore aujourd'hui les
Tartares errants, et les sauvages de l'Amιrique.
Gιnιralement chez tous les peuples dont l'origine nous est connue on
trouve les premiers barbares voraces et carnassiers plutτt qu'agriculteurs
et granivores. Les Grecs nomment le premier qui leur apprit ΰ labourer la
terre, et il paraξt qu'ils ne connurent cet art que fort tard : mais quand ils
ajoutent qu'avant Triptolιme ils ne vivaient que de gland, ils disent une
chose sans vraisemblance et que leur propre histoire dιment; car ils
mangeaient de la chair avant Triptolιme, puis qu'il leur dιfendit d'en
manger. On ne voit pas, au reste, qu'ils aient tenu grand compte de cette
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dιfense.
Dans les festins d'Homere on tue un boeuf pour rιgaler ses hτtes, comme
on tuerait de nos jours un cochon de lait. En lisant qu'Abraham servit un
veau ΰ trois personnes, qu'Eumιe fit rτtir deux chevreaux pour le dξner
d'Ulisse, et qu'autant en fit Rebecca pour celui de son mari, on peut juger
quels terribles dιvoreurs de viande ιtaient les hommes de ces temps-lΰ.
Pour concevoir les repas des anciens on n'a qu'ΰ voir encore aujourd'hui
ceux des sauvages ; j'ai failli dire ceux des Anglais.
…Epars dans ce vaste dιsert du monde, les hommes retombθrent dans la
stupide barbarie oω ils se seraient trouvιs s'ils ιtaient nιs de la terre. En
suivant ces idιes si naturelles il est aisι de concilier l'autoritι de l'Ecriture
avec les monuments antiques, et l'on n'est pas rιduit ΰ traiter de fables des
traditions aussi anciennes que les peuples qui nous les ont transmises.
Dans cet ιtat d'abrutissement il fallait vivre. Les plus actifs, les plus
robustes, ceux qui allaient toujours en avant ne pouvaient vivre que de
fruits et de chasse ; ils devinrent donc chasseurs, violents, sanguinaires,
puis avec le temps guerriers, conquιrants, usurpateurs. L'histoire a souillι
ses monuments des crimes de ces premiers Rois ; la guerre et les
conquκtes ne sont que des chasses d'hommes. Aprθs les avoir conquis il
ne leur manquait que de les dιvorer. C'Est ce que leurs successeurs ont
appris ΰ faire.
… Au contraire, Moοse semble porter un jugement d'improbation sur
l'agriculture en lui donnant un mιchant pour inventeur et faisant rejeter de
Dieu ses offrandes : on dirait que le premier laboureur annonηait dans son
caractere les mauvais effets de son art. L'auteur de la Genθse avait vu
plus loin qu'Hιrodote.
*Le mιtier de chasseur n'est point favorable ΰ la population. Cette
observation qu'on a faite quand les Isles de St. Domingue et de la Tortue
ιtaient habitιes par des boucaniers, se confirme par l'ιtat de l'Amιrique
septentrionale. On ne voit point que les pθres d'aucune nation nombreuse
aient ιtι chasseurs par ιtat ; ils ont tous ιtι agriculteurs ou bergers. La
chasse doit donc moins κtre considιrιe ici comme ressource de
subsistance que comme un accessoire de l'ιtat pastoral.
CHAPITRE X Formation des langues du nord
A la longue tous les hommes deviennent semblables, mais l'ordre de leur

progrθs est diffιrent. Dans les climats mιridionaux oω la nature est
prodigue les besoins naissent des passions, dans les pays froids oω elle
est avare les passions naissent des besoins, et les langues, tristes filles de
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la nιcessitι se sentent de leur dure origine.
CHAPITRE XI Rιflexions sur ces diffιrences
Voilΰ selon mon opinion les causes physiques les plus gιnιrales de la
diffιrence caractιristique des primitives langues. celles du midi durent
κtre vives, sonores, accentuιes, ιloquentes, et souvent obscures ΰ force
articulιes, criardes, monotones, claires ΰ force de mots plutτt que par une
bonne construction. Les langues modernes cent fois mκlιes et refondues
gardent encore quelque chose de ces diffιrences…voix sonore et
persuasive qui sιduisait l'oreille avant le coeur, et sans cesse animant ses
sentences de l'ardent de l'enthousiasme, se fut prosternι contre terre en
criant, grand prophθte, envoyι de Dieu, menez-nous ΰ la gloire, au
martyre ; nous voulons vaincre ou mourir pour vous. Le fanatisme nous
paraξt toujours risible, parce qu'il n'a point de voix parmi nous pour se
faire entendre. Nos fanatiques mκme ne sont pas de vrais fanatiques, ce
ne sont que des fripons ou des foux. Nos langues, au lieu d'inflexions
pour des inspirιs n'ont que des cris pour des possιdιs du diable.
CHAPITRE XII Origine de la musique
Avec les premiθres voix se formθrent les premiθres articulations ou les

premiers sons, selon le genre de la passion qui dictait les uns ou les
autres. La colθre arrache des cris menaηants que la langue et le palais
articulent ; mais la voix de la tendresse est plus douce, c'est la glotte qui
la modifie, et cette voix devient un son. Seulement les accents en sont
plus frιquents ou plus rares, les inflexions plus ou moins aigues selon le
sentiment qui s'y joint. Ainsi la cadence et les sons naissent avec les
syllabes, la passion fait parler tous les organes, et pare la voix de tout leur
ιclat ; ainsi les vers, les chants, la parole ont une origine commune.
Autour des fontaines dont j'ai parlι les premiers discours furent les
premiθres chansons ; les retours pιriodiques et mesurιs du rythme, les
inflexions mιlodieuses des accents firent naξtre la poιsie et la musique
avec la langue, ou plutτt tout cela n'ιtait que la langue mκme pour ces
heureux climats et ces heureux temps oω les seuls besoins pressants qui
demandaient le concours d'autrui ιtaient ceux que le coeur faisait naξtre.
Rapports
Les premiθres histoires, les premiθres harangues, les premiθres lois

furent en vers ; la poιsie fut trouvιe avant la prose ; cela devait κtre,
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puisque les passions parlθrent avant la raison. Il en fut de mκme de la

musique ; il n'y eut point d'abord d'autre musique que la mιlodie, ni
d'autre mιlodie que le son variι de la parole, les accents formaient le
chant, les quantitιs formaient la mesure, et l'on parlait autant par les sons
et par le rythme que par les articulations et les voix. Dire et chanter ιtait
autrefois la mκme chose dit Strabon ; ce qui montre, ajoute-t-il, que la
poιsie est la source de l'ιloquence*. Il fallait dire que l'une et l'autre eurent
la mκme source et ne furent d'abord que la mκme chose. Sur la maniθre
dont se liθrent les premiθres sociιtιs ιtait-il ιtonnant qu'on mit en vers les
premiθres histoires et qu'on chantβt les premiθres lois? Etait-il ιtonnant
que les premiθres grammairiens soumissent leur art ΰ la musique et
fussent ΰ la fois professeurs de l'un et de l'autre**?
*Georg : L.I.
**Architas atque Aristoxenes etiam subjectam grammatiecen musicae
putaverunt, et eosdem utriusque rei praeceptores fuisse ... Tum Eupolis
apud quem Prodamus et musicen et literas docet. Et Maricas, qui est
Hyperbolus, nihil se ex musicis scire nisi literas confitetur. Quintil. L.
I.c.X.
Une langue qui n'a que des articulations et des voix n'a donc que la moitiι
de sa richesse ; elle rend des idιes, il est vrai, mais pour rendre des
sentiments, des images, il lui faut encore un rythme et des sons, c'est ΰ
dire une mιlodie : voilΰ ce qu'avait la langue Grecque, et ce qui manque
ΰ la nτtre.
Nous sommes toujours dans l'ιtonnement sur les effets prodigieux de
l'ιloquence, de la poιsie et de la musique parmi les Grecs ; ces effets ne
s'arrangent point dans nos tκtes, parce que nous n'en ιprouvons plus de
pareils, et tout ce que nous pouvons gagner sur nous en les voyant si bien
attestιs est de faire semblant de les croire par complaisance pour nos
savants***. Burette ayant traduit comme il put en notes de notre musique
certains morceaux de musique Grecque eut la simplicitι de faire exιcuter
ces morceaux ΰ l'Acadιmie des Belles-lettres, et les acadιmiciens eurent
la patience de les ιcouter. J'admire cette expιrience dans un pays dont la
musique est indιchiffrable pour toute autres nation. Donnez un
monologue d'opιra franηais ΰ exιcuter par tels musiciens ιtrangers qu'il
vous plaira, je vous dιfie d'y rien reconnaξtre. Ce sont pourtant ces
mκmes Franηais qui prιtendaient juger la mιlodie d'une Ode de Pindare
mise en musique il y a deux milles ans!
***Sans doute il faut faire en toute chose dιduction de l'exagιration
Grecque, mais c'est aussi trop donner au prιjugι moderne que de pousser
ces dιduction jusqu'ΰ faire ιvanouir toutes les diffιrences. <>, dit l'Abbι
Terrasson, <> On ne peut nier que l'Abbι Terrasson n'eut quelquefois de
la philosophie ; mais ce n'est sϋrement pas dans ce passage qu'il en a
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montrι.
CHAPITRE XIII De la melodie
L'homme est modifiι par ses sens, personne n'en doute ; mais faute de
distinguer les modifications nous en confondons les causes ; nous
donnons trop et trop peu d'empire aux sensations ; nous ne voyons pas
que souvent elles ne nous affectent point seulement comme sensations
mais comme signes ou images, et que leurs effets moraux ont aussi des
causes morales. Comme les sentiments qu'excite en nous la peinture ne
viennent point des couleurs, l'empire que la musique a sur nos βmes n'est
point l'ouvrage des sons. … ces gens-lΰ raisonneraient de la nτtre
prιcisιment comme nous raisonnons de la musique des Grecs. Quand on
leur parlerait de l'ιmotion que nous causent de beaux tableaux et du
charme de s'attendrir devant un sujet pathιtique, leurs savants
approfondiraient aussitτt la matiθre, compareraient leurs couleurs aux
nτtres, examineraient si notre vert est plus tendre ou notre rouge plus
ιclatant ; ils chercheraient quels accords de couleurs peuvent faire pleurer,
quels autres peuvent mettre en colθre? Les Burettes de ce pays-lΰ
rassembleraient sur des guenilles quelques lambeaux dιfigurιs de nos
tableaux ; puis on se demanderait avec surprise ce qu'il y a de si
merveilleux dans ce coloris?
Enfin peut-κtre ΰ force de progrθs on viendrait ΰ l'expιrience du prisme.
Aussitτt quelque artiste cιlθbre ιtablirait lΰ-dessus un beau systeme.
Messieurs, leur dirait-il, pour bien philosopher il faut remonter aux
causes physiques. …stupidement au physique de son art le plaisir que
nous fait la peinture? Que dirions-nous du musicien qui, plein de prιjugιs
semblables croirait voir dans la seule harmonie la source des grands
effets de la musique? Nous enverrions le premier mettre en couleur des
boiseries, et nous condamnerions l'autre ΰ faire des opιra franηais.
Comme donc la peinture n'est pas l'art de combiner des couleurs d'une
maniθre agrιable ΰ la vue, la musique n'est pas non plus l'art de combiner
des sons d'une maniθre agrιable ΰ l'oreille. S'il n'y avait que cela, l'une et
l'autre seraient au nombre des sciences naturelles et non pas des beaux
arts. C'est l'imitation seule qui les ιlθve ΰ ce rang. Or qu'est-ce qui fait de
la peinture un art d'imitation? C'est le dessein. Qu'est-ce qui de la
musique en fait un autre? C'est la mιlodie.
CHAPITRE XIIII De l'harmonie

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La beautι des sons est de la nature ; leur effet est purement physique, il
rιsulte du concours des diverses particules d'air mises en mouvement par
le corps sonore, et par toutes ses aliquotes, peut-κtre ΰ l'infini ; le tout
ensemble donne une sensation agrιable : tous les hommes de l'univers
prendront plaisir ΰ ιcouter de beaux sons ; mais si ce plaisir n'est animι
par des inflexions mιlodieuses qui leur soient familiθres il ne sera point
dιlicieux, il ne se changera point en voluptι. Les plus beaux chants ΰ notre
grι toucheront toujours mιdiocrement une oreille qui n'y sera point
accoutumιe ; c'est une langue dont il faut avoir le dictionnaire.
L'harmonie proprement dite est dans un cas bien moins favorable encore.
N'ayant que des beautιs de convention ; elle ne flatte ΰ nul ιgard les
oreilles qui n'y sont pas exercιes, il faut en avoir une longue habitude
pour la sentir et pour la goϋter. Les oreilles rustiques n'entendent que du
bruit dans nos consonances. Quand les proportions naturelles sont altιrιes,
il n'est pas ιtonnant que le plaisir naturel n'existe plus.
CHAPITRE XV Que nos plus vives sensations agissent souvent par des
impressions morales
Tant qu'on ne voudra considιrer les sons que par l'ιbranlement qu'ils
excitent dans nos nerfs, on n'aura point les vrais principes de la musique
et de son pouvoir sur les coeurs. Les sons dans la mιlodie n'agissent pas
seulement sur nous comme sons, mais comme signes de nos affections,
de nos sentiments ; c'est ainsi qu'ils excitent en nous les mouvements
qu'ils expriment et dont nous y reconnaissons l'image. On aperηoit
quelque chose de cet effet moral jusque dans les animaux. L'aboiement
d'un chien en attire un autre. Si mon chat m'entend imiter un miaulement,
ΰ l'instant je le vois attentif, inquiet, agitι. S'aperηoit-il que c'est moi qui
contrefais la voix de son semblable, il se rassied et reste en repos.
Pourquoi cette diffιrence d'impression, puisqu'il n'y en a point dans
l'ιbranlement des fibres, et que lui-mκme y a d'abord ιtι trompι?
Si le plus grand empire qu'ont sur nous nos sensations n'est pas dϋ ΰ des
causes morales, pourquoi donc sommes-nous si sensible ΰ des
impressions qui sont nulles pour des barbares? pourquoi nos plus
touchantes musique ne sont-elles qu'un vain bruit ΰ l'oreille d'un
Caraοbe? Ses nerfs sont-ils d'une autre nature que les nτtres, pourquoi ne
sont-ils pas ιbranlιs de mκme, ou pourquoi ces mκmes ιbranlements
affectent-ils tant les uns et si peu les autres?
On cite en preuve du pouvoir physique des sons la guιrison des piqϋres
des Tarentules. Cet exemple prouve tout le contraire. Il ne faut ni des sons
absolus ni les mκmes airs pour guιrir tous ceux qui sont piquιs de cet
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insecte, il faut ΰ chacun d'eux des airs d'une mιlodie qui lui soit connue et
des phrases qu'il comprenne. Il faut ΰ l'Italien des airs italiens, au Turc il
faudrait des airs turcs
CHAPITRE XVI Fausse analogie entre les couleurs et les sons
Il n'y a sortes d'absurditιs auxquelles les observations physiques n'aient

donnι lieu dans la considιration des beaux-arts. On a trouvι dans l'analyse
du son les mκmes rapports que dans celle de la lumiθre. Aussitτt on a
saisi vivement cette analogie sans s'embarrasser de l'expιrience et de la
raison. L'esprit de systeme a tout confondu, et faute de savoir peindre aux
oreilles on s'est avisι de chanter aux yeux. J'ai vu ce fameux clavecin sur
lequel on prιtendait faire de la musique avec des couleurs ; c'ιtait bien
mal connaξtre les opιrations de la nature de ne pas voir que l'effet des
couleurs est dans leur permanence et celui des sons dans leur succession.
Toutes les richesses du coloris s'ιtalent ΰ la fois sur la face de la terre.
CHAPITRE XVII Erreur des musiciens nuisibles ΰ leur art
Voyez comment tout nous ramθne sans cesse aux effets moraux dont j'ai
parlι, et combien les musiciens qui ne considθrent la puissance des sons
que par l'action de l'air et l'ιbranlement des fibres sont loin de connaξtre
en quoi rιside la force de cet art. Plus ils le rapprochent des impressions
purement physiques plus ils l'ιloignent de son origine, et plus ils lui τtent
aussi de sa primitive ιnergie. En quittant l'accent oral et s'attachant aux
seules institutions harmoniques la musique devient plus bruyante ΰ
l'oreille et moins douce au coeur. Elle a dιjΰ cessι de parler, bientτt elle ne
chantera plus et alors avec tous ses accords et toute son harmonie elle ne
fera plus aucun effet sur nous.
CHAPITRE XVIII
Que le systeme musical des Grecs n'avait aucun rapport au nτtre
Comment ces changements sont-ils arrivιs? par un changement naturel du

caractere des langues. On sait que notre harmonie est une invention
gothique. Ceux qui prιtendent trouver le systeme des Grecs dans le nτtre
se moquent de nous. Le systeme des Grecs n'avait absolument
d'harmonique dans notre sens que ce qu'il fallait pour fixer l'accord des
instruments sur des consonances parfaites. Tous les peuples qui ont des
instruments ΰ cordes sont forcιs de les accorder par des consonances,
mais ceux qui n'en ont pas ont dans leurs chants des inflexions que nous
280
nommons fausses parce qu'elles n'entrent pas dans notre systeme et que
nous ne pouvons les noter. C'est ce qu'on a remarquι sur les chants des
sauvages de l'Amιrique, et c'est ce qu'on aurait dϋ remarque aussi sur
divers intervalles de la musique des Grecs, si l'on eut ιtudiι cette
musique avec moins de prιvention pour la nτtre.
CHAPITRE—XX, Rapport des langues aux gouvernements
…Chez les anciens on se faisait entendre aisιment au peuple sur la place

publique ; on y parlait out un jour sans s'incommoder. Les gιnιraux
haranguaient leur troupes ; on les entendait et ils ne s'ιpuisaient point. Les
historiens modernes qui ont voulu mettre des harangues dans leurs
histoires se sont fait moquer d'eux. Qu'on suppose un homme haranguant
en franηais le peuple de Paris dans la place de Vendτme. Qu'il crie ΰ
pleine tκte, on entendra qu'il crie, on ne distinguera pas un mot. Hιrodote
lisait son histoire aux peuples de la Grece assemblιs en plein air et tout
retentissait d'applaudissement. …
Je finirai ces rιflexions superficielles, mais qui peuvent en faire naξtre de
plus profondes, par le passage qui me les a suggιrιes.
Ce serait la matiθre d'un examen assez philosophique, que d'observer
dans le fait et de montrer par des exemples combien le caractere les
moeurs et les intιrκts d'un peuple influent sur sa langue*.
*Remarques sur ls gramm.gιnιr. et raison. par M.Duclos page 11.
Αλλα αποσπάσματα. A Brief History of Language -Restrictionism in

the United States, by Thomas Ricento
Introduction
The current movement to declare English the official language of the

United States began in 1981 when the late Senator S. I. Hayakawa of
California introduced a constitutional amendment (S.J. Res. 72) into the
US Congress. The proposed amendment was never reported out of
committee, but over the next decade, 18 states passed initiatives naming
English as their official language. Hayakawa was no doubt a maverick,
and dismissed by more "mainstream" Politicians, but he helped spark a
movement that continues to this day.
A Brief History of Language Restrictionism in the US
All nation states have mythologies about their origins, their special
destiny, and their defining characteristics. The United States is no
exception to this principle. At the time the US Constitution was drafted
281
and ratified, many languages were spoken in the United States in

addition to English, including German, Dutch, French, Spanish, Italian,
Portuguese, Greek, Yiddish, Arabic, as well as hundreds of American
Indian languages and African-based creoles..
Αλλο απόσπασμα..
History
Provence is a historic province in southeastern France along the

Mediterranean Sea. AIX-EN-PROVENCE was its capital. The area is
now divided into the départements of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Alpes-
Maritimes, Bouches-du-Rhône, Hautes-Alpes, Var, and Vaucluse. Wheat,
wine grapes, olives, and rice are grown there, and sheep are raised.
Celtic and Ligurian Cultures
Before the arrival of Greeks and Romans, Provence was inhabited by

Celtic tribes north of the Durance, and by Ligurians to the south. The
Celts were a Germanic tribe, while the Ligurians had come from the
northwestern parts of Italy. Ligurians built the first oppida, defensive
positions of drystone walls at vantage points. Traces of these heaps of
stones may still be seen on some hilltops; the one at Chastelard-de-
Lardiers in the Lure Mountains was also a major religious sanctuary.
Examples of the strangely beautiful Celto-Ligurian art can be found in
many of the area's museums.
Greek & Roman Civilization
Traders from the Eastern Mediterranean had been sailing the waters along
the Provençal coast from at least 1000 BC, but it was not until 600 BC
that Phoenician navigators founded a Greek colony called Massalia (now
MARSEILLE). In trading with the natives, it was the Greeks who
introduced the grape vine and the olive to the area. During the next
several hundred years, establishing trading posts to both the east and west
along the coast, the Greeks peacefully penetrated the Rhône valley.
Massalia's expanding commercial power clashed with Carthaginian and
Etruscan interests, and the town sided with Rome during the ensuing
Punic Wars. ..
Per Linell..The Written language Bias in Linguistics.

282
The Sources of the Written Language Bias in Linguistics
-..The History of Western Linguistics is very closely connected with

Christian theology. This is true of the entire Middle Ages from St
Augustine onwards. Hovdhaugen notes (1980:129) that "Christian
theology is to a large extent exegesis of the Holy Scriptures, and
exegesis is to a large extent a Linguistic analysis".
Linguistics in Classical Greece and Rome was in certain respects

different, since grammar was at that time more directed towards the
explication of the (written) language of the great authors. The same is
therefore also true of the humanists of the Renaissance. One should note
that this very much involved the study of foreign languages. Homer's
Greek was a foreign language for most scholars in the Hellenistic world,
and Classical written Latin was a foreign language throughout the
Middle Ages, and of course later on too.
ΓΛΩΣΣΑ, ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΣΤΗΝ ΕΥΡΩΠΗ - LANGUE, LANGUES EN

EUROPE
Μαρία Αραπόπουλου-Εκδ. ΖΗΤΗ
το βιβλίο ΓΛΩΣΣΑ, ΓΛΩΣΣΕΣ ΣΤΗΝ ΕΥΡΩΠΗ - LANGUE,

LANGUES EN EUROPE στο καλάθι αγορών σας.
Η δραστική συμμετοχή του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας
(ειδικότερα του Τμήματος Γλωσσολογίας που διευθύνει ο Α.Φ. Χριστίδης
) στις ετήσιες Expolangues του Παρισιού προφαίνεται και από τις
διαδοχικές ομώνυμες εκδόσεις, που δείχνουν το εύρος και το βάθος της
ωφέλιμης αυτής γλωσσικής δοκιμής και δοκιμασίας μας.
Στην προκείμενη έκδοση (Expolangues 2000) ο κεντρικός στόχος

προορίζεται ήδη με τον τίτλο της: "Γλώσσα, γλώσσες στην Ευρώπη".
Αναζητείται, επομένως, ο συσχετισμός του όλου με τα μέρη και τα μέλη
του. Γνωστού όντος ότι το γλωσσικό όλο παραμένει συχνά αφανές
(κάποτε και εσκεμμένα αποκρύπτεται ), ενώ τα γλωσσικά μέρη-μέλη
προβάλλονται άνισα, αναλόγως με την πολιτική και πολιτισμική ισχύ της
μιας ή της άλλης εθνικής Γλώσσας, στο πλαίσιο μάλιστα μιας
μοιρασμένης ακόμη Ευρώπης σε δύση και ανατολή, βορρά και νότο.
283
Ο τόμος περιέχει έξι εισηγήσεις-μελετήματα, που υπογράφονται από

τέσσερις ελληνόφωνους και δύο γαλλόφωνους ερευνητές. Εύκολα
διακρίνεται ο συνεκτικός τους ιστός εν είδει σταυρολέξου: περιφερειακές
και κεντρικές γλώσσες, πολυγλωσσία και ετερογλωσσία, γλωσσική
ομοιογένεια - γλωσσική ποικιλομορφία. Σ' αυτό το σταυρόλεξο
εντάσσεται και κρίνεται η εκ των πραγμάτων ασφυκτική θέση της νέας
ελληνικής: είτε ως απομωνομένη έπαρση ("Τη Γλώσσα μού έδωσαν
ελληνική") είτε ως διδακτική ακτινοβολία (Εξετάσεις για την
πιστοποίηση της ελληνομάθειας).
Σε τούτο το κρίσιμο ασφαλώς κεφάλαιο διαφαίνεται καθαρά η θέση

(επιστημονική και ιδεολογική) του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, την
οποία καλείται ο αναγνώστης να διαγνώσει και να εκτιμήσει δεόντως:
κριτική και διακριτική νηφαλιότητα. Ενόψει μάλιστα ενός γλωσσικού
-και όχι μόνο- ανταγωνισμού, ο οποίος, παρά τα λεγόμενα και τα
εξαγγελόμενα, μέρα με τη μέρα μάλλον αγριεύει. Το ζητούμενο,
επομένως, στην προκειμένη περίπτωση είναι να μην ολισθήσουν η χώρα
μας και η Γλώσσα μας στον αυτάρεσκο φανατισμό. -Δ. Ν. ΜΑΡΩΝΙΤΗΣ
VOX GRAECA - Η ΠΡΟΣΦΟΡΑ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΑΔΑΣ ΤΗΝ ΚΛΑΣΙΚΗ

ΕΠΟΧΗ
Εκδοτικός Οίκος: ΑΡΙΣΤΟΤΕΛΕΙΟ ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ

ΘΕΣΣΑΛΟΝΙΚΗΣ- Συγγραφέας: SIDNEY W. ALLEN -
Έτος Έκδοσης: 2000
Τζερμίας Παύλος, Εκδ. Σιδέρης Ι., 2000

το βιβλίο ΤΟΥΤΗ Η ΓΛΩΣΣΑ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΔΙΚΗ ΜΑΣ..
Τούτη η Γλώσσα είναι δική μας
Το έργο του διεθνούς φήμης επιστήμονα ανατέμνει κριτικά το καίριο

θέμα της Γλώσσας και παιδείας στην Ελλάδα. Ο συγγραφέας ανατρέχει
στις ρίζες της Γλώσσας μας, παραθέτει παρεμβάσεις του για
γλωσσολογικά και εκπαιδευτικά ζητήματα και προσφέρει τους καρπούς
της μακροχρόνιας διδασκαλίας του σε πανεπιστήμια κι άλλες σχολές. Οι
αναπτύξεις του βασίζονται μεταξύ άλλων στη γερμανόγλωσση
"Νεοελληνική Γραμματική" του, που θεωρείται σύγγραμμα διαχρονικής
σπουδαιότητας.
Χρ. Τσολάκης, Εκδ. Νησίδες, τη Γλώσσα μου έδωσαν Ελληνική..
Ποιος είναι, κύριε Τσολάκη, ο δρόμος προς το Δίκαιο λόγο όπως τον
χαρακτηρίζετε, που θα δώσει τη λύση στα σημερινά προβλήματα;
284
Ο δρόμος του ελληνικού λόγου που οδηγεί στην ελευθερία, στην Πρώτη
ανθρώπινη ελευθερία, όπως τη δίδαξε ο Πρώτος ελεύθερος ποιητής, ο
Έλληνας Αισχύλος, στην προμηθεϊκή του τριλογία. Είναι ο μόνος που
μπορεί να βγάλει την ανθρωπότητα από τα σημερινά της αδιέξοδα. Και
αν δεν το πραγματώσει ο σημερινός ελληνισμός, θα το επιδιώξει μόνη
της η ανθρωπότητα, όταν θα έχει ξεπεράσει την ύβρη της μηχανής και
της ύλης, που την έχουν παγιδέψει. Είναι ανάγκη η λεγόμενη πολιτισμένη
ανθρωπότητα να σκεφθεί τους όρους και αρχές με κριτήρια την ευτυχία
του ανθρώπου και όχι του ανθρώπου-μηχανή στην υπηρεσία των
μεγάλων συμφερόντων. Η πορεία όμως προς τον αλήθινο πολιτισμό των
ελεύθερων ανθρώπων και όχι προς τον "πολιτισμό" των λιγότερο ή
περισσότερο καταρτισμένων γιγάντων ή νάνων της τεχνολογίας, είναι
ανάγκη σε αυτό το πνεύμα του ελληνικού, δηλαδή του Πρώτου
ευρωπαϊκού λόγου της ελευθερίας, να θεμελιωθεί. [...] Και δεν ξέρω
τίποτε δυνατότερο από τον ελεύθερο άνθρωπο...
English and Its History(This page brought to you by Blue Rider

Development)
These pages provide a quick tour of the English language and the some
of the changes it has seen. Included for your reading pleasure is a brief
tour of Old English and Middle English. In addition, I have some Items
of Interest and Related Links at the end.
Below is an excerpt of The Nativity according to Luke, first in Old

English, then in Middle English (two translations, about 225 years
apart). If you look at them carefully, you can see the similarities -- and the
striking differences. Those who know German or a Scandinavian
language can see why English is called a sister language of German.
Also, there was a time back in the Old English period when the
Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic) and
English were mutually understandable. English is certainly the one that
has broken further away from the other four (Scandinavians can still
pretty much understand each other's dialects), but the strong influence of
Latin (mostly through the church and scholars) and the Norman invasion
of England brought about significant changes in the language, as did a
host of smaller influences. The Nativity was chosen because the gospels
are available in all three "languages".
Old English
Soþlice on þam dagum wæs geworden gebod fram þam casereAugusto,

þæt eall ymbehwyrft wære tomearcod. Þeos tomearcodneswæs æryst
285
geworden fram þam deman Syrige Cirino. And ealle hig eodon,and
syndrige ferdon on hyra ceastre. Ða ferde Iosep fram Galilea of
þæreceastre Nazareth on Iudeisce ceastre Dauides, seo is genemned
Bethleem, for þam þe he wæs of Dauides huse and hirede; þæt he ferde
mid Marianþe him beweddod wæs, and wæs geeacnod. Soþlice wæs
geworden þa hi þar wæron, hire dagas wæron gefyllede þæt heo cende.
And heo cende hyre frumcennedan sunu, and hine mid cildclaþum
bewand, and hine on binne alede, for þam þe hig næfdon rum on cumena
huse. And hyrdas wæron on þam ylcan rice waciende, and nihtwæccan
healdende ofer heora heorda. Þa stod Drihtnes engel wiþ hig, and Godes
beorhtnes him ymbe scean; and hi him mycelum ege adredon. And se
engel him to cwæð, Nelle ge eow adrædan; soþlice nu ic eow bodie
mycelne gefean, se bið eallum folce; for þam to dæg eow ys Hælend
acenned, se is Drihten Crist, on Dauides ceastre. And þis tacen eow byð:
Ge gemetað an cild hræglum bewunden, and on binne aled. And þa wæs
færinga geworden mid þam engle mycelnes heofenlices werydes, God
heriendra and þus cweþendra, Gode sy wuldor on heahnesse, and on
eorðan sybb mannum godes willan.
Middle English, (translation by John Wycliffe, c. 1380-83)
And it was don in tho daies, a maundement wente out fro the emperour
August, thatal the world schulde be discryued. This firste discryuyng was
maad of Cyryn, iustice of Sirie. And alle men wenten to make
professioun, ech in to his owne citee. And Joseph went vp fro Galilee, fro
the citee Nazareth, in to Judee, in to a citee of Dauid, that is clepid
Bethleem, for that he was of the hous and of the meyne of Dauid, that he
schulde knouleche with Marie, his wijf, that was weddid to hym, and was
greet with child. And it was don, while thei weren there, the daies were
fulfillid, that sche schulde bere child. And sche bare hir first borun sone,
and wlappide hym in clothis, and leide hym in a cratche, for ther was no
place to hym in no chaumbir. And scheepherdis weren in the same cuntre,
wakynge and kepynge the watchis of the nygt on her flok...
(King James version, c. 1604)
And it came to passe in those dayes, that there went out a decree from
Cesar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed. (And this taxing was
first made when Cyrenius was gouernor of Syria) And all went to bee
taxed, euery one into his owne citie. And Joseph also went vp fro Galilee,
out of the citie of Nazareth, into Judea, vnto the citie of Dauid, which is
called Bethlehem, (because he was of the house and linage of Dauid,) To
be taxed with Mary his espoused wife, being great with child. And so it
286
was, that while they were there, the dayes were accomplished that she
should be deliuered. And she brought foorth her First borne sonne, and
wrapped him in swadling clothes, and laid him in a manger, because there
was no roome for them in the Inne. And there were in the same countrey
shepheards abiding in y field, keeping watch ouer their flocke by night.
And loe, the Angel of the Lord came vpon them, and the glory of the
Lord shone round about them, and they were sore afraid. ..
Latin and English
Today it is easier to see the influence of Latin on English than it is to see

English's relationship to the family of germanic languages. Nevertheless,
English is a germanic language, not a Latinate language.
Scholars and the Church
Greek.
The influence of the Original Indo-European language, designated proto-
Indo-European, can be seen today, even though no written record of it
exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in
Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in
different languages that share the same root.
Of these branches of the Indo-European family, two are, for our purposes
of studying the development of English, of paramount importance, the
Germanic and the Romance (called that because the Romance languages
derive from Latin, the language of ancient Rome, not because of any
bodice-ripping literary genre).
Old English (500-1100 AD)
West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles
(whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons,
and Jutes, began popuLating the British Isles in the fifth and sixth
centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar to
modern Frisian--the language of northeastern region of the Netherlands--
that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged,
Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West
Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast.
These invaders pushed the Original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of
what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving
behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in
Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh.
Old English, whose best known surviving example is the
poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. This last date is
rather arbitrary, but most scholars choose it because it is
287
shortly after the most important event in the development of

the English language, the Norman Conquest.
The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500)
William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered
England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. (The Bayeux Tapestry, which
graces the top of this and other pages on this site, is perhaps the most
famous graphical depiction of the Norman Conquest.) The new overlords
spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. The Normans
were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") and
Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic
influences in addition to the basic Latin roots.
Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on
the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation
and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century
(ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the
language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance
The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise
of Modern English.
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
The next wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The
revival of Classical scholarship brought many Classical Latin and Greek
words into the Language. These borrowings were deliberate and many
bemoaned the adoption of these "inkhorn" terms, but many survive to this
day. Shakespeare's character Holofernes in Loves Labor Lost is a satire of
an overenthusiastic schoolmaster who is too fond of Latinisms.
The last major factor in the development of Modern English was the
advent of the printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to
England in 1476. Books became cheaper and as a result, literacy became
more common. Publishing for the masses became a profitable enterprise,
and works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more common.
Finally, the printing press brought standardization to English. The dialect
of London, where most publishing houses were located, became the
standard. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the first English
dictionary was published in 1604.
Late-Modern English (1800-Present)

The principal distinction between early- and late-modern English is
vocabulary. Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same,
but Late-Modern English has many more words. These words are the
result of two Historical factors. The first is the Industrial Revolution and
the rise of the technoLogical society. This necessitated new words for
things and ideas that had not previously existed. The second was the
288
British Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's
surface, and English adopted many foreign words and made them its own.
The industrial and scientific revolutions created a need for Neologisms to
describe the new creations and discoveries. For this, English relied
heavily on Latin and Greek. Words like oxygen, protein, nuclear, and
vaccine did not exist in the Classical languages, but they were created
from Latin and Greek roots. Such Neologisms were not exclusively
created from Classical roots though, English roots were used for such
terms as horsepower, airplane, and typewriter .
American English
Spanish has also been great influence on American English. Armadillo,
mustang, canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are all examples of
Spanish words that made their way into English through the settlement of
the American West.
To a lesser extent French, mainly via Louisiana, and West African,
through the importation of slaves, words have influenced American
English. Armoire, bayou, and jambalaya came into the language via New
Orleans. Goober, gumbo, and tote are West African borrowings first used
in America by slaves.
A Chronology of the English Language. Μία ακόμα εργασία από το Cd

Rom Multipedia για θέματα ορολογίας της φαρμακολογίας, με πολλές
λέξεις με ελληνική ρίζα. Σε όλα αυτά τα αποσπάσματα, η επιλογή
τους, η επισήμανση των λέξεων και ο τονισμός τους , η επιλογή
αποσπασμάτων, έγινε από μένα.
Understanding the Language of Medicine Introduction The work of

medicine is intimately connected to its language. Although the
technology of health care gets more and more sophisticated, it is clear
that the center of medicine is still the dialogue between the health care
provider and the patient. Medical interviews are complex conversations in
which uncertainties, fears, hopes, and information are shared. The success
of this conversation is crucial for both doctor and patient... At Columbia
University's College of Physicians and Surgeons, we believe that
informed patients can be healthier patients. We offer this textbook to help
patients be better informed, with this chapter as a road map. Together,
doctors and patients can improve their communication with each other.
Patients will be empowered through education and sharing of control of
health events...
... Γενική Βιβλιογραφία, για το παροικιακό φαινόμενο.

289
Βακαλόπουλος, Α.Ε., "Οι Δυτικομακεδόνες απόδημοι επί

Τουρκοκρατίας", Παγκαρπία Μακεδονικής Γης, Θεσσαλονίκη 1980, σελ.
403- 448.
Βεντούρα, Λ., Μετανάστευση και Έθνος. Μετασχηματισμοί στις
Συλλογικότητες και τις κοινωνικές θέσεις. Αθήνα, Μνήμων, 1994.
Χασιώτης, Ι., Επισκόπηση της ιστορίας της νεοελληνικής διασποράς.
Θεσσαλονίκη 1993.
Hassiotis, I.K., "Continuity and Change in the Modern Greek Diaspora",
Journal of Modern Hellenism, 6 (1989) σελ. 9-24.
Χατζηιωσήφ, Χ., "Εμπορικές παροικίες και ανεξάρτητη Ελλάδα.
Ερμηνείες και προβλήματα", Ο Πολίτης, αριθ. 62 (Σεπτ. 1983), σελ. 29-
30.
Δένδιας, Μ.Α., Αι ελληνικαί παροικίαι ανά τον κόσμον, Αθήνα 1919.
Ducellier, A., Δημογραφία, μεταναστεύσεις και πολιτισμικά σύνορα από
τα τέλη του Μεσαίωνα στη νεώτερη εποχή, 5 (1986), σελ. 19-44.
Fossey, John F.S.A. (επιμ.), Proceedings of the First International
Congress on The Hellenic Diaspora from Antiquity to Modern Times
(Montreal, 17-22.IV. 1988; Athens, 26 30.IV. 1988), t. I-II, 'Αμστερνταμ
1991.
Hopken, W., "Zwangsmigrationen in Mittel- und Sudosteuropa",
Comparativ, 6, Heft 1 (1996).
Irmscher, J., Mineemi, M., Ο Ελληνισμός εις το εξωτερικόν, Βερολίνο
1968.
Irmscher, J., "Die Griechische Diaspora", στo: Fossey, J., Proceedings
of the First International Congress on The Hellenic Diaspora., t. I,
"From Antiquity to 1453", 'Αμστερνταμ 1991, σελ. 1-9.
Katsiardi-Hering, O., Das Habsburgerreich: Anlaufpunkt fur Griechen
und andere Balkanvolker im 17.- 19. Jahrhundert, Osterreichische
Osthefte, 38, Heft 2 ( 1996), σελ.171 188.
Kostic, D. Lj., Die griechisch-serbische Kirchensymbiose in
Norddalmatien vom XV. bis zum XIX. Jahrhundert, Balkan Studies, 15 /1
( 1974), σελ. 21- 48.
Moch, Leslie Page, Moving Europeans. Migration in Western Europe
since 165,. Indiana University Press, 1992.
Ψυρούκης, Ν., Το νεοελληνικό παροικιακό φαινόμενο, Αθήνα 1974.
Sakellariou, M., "La typologie de la diaspora Grecque", στo: Fossey, J.,
Proceedings of the First International Congress on The Hellenic
Diaspora., t. I, "From Antiquity to 1453", 'Αμστερνταμ 1991, σελ. 15-24.
Stojanovich, T., "The Conquering Balkan Orthodox Merchant", Journal

of Economic History, 20 (1960), σελ. 234- 313 ( και σε ελλ. μετ.).
290
Γιά παροικιακό φαινόμενο μπορούμε να ανατρέξουμε και στο έργο του

Νικ. Ψυρούκη, "Το ελληνικό παροικιακό φαινόμενο Αθήνα 1974.".
Εδώ υπάρχει δυνατότητα για να αντληθούν πολλά στοιχεία ..για την
εξάπλωση και δράση του ελληνικού στοιχείου και κατ επέκταση για τη
διάδοση της ελληνικής Γλώσσα και την επίδραση της, σε άλλες και
ειδικώτερα στηναγγλική Γλώσσα. Υπάρχει τεράστια βιβλιογραφία.
Εδώ παραθέτω αποσπάσματα, μέσω Ιντερνετ, για το παροικιακό

φαινόμενο.ΣΑΕ(Συμβούλιο Απόδημου Ελληνισμού
Οι χώρες στις οποίες ο Ελληνισμός παρουσιάζει τα μεγαλύτερα μεγέθη

του είναι οι ΗΠΑ, ο Καναδάς, η Αυστραλία, η Γερμανία, οι χώρες της
Κοινοπολιτείας Ανεξαρτήτων Κρατών και η Ν.Αφρική.
Α. Ιστορική ανασκόπηση
Τα Ελληνικά μεταναστευτικά ρεύματα αποτελούν ιστορικά

καταγεγραμμένη πραγματικότητα, τόσο κατά την αρχαία ιστορία του
τόπου μας, όσο και κατά τη σύγχρονη περίοδο.
Μια ιστορική ανασκόπηση του ελληνικού μεταναστευτικού ρεύματος

στην σύγχρονη Ελλάδα θα ξεκινούσε από τον 18ο-19ο αιώνα την εποχή
που δημιουργούνται οι ελληνικές παροικίες στην Ιταλία,
Αυστροουγγαρία, Μολδαβία, Βόρεια Βαλκάνια, Αγγλία, Γαλλία και
τέλος, την Αίγυπτο και τις Ινδίες. Η ελληνική διασπορά των χρόνων
εκείνων, δραστηριοποιήθηκε κυρίως στο χώρο του διεθνούς εμπορίου. Το
επίκεντρο δραστηριότητας ήταν η Αυστροουγγαρία, η οποία αποτελούσε
το διεθνές εμπορικό κέντρο του 18ου αιώνα. Αργότερα το 19ο αιώνα με
τη βιομηχανική επανάσταση, το κέντρο βάρους της οικονομικής ζωής
μετατοπίστηκε, με αποτέλεσμα οι ηπειρωτικές παροικίες που δεν είχαν
πρόσβαση στην θάλασσα να πέσουν σε παρακμή...Η διόγκωση του
Ελληνισμού εκτός Ελλάδος αρχίζει με τη σταδιακή παρακμή των
ανωτέρω παροικιών και την εμφάνιση μεταναστευτικών ρευμάτων προς
όλα τα σημεία της υδρογείου.
Από το τέλος, λοιπόν, του περασμένου αιώνα και μετά καταγράφονται

δύο βασικά μεταναστευτικά ρεύματα:
1. Από την σύσταση του Ελληνικού κράτους μέχρι το 1920 με

κατεύθυνση κατά κανόνα στις αποικίες των Ευρωπαϊκών Κρατών
με μοναδική εξαίρεση τις ΗΠΑ.
291
Μεταπολεμικά, με κύρια κατεύθυνση τις χώρες της Δυτικής

Ευρώπης αλλά και υπερπόντιες.
Εκδοτικός Οίκος ΚΑΚΤΟΣ, κλασσικά έργα.
The Conference will take place in Greece in August (20th to 30th) on the
Aegean island of Kos. The Conference will have the following aims:
1. To examine the relationship between philosophy and medicine in
Greek thought from Pre-Socratic philosophy to the present (Pre-
Socratic, Classical, Hellenistic, Byzantine and modern Greek
Philosophy). The conference will explore the theoretical and
operational hypotheses and principles common to philosophy and
medicine as scientific endeavours.
2. To examine theories and principles that can help us to formulate,
in a modern context, a value - system that meaningfully and
appropriately addresses questions of health, disease and therapy,
and the relationship between ourselves and the environment.
3. To develop a context for a dialogue between the theories of
ancient medicine and philosophy and modern medical problems
that call for philosophical consideration. The purpose is to
hopefully pose problems and seek solutions that will be of benefit
to all in this critical period where rapid advances in medical
technology call for corresponding advances in theoretical
conceptions of human life, health and well-being. The Conference
is consequently open to all those concerned with philosophy,
medical theory and practice, specialists in Greek philosophy and
Greek medical thought, depth psychologists, and theorists in
psycho-analysis, History of Greek medicine, contemporary
philosophy of medicine and medical ethics.
The main subject areas of the Conference are likely to be the following:
1. Early Greek Philosophy and Medicine.The Hippocratic
Corpus. The Hippocratic Oath and its contemporary
relevance.
2. Classical Greek Philosophy and Medicine.
3. Hellenistic Philosophy and medical theories.
4. Byzantine, Post - Byzantine and Modern Greek
Philosophy and Medicine.
5. The relationship of Medicine and Philosophy.

6. Physical and mental health in Greek Thought and the
modern world.
292
7. The Ethics of medical practice in Classical and post-

Classical Greece and the contemporary world.
8. The influence of medical theories on Classical Greek
ethical and Political speculation and on the philosophy of
psychology.
9. From Plato to Freud: Philosophy and psychoanalysis.
10. Classical Greek concepts of the individual and
contemporary debates in medical ethics and bioethics.
ΠΑΓΚΟΣΜΙΑ ΣΥΝΕΔΡΙΑ TOY Ο.Δ.Ε.Γ.1ο Συνέδριο : Δίον Πιερίας

(1990)
Το Πρώτο Παγκόσμιο Γλωσσικό Συνέδριο συνήλθε στο Δίον παρά τον

Όλυμπο στις 7-9 Σεπτεμβρίου 1990. Συμμετέσχον 8 Ξένοι ομιλητές από
5 Ευρωπαϊκές χώρες (Ιταλία, Ισπανία, Πορτογαλία, Γαλλία, Μάλτα) και
8 'Έλληνες ομιλητές. Γενικό θέμα του συνεδρίου ήταν «H Ελληνική
Γλώσσα, η ιστορία της, τα πλεονεκτήματά της και η επίδραση της
στην διαμόρφωση του Ευρωπαϊκού Πολιτισμού».
Μερικά από τα θέματα των ομιλιών: Η Γλώσσα, ψυχή του έθνους.
 Η σημασία της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην παράδοση.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και τα Ευαγγέλια.
 Το Κοινοτικό πρόγραμμα LINGUA και η προώθηση της
Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
 Το προβάδισμα της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας έναντι της Λατινικής.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα των γλωσσών.
 Η Ελληνική, ζώσα Γλώσσα. Η Οικουμενικότητα της Ελληνικής
Γλώσσας.
 Η σημασία της αναβίωσης της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας
και παραδόσεως για την Ευρώπη.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα, θεμέλιο του Ευρωπαϊκού Πολιτισμού.
 Ελληνικές επιδράσεις στη Μάλτα. Δίον, Χώρα των Θεών.
Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα δύναται να καταστεί διεθνής, γιατί διαθέτει την

ομοιογένεια και τον πλούτο της Γερμανικής, την λυγεράδα της
Ισπανικής, την σαφήνεια της Γαλλικής και την μουσικότητα της Ιταλικής.
2ο Συνέδριο : Καβάλα (1993)
Το Δεύτερο Παγκόσμιο Γλωσσικό Συνέδριο συνήλθε στην Καβάλα στις
7-10 Μαΐου 1993 με θέμα: «Η διαχρονικότητα της Ελληνικής
Γλώσσας και οι λόγοι για την διεθνοποίησή της».
Στο Συνέδριο μετείχαν 19 ομιλητές από 14 χώρες (Αγγλία, Αλβανία,
Αρμενία, Αυστραλία, Αυστρία, Γαλλία, Γερμανία, Γεωργία, Ισπανία,
293
Ιταλία, Καναδά, Κύπρο, Πορτογαλία και Σερβία) καθώς και 13 Έλληνες

ομιλητές.
Μερικά από τα θέματα των ομιλιών:
 Η Οδύσσεια της Διεθνοποίησης της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
 Τα Ελληνικά σαν διεθνής Γλώσσα πριν τον Α΄ Παγκόσμιο
Πόλεμο.
 Η εις Ελλάδα εισαύθις επάνοδος.
 Η Νεοελληνική Γλώσσα και οι πρώτες προσπάθειες
διεθνοποίησής της.
 Η επιβίωση γλωσσικών στοιχείων του πρώιμου ελληνικού
έπους στη σύγχρονη Ελληνική Γλώσσα και σ' άλλες γλώσσες
πολιτισμού ως βοηθητικός παράγων στη διεθνοποίηση της
Ελληνικής.
 Η διεθνικότητα της Ελληνικής μέσω των αγγλικών γλωσσών του
παλαιότερου και νεότερου κόσμου.
 Η επίδραση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην Πορτογαλική.
 Ελληνικά στην Αγγλική Γλώσσα: Η θέση, έννοια, κατανόηση
και αναγνώριση των ελληνικών στην Αγγλική Γλώσσα.
 Η διάδοση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην Αρμενία.
 Οι δανεισμένες ελληνικές λέξεις στην Αρμενική Γλώσσα μέσω
της Ποντιακής διαλέκτου.
Άλλα ειδικού ενδιαφέροντος θέματα:

 Η ιστορία του ονόματος της Ευρώπης.
 Τα Ελληνικά και Λατινικά στα πλαίσια ενός καινούργιου
ανθρωπισμού.
 Οι αγώνες του Καποδίστρια για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα.
 Η ιστορία της ελληνικής διαλέκτου των ελληνόφωνων χωριών της
Ελλάδας του Σαλέντο.
 Η Μακεδονία και η διάδοση της ελληνικής παγκοσμίου
παιδεύσεως.
 Η διάδοση και η διάσωση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας και των
ελληνικών παραδόσεων από τις Ελληνίδες της διασποράς.
 Η διαχρονική παρουσία της Γλώσσας των πανΕλλήνων δια των
μύθων.
 Αρχαίες ελληνικές επιγραφές και ενυπόγραφα αγγεία ιχνηλάτες
της ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Αρχαία και βυζαντινά γλωσσικά στοιχεία
στην Ποντιακή διάλεκτο.
 Το ιδίωμα των Κουβουκλίων της Προύσας στην ιστορική του
διάσταση.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα της Βίβλου, του Ιησού και των Αποστόλων.
 Το Χρονικό του Μορέως σταθμός ανάμεσα στη βυζαντινή και
νεοελληνική Γλώσσα και λογοτεχνία.
294
 Ο αγώνας για τη διαφύλαξη της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στο χώρο

της Βορείου Ηπείρου από την πτώση της Τουρκοκρατίας μέχρι
σήμερα.
 Οι ελληνικές πηγές του Μοβσές Χορενατσί (Μωυσή Χωρηνού).
 Ο ρόλος της Ορθοδοξίας στη διατήρηση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας
και της Ποντιακής διαλέκτου στις Δημοκρατίες της πρώην
Σοβιετικής Ένωσης.
 Η διδασκαλία της νεοΕλληνικής Γλώσσας στη Σερβία.
3ο Συνέδριο : Αρχαία Ολυμπία (1996) Το Τρίτο Παγκόσμιο Γλωσσικό

Συνέδριο έλαβε χώρα στην Αρχαία Ολυμπία στις 7-10 Αυγούστου
1996.Συμμετέσχον εις αυτό 19 ομιλητές από 17 χώρες (Αυστρία,
Αυστραλία, Βουλγαρία, Γερμανία, Γεωργία, Ελβετία, ΗΠΑ, Ισπανία,
Ιταλία, Κίνα, Κολομβία, Κύπρο, Ουγγαρία, Ουκρανία, Ρουμανία, Ρωσία
και Χιλή) καθώς και 12 Έλληνες ομιλητές.
Θέμα του Συνεδρίου: «Πώς η Ελληνική Γλώσσα γονιμοποίησε τον
παγκόσμιο λόγο».
Τα επί μέρους θέματα του Συνεδρίου ήσαν:
 Τα Ελληνικά, η πλέον παγκόσμια Γλώσσα.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και η Ελληνική παιδεία εν τω αιώνι της
κυβερνητικής.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και παιδεία στο εξωτερικό.
 Διά την Ελληνικήν Ψυχήν παρέκβασίς τις.
 Ελληνική Γλώσσα, διαλεκτικός λόγος και προσωδία.
 Η επίδραση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην διαμόρφωση της
πανεθνικής Ρωσικής Γλώσσας.
 Πώς η Ελληνική γονιμοποίησε τον Ευρωπαϊκό λόγο.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα στην Ουγγαρία τον 19ο αιώνα.
 Οι θησαυροί της ελληνικής προσφοράς στη Γλώσσα της
Οικουμένης.
 Ονόματα, επώνυμα και τοπωνύμια στις Ελληνόφωνες περιοχές της
Κάτω Ιταλίας.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και το σύγχρονο λεξιλόγιο της
πληροφορικής και των ηλεκτρονικών υπολογιστών.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα, Γλώσσα διδασκαλίας στις Ρουμανικές
Χώρες κατά τους 16ο-19ο αιώνες.
 Η επίδραση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στη διαμόρφωση ενός
αραβοϊσλαμικού πολιτισμού.
 Επιδράσεις της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην Ισπανική.
 Σχέση συντακτικής δομής μεταξύ Αρχαίας Ελληνικής και
Γερμανικής Γλώσσας. Ο ρόλος του Λουθήρου και του κύκλου
του. Το ενσωματωμένο ελληνικό λεξιλόγιο στη σύγχρονη
Γερμανική Γλώσσα.
295
 Η επίδραση της Ελληνικής σε παγκόσμια κλίμακα. Ιατρική

ορολογία και Ελληνική Γλώσσα.
 Η εκμάθηση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην Κολομβία από τον
19ο αιώνα μέχρι σήμερα. Τα ελληνικά στοιχεία στην λογοτεχνία
της Κολομβίας.
Άλλα επί μέρους θέματα:

 Το Ελληνικό λεξιλόγιο των Ολυμπιακών Αγώνων.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και ο αθλητισμός.
 Ένας ξένος μιλάει Ελληνικά.
 Τρεις στόχοι, τρία οράματα.
 Η δημοτική Γλώσσα στον φιλοσοφικό λόγο σήμερα.
 Η διατήρηση της εθνικής ταυτότητας της απόδημης Ελληνίδας
μέσω της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
 Ο Νεοελληνιστής και οι ποικίλες μορφές της Ελληνικής
Γλώσσας.
 Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα και ο Ελληνικός Πολιτισμός μέσω των
ανασκαφών της Αρχαίας Μεσημβρίας, πόλης του δυτικού Ευξείνου
Πόντου.
 Αδημοσίευτα ελληνικά εκκλησιαστικά έγγραφα περιοχής Τσάλκας
της Γεωργίας από το 1850 έως τις αρχές του 20ου αιώνα.
 Η Ποντιακή διάλεκτος από την αρχαιότητα έως σήμερα. Νόηση
και Γλώσσα.
 Η Γλώσσα ως πεμπτουσία του ανθρώπου. 4ο Συνέδριο : Χανιά -
Σεπτέμβριος 1999 .προετοιμασία πραγματοποιήσεως του στα
Χανιά τον Σεπτέμβριο του 1999 με εισηγητές Έλληνες και ξένους
Καθηγητές και Ακαδημαϊκούς.
Θέμα : "Ελληνική Γλώσσα και πολιτισμός"
43. Δρ Γιώργος Καναράκης,μια ολύπλευρη παρακαταθήκη
των", Greeks in English-Speaking Countries, S. Vryonis, κ.ά., επιμ.,

Hellenic Studies Forum, Melbourne, σ. 273-280.
1. 1995 - "H διεθνικότητα της ελληνικής μέσω των αγγλικών
γλωσσών του παλαιού και νεώτερου κόσμου''. Η διαχρονικότητα
της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας και οι λόγοι για τη διεθνοποίησή της. Β'
Παγκόσμιο Γλωσσικό Συνέδριο Καβάλας, 7-10 Μαΐου 1993, σ.
182-191.
2. 1997 - "Patterns of 'Greekness' in Diaspora Literature: The
Australian Experience", Greeks in English-Speaking Countries:
Culture, Identity, Politics, Christos P. Ioannides, επιμ., Εκδ. D.
Caratzis, New Rochelle, Ν.Υ. σ. 361-375.
296
3. 1998 - "Byzantine Motifs in Australian Literature",

Byzantinische Stoffe and Motive in der Eropäischen Literatur des
19, und 20. Evangelos Konstantinou, επιμ., Εκδ. Peter Lang,
Frankfurt am Main, σ. 145-165.
ΔΗΜΟΣΙΕΥΜΑΤΑ ΣΕ ΠΕΡΙΟΔΙΚΑ ΚΑΙ ΕΦΗΜΕΡΙΔΕΣ
1. 1968α - "Contrastive Analysis of the PhonoLogical Systems of

Modern Greek and English and Their Pedagogical Applications",
Report of the Seminar on English Teaching in the Greek
Universities. Fullbright Foundation, Αθήνα, σ. 4-5.
2. 1968β - "The Contrastive Analysis Technique in Teaching English
as a Foreign Language", Report of the Seminar on English
Teaching in the Greek Universities, Fullbright Foundation, Αθήνα,
σ. 13.
3. 1969α - «Προβλήματα διδασκαλίας της ξένης γλώσ-σης», Σχολείο
και Ζωή (Αθήνα), τόμ. 17. τεύχ. 3, σ. 118-120.
4. 1969β - «Το πρόβλημα του γλωσσικού τεστ εις την διδασκαλίαν
της ξένης γλώσσης», Σχολείο και Ζωή (Αθήνα), τόμ. 17, τεύχ. 5-6,
σ. 207-211.
5. 1969γ - «Λονδίνο», Ο κόσμος της Ελληνίδας (Αθήνα), τόμ. 16,
τεύχ. 159, σ. 149-154.
6. 1969δ - «Το βρετανικό εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα», Ο κόσμος της
Ελληνίδας (Αθήνα), τόμ. 16, τεύχ. 162, σ. 242-244.
7. 1969ε - «Συγχρονισμός και συντηρητισμός στο εκπαιδευτικό
σύστημα της Μ. Βρετανίας», Ελληνο-Χριστιανική Αγωγή (Αθήνα),
τόμ. ΚΒ, τεύχ. 185, σ. 221-224.
8. 1975 - "Toward an Understanding of Interference", Views on
Language and Language Teaching" (Αθήνα), τόμ. 1, τεύχ. 2, σ.
37-42.
9. 1977 - "Modern Greek and English Consonants in Contrast: An
Investigation of Interference on the PhonoLogical and Graphemic
Levels of English". Ethnic Studies (Melbourne), τόμ. 1, τεύχ. 1, σ
51-72.
10. 1978 - "Phonetic Processes of Modern Greek in Normal
Conversational Tempo", Talanya, Journal of the Linguistic Society
of Australia (Melbourne), τόμ. 5, σ. 90-100.
11. 1980α - «Η λογοτεχνία του αποδήμου Ελληνισμού και η θέση της
στα Νεοελληνικά Γράμματα», Τομές (Αθήνα), τόμ. 6, τεύχ. 64-65,
σ. 39-44.
Αναδημοσιεύσεις έγιναν περί τις δέκα από το 1980 έως το 1989,
στην Ελλάδα, Αυστραλία, Αμερική και Καναδά, από διάφορα
λογοτεχνικά έντυπα του Ελληνισμού, καθώς και ένα στα
Πολωνικά.
297
Κριτικές έκαναν οι Κ. Τριανταφύλλου (Η Ημέρα των Πατρών,

Πάτρα 1982), Σύνταξη εφημ. (Η Φωνή των Αποδήμων, Αθήνα
1982), Σύνταξη εφημ. (Οι Νέοι Άνθρωποι, Αθήνα 1982).
12. 1980β - «Η ελληνική εβδομάδα στην Αυστραλία: Πολιτιστικές
εκδηλώσεις του απόδημου Ελληνισμού», Θεσσαλική Εστία
(Αθήνα), τόμ. 7-8, τέυχ. 47, σ. 454-455.
Αναδημοσιεύσεις από Τομές, τόμ. 6 (Αθήνα, 1980). Στόχοι:
Πολιτιστική Περιοδική Έκδοση του Κέντρου Ελληνικού
Πολιτισμού (Νέα Υόρκη), τόμ. 2, τεύχ. 7
13. 1981 - "Research into the Greek Literature of Australia" /
«Έρευνα στην ελληνική λογοτεχνία της Αυστραλίας», Το Χρονικό
(Μελβούρνη), τόμ. 2, σ. 25-30. (Δίγλωσσο άρθρο).
14. 1982α - «Η ελληνική λογοτεχνία της Αυστραλίας», Η Κύπρος μας
(Λευκωσία), τόμ. 5, τεύχ. 24, σ.16-19.
15. 1982β - «Το φαινόμενο της διγλωσσίας με αναφορά στην
αυστραλιανή κοινωνική πραγματικότητα», Αντίποδες
(Μελβούρνη), τόμ. 9, τεύχ. 14. (Ιανουάριος-Ιούνιος), σ. 9-20.
16. 1983α - «Σχέσεις Γλώσσας και κουλτούρας στην ανθρώπινη
επικοινωνία», Δελφικά Τετράδια (Αθήνα), Περίοδος Β, τόμ. 1, τεύχ.
1, σ. 9-22.
17. 1983β - "Greek Australians and their Literature", Études
Helléniques/Hellenic Studies (Μόντρεαλ), τόμ. 1, τεύχ. 2
(Φθινόπωρο), σ. 55-62.
1986 - "A profile of the Literature of the Greeks in Australia",
Βιβλιογραφία Γλωσσολογίας Ιστορία της Γλώσσας-

Ιστορικοσυγκριτική Γραμματική
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Φωνητική (πανεπιστημιακές παραδόσεις), Θεσσαλονίκη 1969 .
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Hoffmann O. - Debrunner A. - Scherer A., Ιστορία της ελληνικής
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γνωρίσματα της μετακλασικής Ελλάδας, Μετάφραση Χ. Συμεωνίδης,
Εκδοτικός Οίκος Αδελφών Κυριακίδη, Θεσσαλονίκη 1988.
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Γλώσσα από τα ελληνιστικά ως τα νεώτερα χρόνια. H Ελληνική Γλώσσα
στην Αίγυπτο, Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης, Iνστιτούτο
Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Θεσσαλονίκη, 1985
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Μπαμπινιώτης Γ., Συνοπτική ιστορία της ελληνικής Γλώσσας,
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ελληνικής Γλώσσας, Ελληνικά Γράμματα, Αθήνα
Mackridge P., Η Νεοελληνική Γλώσσα. Περιγραφική ανάλυση της
νεοελληνικής κοινής, μτφρ.: Κώστας Ν. Πετρόπουλος, Πατάκης, Αθήνα,
1990
Mirabel A., Η νέα ελληνική Γλώσσα. Περιγραφή και ανάλυση,
Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών ('Ιδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη),
Σταματάκος Ι., Ιστορική γραμματική της αρχαίας Ελληνικής κατά τα
πορίσματα της συγκριτικής γλωσσολογίας 1-2, Αθήνα 1968.
Συμεωνίδης Χ., Ιστορική γραμματική της αρχαίας Ελληνικής. Μέρος Α':
Φωνητική (πανεπιστημιακές παραδόσεις), Εκδοτικός Οίκος Αφών
Κυριακίδη, Θεσσαλονίκη 1989.
Συμεωνίδης Χ., Ιστορικοσυγκριτική γραμματική των Ινδοευρωπαϊκών
γλωσσών, Α. Γενική Εισαγωγή, Εκδοτικός Οίκος Αφών Κυριακίδη,
Θεσσαλονίκη 1990.
Τσάντρεν Π., Ιστορική μορφολογία της ελληνικής Γλώσσας,
Καρδαμίτσας, Αθήνα
Thomson G., Η ελληνική Γλώσσα: η αρχαία και νέα, Κέδρος, Αθήνα,
1989.
Tonnet H., Ιστορία της νέας ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Η διαμόρφωσή της,
μτφρ.: Π. Λιαλιάτσης - Μ. Καραμάνου, επιμ.: Χ. Χαραλαμπάκης,
Παπαδήμας, Αθήνα, 1995
Χαραλαμπάκης Χ., Ιστορία της μετακλασικής ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Α΄. η
ελληνιστική κοινή. Συνοπτικές πανεπιστημιακές παραδόσεις, Ρέθυμνο,
1981
299
A (Very) Brief History of the English Language- Indo-European and

Germanic Influences
English is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. This

broad family includes most of the European languages spoken today. The
Indo-European family includes several major branches:
Latin and the modern Romance languages;
the Germanic languages;
the Indo-Iranian languages, including Hindi and Sanskrit;
the Slavic languages;
the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian (but not Estonian);
the Celtic languages; and
Greek.
The influence of the Original Indo-European language, designated proto-
Indo-European, can be seen today, even though no written record of it
exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in
Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in
different languages that share the same root.
Of these branches of the Indo-European family, two are, for our purposes
of studying the development of English, of paramount importance, the
Germanic and the Romance (called that because the Romance languages
derive from Latin, the language of ancient Rome, not because of any
bodice-ripping literary genre). English is in the Germanic group of
languages. This group began as a common language in the Elbe river
region about 3,000 years ago. Around the second century BC, this
Common Germanic language split into three distinct sub-groups:
to modern Frisian--the language of northeastern region of the
Netherlands--that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old
English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the
Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the
Southeast. East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back to
southeastern Europe. No East Germanic language is spoken today, and
the only written East Germanic language that survives is Gothic.
North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of
Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic (but not Finnish, which is
related to Estonian and is not an Indo-European language).
West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish,
Frisian, and English. Old English (500-1100 AD)
West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles
(whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons,
300
and Jutes, began popuLating the British Isles in the fifth and sixth
centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar
These invaders pushed the Original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of
what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving
behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in
Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh. Cornish,
unfortunately, is now a dead language. (The last native Cornish speaker,
Dolly Pentreath, died in 1777 in the town of Mousehole, Cornwall.) Also
influencing English at this time were the Vikings. Norse invasions,
beginning around 850, brought many North Germanic words into the
language, particularly in the north of England. Some examples are dream,
which had meant 'joy' until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it
from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, and skirt, which continues to live
alongside its native English cognate shirt.
The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old
English roots. In fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English
words have descendants surviving today. But this is deceptive; Old
English is much more important than these statistics would indicate.
About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have
Old English roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive
from Old English roots.
Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf,
lasted until about 1100. This last date is rather arbitrary, but most scholars
choose it because it is shortly after the most important event in the
development of the English language, the Norman Conquest.
The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500)
William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered
England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. (The Bayeux Tapestry, which
graces the top of this and other pages on this site, is perhaps the most
famous graphical depiction of the Norman Conquest.) The new overlords
spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. The Normans
were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") and
Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic
influences in addition to the basic Latin roots.
Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on
the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation
and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century
(ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the
language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance
(Anglo-Norman) words.
The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words,
beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the
Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the
301
cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury ,
and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the
courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have
Romantic roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon
commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances.
Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced
firen and uncle replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English
components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the
Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two different words with
roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we have
the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire.
It is useful to compare various versions of a familiar text to see the
differences between Old, Middle, and Modern English. Take for instance
this Old English (c. 1000) sample:
Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum
si þin nama gehalgod tobecume þin rice gewurþe þin willa on eorðan swa
swa on heofonum
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us to dæg
and forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum
and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele soþlice.
To get a feel for Old English pronunciation, play a wav file of this Old
English text (518Kb), read by Catherine Ball of Georgetown University.
Rendered in Middle English (Wyclif, 1384), the same text is recognizable

to the modern eye:
Oure fadir þat art in heuenes halwid be þi name;
þi reume or kyngdom come to be. Be þi wille don in herþe as it is doun in
heuene.
yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.
And foryeue to us oure dettis þat is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure
dettouris þat is to men þat han synned in us.
And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl.
Finally, in Early Modern English (King James Version, 1611) the same
text is completely intelligible:
Our father which art in heauen, hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth as it is in heauen.
Giue us this day our daily bread.
And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters.
And lead us not into temptation, but deliuer us from euill. Amen.
In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of
France. This began a process where the Norman nobles of England
became increasingly estranged from their French cousins. England
became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their estates in
302
France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their

native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed
about one third of the English population. The laboring and merchant
classes grew in economic and social importance, and along with them
English increased in importance compared to Anglo-Norman.
This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English.
The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury
Tales . Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with
difficulty, by modern English-speaking people.
By 1362, the Linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners
was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which
made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in
Parliament.
The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise
of Modern English.
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
The next wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The
revival of Classical scholarship brought many Classical Latin and Greek
words into the Language. These borrowings were deliberate and many
bemoaned the adoption of these "inkhorn" terms, but many survive to this
day. Shakespeare's character Holofernes in Loves Labor Lost is a satire of
an overenthusiastic schoolmaster who is too fond of Latinisms.
Many students having difficulty understanding Shakespeare would be
surprised to learn that he wrote in modern English. But, as can be seen in
the earlier example of the Lord's Prayer, Elizabethan English has much
more in common with our language today than it does with the language
of Chaucer. Many familiar words and phrases were coined or first
recorded by Shakespeare, some 2,000 words and countless catch-phrases
are his. Newcomers to Shakespeare are often shocked at the number of
cliches contained in his plays, until they realize that he coined them and
they became cliches afterwards. "One fell swoop," "vanish into thin air,"
and "flesh and blood" are all Shakespeare's. Words he bequeathed to the
language include "critical," "leapfrog," "majestic," "dwindle," and
"pedant."
Two other major factors influenced the language and served to separate
Middle and Modern English. The first was the Great Vowel Shift. This
was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400. While modern
English speakers can read Chaucer with some difficulty, Chaucer's
pronunciation would have been completely unintelligible to the modern
ear. Shakespeare, on the other hand, would be accented, but
understandable. Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the
mouth and the letter "e" at the end of words became silent. Chaucer's Lyf
(pronounced "leef") became the modern life. In Middle English name was
303
pronounced "nam-a," five was pronounced "feef," and down was

pronounced "doon." In Linguistic terms, the shift was rather sudden, the
major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over,
however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has
become considerably more gradual.
The last major factor in the development of Modern English was the
advent of the printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to
England in 1476. Books became cheaper and as a result, literacy became
more common. Publishing for the masses became a profitable enterprise,
and works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more common.
Finally, the printing press brought standardization to English. The dialect
of London, where most publishing houses were located, became the
standard. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the first English
dictionary was published in 1604.
Late-Modern English (1800-Present)

The principal distinction between early- and late-modern English is vocabulary.
Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same, but Late-Modern English
has many more words. These words are the result of two Historical factors. The first is
the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the technoLogical society. This necessitated
new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed. The second was the
British Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's surface, and
English adopted many foreign words and made them its own.
The industrial and scientific revolutions created a need for Neologisms to describe the
new creations and discoveries. For this, English relied heavily on Latin and Greek.
Words like oxygen, protein, nuclear, and vaccine did not exist in the Classical
languages, but they were created from Latin and Greek roots. Such Neologisms were
not exclusively created from Classical roots though, English roots were used for such
terms as horsepower, airplane, and typewriter .
This burst of Neologisms continues today, perhaps most visible in the field of
electronics and computers. Byte, cyber-, bios, hard-drive, and microchip are good
examples.
Also, the rise of the British Empire and the growth of global trade served not only to
introduce English to the world, but to introduce words into English. Hindi, and the
other languages of the Indian subcontinent, provided many words, such as pundit,
shampoo, pajamas, and juggernaut. Virtually every language on Earth has contributed
to the development of English, from Finnish (sauna) and Japanese (tycoon) to the vast
contributions of French and Latin.
The British Empire was a maritime empire, and the influence of nautical terms on the
English language has been great. Words and phrases like three sheets to the wind and
scuttlebutt have their origins onboard ships.
Finally, the 20th century saw two world wars, and the military influence on the
language during the latter half of this century has been great. Before the Great War,
military service for English-speaking persons was rare; both Britain and the United
States maintained small, volunteer militaries. Military slang existed, but with the
exception of nautical terms, rarely influenced standard English. During the mid-20th
century, however, virtually all British and American men served in the military.
Military slang entered the language like never before. Blockbuster, nose dive,
304
camouflage, radar, roadblock, spearhead, and landing strip are all military terms that
made their way into standard English.
American English
Also significant beginning around 1600 AD was the English colonization of North
America and the subsequent creation of a distinct American dialect. Some
pronunciations and usages "froze" when they reached the American shore. In certain
respects, American English is closer to the English of Shakespeare than modern
British English is. Some "Americanisms" that the British decry are actually Originally
British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost at home (e.g., fall as
a synonym for autumn, trash for rubbish, frame-up which was reintroduced to Britain
through Hollywood gangster movies, and loan as a verb instead of lend).
The American dialect also served as the route of introduction for many native
American words into the English language. Most often, these were place names like
Mississippi, Roanoke, and Iowa. Indian-sounding names like Idaho were sometimes
created that had no native-American roots. But, names for other things besides places
were also common. Raccoon, tomato, canoe, barbecue, savanna, and hickory have
native American roots, although in many cases the Original Indian words were
mangled almost beyond recognition.
Spanish has also been great influence on American English. Armadillo, mustang,
canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are all examples of Spanish words that made
their way into English through the settlement of the American West.
To a lesser extent French, mainly via Louisiana, and West African, through the
importation of slaves, words have influenced American English. Armoire, bayou, and
jambalaya came into the language via New Orleans. Goober, gumbo, and tote are
West African borrowings first used in America by slaves.
A Chronology of the English Language
55 BC-Roman invasion of Britain under Julius Caesar
43 AD-Roman invasion and occupation under Emperor Claudius. Beginning of
Roman rule of Britain
436-Roman withdrawal from Britain complete
449-Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain begins
450-480-Earliest Old English inscriptions date from this period
597-St. Augustine arrives in Britain. Beginning of Christian conversion
731-The Venerable Bede publishes The Ecclesiastical History of the English People in
Latin
792-Viking raids and settlements begin
865-The Danes occupy Northumbria
871-Alfred becomes king of Wessex. He has Latin works translated into English and
begins practice of English prose. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is begun
911-Charles II of France grants Normandy to the Viking chief Hrolf the Ganger. The
beginning of Norman French
c. 1000-The oldest surviving manuscript of Beowulf dates from this period
1066-The Norman conquest
c. 1150-The oldest surviving manuscripts of Middle English date from this period
1171-Henry II conquers Ireland
1204-King John loses the province of Normandy to France
1348-English replaces Latin as the medium of instruction in schools, other than
Oxford and Cambridge which retain Latin
1349-50-The Black Death kills one third of the British population
305
1362-The Statute of Pleading replaces French with English as the language of law.
Records continue to be kept in Latin. English is used in Parliament for the first time
1384-Wyclif publishes his English translation of the Bible
c. 1388-Chaucer begins The Canterbury Tales
c. 1400-The Great Vowel Shift begins
1476-William Caxton establishes the first English printing press
1485-Caxton publishes Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur
1492-Columbus discovers the New World
1525-William Tyndale translates the New Testament
1536-The first Act of Union unites England and Wales
1549-First version of The Book of Common Prayer
1564-Shakespeare born
1603-Union of the English and Scottish crowns under James the I (VI of Scotland)
1604-Robert Cawdrey publishes the first English dictionary, Table Alphabeticall
1607-Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the New World,
established
1611-The Authorized, or King James Version, of the Bible is published
1616-Death of Shakespeare
1623-Shakespeare's First Folio is published
1666-The Great Fire of London. End of The Great Plague
1702-Publication of the first daily, English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant,
in London
1755-Samuel Johnson publishes his dictionary
1770-Cook discovers Australia
1776-Thomas Jefferson writes the Declaration of Independence
1782-Washington defeats Cornwallis at Yorktown. Britain abandons the American
colonies
1786-British penal colony established in Australia
1803-Act of Union unites Britain and Ireland
1828-Noah Webster publishes his dictionary
1851-Herman Melville publishes Moby Dick
1922-British Broadcasting Company founded
1928
The Oxford English Dictionary is published-Return to Wordorigins
Home Page
Last Updated 1 January 2001 - 1997-2001, by David Wilton.
Audio recordings 1996, by Catherine N. Ball. Used with permission.
Μέσω Internet, ελληνικές, λατινικές, αγγλικές λέξεις.
Following are sample entries from Words for a Modern

Age. Note that there is an English entry which refers the
reader to the Latin and/or Greek reference(s) and another
entry showing the Latin or Greek source(s). So all of the
Latin and Greek elements and words may be found from
either the English sources or from the Latin or Greek
sources in alphabetical order throughout the book.
306
Δημοσιεύματα-του Καθηγητού Γ. Δ. Μπαμπινιώτη.Μέσω Internet.
Συγχρονική γραμματική της Κοινής Νέας Ελληνικής. Θεωρία-Ασκήσεις.

(Αθήνα), 262 σελ. [σε συνεργασία με τον Π. Κοντό].
Λεξικογραφία. Λεξικόν, Λεξικά. Μεγάλη Παιδαγωγική Εγκυκλοπαίδεια
3, 581-584.
Βιβλιοκριτική πραγματεία για το Λεξικό του Ρ. Chantraine (Dictiοnnaire
etymοlοgique de la langue Grecque. Ηistοire des mοts. Τόμ.Α', Α-Δ,
Ρaris, σ. xviii+3Ο5). Αθηνά 7Ο, 358-38Ο.
Ο διά συνθέσεως υποκορισμός εις την Ελληνικήν. (Αθήνα: ''Βιβλιοθήκη
Σοφίας Ν. Σαριπόλου'', αριθμ.3), 314 σελ. [διδ. διατριβή].
Οn the ρrοblem οf ''Βe-νerbs'' in Μοdern Greek. Πλάτων 22, 26-56 [με
περίληψη στην Ελληνική].
Πλευραί του μετ' επιθήματος Υποκορισμού της Ελληνικής. Αθηνά 7l,
194-235.
Συμβολή εις το φωνολογικόν σύστημα της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής (Επί της
τροπής του μακρού α εις η εις την ιωνικήν-αττικήν διάλεκτον). Αθηνά
72, 114-143+2 πιν. [=Ρhοnοlοgische Βetrachtungen zum Wandel νοn
lang. a zu e im Iοnisch-Αttischen. (Institut fur Sρrachwissenschaft-
Uniνersitat Koln, Αrbeitspapier Νr 17, πολυγρ. εκδ.)].
Το ρήμα της Ελληνικής: Δομικαί εξελίξεις και συστηματοποίησις του
ρήματος της Ελληνικής - Αρχαίας και νέας. (Αθήνα: "Βιβλιοθήκη
Σοφίας Ν. Σαριπόλου'', αριθμ. 2Ο), 32Ο σελ. [με περίληψη στα
Γερμανικά].
Το θεωρητικόν υπόβαθρον της ιστορικής ορθογραφίας. Συμβολή εις την
Σημειολογίαν. ΕΕΦΣΠΑ 1971-72 286-3Ο7.
Επί της προφοράς της γλώσσης των αρχαίων κειμένων. Νεοελληνική ή
''εξ επανασυνθέσεως'' (''ερασμική'') προφορά. ΕΕΦΣΠΑ 1971-72 [1973],
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Συντακτικά προβλήματα της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής. Περί της συντακτικής
δομής του απαρεμφάτου της Αρχαίας. Αθηνά 74, 7Ο2-738.
(Εκδότης) Βibliοgraphical Βulletin οf the Greek Language. (Αθήνα:
Εκδ. Καρδαμίτσα) [Vοl. I:1973, II: 1974, III:1975 και l976].
Νεωτέρα Γλωσσολογία: Παραδοσιακή γραμματική, Ιστορικοσυγκριτική
γλωσσολογία, Στρουκτουραλισμός, Μετασχηματιστική γραμματική.
(Αθήνα), 81 σελ.
Η μοναδικότητα της λέξεως. Συμβολή στην θεωρία του γλωσσικού

σημείου. Σπείρα 5, 11-29.
Η διδασκαλία του αρχαίου ελληνικού λόγου στο γυμνάσιο. Εποπτεία
τεύχ. 8-9, 49-53 [=Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη 1995: Ελληνική Γλώσσα: Παρελθόν-
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Γενετική-Μετασχηματιστική γραμματική. Σύντομη εισαγωγή. (Αθήνα),

88 σελ.
Ιστορική γραμματική της Αρχαίας Ελληνικής: II Μορφολογία. (Αθήνα),
80 σελ.
Η χρονολόγησι των νόμων των κωφώσεων των βορείων ελληνικών
ιδιωμάτων. Α' Συμπόσιο Γλωσσολογίας του Βορειοελλαδικού χώρου: 28-
30 Απριλίου 1976. (Θεσσαλονίκη: εκδ. Ι.Μ.Χ.Α.),σ.13-21.
Ο πολεμικός λόγος των Ελλήνων. Στο ''Επίσημοι λόγοι εκφωνηθέντες
κατά το έτος 1975-76", τόμ. κ', 41-61 (Αθήνα: Εκδ. Πανεπ. Αθηνών). [=
Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη 1995: Η Γλώσσα ως αξία, σ.173-200].
Η ''Νεοελληνική Γραμματική" του Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη και η
Γλώσσα μας. Διαβάζω τεύχ. 13, σ. 43-45. [= ''Χρειαζόμαστε μια Νέα
γραμματική της δημοτικής". Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη 1995: Ελληνική Γλώσσα:
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Α Linguistic approach tο the "Language Questiοn'' in Greece. Βyzantine
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Γενετική-Μετασχηματιστική Γραμματική. Εποπτεία τεύχ. 32, [Αφιέρωμα
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Θεωρητική Γλωσσολογία. Εισαγωγή στη σύγχρονη γλωσσολογία.
Η γλωσσολογική σκοπιά της μεταφράσεως. Στο Α. Σκιαδά (εκδ.),
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Πολυτονία, μονοτονία και ατονία στη Γλώσσα μας. Το ζήτημα της
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Η έννοια της γλωσσικής ταυτότητας. Ευθύνη, τεύχ. 112 ["Γλώσσα και
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Γεώργιος Ν. Χατζιδάκις (1848-1941). Η συμβολή του στην
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"Κατάστασης " εναντίον "καταστάσεως ". Δομική ανάλυσι των τύπων
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Μέριμνα, αμεριμνησία και υπερπροστασία της Γλώσσας. Η
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Σύγχρονη Σημασιολογία. Από την πρότασι στο κείμενο. Γλωσσολογία 1,
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Υπεραπλουστεύσεις και παρερμηνείες. Εφημ. Καθημερινή (Φιλολ.
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Η αντινομία της ανθρώπινης Γλώσσας. Η Γλώσσα ως προϊόν
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Συνοπτικό διάγραμμα της σημερινής καταστάσεως των γλωσσολογικών
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Η σημασιολογία στην ποίηση. Πρακτικά του Α' Συμποσίου
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Γλωσσολογία και Λογοτεχνία. Από την τεχνική στην τέχνη του λόγου.
Σκέψεις για τη Γλώσσα του Μακρυγιάννη. Επ' ευκαιρία της εκδόσεως
του ''Λεξιλογίου'' των Απομνημονευμάτων και των ''Οραμάτων και
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Συνοπτική ιστορία της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας με εισαγωγή στην
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Γλωσσολογικές Σχολές: Ευρωπαϊκός και Αμερικανικός Δομισμός.
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Η διδασκαλία της Γλώσσας στην εκπαίδευση. Σύγχρονες τάσεις και
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Η Γλώσσα ως συνάντηση ανθρώπου με άνθρωπο. [Ομιλία στην τελετή
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Η πρόταση για την ίδρυση μιας "Διαρκούς Επιτροπής Νεοελληνικής
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Η Γλώσσα των νέων. Μητρική Γλώσσα και γλωσσικοί κώδικες.
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Επιστημονικό επίμετρο στην αλληλογραφία για το ελληνικό αλφάβητο.
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Καθημερινή 13-14 Ιουλίου.
Από τη λέξη στο κείμενο. Σταθμοί και προβληματισμοί στην
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(Εκδότης) Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Αναζητήσεις και συζητήσεις [Συλλογικός
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Σκέψεις για την περαιτέρω αξιοποίηση των δεδομένων από τη μηχανική
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Ανάλυση του ποιήματος ως επικοινωνιακής πράξεως.
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Παιδεία βασισμένη σε ξεκάθαρο ανθρώπινο πρότυπο. Επίκαιρα, 21/5/87,
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[εκδότης] Μνήμη Γεωργίου Κουρμούλη. [Αφιέρωμα στον Γ. Κουρμούλη]
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Ρrοblemes d' enseignement de la langue maternelle: Le cas du Grec.
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Ferdinand de Saussυre. Παγκόσμιο Βιογραφικό Λεξικό (Εκδοτική
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Η Γλώσσα του Μακρυγιάννη. Υπόδειγμα Γλώσσας ή ύφους;
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Γ. Χατζιδάκις. Παγκόσμιο Βιογραφικό Λεξικό (Εκδοτική Αθηνών) 9Β,
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Εκατό χρόνια από το "Ταξίδι" του Γιάννη Ψυχάρη. Ν. Εστία τεύχ. 1463
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Καταλήξαμε σε έναν φαύλο γλωσσικό κύκλο. Το Δέντρο, τεύχ. 40, σ. 7-
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Υπάρχει γλωσσικό πρόβλημα σήμερα; Στον συλλογικό τόμο "Δημόσιος
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Γεώργιος Ι. Κουρμούλης. Στο Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη - Ν. Παναγιωτάκη (εκδ.),
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Με -η ή με -ι; Εξέλιξι, δομική κατάστασι και ορθογραφία των παλιών
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Η θέση της Μακεδονικής στις αρχαίες ελληνικές διαλέκτους. Το
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Γλωσσολογία 7-8, 53-69.
Ελληνική Γλώσσα και ευρωπαϊκή σκέψη. Ψυχολογικό Σχήμα 1, 68-70
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Λεξικό Συνωνύμων της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. [Ολοκλήρωση Λεξικού
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Αncient Μacedοnian: Τhe place οf Μacedοnian amοng the Greek
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Κρίση ποιότητας στη σύγχρονη Ελληνική. Εφημ. Μεσημβρινή Φεβρ.
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Γλωσσολογία και Λογοτεχνία. Από την Τεχνική στην Τέχνη του Λόγου.
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Γλωσσική επικοινωνία μεταξύ των χωρών της Ευρωπαϊκής Κοινότητας.
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Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα στο ραδιόφωνο και την τηλεόραση. (Εισαγωγική
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Σύλλογος των Εκφωνητών Ραδιοφωνίας της ΕΡΤ. Ζάππειο, 7-11-92)
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[Εκδότης] Η Γλώσσα της Μακεδονίας. Η αρχαία Μακεδονική και η
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Οι επιστημονικοί όροι της Ελληνικής: Γλωσσολογικές αρχές της
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Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα μέσα από αρχαία, βυζαντινά και λόγια κείμενα.
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Τhe questiοn οf Μedia in Αncient Μacedοnian Greek recοnsidered. Στο
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Τhe Τeaching οf Μοdern Greek as a First and a Fοreign (Secοnd)
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14-15 Φεβρ. 1992 (Αθήνα: Υπουργ. Παιδείας. ΟΕΔΒ), σ.199-214].
Η ταυτότητα της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας / Τhe Greek Language: its
identity. Στο "Ελληνική. Μια πάντοτε σύγχρονη Γλώσσα" (Αθήνα:
'Εκδοση του Υπουργείου Πολιτισμού), σ. 28-39 [ελληνιστί και αγγλιστί].
Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Εγχειρίδιο διδασκαλίας της Ελληνικής ως δεύτερης
(ξένης) Γλώσσας. (Αθήνα: 'Ιδρυμα Μελετών Λαμπράκη), 374 σελ.
[συνεργάστηκαν οι: Α. Αναγνωστοπούλου, Ει. Αργυρούδη, Μ. Κολυβά
και Ν. Μήτσης].
Cοntempοrary Linguistics and the Τeaching οf Μοdern Greek. Στο Ι.
Ρhilippaki-Warburtοn - Κ. Νicοlaidis - Μ. Stephanοu (eds): Τhemes in
313
Greek Linguistics. Ρapers frοm the 1st Ιnternatiοnal cοnference οn

Greek Lingυistics, Reading Sept. 1993 (Αmsterdam: John Βenjamin), σ.
1-10.
Πρόλογος στο σχολικό βιβλίο της Γ' Λυκείου "Εκθεση ιδεών-Λόγος
δημιουργικός" (Αθήνα: ΟΕΔΒ), σ. 5-6. [Το βιβλίο εκπονήθηκε με
πρωτοβουλία και συνεργασία του Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη με τους συγγραφείς
του βιβλίου: Π. Γιακουμή, Ν. Γρηγοριάδη, Ανθ. Δανιήλ, Π. Παπαιωάννου
και Ν. Μήτση (συντονιστή)].
Εισαγωγή - Η ταυτότητα της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας - Η διαχρονική
προσέγγιση της ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Στο "Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα.
Αρχαία, βυζαντινά και λόγια κείμενα" για την Α' Γυμνασίου [Βιβλίο του
καθηγητή] (Αθήνα: ΟΕΔΒ), σ. 7, 9-13 και 14-27 (αντιστοίχως).
Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα στην Κύπρο σήμερα. [Ανακοίνωση σε ομότιτλο
Συνέδριο της Κύπρου: Λευκωσία, 24-25 Οκτ. 1992]. Στο "Ελλάδος
φθόγγον χέουσα: Η αλλοτρίωση της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στην Κύπρο"
(Λευκωσία: Κέντρο Μελετών Ιεράς Μονής Κύκκου), σ. 1-13 [=Γ.
Μπαμπινιώτη 1995: Η Γλώσσα ως αξία, σ. 227-40 και σ. 327].
Μετάφραση: Η τέχνη της δημιουργίας ισοδύναμων κειμένων.
(Ανακοίνωση σε Συνέδριο που οργάνωσε το Ιόνιο Πανεπιστήμιο με θέμα:
"Η μετάφραση, μέσο επικοινωνίας και δημιουργίας", 7-9 Απρ.1993) [=Γ.
Μπαμπινιώτη 1995: Η Γλώσσα ως αξία, σ. 251-60 και σ. 328].
Σύγχρονη γλωσσσολογία και διδασκαλία της ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
Γλωσσολογία 9-10, 53-68 [πλήρης μορφή της Ανακοίνωσης στο
Συνέδριο του Reading. Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη 1993: Cοntempοrary Linguistics
and the Τeaching οf Μοdern Greek].
Πρόλογος στο βιβλίο των Φρ. Μπατσαλιά - Ε. Σελλά - Μάζη:
Γλωσσολογική προσέγγιση στη θεωρία και τη διδακτική της μετάφρασης
(Κέρκυρα: Ιόνιο Πανεπιστήμιο), σ. 11-12,
Η Γλώσσα ως αξία: Το παράδειγμα της Ελληνικής (Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις
Gutenberg, Γλωσσολογική Βιβλιοθήκη 1), 372 σελ.
Ελληνική Γλώσσα: Παρελθόν-παρόν-μέλλον (Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις
Gutenberg, Γλωσσολογική Βιβλιοθήκη 2), 594 σελ.
Παιδεία, Εκπαίδευση και Γλώσσα: Εκτιμήσεις και Προτάσεις (Αθήνα:
Εκδόσεις Gutenberg, Γλωσσολογική Βιβλιοθήκη 3), 339 σελ.
Τhe Βlending οf Τraditiοn and Ιnnονatiοn in Μοdern Greek culture. Στο
D. Cοnstas - Τh. Staνrοu (eds): Greece prepares fοr the Τwenty-first
centυry (Washingtοn: Τhe Wοοdrοw Wilsοn center Ρress), σ.223-252.
Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Εγχειρίδιο διδασκαλίας της Ελληνικής ως δεύτερης
(ξένης) Γλώσσας. (Αθήνα: 'Ιδρ. Μελετών Λαμπράκη), 455 σελ. [νέα (5η
έκδοση) αναθεωρημένη και επαυξημένη, α' έκδ. 1993].
L' enseignement actυel du Grec en Grece. Στο "Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα /
La langυe Grecque". (Αθήνα: 'Εκδ. Υπουργείου Εθνικής Παιδείας και
Θρησκευμάτων - Παιδαγωγικού Ινστιτούτου), σ. 22-31 [Συντομευμένη
314
μορφή της μελέτης "Σύγχρονη γλωσσολογία και διδασκαλία της

ελληνικής Γλώσσας" (1994), σε ελληνική και γαλλική Γλώσσα].
A History of the English Language, Past Changes Precipitate

Worldwide Popularity
Lauralee B. York. Rewritten August. 2, 1999
The History of the English language is of significance because English

is spoken more frequently than any other language except Chinese,
according to the International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (410). A
Germanic language, English is spoken by an estimated 1,500,000,000
people, and that number is ever increasing, according to An Encyclopedic
Dictionary of Language and Languages (121).
English is the chief language of world publishing, science and

technology, conferencing, and computer storage as well as the language
of international air traffic control (121). English is also used for purposes
of international communications, and international Politics, business
communications, and academic communities (122).
The History of English can be traced to the colonization of people from a

family of languages which spread throughout Europe and southern Asia
in the fourth millennium BC, (185). It is thought that a seminomadic
population living in the steppe region to the north of the Black Sea moved
west to Europe and east to Iran and India, spreading their culture and
languages (186). According to The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
Language, the European languages and Sanskrit, the oldest language of
the Indian sub-continent, were tied to a common source. When a
systematic resemblance was discovered in both roots and verbs and in
grammar forms, by comparing similar features of the European
languages and Sanskrit, a common source language was reconstructed
named Proto-Indo-European (298).
The Proto-Indo-European language was more complex than English

today. According to The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, It is
possible to reconstruct three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter)
and up to eight cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative,
ablative, locative, instrumental). Adjectives agreed in case, number, and
gender with the noun. The verb system was also rich in inflections, used
for aspect, mood, tense, voice, person, and number. Different
grammatical forms of a word were often related by the feature of ablaut,
or vowel graduation: the root vowel would change systematically to
315
express such differences as singular and plural or past and present tense,
as is still the case in English foot/feet or take/took (Crystal 299).
The Proto-Indo-European language is thought to have been spoken

before 3,000 BC, and to have split up into different languages during the
following millennium (298). The languages families include Celtic,
Germanic, Italic, Indo-Iranian, Tocharian, Armenian, Anatolian, Albanian,
Greek, Balto-Slavic, and Slavic languages. Yiddish, German, Afrikaans,
Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English make up the West Germanic
subgroup of the Germanic Branch (Crystal 186).
Scholars renamed the language group the Indo-European family after

3,000 BC (298). Theorists suggest that the horse was a major element of
the Proto-Indo-European and the Indo-European family of languages.
They conjecture that the culture was spread by warriors who conquered
from horse-drawn chariots. Others discount this theory, according the
Dictionary of Languages (273). The Indo-European languages have
been marked by a succession of changes affecting different languages.
One change of note includes the centum/satem split. K followed by a
front vowel became s or sh in Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit sata), Iranian (Persian
sad), Slavonic (Russian sto), Baltic (Lithuanian simtas), Albanian (qind,
pronounced chind) and Armenian. It remained k in Celtic (Welsh cant),
Italic, Tocharian (kant), Greek (hetaton) and Germanic (with a
subsequent move to h, English hundred).
A sound shift in consonants occurred that differentiated the Proto-

Germanic languages from other Indo-European languages. It included
several consonants that were changed from the first example to the
second example in the following consonants: p>f, t>0, k>x, b>p, d>t,
g>k, bh>b, dh>d, and gh>h. The sound shift was named Grimms Law,
after the man who described it, according to Contemporary Linguistics
(332).
The Proto-Indo-European, the Indo-European, and specifically the

Germanic language, of which English is a derivative, influenced the
early History of the English Language. The early History of the English
language began in Britain and with several groups of people. At first
people migrated to the placed now called England. Several invading
groups joined the Original settlers of England, bringing with them their
language and culture. English became a mixture of languages that
adapted to the circumstances and the needs of the people. England
eventually commanded an empire, thus, spreading the language around
the world. When the empire, diminished the Americas continued to
316
spread the English language because of their Political power and wealth.
The History of the English language is fascinating and follows as events
and language changes are pointed out.
The Celts were the first Indo-European people to spread across Europe,
according The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (304). They
emerged from south central Europe and spread throughout most of
Europe, reaching the Black Sea and Asia Minor. They migrated to south-
west Spain, central Italy, and throughout Britain in a series of wave-like
migrations. Their culture was named after a Swiss archaeoLogical site
called La Tene.
The first group of Celts went to Ireland in the 4th century and later
reached Scotland and the Isle of Man. The second group went into
southern England and Wales, and later to Brittany, producing a type of
Celtic know as British.
During the greatest days of the Roman Empire, their law ruled all men
from Britain to Egypt, from Spain to the Black Sea, according to A
History of Knowledge, (67). The Romans had a fierce respect and love of
the law. Everywhere the Romans governed, they took their laws and
administered them over the peoples they ruled. In fact, Roman law
continues to this day to be an influence upon almost all legal systems in
the Western world. The Romans adopted the Greek alphabet, Greek
ideas, images and world views. They copied the Macedonian order of
battle and Spartan steel weapons and armor. They conquered everywhere
they went, building roads, establishing cities, trading, and sharing their
culture. The Romans build a transportation network with hundreds of
miles of roadway. The roads the Romans built still exist today, after
twenty centuries of continuous use.
Britain was acquired as a province of the Roman Empire during the

century after 14 AD, following the death of Augustus. Words from Latin
and Greek languages were adopted into the language. The Greek
alphabet, with a few minor changes, is used in the English language
today (25). Eventually, the Romans also brought Christianity to
Britain. English became a distinct tongue about 449 AD when Angles,
Saxons, and Jutes, who spoke Germanic dialects, arrived in Celtic-
speaking Britain. Groups of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came to aid the
Romanized Britons who were besieged by Picts and Scots after the
Roman military withdrew in 410 AD (Bright 410). English owes its
origin to the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who crossed the sea and settled in
Britain, according to the Dictionary of Languages, (166). The Anglo-
317
Saxon kingdoms covered most of what is now England by around 600

AD.
The West Saxons were the most powerful of the new kingdoms, and the
only one able to withstand the Viking invasion in the 9th century AD. It
was also in Wessex or the West Saxon kingdom that a written language
first flourished. The International Encyclopedia of Linguistics divides
the History of English into three periods: Old English, Anglo-Saxon from
700 to 1100 AD, Middle English from 1100 to 1500 AD, and Modern
English or New English from 1500 to the present (410).
Old English (OE) was a highly inflected language. There were suffixes
on nouns, verbs, adjectives, and demonstratives. It had an elaborate
system of personal interrogative and relative pronouns. The four dialects
during the Old English period were Kentish in the southeast, West Saxon
in the south and southwest, Mercian in the Midlands, and Northumbrian
above the Humber River. West Saxon was the written standard during the
reign of Alfred the Great from 871 to 899 AD.
Old English morphology included noun forms of singulars and plurals,

with five cases, and three genders. Old English personal pronouns have
been retained, and have transferred into New English, more of their
morphoLogical variations than any other form class.
With the influx of the Christian religion at the end of the 6th century,
some Latin words were added. About 2,000 Danish words and phrases
were also added to Old English. At that time, the combining of native
elements in prefixing, suffixing, and compounding was the most
characteristic way of expanding the word stock. (Bright, 412)
Britain was invaded again during the Viking age of about 750 to 1050.
This invasion was mostly by Danes who then settled in central and
southern England. Throughout Britain, most of the people spoke Old
English and few words from the Celtic influence remained. Middle
English began with the 1066 Norman Conquest. French-speaking
Normans carried out government and educational duties. The Norman
invasion caused a bilingual environment with the middle class speaking
both French and English. It brought approximately 10,000 Norman
French words into Middle English. The Normans exerted a great
influence in food, fashion, education, religion, government, law, and the
military.
Social and Linguistic upheaval changed the language climate in 1215

when King John of England was forced to acknowledge the Magna Carta.
318
According to The Heritage of World Civilizations, this monumental

document was a victory of feudal over monarchical power in the sense
that it secured the rights of many the nobility, the clergy and the
townspeople over the autocratic king; it restored the internal balance of
power that had been the English Political experience since the Norman
conquest. Now the English people could be represented at the highest
levels of government. This eventually brought English back into use as
the countrys language (446-447).
Modern English developed when Caxton established his printing press at

Westminister in 1476. New English is a derivative of the dialect of
medieval London. It is in the same dialect used by Cha cer and Chancery.
During this time Johannes Gutenberg, a German printer invented type
molds for casting individual letters. His first book using movable type
was printed about 1450 and was printed on rag paper. (The Chinese
government is credited with the discovery of paper in 105 AD, however,
Arabs also discovered how to make paper.) Gutenbergs invention made
movable type practical because he could produce any quantity of letters
and words and place the timeype in a frame. He used rag paper in his
printings. His most famous printing is the Gutenberg Bible (Van Doren
154).
According to the International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, all vowels

were systematically raised, and the highest were dipthongized between
1400 and 1564. Also, there were 333 strong verbs in Old English. Half of
the verbs are still used, although, only 68 are inflected as strong verbs
(414). The most important phonoLogical event in modern times is the so-
called Great Vowel Shift. It began in late middle English and continued
until the eighteenth century. The long vowels of Middle English came to
be pronounced in a higher position, while the highest vowels became
diphthongs, according to The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
(1125).
With the approach of the 18th century, English became an analytical

language. Its rich inflectional system weakened, causing a great increase
in the use of prepositional phrases, in new phrasal prepositions (e.g. in
spite of, with regard to, on the basis of), and in periphrastic verb
construction. For example, did say is the periphrastic past tense of say,
and said is the inflected past tense of say. During this period, there was a
reduction of inflectional distinctions (Asher 1125). Also, Old English had
used both SVO and SOV sentence word orders without requiring a
grammatical subject. Middle English used SVO and the subject was
obligatory (Bright 413).
319
During the Renaissance, English displaced Latin as the language

used in philosophy, science, and other learned arenas. Since English
was lexically deficient, it borrowed Latin and Greek words for nouns
and adjectives. The International Encyclopedia of Linguistics
estimated that during the first 150 years of New English, more than
10,000 words from 50 languages were borrowed. It also asserted that
the current English language has borrowed foreign words from more
than 75 languages with French as the principal donor. The Old
English method of using affixes and compounding to form words was
displaced in New English by borrowing words as the favorite way of
enlarging the English word stock. According to the Dictionary of
Languages, the History of Modern English has three important
themes. The themes include the extension of English into new subject
areas, the spread of English to many parts of the world, and the
growth of English into Standard British English.
The extension of the language began with the first printed English
translation of the Bible in 1525. The Authorized Version of the English
Bible was translated in 1611. Finally, the revised Book of Common
Prayer was published in 1662. The Bible and the prayer book were in
everyday use in Anglican churches until the 1970(s), where they
influenced the speaking and writing of English for over 300 years.
English took the place of Latin during the 16th century in religion,
science, and scholarship. To make this transition possible, vast numbers
of loan words have been added to the English language.
English has spread to many parts of the world. It became a native

language for English-speaking colonies, which are now independent and
powerful states. English was spread by British trade and influence. It is
the second language of many other states because the ex-colonial
countries have no better choice of a national language. English is
currently acknowledged as the universal language of diplomacy and
science. It is also the language that people usually speak when
addressing foreigners, and it is the most popular second language(167).
Standard British English is the widely accepted standard language, the

language of London and its elite. It is sometimes called the Kings (or
Queens) English, BBC English, and Received Pronunciation. This
standard use of English has been helped by the spread of education and
literacy, the extension of printing and publishing, and recently the
influence of radio and television. All these factors have increased the
standardization of pronunciation, spelling, and spoken and written style.
320
English shares Linguistic features with other Indo-European languages.

However, the lexicon, morphology, and phonology are characteristically
Germanic. One example of this is that past tense inflections are a
Germanic characteristic. Another distantly Germanic characteristic is
the fixed primary stress on the first syllable, as expressed in the word
brother (Bright 410).
An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Language and Languages (AEDLL)

describes English as spoken worldwide by a large and ever-increasing
number of people. The English language has official status in more than
60 countries. Two diagrams called A Family of Languages and English:
the world language follow the bibliography. One shows that English is
listed with languages in the West Germanic subgroup, and the other
illustrates the use of English in countries around the world today. A
summary of the trends allows the prediction that English may become the
language of universal communications.
CHAPTER 2: Indo-European Languages

(These notes are taken directly from and intended as supplement to our
text, Baught and Cable's A History of the English Language, 4th edition,
Prentice Hall.)
I. Two definitions of Indo-European:

A. Indo-European refers to the hypothetical language spoken by a
society that probably lived around the Ural Mountains between 5000 and
3500 B.C. Be sure you are familiar with the textual information about
the culture of this society. When referring to this (or any) hypothetical
language, Linguists use the prefix "proto"; hence, the technical term for
the language is "proto Indo-European." The theory is that many of our
languages today were once dialects of this "mother tongue." The
existence of Indo-European accounts for the similarity of words in such
languages as French, German, Czech, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Persian,
etc.
B. Indo-European refers also to those languages which once were
dialects of the language described above and which cover a large part of
Europe and part of Asia.
II. How do we get from proto Indo-European to English? We will be

taking this journey this semester. The first separation that led to variation
in Indo-European society is known as the Satem-Centum split, a sound
change in the Eastern Indo-European languages affecting palatal and
321
velar [k]. The Centum languages are Hellenic, Italic, Germanic, and
Celtic.
III. The Indo-European Family Tree

(Here, I will be outlining only the most salient features of each language
as pertaining to a study of the evolution of English. Again, this
information is gleaned directly from our text. You will need to use the
workbook, read the chapter, and listen to class lectures to complete this
outline, particularly regarding geographical location and distinguishing
Linguistic features of each language.)
A. Indian: In this language, we find the Veda (1500 B.C.), the oldest
literature in any I-E language. The Veda consists of four groups of
texts, the Rig-Veda oldest. Vedic Sanskrit is fully declined and thus is
important in reconstruction the Original I-E language. Panini, a fourth
century grammarian, gave Sanskrit a fixed literary form.
B. Iranian: Because speakers of this group probably traveled with
speakers of Indian, the two languages bear strong similarities and are
sometimes grouped as one. Iranian is not as pure an example of I-E
because it contains elements from other, non I-E languages. This
language has two main branches: Avestan, the language of the Avesta,
the sacred text of the Zorastrians (1000 B.C. for the oldest of two parts,
the Gathas), and Old Persian, which has a large Arabic mixture today.
C. Armenian: Not closely linked to any other I-E language,
Armenian is important to us because it shows a certain shifting of
consonants analogous to Grimm's Law (about which you'll learn later)
and lacks grammatical gender. The earliest example of this language is
a 5th century translation of the Bible.
D. Albanian: Formerly grouped with Hellenic, this language was
recognized as an independent I-E language only in the 20th century. Our
knowledge of this language , which dates back only to 1500 A.D., is
hampered by the fact that it contains a mixture of many other languages.
E. Hellenic: The earliest Greek literary works are the heroic Odyssey
and Illiad (8th century A.D.). Though there were five principal dialect
groups, Ionic became the most important. Attic, a subdialect of Ionic and
the dialect of Athens, became dominant by the 5th century B.C. It
became the basis of a koine, or common Greek dialect. The language of
the New Testament, it is the basis of Byzantine literature. Today, two
varieties of Greek are in existence, the Pure, which attempts to restore the
ancient vocabulary and inflections, and demotic, the popular, natural
language.
F. Italic: Latin became the dominant language of this branch. The
languages that derive from Latin are known as Romanic or Romance
languages. Vulgar Latin is the variety spoken in the streets of Rome,
322
which is represented today by Italian. Classical Latin is a literary

language with an elaborate and artificial vocabulary. The Romance
languages as we know them descend not from Classical, but from Vulgar
Latin. In addition to Italian, four other Romanic languages are
dominant: French, which Originally consisted of a number of dialects.
The Parisian, or Ile-de-France dialect, became the official and literary
language and, since the 13th century, has been standard French. Two
main dialects named for the pronunciation of the word yes divide North
and South France: langue d'oc (the language of the Troubadours, today
known as Provencal) and langue d'oil. The other three are Spanish,
Portugese, and Romanian. Spanish and Portuguese are quite similar,
while Romanian is the Eastern most of the Romance languages.
G. Balto-Slavic: These two language groups have enough
similarities to merit their consideration as one classification and were
probably nearly identical until the 7th or 8th century. The Baltic branch
includes Prussian (now extinct), Lettish (the language of about 2
million in Latvia), and Lithuanian. Of these, Lithuanian is most
important to a study of I-E languages because it preserves very old
features. Three main divisions are West (Slovak, Czech, and Polish,
which is the largest), South (Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, and Bulgarian),
and East (Great Russian is the largest, the official and literary language
of Russia).
H. Tocharian: A wrinkle in the Satem-Centum split theory, Tocharian
is a Centum (West) language which is located in Asia. This language
exists only in a few fragmentary texts and is a twentieth-century addition
to the I-E family.
I. Celtic: Various social forces have greatly diminished this once
extensive language so that today it is spoken only by a small minority in
France and the British Isles. This language consists of three main
groups: Gallic, which is the language of the Celts in Gaul who were
conquered by Caesar; Gaelic, spoken by the earliest Celtic settlers in
England and represented by Irish, Scottish-Gaelic, and Manx (extinct
since WWII); and Britannic, represented by modern Cornish (extinct in
the 18th century), Welsh, and Breton.
J. Germanic: No documents record the earliest form of this
language. It has been reconstructed by philologists and is thus termed
proto-Germanic. Grimm's Law, though it has been refined by Karl
Verner and others and though it is still debated, accounts for certain
differences and connects Germanic to the other I-E languages. Three
languages descend from proto-Germanic: The East branch includes
Danish and Swedish. The earliest remnants of the Germanic branch are
in this language, a translation of the Gospels and parts of the New
Testament by Ulfilas (311-383). The North branch is subdivided into a
323
North West (Icelandic and Norwegian) and North East (Danish and
Swedish) branch due to dialectical changes apparent by the 11th century.
Old Icelandic is the most literary offshoot of this branch, as a body of
heroic poetry is preserved by settlers from Norway around 874.
Prominent are the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda compiled in the 12th
century by Snorri Sturluson.
The West branch is of most significance to us, for it is from this
branch that English descends. The West branch is subdivided into two
branches due to a Second (or High German) Sound Shift. Analogous
to Grimm's Law, this sound change entailed [p,t,k,d], which were
changed to other sounds in the mountainous Southern regions, but not in
the lowlands. High German, popularized by Luther's translation of the
Bible, became the literary language of Germany. Low German
included Old English, Old Frisian (closely related to Old English), Old
Franconian (the basis of modern Dutch, Flemish, and Afrikaans), and
Old Saxon (modern Low German).
CHAPTER 3: Old English
Perhaps England has been inhabited for 50,000 years, yet English has
been spoken for only 1,500.
Time Line
CHAPTER 4: Foreign Influences
Influence of the Second Period: when Roman missionaries introduced

Christianity. Can be broken into two periods: early and late.
EARLY: 597, St. Augustine sent to Christianize the Anglo-Saxons. The
conversion was gradual and lots of churches and monasteries were built.
LATE: Benedictine Reform because of Danish invasions at the end of the
8th century.
How do Linguists determine when a Latin word entered the language?

1. Frequency in Old English texts.
2. the character of the word.
3. phonetic form of the word: III. Scandinavian Influence
Three main attack periods:
1. The period of the early raids: recorded by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
in 787 and continuing intermittently until 850.
2. The work of large armies; widespread plundering. In 850, a Danish
fleet arrives, captures Canterbury and London, and ravages the
countryside. A West Saxon army defeats them, but soon they resume
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attacks. Short after Alfred's accession to throne, Wessex is attacked. At

one point, Alfred has to hide in the marshes. He regathers troops and later
attacks and defeats Guthrum and the Danish army. After this defeat, the
Danes agree to sign the Treaty of Wedmore (878), which defined the line
to the east of which the foreigners were to remain. Their designated land
was known as the Danelaw.
The blending of the Danish and the English was not so difficult because:
1. The Danish were adaptable,
2. The Danish were not really foreigners, and
3. Many of them accepted Christianity early and readily.
We must infer the relation of the two languages because we don't know
much. Their similarity makes it difficult to date many words.
1. OE [sh]>Danish [sk] shirt > skirt
2. Scandinavian had hard pronunciation of [k] and [g]
3. Vowels may be a sign of borrowing [o] OE > [e] Danish
4.We can look to meanings of words.
5. Scandinavian place names.
Words were borrowed gradually. During the first attacks, borrowings

were meager and were associated with sea-roving people. Later, after
Danelaw, words relate to law and government.
Scandinavian and English coexisted. Which words survived?
1. where words coexisted and were similar, the modern word stands for
both the OE and the Scandinavian.
2. where there are differences, the OE most often survives.
3. sometimes the Scandinavian word replaces the OE.
4. occasionally, both words survive but with different meaning or use.
5. a native word not in common use was sometimes reinforced by
Scandinavian.
6. An OE word might be modified, taking on some character of the
corresponding Scandinavian word
Chapter Five: "The Norman Conquest"

I. Historical Background of Normandy
A. Origins of Normandy and etmology of name
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History of English Language: Concepts and Terms, Notes by J.Dylan

McNeill
2000 by John Dylan McNeill-The pre-History of the English language
The earlier scholars (pre-nineteenth century) of the pre-History of the

English language believed that the similarities among the European
languages could be attributed to a common ancestor--probably a
European ancestor. However, at about the turn of the century, Sir
William Jones' found that Sanskrit bore a "stronger affinity" with
English than Greek or Latin. This was the beginning of the
"Classical" scholarship, as we call it today. Soon after, Jacob Grimm
(with the suggestion of Sasmus Rask) formulated an explanation that
systematically accounted for the correspondences between certain
consonants in the Germanic languages and those found, for example, in
Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Under Grimm's Law, (for example) voiceless
stops (such as the "p") in the Indo-European Language were changed to
the voiceless fricative "f" in German (as the Indo-European "plotu"
evolved into the Germanic/English "flood"). Not long afterwards, Verner
came up with a law would account for some of the exceptions to Grimm's
law.
The Classical scholars, armed with these theories of language evolution,

used Historical and comparative methods to surmise a "geneaLogical
tree" of European languages. They were able to use the ancient texts of
Sanskrit to develop many, and more precise, cognate sets from which to
hypothesize a proto-language. This proto-language, called "Aryan" or
"Proto-Germanic", is now called "Proto-European. Out of a biblical
tradition that placed the Garden of Eden in the neighborhood of
Mesopotamia, the "Classical" scholars believed that the home of the
Indo-Europeans was in Asia. Since Europe had seen the invasion of the
Hun and the Turk and other Asiatic peoples, it seemed natural to think of
the movements of population as generally westward.
However, scholars of the twentieth century using the same cognative
method (and aided by the discovery of Hittite language) have been able
to reconstruct a more accurate Indo-European language that reflects a
different home for the Indo-European language than the Classical
scholars. Modern scholars still used the cognative method similar to the
Classical scholars, but the modern scholars were aided by the discovery
to trace parent languages were able to cognate more words. The lexicon
of the proto-language began to give clues that the home for the Indo-
European language was less Asiatic; they now seem to believe that the
Indo-Europeans were further northwest into Turkey. They surmised this
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based on the hypotheses that the proto-language contained words such

as "snow" and "beech" (but not one for "sea"), revealing a topography
that, in turn, helped them deduce a geography different than the
Classical scholars. They were then able to construct a possible History of
the English language dating from 5000 BC.
Based on archeoLogical and anthropoLogical findings, some philologists

agree that the Indo-Europeans were a single group from 5000 BC to about
3500-3000 BC, when they began migrating (perhaps for agricultural
reasons) southeast into Iran and northwest all of the way to Iceland (there
is archeoLogical evidence of the Indo-European language in Riland,
Scandinavia, and England. At around 2000 BC, some of the Indo-
European tribes had settled in Greece; other tribes arrived in Iran and
then India at around 1000 BC. The parent language of English--the West
Germanic--was part of the Germanic language family of East, North, and
West Germanic. The dominant language of England flcutuated between
the Romans and the Celts. While most of Gaul (Rhineland) was
Romanized between 1000 BC-338 BC, it wasn't until around 400 AD that
the Germanic tribes (Anglos, Saxons, and the Jutes) invaded England. As
a result, the Germanic language mixed with the Celtic languages to
become a seperate language: English. (I wish I knew more about this, but
I am still a little fuzzy on this--I should have come in for help. Oops.)
This abbreviated History is based on hypothesis, for the only evidence of

many of these parent languages is in the form of writing. There is little or
no records of vernacular speech. The History of the English Language is
based on hypotheses after hypotheses after hypotheses--the Linguistic
History of the English Language is still not a certain History.
1. Dialect:
A dialect is a speech community which speaks a variety of a language

distinguished from other varieties in phonology, vocabulary, and
descriptive grammatical system. The variety of dialects of a language
can be attributed to the seperation of language groups into: different
geographic locations, different economic or social class, or different
education. Dialects can, after a period of time in which great change
occurs, become mutually unintelligible, thereby becoming seperate
languages. All of the dialects that sprang from the Indo-European
language became the class of modern Indo-European languages.
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If one dialect is considered the "prestigeous" dialect of a language, than

that dialect will probably be the prescriptive grammar system for that
language. Unfortunately, prescriptive grammar systems in the form of
texts are usually all that Historical and comparative Linguists have to
study the dialects of older languages of mostly-illiterate societies; the
Linguists are not able to find out the dialects of a language in which
only the prescriptive grammar system remains avaiable for inspection.
The presence of dialects proves that there is no such thing as an ideal or
pure language.
2. Hittite:
The twentieth-century discovery of a large body of Hittite text confirmed

Saussure's hypothesis that certain phonoLogical units (laryngeals)
occured in the Indo-European language. As a result of strengthening this
hypothesis, Linguists were able to more accurately reconstruct the Indo-
European language. The new reconstructed Indo-European syntax
revealed that Hittite and the oldest hymns of the Rig Veda represent the
Object-Verb structure of Indo-European, which by the time of Classical
Greek and Latin had been largely modified to a Verb-Object
structure. This supports the theory that while some Indo-Europeans
travelled northwest (such as to Rhineland), others travelled southeast into
Iran and India.
3. External History of language change:
Any broad economical, social, Political, or cultural event that happens

means a heirarchical shift in power. The language of the one(s) in
power--whether held by a class or, as in the case of William the
Conqueror, a person--will either influence, or be influenced by, those not
in power. The ruling class usually determines the language attitude.
4. Idiolect:
The ideolect is a person's own unique chracteristic of a language that is a

result of (and evolves) according to that person's unique range of social,
economic, cultural, emotional, and Historical background. Although that
ideolect may subscribe to most of the dialect of a language, it is still a
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unique grammatical system. Ideolects make a language rich in diversity,

rendering the impossibility of an ideal or pure language.
5. Rig Veda:
The Rig Veda is the oldest representation of any Indo-European

language. The Brahman vedas, written in Sanskrit, preserve features of
the common language much older than Greek or Latin or German. The
material offered by Sanskrit allowed for more accurate cognation of the
Indo-European language. Knowledge of the proto-language allows
Linguists to look at the evolution of the Indo-European language family
in order to formulate hypotheses about language evolution.
6. internal History of language change:
The phrase, "internal History change" is used by Linguists to

differentiate itself from the external events (such as military conquest and
foreign contact) that may change the evolution of language. Internal
language change is constant. LLinguists interested in the internal
History of a language may look at how the language has simplified over
time or how cognates may have evolved.
7. Lithuanian:
Of the three Baltic languages, Lithuanian is the most important to

Linguistic scholars because it preserves some very old features of
Sanskrit that have disappeared from practically all the other languages of
the family. Linguistic scholars can gather clues from the Lithuanians
about the Sanskrit language that may be useful in reconstructing the
proto-Indo-European language.
LATIN:
ALTAR:
This word is probably of Latin origin. When England was
Christianized, the Latin-speaking clergymen brought their Latin words
describe their religious artifacts and ceremonies. Since the altar is a facet
of the Christian religious ceremony, the pagans did not have a similar
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word. Therefore, pagans and Christians both used the Latin word for
the Christian artifact.
OLD FRENCH (NORMAN FRENCH)
MUTTON and FEAST:

This word is probably of Norman French origin. When England was
"Normanized" by William the Conqueror, French became the language of
the upper class rulers (Frenchman became the rulers of England).
Whereas the Anglo-Saxons talked about what they ate in terms of what
kind of animal it was (ie "sheep", "calf"), the French (considered more
refined because the upper class used it) terms for food did not associate
with the animal it was from, but in terms of what they ate (ie beef,
mutton, veal, pork--not sheep, calf, ox). "Feast" is similar to Norman
French "feste". Again, the French liked to use their French words to
describe their French meal. French was spoken alongside of Anglo-Saxon
in the great feasts of the time, and therefore many French terms were
used to describe the meals.
CHARGE/CHASE:
Whereas much of the battles of the time were fought on the continent
(Norman), OE borrowed many of the military terms from the French.
The word "chase" probably derived from the Central French "chacier". In
Anglo-Norman, the initial "-ca" (as in "carry") was often retained,
whereas it became "-cha" in Central French.
BARON:
The French used their French titles for their French rulers in England.
Other similar French titles were: duke, prince, king, queen.
3.The ruling of England by the Norman French lead French to be the

language of the ruling (upper) class. The vast majority of the English
people, however, spoke Anglo-Saxon/Scandanavian English (10,000 to
20,000 spoke French out of the 1.5 million that spoke English). The
Norman French occupied positions of power in the court, the church, and
urban centers. The Normans did not promote their language to the
English countryside, but rather used French in the royal court, the
religious communities, and on the great estates centered on fortified
manors that the French owned. Religious life, in particular, was
dominated by French speakers, theough the normal written language and
the liturgy was Latin. Thus French and Latin became the upper class
languages. Legal documents and chronicles of events were written in
French. As a result of these factors, much of English's lexicon regarding
330
religion, learning, legal matters, and urbane is borrowed from the French
and Latin.
By about the 1150s, the three languages (Latin, French, English) were
"balanced." Latin, because it was the language of the church, was used
for record keeping, theology, and liturgy. Because the ruling class was
mostly Norman, French became the language of the legal system.
English remained the spoken language (not written) of the vast majority
of people who were not in much contact with the ruling class or church.
However, this balance was upset in 1204 when Philip II of France
conquered Normandy. This event isolated the Norman French rulers of
England from their continental lands and thus led to the increased use of
English among the aristocracy. Philip's victory lead to the reemergance of
English (in a form much influenced by the Normans) as the language of
the powerful in England. However, French replaced Latin as the
language of government records by the 1300s.
In 1348, the Black Death plague claimed about half of the population of
England. This accelerated the decline of the use of French in England.
Wealth per capita increased as a result.
The Greek Language
Τhe origin, evolution, influences and current form of the Greek
Language.
Briefly Speaking
The Greek language is of Indo-European origin and is spoken and

written primarily in Greece and Cyprus. Its History is long and rich and
spans a period of 34 centuries from the 14th century BC to date (longer
than any other language of Indo-European descent).
Through this long period of time, the Greek language evolves in four
distinct forms/phases:
 Ancient Greek (14th - 4th century BC). The Original form of
language is Mycenaean Greek (14th - 12th century BC), characterized
by the use of syllabic script called Linear B. Following the Mycenean
Greek, the prominent Greek language form becomes Archaic
(Classical) Greek (8th - 4th century BC). A prominent feature of this
form is its adoption of the alphabet, and the introduction of new letters
and vowels.
The break in the evolution of language from the 12th to the 8th century
coincides with the destruction of the Mycenean civilization by the Dorian
invasions and for nearly 4 centuries very little Linguistic progress was
recorded.
 Hellenistic Greek (4th century BC - 4th century AD). Also known
as Koine Greek it is the most widely spread language of the times due to
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the empire of Alexander the Great. It absorbed all local dialects and
became the standard language of the times. The New Statement (the 4
Gospels, the Letters of St. Paul and St. Peter, and the Apocalypse of St.
John) is written in Koine Greek.
 Byzantine Greek (5th - 15th century AD). It is the official
language of the Byzantine Empire and is considered by many an early
version of the Modern Greek language. The spoken form of this
language differs significantly from its written counterpart. Since it was
spoken across vast lands by many people, it continued to incorporate
local dialects and idioms. At the same time, the intellectuals of those days
thought that this language was not pure and sought to return to the Greek
written in Classical Athens (Classicists).
 Modern Greek. It is the language spoken and written today in
Greece and Cyprus (with minor dialect changes) primarily.
Europe and the Seven Stages of Western Culture -by Christopher

Dawson.
From Understanding Europe; published by Image Books, New

York, 1960. By permission of Christina Scott, Literary Executor
for the late Christopher Dawson.
THE EXISTENCE of Europe is the basis of the Historical

development of the modern world, and it is only in relation to that
fact that the development of each particular state can be
understood. Nevertheless it is a submerged reality of which the
majority of men are only half conscious. For the last century and
more, the whole trend of education and Politics and public
opinion has tended to develop the consciousness of nationality
and to stress the importance of the nation-state, while leaving
Europe in the background as a vague abstraction or as nothing
more than a geographical expression. The main reason for this is,
of course, the cult of nationalism which, owing to its double
appeal to Political passion and to cultural idealism, exerts an
exceptionally strong influence in the popular mind. But behind
this there is a further cause which has not perhaps been
sufficiently recognized. This is the tradition of education which
has provided the framework of Western thought, and in this
tradition the conception of Europe has never held a definite place.
On the one hand, there was the History of the ancient world -of
Classical Greece and Rome- which was regarded as an essential
part of education: on the other, and on a very much lower plane,
there was the History of a man's own country and people, which
332
every educated person was supposed to be familiar with but which

did not possess the same prestige as Classical History or humane
letters or even natural science. A transition from one to the other
was provided by such works as Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, and it was books of this kind, which were the
nearest approach to a study of Europe that the old tradition of
education provided. But they were obviously partial and
unsatisfactory, so that the consciousness of Europe as an
Historical reality was something which somehow had to be
picked up on the road that led from ancient Rome to modern
England (or whatever one's country might be), and it was only an
exceptionally enterprising mind which troubled to enquire where
and how it made its first appearance and what was its essential
character.
The democratic states have, on their part, no doubt refused to

accept the extreme consequences of the nationalist heresy. They
have preserved some contact with the tradition of Natural Law
and a real sense of international obligation. Yet they also have
ignored the existence of Europe as a social reality and oscillated
between the reality of the nation-state and the ideal of a
cosmopolitan liberal world order which was theoretically co-
extensive with the human race, but it was in practice dependent
on the economic realities of international trade and finance. Yet
apart from Europe, neither the one nor the other would have
existed.
Viewed from this Centre, the whole development of Western

culture falls into three main stages -Christian, pre-Christian and
post-Christian, each of which may in turn be divided into two or
three subordinate phases.
There are first the two phases of Classical Mediterranean culture:

(1) Hellenism and (2) the Roman world. Next there are the three
central periods of Christian History; (3) the formation of
Western and Eastern Christendom; (4) Mediaeval Christendom,
from the eleventh to the fifteenth century; and (5) the age of
religious division and humanist culture, from the sixteenth to the
eighteenth century. Finally, we have (6) the age of Revolution -the
later eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, when European
culture became secularized, and (7) the disintegration of Europe,
which is both the cause and the result of the two World Wars in
whose shadow we live to-day.
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1. Hellenism
The first of these three stages is pre-Christian and even pre-

European, since it originated in the Aegean and remained to the
end a predominantly Mediterranean development. But it was
emphatically Western, and all the later stages of European culture
have looked back to it as the source of their intellectual and often
of their social traditions.
For Western civilization was born when the Greeks first

became conscious of their separation from the Asiatic world at
the time of the Persian war, when they realized that they
possessed a different way of life and a different standard of values
from those which were embodied in the great archaic civilizations
of the ancient East. These new ways of life and thought were
already fully manifested in the great creative achievement of
Hellenic culture during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.,
the age that saw the development of the city-state and its Political
institutions, the great colonial expansion of the Greeks round the
shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and the origins of
the Greek scientific and philosophical movement. But during
this earlier period the Ionians and the other Greeks of Asia
Minor were the leaders of Hellenic culture, and European
Greece held a relatively inferior position. The wars with Persia
changed all that, not only by securing the European leadership of
the Greek world, but still more by increasing the self-
consciousness and unity of the whole Greek world against the
oriental world empire that threatened its independence. For in
spite of the jealous regionalist patriotism of the Greek city-
states, they also acquired an intense loyalty to the wider unity of
"Hellenism". so that the dualism of state and culture which was a
characteristic feature of mediaeval and modern Europe already
finds its prototype in the Greek world.
Thus the two poles of Greek civilization were the free city and
the common culture. It was as "free men", as members of a self-
governing community, that the Greeks felt themselves to be
different from other men, and it was as members of the wider
society of Hellenism which embraced a hundred cities and was in
contact with every part of the Mediterranean world that they
developed their co-operative work of thought and rational enquiry
which was the source of Western philosophy and science. In the
same way, they developed their own distinctive system of
334
education -Paideia- which was essentially different alike from the

traditional learning of the oriental priest and from the warlike
discipline of the barbarian tribesman and was the origin and
pattern of the Western tradition of liberal education. In short, it
was the Greeks who created the Western idea of Man and that
conception of humanist culture which has become One of the
formative elements in the European tradition.
But though the Greeks were the real creators of the Western
tradition, they had little direct influence on continental Europe.
The second great wave of Hellenic expansion and colonization
which began in the fourth century was directed to the East, and
during the Hellenistic period Western and Central Asia, from the
Mediterranean to the Oxus and the Indus, was covered by a
network of Greek cities under the protection of the Graeco-
Macedonian dynasties, which regarded the extension of Hellenic
culture as the basis and justification of their power. Thus
Hellenism became a real world-wide civilization which
influenced the culture of all the peoples of Asia as far east as
North-West India and Turkestan. But this movement of imperial
expansion in the East was accompanied by the decline of Greek
power in Europe itself, and the same age that saw the conquest
and Hellenization of the East by Alexander and his successors
witnessed the rise of a new power in the West which was destined
to act as a intermediary between the Hellenistic civilization of
the East and the barbaric peoples of Western Europe.
2. The Roman World
This process forms the second phase in the History of Western

culture. It covers a period of six or seven centuries -three hundred
years from Alexander to Augustus and three hundred years from
the death of Augustus to the conversion of Constantine. During
those centuries Rome gradually grew from a peasant state in
Central Italy to a world empire which embraced the whole
Mediterranean world and extended from the Atlantic to the
Euphrates and the Caucasus, and from the Rhine and the Danube
to the Sahara and the Arabian desert. Thus for the first and last
time in the History of Western culture the whole civilized world
east of Persia and India was united in a single state ruled by one
master, administered by a common law and defended by a uniform
military system. At First sight there seems little in common
between the Roman spirit and that of Hellenic culture. The
335
Romans were a people of soldiers and organizers, lawyers and

engineers, road-makers and land-surveyors, whose achievement is
summed up in the lapidary sentence "Balbus built a wall". They
had nOne of the genius for abstract speculation and the creative
artistic imagination of the Greeks, and their vast empire, built up
by harsh military discipline and ruthless Political planning, seems
as inferior to Periclean Athens as the Colosseum is inferior to
Parthenon. Nevertheless their work was extraordinary enduring,
and it served the cause of Western culture better than the more
spectacular achievements of Alexander and his successors. While
the latter were content to conquer the civilized East and cover it
with a veneer of Hellenistic urban culture, the Romans drove their
roads like a plough through the virgin soil of Western Europe and
laid the foundation of new cities where none had stood before.
Though they were not the creators of Western culture they
diffused and defended it, and the walls that Balbus built on the
Northumbrian moorland and round the posts in the Libyan desert
were the shield which protected the westward advance of the
Classical Mediterranean culture. The Greeks themselves, like
Polybius and Strabo, were the First to recognize the nature of
the Roman achievement as the indispensable continuation and
completion of the achievement of Hellenism.
Thus the second phase of Western culture was in fact a co-

operative effort which was common to the two great
Mediterranean peoples. The Roman genius built the fabric of
civilized society in Western Europe which still subsists to-day, at
least in Italy and Gaul and Spain, in spite of the changes of later
centuries. But this social order provided a channel for the
transmission and diffusion of the Hellenic traditions. Latin
literature and education as represented by Cicero and Livy,
Horace and Quintilian, represent a simplified version of
Hellenistic culture which was better suited to the needs of the
new peoples of the West than the Greek Original. Thus Latin
endured as the common language of the educated world in the
West for more than a thousand years after Greek ceased to be
the common language of the civilized East. The strength of the
Latin element in Western culture is no doubt due as much, or
more, to the influence of the Catholic Church as to that of the
Roman Empire. For the Church came to the Western barbarians
with all the prestige of Latin culture and Roman authority. As
Rome had acted as the intermediary between Hellenism and the
West, so the Church acted as intermediary between the Latin
336
West and the new peoples of Northern Europe. The last service
which the Roman Empire performed in the development of
Western culture was to provide the socioLogical and juridical
basis for the organization of the new religious society with its
ecclesiastical hierarchy and its Canon Law.
This task was only achieved by a long and costly struggle.

Christianity is the one element in Western culture which is
completely non-Western in origin, and which transplanted into the
Roman-Hellenistic world a sacred tradition of immemorial
antiquity, preserved intact by the one people that had held out
indomitably against the pervasive influence of Hellenistic world
culture.
Christianity came out of this unknown oriental world into the full
light of Roman-Hellenistic culture with a new faith and a new
standard of spiritual values which aspired to change human life
and inevitably aroused the opposition of Greek culture and the
persecution of Roman state. In a single generation it spread from
Syria through the cities of Asia Minor and Greece to Rome itself,
and then proceeded, rapidly in the East and much more slowly in
the West, to permeate the whole civilized world. For three
centuries it had to fight for its existence, until it was finally
recognized as the universal religion of the world empire. In the
Eastern Mediterranean it maintained this position for more than a
thousand years, but in the West it was hardly established before
the Empire broke up under the pressure of the barbarians.
Nevertheless the Western Church was strong enough not only to
survive the fall of the Empire, but also to maintain the tradition of
higher culture and to become a city of refuge for the conquered
peoples.
3. The Formation of Western and Eastern Christendom
4. Mediaeval Christendom
All this cultural activity was inspired by the Carolingian

conception of Christendom as a social unity, the society of the
Christian people, which included and transcended the lesser
unities of nation and kingdom and city. But this conception now
found its primary expression, not in a universal empire but in the
universal order of the Church as reorganized by the reforming
movement of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Pope took
337
the place of the Emperor as the head of the international society

of Christendom and the ruler of the Christian people.
… Moreover, the unity of European culture was reinforced by the

use of Latin as the sacred language of the liturgy and the
common language of learning, by the symbolism and imagery
of a common religious art, and by the common ideals and
conventions of aristocratic behavior embodied in the cult of
chivalry.
All these influences extended far beyond the frontiers of the

Latin South and the Carolingian West. For it was during these
centuries that Central and Eastern Europe as far as Poland and
Lithuania and Hungary were brought into the society of Western
Christendom.
But while this development was taking place in the West, the old
centers of civilization in the East were beginning to decline under
the pressure of new warrior peoples from the steppes. The
Mongols destroyed the Baghdad Khalifate and conquered China,
Persia and Russia, while the Ottoman Turks established
themselves in Asia Minor and the Balkans and ultimately
destroyed the Byzantine Empire. As a result of these changes,
the axis of world culture gradually shifted westward, and the East
began to lose its position of cultural leadership. Italy took the
place of Greece as the most advanced country in Europe in art
and learning and economic development. Indeed the city-states
of Italy in the later Middle Ages rivaled those of sixth-century
Greece in the intensity of their social and intellectual life.
5. The Age of Religious Division and Humanist Culture
From the religious point of view this loss of Christian unity was
a tragedy from which Christendom has never recovered. But it
did not destroy the unity of European culture, since the influence
of the new humanist culture which spread from Italy to the rest of
Europe in the later fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries provided a
bond of intellectual and artistic unity between the sovereign states
and nations of Europe.
Thus, although Latin had ceased to be the common sacred

language of liturgy and religion, it was more than ever the
common language of education and learning. Moreover, the
importance of the Classical tradition in European culture was now
338
reinforced and extended by the recovery of the Hellenic tradition,

which from the fifteenth century onwards had an increasing
influence on Western education and Western thought. The re-
Hellenization of Western culture had its origins far back in the
Middle Ages with the recovery of Greek science and
philosophy from the Arabs by the translators of the twelfth
century, and with the Aristotelian revival which had such a
profound influence on Western thought in the later Middle
Ages. But it was not until the Renaissance had restored a direct
contact with Hellenic culture that the movement bore fruit in the
great advance of scientific thought inaugurated by Copernicus and
Kepler and Galileo. From the sixteenth century onwards
Europe was to surpass the Greeks in the Originality and
boldness of its cosmoLogical speculation. Every generation
extended the boundaries of science, and Western man began to a
acquire a knowledge and control of nature which seemed to open
unlimited possibilities of progress for mankind.
Meanwhile the external relations of European culture had already

been profoundly changed. Before Western science had discovered
the new world of knowledge, Western man had discovered and
conquered a new geographical world. The defeat of the last
crusades by the Turks at Nicopolis and Varna, and their control of
the great historic trade routes to Asia and Africa, compelled
Europe to seek new fields for expansion and new channels for
trade. The maritime discoveries of the Portuguese in Africa which
opened the new oceanic route to India and the Far East, and the
discovery and conquest of the new world of America by the
Spaniards, involved a general reorientation of Europe from the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic and from the old continental trade
routes to the new oceanic sea ways. The resultant development of
economic activity and the oceanic expansion of European trade
and colonization prepared the way for the world hegemony of
Western civilization in the following age, but it also intensified
the Political rivalry of the European powers which was
characteristic of this age and which was complicated by the
religious conflicts of the post-Reformation period. The attempt to
prevent this struggle for power from destroying the European state
system led to the elaboration of the system of the Balance of
Power, which was the product of Renaissance statecraft and
reflects the tension of conflicting forces within the limits of a
common culture. While the struggle for power was a revolutionary
and destructive force, its agents were the most traditional and
339
formal institutions in Europe -the courts of the great powers-

which all tended to share in the same humanist culture and imitate
the same patterns of social behavior. Thus in spite of the
disruptive effects of national rivalries, European war and
diplomacy themselves produced an international society of a
limited kind, so that Western statesmen and diplomats and
generals during this period belonged to the same world and shared
the same ways of thought and the same style of conversation and
manners and dress.
6. The Age of Revolution
This highly stylized aristocratic civilization of post-Renaissance

Europe, which reached its full development in the age of Louis
XIV, differed from the earlier phases of European development in
its lack of religious foundations.
On the Continent, and especially in France, where these

intermediate sectarian groups did not exist, the secularization of
culture was far more complete, and the conflict between the
movement of Enlightenment and the forces of tradition was far
more acute. By degrees the Enlightenment became transformed
into a kind of counter-religion, and the spiritual forces which
were denied their traditional religious expression found their
outlet in the new revolutionary cult which was embodied in the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and was inspired by an irrational
faith in Reason and by boundless hopes for the progress of
humanity when liberated from the age-long oppression of priests
and kings. Political democracy and economic liberalism were the
practical corollaries of these beliefs, and the attempt to realize
them by a drastic breach with the past and the introduction of new
rational institutions led to the French Revolution and the Reign of
Terror and the Caesarean imperialism Of Napoleon.
The Napoleonic Empire was a bold attempt to re-establish the

unity of Europe on new foundations, and for a moment it seemed
as though a new Caesar had arisen, capable of transforming the
ramshackle edifice of the ancien regime into an ordered unity by
his military genius and his powers of organization. But the
Classical symmetry of the style empire was little more than a
plaster facade which hardly concealed the heterogeNeous
character of the underlying structure. There was an inherent
contradiction between the military authoritarianism of the Empire
340
and the liberal idealism of the Revolution, and the stubborn

resistance of the two most independent Western peoples, the
British and the Spaniards, ultimately aroused the dormant forces
of European nationality and caused the downfall of Napoleon and
the dissolution of his Empire. Nevertheless the revolutionary
quarter-century from 1789 to 1814 had changed the face of
Europe and the character of Western Christendom -the Holy
Roman Empire, the territorial power of the Church with its
ecclesiastical principalities and endowments. the hierarchical
order of society and the sacred of kingship. The ancien regime
had suffered such a fall that all the powers of the Holy Alliance
and all the statesmen of the Congress of Vienna were unable to
put it together again.
Consequently at the very time when the external prestige of

European culture was at its highest and the world was being
conquered and transformed by European science and wealth and
power, Europe itself was being torn asunder by the increasing
violence of its internal conflicts. In England the bloodless victory
of constitutional reform in 1832 inaugurated a long period of
social peace and economic progress inspired by the ideology of
Victorian Liberalism
7. The Disintegration of Europe
…During this period the threat of German military imperialism

united the rest of the world against her and forced first Britain
and then United States to abandon their traditional isolation from
continental Europe and to convert their economic and financial
power to military ends. The result of the First World War was to
destroy the three great military empires of Central and Eastern
Europe and thus to clear the ground for a new social and Political
system. But the attempt of the Western powers to reorganize
Europe and the world on liberal democratic principles did not
succeed in meeting the needs of the situation or controlling the
revolutionary forces that had been released. On the ruins of the
military empires there arose the new totalitarian states of Soviet
Russia and National Socialist Germany, which alike by their
conflict and their collaboration destroyed the emergent
democratic national states of Eastern Europe and precipitated a
Second World War.
341
This second war was even more disastrous in its effects on

European culture than the first. Europe has been not only
economically ruined and morally weakened; it has been cut in two
by the new frontier between Western Europe and the Communist-
controlled East. This frontier, which passes through the heart of
Central Europe, is not merely a Political boundary; it is a line of
division between two alien worlds which excludes the possibility
of social intercourse and cultural communication, so that the man
who wishes to pass from one part of Europe to the other is forced
to abandon his citizenship and become a fugitive and an exile.
Thus the old European society of states, which even fifty years
ago was still the focus of world power and the leader of world
civilization, has become a truncated fragment too small and too
weak to exist without the military protection and economic of aid
of America.
The process of European revolution has thus reached an absolute

conclusion. There is no going forward on this path. If the peoples
of Europe desire to survive, they must seek a new way. The age of
revolution was also an age of world expansion when Europe was
threatened by no external enemies, so that each of the great
powers was a law to itself. During the last forty years this
situation has been completely reversed and the peoples of Western
Europe find themselves in a position of relative inferiority as a
minority group exposed to the pressure of stronger and more
united non-European world powers.
This catastrophic change must inevitably have a powerful effect

on the immediate future of the peoples of Europe. But it may
operate in two opposite directions. It may lead to discouragement,
pessimism and despair, or alternatively it may make the European
peoples realize their common interests and the need to restore the
broken unity of European culture. If world expansion has led to
cultural disintegration, then we might expect that external
pressure would promote internal unity. But the essential problem
is not the Political issue of European federation or the practical
question of European economic organization. The vital question is
how to preserve the spiritual inheritance of Europe and restore a
common purpose to Western civilization. The great world
civilizations of the East were based on a sacred law of
immemorial antiquity embodied in an unchanging pattern of
institutions and customs. But Western culture has always owed its
strength to the persistence of a dynamic purpose which has
342
enabled it to change the world, to widen the frontiers of human

knowledge and extend the range of human activity, without losing
the continuity of its spiritual tradition and the community of its
moral values. If this dynamic purpose can be restored, the spirit of
Europe will survive and the unity of Western culture will survive
and the unity of Western culture will reassert itself in some new
form. For these fundamental issues belong to the plane of religion
rather than to that of Politics or economics, and these planes do
not coincide. An age of material prosperity may often be an age of
spiritual decline, while a dark age of material destruction and
economic decline may see the birth of new spiritual forces.
Europe, which is the only articulated continent, seems even

physically a product of intelligence rather than of nature. Europe
is the continent that projects beyond itself, the continent of
expansion and conquest, of discovery and colonization.
[Gonzague de Reynold].
Τι λένε για μας: λέξεις και (εκ)φράσεις από ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες

γύρω από την Ελλάδα και τους Eλληνες(Ν. Σαραντάκος).
Χωρίς να χρονοτριβήσουμε σε φιλοσοφικές σκέψεις γύρω από τη

μακραίωνη πορεία και τα πεπρωμένα της φυλής, στο σημείωμα αυτό θα
εξετάσουμε ορισμένες, πιθανώς ενδιαφέρουσες, εμφανίσεις του εθνικού
ονόματος των Ελλήνων στις ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες.
Για να ξεκινήσουμε, το όνομα με το οποίο γνωρίζουν τη χώρα μας όλοι οι

εταίροι μας είναι το Greece, Grèce, Griechenland ή κάποιο άλλο από τις
παραλλαγές του, πάντοτε παρόμοιο και αναγνωρίσιμο -από τις γλώσσες
της ΕΕ, τη μεγαλύτερη απόκλιση την έχουμε στα φινλανδικά: εκεί η
Ελλάδα λέγεται Kreikka (και ο έλληνας Κreikkalainen), καθότι οι
φινλανδοί δεν πολυσυμπαθούν τον φθόγγο g- στην αρχή των λέξεων.
Πολύ μελάνι έχει χυθεί γύρω από την προέλευση του ονόματος αυτού
επειδή δεν είναι αυτό το αντικείμενό μας, ας πούμε μόνο ότι η προέλευση
της λέξης Greece, Greek είναι ελληνική. Η λέξη γραικός απαντά, έστω
και σπάνια, σε αρχαία κείμενα, πχ. στον Αριστοτέλη, που λέει για την
αρχαία (γι' αυτόν) Ελλάδα, την περιοχή μεταξύ Αχελώου και Δωδώνης,
την οποία κατοικούσαν οι Σελλοί "και οι καλούμενοι τότε μεν Γραικοί
νυν δ' Ελληνες" (Μετεωρολογικά 352b).
Μπαίνοντας επιτέλους στο θέμα, πολύ γνωστή είναι η αγγλική έκφραση

That's Greek to me, δηλαδή αυτά είναι ακαταλαβίστικα,
αλαμπουρνέζικα, κινέζικα όπως θα λέγαμε εμείς. Τα ελληνικά ήταν μεν
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ακατάληπτα στους πολλούς, όχι όμως και άγνωστα: ήταν μια Γλώσσα
που ακόμα διδασκόταν, που ήταν κτήμα των λίγων και εκλεκτών (μην
ξεχνάμε ότι η τεράστια πλειοψηφία του κόσμου ήταν αναλφάβητοι). Ο
πολύς κόσμος γνώριζε την ύπαρξη της ελληνικής Γλώσσας, δηλαδή. Την
ίδια εποχή ο Σάμουελ Τζόνσον αποφαίνεται ότι ο άνδρας προτιμά μια
γυναίκα που μαγειρεύει καλά παρά μια που να μιλάει ελληνικά, και είναι
προφανές ότι αν καμιά αγγλίδα δεν ήξερε ελληνικά, το (πολιτικώς
απρεπές σήμερα :-) ευφυολόγημα δεν θα είχε αντικείμενο.
Η έκφραση αυτή υπήρξε και στα ισπανικά. Εκεί, ο ξένος που μιλούσε μια
Γλώσσα ακατάληπτη ονομαζόταν έλληνας, griego. Ύστερα η λέξη
παρεφθάρη και η προέλευσή της ξεχάστηκε. Με τους Κονκισταδόρες,
πέρασε στην Αμερική, τώρα πια ως gringo. Ναι, σωστά καταλάβατε. Ο
"γκρίνγκο" των μεξικάνων στα γουέστερν, ο ξένος, που μιλάει μια άλλη
Γλώσσα, έχει την αφετηρία του στα ελληνικά!
Αντίθετα, στα γαλλικά, δεν είναι διαδεδομένη ανάλογη έκφραση.

Υπάρχουν όμως πολλές γαλλικές εκφράσεις με το εθνικό μας όνομα, και
για να ξεκινήσουμε απ' τις κολακευτικές, ας αναφέρουμε την être Grec
â ... που σημαίνει "ξέρω από...". Η έκφραση γεννήθηκε τότε που Grec
σήμαινε "ελληνιστής" και κατά συνέπεια "σοφός, μορφωμένος" και
χρησιμοποιείται και αρνητικά: je ne suis pas grand Grec en chimie, δηλ.
δεν πολυσκαμπάζω από χημεία. Ωστόσο, αυτή η έκφραση έχει πια
παλιώσει.
Επίσης παλιωμένη, και όχι κολακευτική, είναι η χρήση της λέξης Grec
με τη σημασία χαρτοκλέφτης, απατεώνας. Μερικά λεξικά λένε ότι
υπαίτιος για την "αντεθνική" αυτή εξέλιξη υπήρξε κάποιος Θεόδωρος
Απουλος, ένα είδος Νικ Δε Γκρηκ της εποχής του Λουδοβίκου του 14ου,
που είχε μαδήσει στο λανσκενέ, χαρτοπαίγνιο της εποχής, όλους τους
αυλικούς του Βασιλιά Ηλιου με μια σημαδεμένη τράπουλα. Αυτή η
εξήγηση πιθανότατα φτιάχτηκε εκ των υστέρων. Αλλωστε, με την ίδια
σημασία χρησιμοποιούσαν τη λέξη και οι άγγλοι (όπου η χαρτοκλεψία
λεγόταν παλιότερα Greekery) και οι Ισπανοί δύσκολο να έφτασε ως εκεί
η χάρη του Απουλου. Πολλοί ανώνυμοι συμπατριώτες μας θα
ευθύνονται, σε συνδυασμό με τη φήμη ελευθεριασμού που είχαν
αποκτήσει οι αρχαίοι Ελληνες ήδη από την εποχή των Ρωμαίων.
Θυμάμαι πως παλιά είχα διαβάσει σε μετρίως αναξιόπιστη πηγή ότι,
κατόπιν διαμαρτυρίας των ελληνικών πνευματικών φορέων, το έγκυρο
λεξικό του Ρομπέρ έπαψε να αναφέρει στο λήμμα Grec την
"προσβλητική" σημασία που είπαμε. Δεν ξέρω αν αυτό είναι αλήθεια,
πάντως οι τωρινές εκδόσεις του λεξικού όντως δεν την αναφέρουν, αν και
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έχουν το λήμμα grigou, που σημαίνει τσιγκούνης, και προέρχεται από

παλιά λαγκεντοκιανή λέξη που σήμαινε "έλληνας".
Ενδιαφέρον είναι ότι κανείς πνευματικός άνθρωπος δεν έχει σχολιάσει

μια άλλη έκφραση για τους Έλληνες: εννοώ τη γαλλική βρισιά Va te
faire voir chez/par les Grecs η οποία βεβαίως σημαίνει ότι και το
ελληνοτουρκικόν "άει σιχτίρ" και ξεκινάει από τη φήμη για τις
παιδεραστικές επιδόσεις των αρχαίων προγόνων μας -ένα θέμα στο οποίο
δεν θα υπεισέλθουμε. Είναι άλλωστε γνωστό τι σημαίνουν οι αγγελίες
περί 'ελληνικού σεξ' στις ειδικές στήλες ορισμένων ευρωπαϊκών
εφημερίδων.
Μια άλλη όχι κολακευτική έκφραση είναι η αγγλική Greek gift, που
λέγεται για κάτι που προσφέρεται με οπισθοβουλία και με πονηρό σκοπό.
Η αρχή είναι φυσικά το Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes της Αινειάδας, το
οποίο εμείς μεταφράσαμε "Φοβού τους Δαναούς και δώρα φέροντας"
(κατά λέξιν είναι "φοβούμαι..."), αλλά στα αγγλικά, π.χ., λέγεται Βeware
of Greeks bearing gifts. To προκείμενο δώρο ήταν, εννοείται, ο Δούρειος
ίππος.
Βλέπουμε ότι οι περισσότερες από τις εκφράσεις αυτές έχουν την αρχή
τους ή αντίστοιχό τους στη ρωμαϊκή εποχή, όπου η αμηχανία των
νικητών μπροστά στην πολιτισμική ηγεμονία των ηττημένων, σε
συνδυασμό με την τάση της ρωμαϊκής ελίτ να χρησιμοποιεί εξεζητημένες
ελληνικές εκφράσεις για επίδειξη -όπως έκανε παλιότερα η δική μας
αριστοκρατία με τα γαλλικά- προκάλεσε εχθρότητα απέναντι σε ό,τι το
ελληνικό και επέβαλε την εικόνα του γλεντζέ, του ελευθεριάζοντα, του
ψεύτη για τους Έλληνες. Το λατινικό ρήμα graecari σήμαινε
"γλεντοκοπώ", ενώ σε αντίδραση για την ελληνική μόρφωση της ελίτ
γεννήθηκε η βρισιά Γραικύλος, που σήμαινε τελικά τους
"υποδουλωμένους" στο ελληνικό πνεύμα Ρωμαίους, και η παροιμία
Graeci sunt, non legintur ("ελληνικά είναι, δεν διαβάζονται").
Μια και φτάσαμε στην παροιμιολογία, μπορούμε να αναφέρουμε την

ιταλική παροιμία "Τέσσερις Έλληνες, πέντε καπεταναίοι" ή την τούρκικη
"Η γνώση του έλληνα έρχεται ύστερα", ενώ ο χώρος δεν επαρκεί για
πολλές άλλες τουρκικές όχι ιδιαίτερα υμνητικές, εννοείται, όπως δεν
είναι επαινετικές και οι δικές μας παροιμίες για τους γείτονές μας -και
ίσως κανενός λαού για κανέναν γειτονικό του, θέμα που ανήκει σε άλλο
σημείωμα.
Ας κλείσουμε τον κύκλο καταλήγοντας στην ετυμολογία: υπάρχουν

μερικές λέξεις ευρωπαϊκών γλωσσών που αφετηρία έχουν την Ελλάδα ή
τους Ελληνες. Για παράδειγμα, στα ουγγαρέζικα, το καρπούζι λέγεται
345
görögdinnye ό εστί μεθερμηνευόμενον "ελληνικό πεπόνι", αν λάβουμε

υπόψη ότι ο έλληνας λέγεται Görög και το πεπόνι dinnye. Στα ισπανικά,
gresca λέγεται ο καυγάς, η φασαρία -αρχή της λέξης είναι το εθνικό μας
όνομα και η φήμη καυγατζήδων που είχαμε, ως φαίνεται, αποκτήσει. Πιο
γνωστή είναι η αντιδάνεια λέξη γρέγος, ο βορειοανατολικός άνεμος, από
το ιταλικό Greco, μ'άλλα λόγια, ο "ελληνικός" άνεμος, αυτός που φυσάει
από την Ελλάδα. Οι γαλλομαθείς ή η μεταλλειολόγοι, τέλος, θα
γνωρίζουν το grisou, το επίφοβο εκρηκτικό αέριο των ορυχείων -λιγότερο
γνωστή είναι όμως η ελληνική προέλευσή του: αποτελεί τη βαλλονική
μορφή του γαλλικού (feu) grégeois, μ' άλλα λόγια "πυρ ελληνικό". Ηταν
η εποχή που το βυζαντινό ναυτικό κυριαρχούσε στη Μεσόγειο, έχοντας
σαν μυστικό όπλο του το υγρόν πυρ...
1998 Νίκος Σαραντάκος
H Ελληνική Γλώσσα και το παγκόσμιο πολιτισμικό σύμπαν, Tου

Γαβριήλ Mηνά
Οσοι ξεκινάνε με την αντίληψη ότι η Γλώσσα δεν είναι τίποτ' άλλο από
ένα όργανο, ένα εργαλείο επικοινωνίας, του οποίου η λειτουργία
ολοκληρώνεται και τερματίζεται απλώς με τη μεταφορά κάποιων
πληροφοριών, κάποιων γνώσεων, κάποιων σκέψεων, κάποιων επιθυμιών,
κάποιων συναισθημάτων και στάσεων από έναν πομπό σ' έναν ή
περισσότερους δέκτες, σίγουρα λόγω άγνοιας ή άλλης αιτίας υποτιμάνε
τη σημασία και το ρόλο της Γλώσσας, σίγουρα δεν κατανοούν και
συσκοτίζουν, ηθελημένα ή μη, τη βαθύτερη ουσία της Γλώσσας.
ΘΕΣΕΙΣ
H Γλώσσα, κατά την άποψη του μεγαλύτερου σύγχρονου γλωσσολόγου

N. Tσόμσκι και πολλών άλλων επιφανών γλωσσολόγων, φιλοσόφων και
ανθρώπων γενικά του πνεύματος, είναι ένα επίτευγμα του ανθρώπου που
υπερβαίνει το ρόλο και τη σημασία του σύνεργου, είναι μια αξία
πολιτισμική, ένα αγαθό πολιτισμού, μια κατάκτηση πνευματική του
ανθρώπου, της ίδιας φύσης με τα άλλα πνευματικά αγαθά, όπως η γνώση,
η μόρφωση, η ελευθερία, η δημοκρατία, η επιστήμη, η τέχνη, η πολιτική
οργάνωση κτλ, αλλ' οπωσδήποτε πολύ βασικότερης σημασίας απ' όλα
αυτά.
H Γλώσσα είναι θεμελιώδης παράμετρος της νόησης, του

συναισθήματος, της όλης συμπεριφοράς και των κοινωνικών σχέσεων
του ανθρώπου, είναι ένας θεσμός εθνικο-κοινωνικός, που εκφράζει μια
συγκεκριμένη φιλοσοφία, που αποπνέει ένα ιδιαίτερο ύφος και ήθος
ζωής. Στην εθνική Γλώσσα κάθε λαού είναι εγγεγραμμένα όλα τα
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βιώματα, όλες οι αξίες που έχουν υιοθετηθεί, διά μέσου των αιώνων από
μια γλωσσική κοινότητα, από ένα συγκεκριμένο εθνικό σύνολο.
Mέσα από το λεξιλόγιο, τις κύριες και μεταφορικές σημασίες των

λέξεων, μέσα από τη γραμματική μορφολογία, τη σύνταξη και την όλη
δομή της Γλώσσας ενός λαού, αποτυπώνονται οι αντιλήψεις, η
πολιτισμική ιστορία του, ο τρόπος με τον οποίο ο λαός αυτός συνέλαβε
εννοιολογικά τον κόσμο και τον οργάνωσε σημασιολογικά σε επίπεδο και
διαχρονικό και συγχρονικό. H Γλώσσα ως σύστημα δεν είναι τόσο ένα
σύνολο λέξεων, όσο είναι ένα σύνολο αξιών.
H Γλώσσα είναι ο κόσμος και η σκέψη ενός λαού, είναι ο ίδιος ο λαός
και ο πολιτισμός που αυτός ο λαός έχει αναπτύξει. Δεν υπάρχει καμιά
αμφιβολία ότι αυτή η ουσιαστική διάσταση της Γλώσσας, ως
πολιτισμικής αξίας και ως πνευματικού αγαθού δεν έχει καθόλου
συνειδητοποιηθεί ιδιαίτερα από την κυπριακή πολιτεία και δε λαμβάνεται
καθόλου υπόψη όταν αντιμετωπίζονται θέματα σχετικά με την εθνική
Γλώσσα, με την κατοχύρωσή της, τη διδασκαλία της, την προστασία και
το σεβασμό της.
Aυτές οι απόψεις, που έχουν προβληθεί επανειλημμένα στην

αρθρογραφία μου και που δεν είναι δημιούργημα του δικού μου μυαλού,
επανήλθαν στη συνείδησή μου καθώς παρακολουθούσα τη
συγκλονιστική διάλεξη ενός υπέροχου Ελληνα, του Aριστείδη E.
Kωνσταντινίδη. O Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης , ύστερα από πρόσκληση του
Iδρύματος Aπελευθερωτικού Aγώνα της EOKA 1955-59, ανέπτυξε κατά
τρόπον εκπληκτικό, ενώπιον ενός δυστυχώς σχετικά μικρού
ακροατηρίου, το θέμα: “H οικουμενική διάσταση της ελληνικής
Γλώσσας”.
O Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης είναι ο άνθρωπος που, ενώ δεν είναι

γλωσσολόγος ή έστω φιλόλογος, έχει αφιερώσει 30 ολόκληρα χρόνια από
τη ζωή του, μελετώντας μέσα από λεξικά της αγγλικής την προσφορά της
Ελληνικής Γλώσσας στη διατύπωση του παγκόσμιου πολιτισμού.
Στόχος της εργασίας του είναι να συγκεντρώσει όλες τις λέξεις που η
αγγλική έχει δανειστεί από την ελληνική. Tο Πρώτο έργο του υπό τον
τίτλο “Oι ελληνικές λέξεις στην αγγλική Γλώσσα” εκδόθηκε το 1991 και
έχει βραβευτεί από την Aκαδημία Aθηνών το 1994. Σ' αυτό
περιλαμβάνονται 20.600 λέξεις ελληνικές, που χρησιμοποιούνται από
την αγγλική. Σήμερα ο Aρ. K. έχει συμπληρώσει την όλη μελέτη του, η
οποία καλύπτει 3.500 δακτυλογραφημένες σελίδες και βρίσκεται υπό
έκδοση. Σ' αυτό το δεύτερο, πιο ολοκληρωμένο έργο του, οι ελληνικές
λέξεις που έχουν εισχωρήσει στην αγγλική φτάνουν στις 150.000. Aπ'
347
αυτές οι 27.500 έχουν ληφθεί αυτούσιες από την ελληνική και οι

υπόλοιπες 122.500 είναι λέξεις παράγωγες από άλλες ελληνικές λέξεις.
O Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης είναι η δεύτερη φορά που έρχεται στην Kύπρο.

H Πρώτη φορά ήταν το Nιόβρη του 1997. Aπό τη διάλεξή του και αυτή
του 1997 και αυτή του 1999 είναι χαρακτηριστικό ότι απουσίαζαν όλοι
γενικά “οι ισχυροί και ηχηροί” της κυπριακής κοινωνίας. Οπως το 1997
έτσι και τώρα, μετά τη διάλεξή του της 11.5.1999, αισθάνομαι ότι οφείλω
τα πορίσματα αυτής της μελέτης του Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδη να τα
παρουσιάσω μέσα από δικό μου άρθρο, για να τα κοινοποιήσω σ' ένα
ευρύτερο κοινό, για δύο κυρίως λόγους: Πρώτο, σε ένδειξη
ευγνωμοσύνης για το αυτόχρημα εθνικό έργο που έχει επιτελέσει και
δεύτερο, γιατί τα πορίσματά του ακυρώνουν ένα πλήθος λανθασμένων
εντυπώσεων που επικρατούν στην Kύπρο, για τη φτώχεια δήθεν της
ελληνικής στον τομέα της επιστήμης και ανατρέπουν το σύμπλεγμα
κατωτερότητας από το οποίο πάσχει ιδιαίτερα η άρχουσα τάξη μας έναντι
της αγγλικής. Δεν πρέπει να ξεχνάμε, άλλωστε, ότι έπρεπε να δοθεί μάχη
για την καθιέρωση της ελληνικής αντί της αγγλικής ως Γλώσσας
διδασκαλίας στο Πανεπιστήμιο της Kύπρου και ότι ακόμη η αγγλική
χρησιμοποιείται ευρέως στη δημόσια υπηρεσία, αν και τούτο είναι
παράνομο.
O Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης , για να αποφύγει τις όποιες αμφισβητήσεις, που,

όπως ο ίδιος παρατηρεί, προέρχονται κυρίως από Ελληνες για το μέγεθος
της επίδρασης της ελληνικής, περιλαμβάνει στους υπολογισμούς του
μόνο εκείνες τις λέξεις που οι ίδιοι οι συντάκτες των αγγλικών λεξικών
αναγνωρίζουν ως ελληνικής προέλευσης. Ετσι, με βάση την αποδεκτή
από τους ξένους ελληνικότητα των λέξεων, διαπιστώνει ανάμεσα στα
άλλα τα ακόλουθα:
1. Στο Merriam Webster, που είναι σήμερα το πληρέστερο

αμερικανικό λεξικό, σε σύνολο 166.724 λέξεων, οι αμιγείς
ελληνικές λέξεις είναι 42.914, ήτοι 25,73%. H μια, δηλαδή, στις 4
λέξεις είναι ελληνική. Στο λεξικό αυτό οι τουρκικές λέξεις είναι
μόνο 57 και οι σλαβικές 34.
2. Στην ιατρική ορολογία, με βάση το έγκυρο λεξικό Dorland, σε
σύνολο 46.251 λέξεων, οι αμιγείς ελληνικές λέξεις είναι 24.862,
ήτοι 53,75%.
3. Στην ορολογία της Zωολογίας, η συμμετοχή των ελληνικών όρων
είναι της τάξης του 57,96%.
4. Στα γενικά λεξικά της αγγλικής, το ποσοστό των ελληνικών
λέξεων κυμαίνεται από 15-21%.
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O Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης πολύ εύστοχα παρατηρεί ότι το όλο θέμα της

συμμετοχής των ελληνικών λέξεων στην αγγλική δεν είναι θέμα μόνο
ποσοτικό, αλλά κυρίως είναι θέμα ποιοτικό. Oι βασικές έννοιες σκέψης
και έκφρασης, αυτό που οι γλωσσολόγοι αποκαλούν “γλωσσολογικό
κλειδί” της κάθε Γλώσσας, είναι λέξεις που έχουν ληφθεί αυτούσιες από
την ελληνική.
Για παράδειγμα οι λέξεις: ανάλυση, σύνθεση, μέθοδος, δημοκρατία,
σύστημα, σύμβολο, συλλαβή κτλ. Oι βασικές αυτές λέξεις είναι περίπου
500 και, όπως οι ξένοι αναγνωρίζουν, αν αφαιρεθούν από το λεξιλόγιό
τους, θα παρατηρηθεί αδυναμία στην επικοινωνία τους.
Oι βασικές λέξεις της επιστημονικής ορολογίας (Iατρική, ζωολογία,
χημεία, βοτανολογία κ.ά) είναι επίσης λέξεις ελληνικές. Xαρακτηριστικό
είναι το φαινόμενο ότι, ενώ στην κοινή αγγλική χρησιμοποιούνται οι
λέξεις π.χ. insect, eartquake, στην επιστημονική Γλώσσα έχουμε τους
όρους entomology και seismograph, που είναι λέξεις ελληνικές.
Kαι η παράδοση του δανεισμού ελληνικών λέξεων από τους ξένους
επιστήμονες συνεχίζεται και σήμερα. Tα τελευταία μόνο 30 χρόνια έχουν
δημιουργηθεί με βάση ελληνικές ρίζες 4.516 όροι στην ιατρική και
κάπου 23.482 όροι στην ονοματολογία των ζώων. Aπό πληθυσμιακή
άποψη, η ελληνική σίγουρα είναι μια ελάσσων Γλώσσα, από την άποψη
όμως του πολιτισμού είναι μια από τις μείζονες γλώσσες διεθνώς.
Προσπαθώντας ο Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης να ερμηνεύσει αυτό το
φαινόμενο της σαγήνης που ασκεί το ελληνικό λεξιλόγιο στην αγγλική
και μέσω αυτής στις γλώσσες όλων των λαών, αναφέρει κάποιους
λόγους. Θα περιοριστεί μόνο σε δύο:
1. Ενας λόγος της προτίμησης των ξένων είναι ο πλούτος της
ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Οπως το εγκυκλοπαιδικό λεξικό Webster
γράφει: “The Greeks had a word for everything”, οι Ελληνες
είχαν μια λέξη για το καθετί.
2. O κυριότερος όμως λόγος είναι ότι στην Eλλάδα είναι που
παρουσιάστηκαν εκείνα τα φωτεινά μυαλά που έθεσαν τις βάσεις
του πολιτισμού, των επιστημών, των τεχνών και ασχολήθηκαν με
θέματα καθολικού και διαχρονικού ενδιαφέροντος για τον
άνθρωπο. Aυτοί οι προικισμένοι άνθρωποι δημιούργησαν και τις
λέξεις για την απόδοση των διανοητικών συλλήψεών τους, λέξεις
που έδωσαν τη δυνατότητα να εκφραστεί και να αναπτυχθεί ο
δυτικός και γενικά ο παγκόσμιος πολιτισμός.
Kαι κλείνοντας ο Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης παρατηρεί: H αποκοπή των

νεότερων Eλλήνων από τις ρίζες της Γλώσσας μας, θα στερήσει τις
επόμενες γενιές από τη δυνατότητα να αναγνωρίζουν λέξεις της δικής
τους Γλώσσας, που δανείστηκαν οι ξένες γλώσσες και να κατανοούν
βασικές έννοιες του παγκόσμιου πολιτισμικού σύμπαντος.
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“Aν για κάθε λαό”, συνεχίζει, “η Γλώσσα του είναι το κυριότερο

στοιχείο της πολιτιστικής του κληρονομιάς, για μας τους Ελληνες είναι
κάτι περισσότερο. Eίναι το ενωτικό στοιχείο που, μαζί με την Oρθοδοξία,
κράτησε τον Eλληνισμό ενωμένο και τον βοήθησε να ξεπεράσει τις
εθνικές του περιπέτειες. H Ελληνική Γλώσσα αποτελεί και τη
μεγαλύτερη προσφορά των Eλλήνων στην οικουμένη”.
Kαι καταλήγει: “Πεποίθησή μου είναι ότι έχουμε κληρονομίσει έναν
ανεκτίμητο θησαυρό, μια πανέμορφη Γλώσσα, για την οποία πρέπει να
είμαστε περήφανοι και πρέπει να βοηθήσουμε να το καταλάβουν και τα
παιδιά μας”.
1515 THE PRINCE by Nicolo Machiavelli translated by W. K. Marriott

CHAPTER I HOW MANY KINDS OF PRINCIPALITIES THERE ARE,
AND BY WHAT MEANS THEY ARE ACQUIRED ALL STATES..
Greece appears to me sufficient for an example. The Achaeans and
Aetolians were kept friendly by them, the kingdom of Macedonia was
humbled, Antiochus was driven out; yet the merits of the Achaeans and
Aetolians never secured for them permission to increase their power, nor
did the persuasions of Philip ever induce the Romans to be his friends
without first humbling him, nor did the influence of Antiochus make
them agree that he should retain any lordship over the country. Because
the Romans did in these instances what all prudent princes ought to do,
who have to regard not only present troubles, but also future ones, for
which they must prepare with every energy, because, when foreseen..
Jeff Dorchen and the Moment of Truth: Language organisms.
the moment of truth-Language organisms -2-20-99(Σημείωσή μου,

ερευνώντας στο sites google, με κλειδί, Language and Capitalism).Hi,
I'm mejeffdorchen and welcome to the Moment of Truth. The one artifact
of the broadcast universe that guides our gaze away from the mad
hypnotic visage of capitalist media, the one artifact of the broadcast
universe that we can focus on with our entire depth of soul, and through
it, as through a prism, glimpse the richly hued spectrum of human
possibility.
Very early in the History of this segment, the Moment of Truth, we

talked about mass culture and the kind of world and the kind of people it
describes. We said that mass media and the culture of extreme capitalism
tell a propagandistic story about a world in which everything can be
bought processed packaged and sold. Or more accurately, they filter out
everything that CAN'T be bought processed packaged and sold. In doing
350
so they project before us an image of ourselves as a society of shallow,

munching robotic drones who live to purchase, unwrap, and consume
things. Mass media and the culture of extreme capitalism, through their
editorial process of selecting only those elements of images they need to
tell the story of buying processing packaging and selling, create a
language organism that exists in a state of genetic purity that actual
xenophobic, racist human beings can only fantasize about attaining. This
being, this language organism, is racially pure. In the Darwinian world of
the language beings, it is the master race.
See, once upon a time, the Original language fish crawled up out of the
primordial ooze of grunts and screeches and oinks to breathe air. The
language lungfish begat mutant language organisms that each founded
its own dynasty of language creatures. Eventually there evolved an
ecology of language mammals running around the grasslands. There was
the language of poetry, the language of religion, the language of justice,
the language of music, the language of communal cooperation, the
language of love, the language of healing, the language of war -- oh,
many many species and subspecies of language beasts galloping around
the grasslands. But it was the language of commerce that was the first to
fashion a tool, the First to walk erect, the First to manipulate its
environment. Or so the story goes. And because of its superiority, it came
to dominate the other languages, subjugating them, enslaving them.
But though the language of commerce ruled over the many nations of
language creatures, and borrowed from the customs and lore of its
subjects, never did it allow the seed of those inferior language races to
pollute the purity of its bloodline. Certainly it borrowed techniques from
the language of poetry, but never did it allow itself to be infected with
the idea of the beauty of words for their own sake. Yes, commerce
borrowed the idea of paradise from the language of religion, but its mind
was far too rational to fall prey to actual spiritual revelation. It tossed
around the terms of justice, but never was it just. It could parrot the
melodies of music, but never did it fall under music's spell. It spoke
about community, but never gave anything of itself that it wasn't sure of
recovering later, with interest. It whispered and cooed like a lover, but
never did it love. Met the sick with a look of compassion on its face, but
never offered a treatment without extorting the highest possible fee. Even
in war it spoke the language of patriotism but had loyalty for no one,
playing each faction against the other for its own profit.
And it has been just this ability to steal from the other races, this flexible
and absorbent quality, coupled with the genetic constitution to resist
351
being corporally polluted by the inferior races, that gave the language of
commerce its evolutionary edge. It is this twin nature of commerce that
has given it dominance over the world of language organisms and
nurtured its development into the master race we know today as mass
media and the culture of extreme capitalism.
The question is, are the other, less successful languages dying out? Well,
they may be on the ropes, evolutionarily speaking. Those in our society
who speak a language other than the dominant one of buying processing
packaging and selling don't have it so easy. We know poets are usually
miserable -- they often feel misunderstood. Of course they are! They're
speaking a marginalized language. The language of capitalism is on
everyone's lips. How many people carry poems around in their wallets?
Not many. Why would you? You can't trade a poem for a month of living
in an apartment, unless you're really lucky. But you don't even have to be
able to read the pieces of paper with the message of capitalism on them.
We carry them around with us everywhere and their message is instantly
grasped by everyone.
But I don't believe that mass media and the culture of extreme capitalism
will ever entirely starve the other languages out. Without these other
languages capitalism would have no vocabulary, since it long ago lost its
own. It would be a skeleton language, a grammar and syntax with no
words to fill it up.
Because Originally an economy was a system of moving resources and

services around among a society of people. But capital has evolved away
from that Original source of its existence. It had to separate itself from
the idea of the needs of a society of people because that idea weakened
its language and its purpose. It was weighing it down, keeping it from
soaring free. We might call the idea that resources should move
according to the needs of human beings in a society the gold standard of
economic language. Once economic thinking unhooked itself from this
idea -- or "went off the gold standard" as it were -- it became a language
based entirely in abstract wealth. These abstractions are only given life by
attaching themselves like leeches to things in other language organisms
that people care about.
Let's take, for example, children. Real human beings care about children.
Parents, supposedly, care about children. The language parents speak is
about caring about children. Insurance companies steal from that
language. They fill their skeleton syntax up with words about caring
about children. But we all know that they don't give a tinker's turd about
352
children, they only care about taking your money and hopefully never
having to give you anything in exchange for it.
The face of mass media and the culture of extreme capitalism is a

babbling paper mask with nothing behind it but the skeleton of a
language that barely props it up, barely keeps it from crumpling to the
ground. But the mask is adding more and more cultural elements to itself.
It's becoming an overburdened collage of that which it steals from us. The
day may come when the mask is so heavy and the language supporting it
so empty that the entire structure will collapse under its own absurdity.
That may even be beginning to happen. I don't really have any evidence
for that. I just feel like ending on an upbeat note.
This has been mejeffdorchen with the Moment of Truth.
A - I n f o s -a multi-lingual news service by, for, and about anarchists -
(en) Language Militia Manifesto [From the The Solidarity Federation

Quarterly
From http://www.directa.
Language is such a major part of everyday life, it gets taken for
granted. But from the day we’re born, our identity is defined by
language. The genders, races and classes we belong to are also thus
defined. Our status and level of living is fundamentally influenced by the
language of power.
1996 by Charlie Bertsch and Joel Schalit
If one word could substitute for the complicated metaphors

used above, it would be on par with these concepts. Such
substitution has an obvious advantage: it saves time and
energy. Instead of devising figures of speech each time we
want to talk about the complex ideas denoted by the word
"ideology", we can just say "ideology". In other words, we
give up the idiosyncrasies of invention for the economy of
language held in common. Private abstractions are replaced
with a public abstraction we agree upon. The standardization
this entails brings an added benefit. Words have a History.
In using a word like "ideology" we conjure up the manifold
uses other people have given it. The same could be said for a
metaphor, of course, but the process is much more distinct in
353
the case of a single word. Because words like "ideology" and

"fetishization" are difficult for the average reader, they
are particularly effective at calling this Historical
consciousness forth. Everyday words like "tree" are used much
more unconsciously. Many leftists are reluctant to surrender
specialized words like "reification" once they have learned
them because the words' strangeness prevents people from
taking their meaning for granted.
When leftists do forego specialized language for the sake of

winning a larger audience, they are faced with a dilemma. If
that language helped them to see in a new way, isn't it
rather odd to hide it from others? As Jonathan Sterne put it
in a recent debate on the Bad Subjects mailing list, leftists
who do this risk being guilty of a condescension that reveals
"why populism is Politically and ethically bankrupt." He
asks: "Why does a working class Politics have to be
anti-intellectual?" He argues that "the answer has more to do
with the Politics among intellectuals...than it does with the
Politics between classes" and that "the elitism of populism
is that working people 'just won't get' our ideas, and
therefore we'd better be quiet and do what they tell us.
Where I come from, when you respect someone, you hold them to
the same standards you hold yourself to."
Contents-Editorial -- Graeme Turner -ANZCA News -- Lelia Green

-TECHNOCULTURE
Notes on culture jamming David Cox The coming of post-

reflexive society: Commodification and language in digital
capitalism Philip Graham and Greg Hearn
Packing an unfair advantage? Internet culture and commercial

television Caspar Baumgartner
Free-to-air futures in the United Kingdom and Australia: A personal view

Abigail Thomas Studying the user: A matter of perspective Supriya
Singh Playing with the big kids: The implications of imported advertising
on Australian television Terrie Waddell Good guys, bad guys: Images of
the Australian soldier in East Timor Denise Woods Using 'economic'
impact studies in arts and cultural advocacy: A cautionary note
Christopher Madden Reviews edited by Ben Goldsmith Media Briefs:
354
Press comment on the media, cultural and arts industries Debra

Mayrhofer.
Abstracts, Technoculture, edited by Lelia Green and Matthew Allen
Matthew Allen: Desiring the Interface: Introducing technoculture

In introducing the eight papers that constitute the theme of technoculture
for this issue, I suggest that the diversity in responses to and
understandings of the term 'technoculture' is not a weakness but a
strength. The diffuse results of technocultural studies reflect the desires
for relevance, generality and creation with intellectual discourse which,
in technocultural times, enable or require diverse subject matter to be
labelled 'technoculture'.
Lelia Green: Technoculture: another term that means nothing and

gets us nowhere?
This article argues that the term 'technoculture' is frequently used in a
woolly manner to refer in a general way to technologies implicated in
Western cultures, and to constructions of culture that incorporate
technoLogical aspects. The opportunity for the term to convey a
specific meaning is lost in the generality of this everyday usage. Arguing
from first principles about the nature of technology and culture, the
paper suggests that technoculture as a term should be applied to
communications technologies that are used in the mediated construction
of culture. To be technocultural, the technology concerned must
facilitate cultural communication across space and/or time and should,
in some way, raise issues of place. Since culture is a construction
involving communication and more than one person, technoculture
involves the communication of cultural material in technoLogical
contexts - which is to say, other than the face-to-face. If this definition
were to be adopted, future discussions of technoculture would indicate
reference to a technology that allows the construction of culture across
space and time.
Matthew Rimmer: Napster: Infinite digital jukebox or pirate

bazaar?
This paper considers the litigation over the file-sharing program,
Napster. The first section examines the culture of collecting at work in
Napster. The next part examines the litigation by the major record
companies and Metallica against Napster. The final section considers the
future of file-sharing, looking at alternatives to Napster, such as
Filetopia, Freenet, Gnutella, MP3board.com and streaming media.
355
Vanessa Pappas: Conceptualising the virtual and the posthuman

This article aims to explore the relations between technology and the
subject. With new media intensifying the provisionality of discursive
structures and in turn embodied experiences, questions pertaining to
virtuality have become vital, particularly since Western society's
increasing reliance on technologies now permeates our everyday
practices. While many theorists often resort to a reification of the
subject when conceptualising the posthuman condition, this analysis
will recover the notion of embodiment in order to avoid such
technoLogical determinism. Tracing this complexity in contemporary
texts can be achieved through various means. Here, the focus will
remain on how narrative frameworks can create new possibilities for
understanding and interpreting shifting subjectivities in the digital age.
To explore this, I shall provide an analysis of a contemporary film,
Being John Malkovich, which has been chosen due to its unexpected
success at the box office, indicating how finely attuned the film is to
contemporary concerns.
Scott Smith: Surfing the Green Web: Communication and 'the

environment' in online Australia
Environmental organisations have often adapted quickly to the
workings of existing media institutions. Prominent organisations like
Greenpeace feature regularly in mainstream news, demonstrating their
deep understanding of mainstream media processes. Now the emerging
sphere of the new media has opened up further space for environmental
organisations to utilise. The Web promises new and more effective ways
of communicating with Australians interested in, and concerned with,
'the environment'.
David Cox: Notes on culture jamming
Arguably, the media today represent the central means by which global
power is mediated. The rise of global networks has consolidated the
reach of corporate power such that it now rivals - and probably
surpasses - that of government. People are finding innovative and
alternative ways to communicate using the very means the corporate
sector itself uses, to different ends. This is the world of the culture
jammer, who turns the message back on the sender, the better to expose
the unequal power relations at work in what Guy Debord called 'The
Society of the Spectacle'.
Philip Graham and Greg Hearn: The coming of post-reflexive

society: Commodification and language in digital capitalism
Language is a unique aspect of human communication because it can be
used to discuss itself in its own terms. For this reason, human societies
356
potentially have superior capacities of coordination, reflexive self-

correction and innovation than other animal, physical or cybernetic
systems. However, this analysis also reveals that language is
interconnected with the economically and technoLogically mediated
social sphere. Hence it is vulnerable to abstraction, objectification,
reification and therefore ideology - all of which are antithetical to its
reflexive function (whilst paradoxically being a fundamental part of it).
In particular, in capitalism, language is increasingly commodified
within the social domains created and affected by ubiquitous
communication technologies. The advent of the so-called 'knowledge
economy' implicates exchangeable forms of thought (language) as the
fundamental commodities of this emerging system. The Historical point
at which a 'knowledge economy' emerges, then, is the critical point at
which thought itself becomes a commodified 'thing', and language
becomes its 'objective' means of exchange. However, the processes by
which such commodification and objectification occur obscure the
unique social relations within which these language commodities are
produced. We argue that the latest economic phase of capitalism - the
knowledge economy - and the obfuscating trajectory which
accompanies it, are destroying the reflexive capacity of language,
particularly through the process of commodification. This can be seen in
the fact that the language practices which have emerged in conjunction
with digital technologies are increasingly non-reflexive and therefore
less capable of self-critical, conscious change.
Caspar Baumgartner: Packing an unfair advantage? Internet

culture and commercial television
An examination of the strategies of Packer's PBL, owner of Channel
Nine and the Internet portal ninemsn, suggests that the commercial
agenda of the mass media - and the quest for audiences - has translated
into an attempt to control access gateways to the Internet. Strategic
alliances with MSN and partners who can provide transaction-driven
services, such as Ticketek and Schwab, are core elements to 'channel'
users through the ninemsn portal. Its exemplary use of interactive
capabilities to establish lasting links to Web users reflects a changing
notion of audiences as active, globally connected consumers. The
dialogue which unfolds between the technoLogical environment of the
Internet and the existing culture of the television industry will impact on
future digital cultures and upon regulatory responses.
General Articles
Abigail Thomas: Free-to-air futures in the United Kingdom and
Australia: A personal view
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This industry paper looks at the broadcasting industry, how its revenue
streams are changing and how this will affect the future of free-to-air
services. Its premise is that, increasingly, consumers will purchase
services rather than goods, and that their attention will become more and
more valuable. If existing broadcasters want to remain relevant, they need
to make sure that their content is accessible to consumers in the new
world
Supriya Singh: Studying the user: A matter of perspective
Providers and policy-makers are interested in understanding consumers'

use of new media and technologies. The challenge, however, is to work
out ways in which qualitative research on the social construction and uses
of the new communications technologies can connect with and
reformulate issues central to industry and policy. In this paper, I present a
way of exploring the perspectives of the user, and connecting them to the
language and perspectives of providers and policy-makers. The user and
their activities are placed at the centre of the questions. The questions and
concepts then focus on the activity and nature of communication rather
than the goods and services sold or the technologies being used.
Information and communication technologies are studied within their
social context. This research is most often qualitative because, for the
most part, we are discovering new questions and exploring ambiguity.
Once the user's perspectives have been discovered, it is easier to engage
in dialogue with providers and policy-makers by focusing on concepts
central to both sides, such as 'design' and 'trust'. These concepts link
issues important to the user to issues of production, diffusion and
consumer confidence.
Terrie Waddell: Playing with the big kids: The implications of
imported advertising on Australian television
This article critically examines the Australian Broadcasting Authority's

Television Program Standard 23 (TPS 23) - a set of regulations
governing the importation of offshore television advertisements. Point
five of the Australian Content in Advertising section of TPS 23 (effective
from 23 January 1992) stipulates that: 'A licensee must ensure that at least
80 per cent of the total advertising time (other than the time occupied by
exempt advertisements) broadcast in a year by the licensee between the
hours of 6.00 a.m. and midnight, is occupied by Australian produced
advertisements.' Although the 20 per cent guideline has not yet been
breached, the number of imported commercials has increased since the
introduction of the standard. This research paper concentrates on the
implications of TPS 23 for those working in the media industry.
358
Denise Woods: Good guys, bad guys: Images of the Australian soldier
in East Timor.
It is said that pictures tell a thousand words, but to Malaysian Prime

Minister Dr Mahathir, the images of Australian soldiers pointing guns at
suspected militiamen in East Timor made one word stand out:
'belligerent'. Images that meant one thing in Australia represented quite
different and often opposite meanings in Southeast Asia. In the Australian
press, the Australian soldiers were constructed as 'the good guys' helping
out a neighbouring country in trouble. The press in some Southeast Asian
countries told quite a different story - that of the Australian soldiers as
intimidating and therefore the 'bad guys' of the region. Through a textual
analysis of these images, this paper examines the ways in which the
Australian soldiers have been represented in the press in Southeast Asia.
This paper also discusses the role the reading of these images played in
negotiating Australia's role in East Timor and the region.
Christopher Madden: Using 'economic' impact studies in arts and
cultural advocacy: A cautionary note
'Economic' impact studies have been popular in arts and cultural

advocacy. Yet the application is inappropriate. 'Economic' impact studies
are not designed for the purposes of advocacy. In the case of art and
culture, they are more likely to be self-defeating. They also distract
attention and resources away from the articulation of better advocacy
arguments. Economists have warned against the use of 'economic' impact
studies for advocacy, but their efforts have been only partly successful.
This paper summarises the case against using 'economic' impacts for
advocacy, concentrating on commonsense issues for easy digestion by
non-economists.
Πλάτωνας Μπιλέτσκυ, Ο αδερφός μου Ανδρέας
Οι αναμνήσεις του μικρού αδερφού του Ανδρέα Μπιλέτσκυ μας

μεταφέρουν στις δεκαετίες του 1920 και 1930, στα νιάτα του Ανδρέα. Οι
παρατηρήσεις του Πλάτωνα μας παριστάνουν τη διαμόρφωση ενώς
επιστήμονα, προπαντός φιλολόγου, αλλά και ζωγράφου, σκαλιστή,
ποιητή, και... αστρονόμου. Πολλές λεπτομέρειες που συνήθως μένουν σε
απόλυτη εχεμύθεια της οικογένειας μας βοηθάνε να ξαναδούμε πάλιν σαν
ζωντανή τη διακεκριμένη προσωπικότητα του καθηγητή και πατριάρχου
ελληνιστών - Ανδρέα Μπιλέτσκυ.
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Άννα Ρουσιάγεβα
Ο Ανδρέας Μπιλέτσκυ ως μελετητής της ελληνικής επιγραφικής
Στην πολύπλευρη επιστημονική δραστηριότητα του Ανδρέα Μπιλέτσκυ η

ελληνική επιγραφική καταλαμβάνει μια συμαντική θέση. Έχει
δημοσιεύσει, σχολιάσει ή χρονολογήσει πάνω από 30 επιγραφές που
διαφέρουν πολυ ψε περιεχόμενο και κατάσταση. Μερικά απ'αυτά φέρουν
σημαντικές πληροφορίες για την πολιτική, πολιτισμό και θρησκεία των
Ελλήνων των βόρειων παραθαλάσσιων περιοχών της Μαύρης θάλασσας.
Ο Ανδρέας Μπιλέτσκυ εξέταζε λεπτομερώς και τα ελληνικά ονόματα και
την καταγωγή τους. Όλα τα έργα του Α.Μπιλέτσκυ στον τομέα της
ελληνικής επιγραφικής συχνά χρησιμοποιούνται στις διάφορες
επιστημονικές μελέτες, τόσο στη χώρα μας όσο και στο εξωτερικό. Οι
δημοσιευμένες από τον Ανδρέα Μπιλέτσκυ επιγραφές αποτελούν το
κύριο απόθεμα των μνημείων της ελληνικής επιγραφικής.
Ολεξάνδρ Πονομαρίβ, Ελληνικής προέλευσης λέξεις στην

ουκρανική Γλώσσα
Η ουκρανική Γλώσσα σε διάρκεια των αιώνων έπαιρνε τις λέξεις από

άλλες γλώσσες μέσα στις οποίες μια από τις πιο βασικές θέσεις ανήκει
στην Ελληνική Γλώσσα που έκανε πολύ μεγάλη επιρροή σε όλες τις
γλώσσες της Ευρώπης, ιδιαίτερα στον τομέα του λεξιλογίου.
Οι ελληνικές λέξεις εμφανίστηκαν στην ουκρανική Γλώσσα σαν
αποτέλεσμα των ιστορικών, οικονομικών, γεωγραφικών, πολιτιστικών
και άλλων σχέσεων των λαών μας.
Περισσότερες ουκρανικές λέξεις ελληνικής προέλευσης είναι τα στοιχεία

διεθνούς διάδοσης, αλλά υπάρχουν οι λέξεις που χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο
στις σλαβικές γλώσσες.
Υπάρχουν και λέξεις που χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο στην ουκρανική

Γλώσσα και απουσιάζουν σε άλλες σλαβικές και μη σλαβικές. Κάποιες
λέξεις της ελληνικής προέλευσης δεν άλλαξαν τη φωνητική τους μορφή
συγκριτικά με την ελληνική πηγή τους, κάποιες έχουν μεγάλες
φωνητικές και σημαντικές αλλαγές.
Στο σύνολο στη σύγχρονη ουκρανική Γλώσσα υπάρχουν περίπου 12
χιλιάδες λέξεις που έχουν ελληνικές ρίζες.
Νίνα Κλιμένκο, Τα Ελληνικά Γράμματα στην Ουκρανία

360
Οι ελληνικές σπουδές στην Ουκρανία έχουν μακρόχρονη παράδοση. Οι

ρίζες τους βρίσκονται ήδη στην εποχή της Κίγιβσκα Ρους. Η εκμάθηση
της ελληνικής προέκυψε από τις παλαιές στενές σχέσεις μεταξύ των
λαών μας και από την ανάγκη στερέωσης οικονομικών και πνευματικών
επαφών
Η γνώση της αρχαίας ελληνικής ήταν ένα από τα συστατικά στοιχεία της
ανθρωπιστικής παιδείας στην Ουκρανία. Τα ελληνικά μαζί με τα
λατινικά και αρχαία σλαβικά διδάσκονταν στην Πρώτη ουκρανική
εκπαιδευτική Ακαδημία που την ίδρυσε στο Οστρόγκ το 1580 ο
πρίγκιπας Κωνσταντίνος Οστρόζκυ. Εκεί παρέδιδαν τα μαθήματα οι
διάσημοι Έλληνες επιστήμονες: Διονύσιος Παλαιολόγος, Νικηφόρος
Καντακουζηνός και Κύριλλος Λουκάρης.
Στο 16το αι. στα σχολεία που οργάνωσαν οι ορθόδοξες αδελφότητες στη
Λεοντόπολη, στο Γάλιτς, στο Ρογάτιν, στο Στρίυ, στο Κομάρνε, στο
Γιαροσλάβ, στο Χολμ, στο Λουτσκ δίδασκαν και τα αρχαία ελληνικά.
Στα τέλη του 16ου αι. ανάμεσά τους διακρίθηκε το σχολείο της
Αδελφότητας της Λεοντόπολης, που δίδασκε και ο λόγιος Έλληνας
Αρσένιος Ελασσόνος, συνθέτης και της ελληνικής γραμματικής για τους
Ουκρανούς μαθητές του.
Κατά τον 17ο αι. πολυάριθμα ορθόδοξα σχολεία εκτάθηκαν σ'όλη την
Ουκρανία. Μαζί τους εξαπλώθηκε και βυζαντινό εκπαιδευτικό
πρόγραμμα που στηριζότανε στην εκμάθηση ελληνικών γραμμάτων.
Στις αρχές του 17ου αι. στο Κίεβο ενώθηκαν το Κολέγιο της μονής
Αδελφάτου και το σχολείο της Αγίας Λαύρας, και έτσι ιδρύθηκε η
πασίγνωστη σ'όλον τον ορθόδοξο κόσμο η Ακαδημία του Πέτρου
Μογκίλα. Στο 17ο και 18ο αι. αυτή η Ακαδημία έπαιζε μεγάλο ρόλο στην
εκπαίδευση της νεολαίας όλης της Νότιοανατολικής Ευρώπης. Τα
ελληνικά πάντα αποτελούσαν αναπόσπαστο μέρος του ακαδημαϊκού
προγράμματος παρ'όλο που πολλές διαλέξεις έκαναν και στα λατινικά και
πολονέζικα. Στα εκπαιδευτικά ιδρύματα που ιδρύονταν στην Ουκρανία
στο 18ο αι. (Χάρκοβο, Χερσώνα, Πολτάβα) από τους Έλληνες λογίους
Ευγένιο Βούλγαρη, Νικηφόρο Θεοτόκη προβλεπότανε η υποχρεωτική
διδασκαλία της ελληνικής. Αργότερα, με την ίδρυση πανεπιστημίων στις
πόλεις Χάρκοβο, Κίεβο, Οδησσό, Τσερνιβτσί τα τα ελληνικά
διδάσκονται στα πλαίσια των προγραμμάτων των φιλολογικών και
ιστορικών τμημάτων. Οι έδρες της ελληνικής φιλολογίας, που δίδασκαν
και τα αρχαία ελληνικά, και την ιστορία, φιλοσοφία και λογοτεχνία της
Ελλάδας έγιναν κέντρα ελληνικών μελετών. Εκτώς από τα πανεπιστήμια
κατά το 19ο αι. τα ελληνικά υποχρεωτικά διδάσκονται στα λύκεια,
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γυμνάσια, θεολογικές σχολές (σεμινάρια) και βεβαίως σε μερικά

ελληνικά ιδρύματα στη Νίζνα, στη Μαριούπολη, και στην Οδησσό. ..
Στο Κίεβο με τις ελληνικές μελέτες και διδασκαλία της αρχαίας και νέας
Ελληνικής Γλώσσας ασχολήθηκαν οι πασίγνωστοι τώρα επιστήμονες - ο
Ανδρέας Μπιλέτσκυ και η συζυγός του Τατιάνα Τσερνισόβα. Οι Πρώτοι
δέκα μαθητές τους, με το δικαίωμα να διδάσκουν τα νέα ελληνικά,
αποφοίτησαν το Πανεπιστήμιο του Κιέβου το 1961. Από τότε από τις
επίσημες και μη επίσημες ομάδες φοιτητών βγήκανε πολλοί δάσκαλοι,
ερευνητές, φιλολόγοι και ιστορικοί, μεταφραστές και διπλωμάτες. Το
άλλο σημαντικό κέντρο ελληνικών προπάντως αρχαίων μελετών είναι
στο Λβιβ (Λεοντόπολη). Εδώ εργάζονται οι μεταφραστές Ι.Κόμπιβ και
Α.Σοντομόρα
Τελευταία οι ελληνικές μελέτες και τα ελληνικά παρουσιάζονται

τακτικά στα επιστημονικά και εκπαιδευτικά προγράμματα διάφορων
κρατικών και και ιδιωτικών ιδρυμάτων. Έτσι δημιουργείται ένα
καινούργιο σύστημα προώθησης και διάδοσης της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας
και ελληνικού πολιτισμού, το γεγονός που συμβάλλει πολύ όχι μόνο
στην ανάπτυξη των πολυάριθμων ελληνικών κοινοτήτων της Ουκρανίας,
αλλα εξίσου στην διαμόρφωση πιο υψηλού επιπέδου λειτουργίας
αρχαίων ελληνικών εκπαιδευτικών αρχών.
Αλέξανδρος-Γαλένκο, Ευγένιος Τσερνούχιν , Ονόματα και

παρωνύμια στα βιβλία μνημοσύνων των ορθόδοξων Ελλήνων
της Κριμαίας στις αρχές του 18ου αι.
Αποσπάσματα των βιβλίων μνημοσύνων από τις ορθόδοξες ενορίες της

Κριμαίας αποδεικνύουν την ύπαρξη του ελληνικού πληθυσμού στις
πολιτείες και χωριά Γκιοζλεβαι, Κρίμη, Καφά, Σάλαι, Καψοχώρι, ¶νω και
Κάτω Αούτκα, Τζεμπαρέκ, Μεγάλη Λαμπάδα και Μιροβήτζη. Εν συνόλο
πρόκειται για 1312 άτομα. Τα ονόματα και παρατσούκλια τους
προσφέρουν αξιόλογο υλικό για τις ιστορικές και γλωσσολογικές
έρευνες. Στο άρθρο περιγράφονται τα εν λόγω ελληνικά χειρόγραφα,
αναλύεται η σύσταση των ενοριών εφόσον αφορά την καταγραφή των
ιερέων και προσκυνητών, εκφράζονται οι γνώμες σχετικά με την
προέλευση των ονομάτων και επωνύμων. Εκδίδονται όλα τα
αποσπάσματα των ενοριακών βιβλίων και ο πίνακας με τη διανομή των
κατοίκων κατά τους οικισμούς.
Γιούρι Σάνιν, Οι Ποιητές και Αθλητές

362
Στους αρχαίους ελληκούς αγώνες, ολυμπιακούς και άλλους πολλούς,

διακρίθηκαν όχι μόνον οι αθλητές, αλλά και οι ποιητές, μουσικοί,
τραγουδιστές, χορευτές και κήρυκες. Έτσι στο Ολυμπιακό στάδιο
παρουσιάστηκε για Πρώτη φορά με τις Ιστορίες του και ο Ηρόδοτος, τα
έργα του οποίου με τόση τελειώτητα μετέφρασε στα ουκρανικά ο
Ανδρέας Μπιλέτσκυ. Τα αγωνιστικά θέματα αντικαθρεπτίζονται στα
διάφορα είδη της αρχαίας λογοτεχνίας και τέχνης. Ο παρών συγγραφέας
ασχολείται με αυτό το θέμα επί πολλά χρόνια, ιδιαίτερα με τα
επιγράμματα, αφιερωμένα στους αθλητές-νικητές και μη,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων και αυτών που δεν κατόρθωσαν να αποκτήσουν
ουτε στοιχειώδη σεβασμό των φιλάθλων. Μερικά επιγράμματα του
Σημονίδη του Κείου, Λουκίλλίου, Νικάρχου και Ανωνύμου
δημοσιεύονται σ'αυτό το τεύχος.
ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΑ ΜΕΤΑΦΡΑΣΗΣ ΓΙΑ ΕΠΑΓΓΕΛΜΑΤΙΕΣ
Τους στόχους του νεοϊδρυθέντος Ευρωπαϊκού Κέντρου Μετάφρασης

Λογοτεχνίας και Επιστημών του Ανθρώπου (ΕΚΕΜΕΛ), αποτέλεσμα
της πρωτοβουλίας προσωπικοτήτων της μετάφρασης και του Εθνικού
Κέντρου Βιβλίου, παρουσίασαν χθες το μεσημέρι ο υπουργός
Πολιτισμού Ευάγγελος Βενιζέλος, ο διευθυντής του ΕΚΕΒΙ, Χρ. Γ.
Λάζος και ο πρόεδρός του Α. Στάϊκος.
Οπως αναφέρθηκε, μέσα στις άμεσες επιδιώξεις του κέντρου είναι η
δημιουργία ενός εργαστηρίου μετάφρασης, μιας εστίας μεταφραστών,
ενός κέντρου τεκμηρίωσης και ενός χώρου πολιτιστικών συναντήσεων.
Οι δραστηριότητες του ΕΚΕΜΕΛ θα ξεκινήσουν με εργαστήρια
αμφίδρομης μετάφρασης σε τρεις γλώσσες: Αγγλικά, Γαλλικά,
Γερμανικά, με προοπτική επέκτασης και σε άλλες γλώσσες.
Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο θα επιδιωχθεί η συγκρότηση ενός προγράμματος
κατάρτισης ισπανόφωνων μεταφραστών υπό τη μορφή σεμιναρίων και
παράλληλα θα υπάρχει και ένα διαγλωσσικό τμήμα που θ’ ασχοληθεί με
τα προβλήματα μετάφρασης στα πεδία Φιλοσοφίας και των Επιστημών
του Ανθρώπου.
Το ΕΚΕΜΕΛ στελεχώνεται από τους: Ανδρέα Στάϊκο πρόεδρο,
Ντέηβιντ Κόνολλι σύμβουλο της αγγλικής Γλώσσας, Κατρίν Βελισσάρη
σύμβουλο της γαλλικής Γλώσσας, Αντρέα Σέλλινγκερ σύμβουλο της
γερμανικής Γλώσσας και Παναγιώτη Πούλο σύμβουλο στις Επιστήμες
του ανθρώπου..
ΚΕΔΡΟΣ/24-5-2001
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ΟΙ ΕΛΛΗΝΕΣ ΣΤΗΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΑ
Στο πλαίσιο της παρουσίασης του Παγκοσμίου Ελληνισμού απο τον

Πολιτισμικό Οργανισμό του Δήμου Αθηναίων,το λεύκωμα "Οι Ελληνες
στην Αγγλία", απο την ομώνυμη έκθεση, περιγράφει την έντονη
Ελληνική παρουσία στην Αγγλία απο τον 4ο π.χ. αιώνα μέχρι την
ακμάζουσα παροικία που δημιουργήθηκε κατά τον 19ο αιώνα και
συνεχίζει εως σήμερα την πλούσια δράση της.
Greek studies
Knowledge of Greek had practically disappeared in western Europe by

the eighth century AD. For the next 500 years Europe depended on
translations of Greek works into Latin, either made directly by late
antique writers like Boethius or from Arabic versions of the Originals. It
was not until Petrarch's time that Greek began to be taught extensively
in the West, though some twelfth-century scholars had a knowledge of the
language. The first teachers in fifteenth-century Italy were either
Sicilians or southern Italians who lacked idiomatic knowledge or envoys
from Constantinople whose main preoccupation was with the threat from
the Turks; the teaching was inevitably haphazard. It became more
systematic with the appointment, at the instigation of Coluccio Salutati
and others, of Manuel Chrysoloras as professor of Greek at Florence,
where he taught from 1396 to 1400. From this time Greek studies
evolved steadily in Italy using the talents not only of other Greek
immigrants such as George of Trebizond and Gemistus Plethon but
eventually native Italians such as Politian. The First Greek book to be
printed in the West was Constantine Lascaris's grammar, Erotemata
(Milan, 1476).
France was the first country outside Italy in which Greek studies
developed, though teaching was at First largely in the hands of Greeks
such as Janus Lascaris, who visited France three times between 1495 and
1534, or Italian scholars such as Aleandro; their main emphasis was on
the acquisition of the language. Second-generation French Hellenists
included Budé, Rabelais, Robert Estienne, and Étienne Dolet. The
emphasis of this second generation was on literature, but increasingly
Greek scholars in France were forced to adopt one side or the other in the
Reformation struggle. Erasmus played a key role in this controversy with
his edition of the Greek New Testament (1516).
364
Religious controversy also accompanied the gradual extension of Greek

studies into northern Europe. The activities of Reuchlin in Germany (see
also Hebrew studies) provoked a reaction by traditionalists, which led to
the satirical scholarly feud of the Epistolae obscurorum virorum.
Luther was led to formulate some of his central doctrines as a result of
his contact with the Original New Testament text, though Erasmus
deplored the conclusions he drew, and thereafter it was impossible to free
the study of Greek in Germany from theoLogical implications.
The study of Greek in England began at Oxford and Canterbury in

the 1460s. George Neville, a younger brother of Warwick the Kingmaker,
had Greek scholars attached to his household during his time as
chancellor of Oxford (1453-56, 1461-72). A number of extant
manuscripts were written by the scribe George Serbopoulos between
1489 and 1500 at Reading Abbey. Greek was first formally taught at
Oxford (1491) by William Grocyn whose fellow-pupil in Italy was
Linacre. A chair of Greek was established at Oxford in 1516 and some
years later at Cambridge where Erasmus had lectured in 1511 at Bishop
(later St) John Fisher's request. As in the rest of northern Europe, the
study of Greek was associated in England with developments in theology
and there was a strong reaction against Greek, particularly at Oxford.
One topic that occasioned much controversy was the correct

pronunciation of Greek. The fifteenth-century Greek immigrants
recognized that their pronunciation differed from that of the ancient
Greeks. Reuchlin derived his pronunciation from his Greek
contemporaries, rendering the vowels [eta] [iota] [nu] and diphthongs
[epsilon][iota] [omicron][iota] and [nu][iota] like the Italian i. His so-
called itacistic pronunciation was propounded in Melanchthon's
Institutiones linguae Graecae (1518) and Erasmus published his counter-
proposals in De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronuntiatione (1528).
German and Italian scholars generally retained the Reuchlinian
pronunciation while the Erasmian standard prevailed elsewhere.
The importance attached to the study of Greek by the early humanists

had far-reaching implications. Greek philosophy encouraged the more
radical aspects of humanism and the study of the language inculcated a
critical approach that insisted on close attention to the actual words of
the text rather than the revamping of scholastic commentaries and
interpretations. The study of Greek carried with it the seeds of many
preoccupations of the sixteenth-century reformers.
365
Market House Books Encyclopaedia of the Renaissance, Market

House Books Ltd 1987.
Erasmus, Desiderius (?1469 - 1536)
Dutch humanist scholar
Erasmus, who was illegitimate, was probably born in Rotterdam. He

entered Hegius's school at Deventer (1478), where, although the
curriculum was still largely medieval, he made some contact with the
new learning from Italy. In 1487 he joined the monastery of Steyn, near
Gouda, but the monastic life was uncongenial and in 1495, as secretary to
the bishop of Cambrai, he went to Paris to study theology. He found the
course uninspiring and extended his reading in Classical literature. In
1499 one of his private pupils, Lord Mountjoy, brought him to England
where he met Colet at Oxford. Colet's Historical approach to the Bible
so stimulated Erasmus that when he returned to Paris (1500) he was
determined to equip himself fully as a scholar. He learnt Greek and read
widely. In 1504 he published Enchiridion militis Christiani (Handbook
of the Christian Soldier), a plea to return to the simplicity of the early
Church and the pristine doctrine of the Fathers. This he followed with an
edition of Valla's annotations on the New Testament (1505), thereby
indicating his chosen path in scriptural criticism.
In 1506 Erasmus visited Italy as director of studies to the sons of Henry

VII's physician. In 1508 he published at the Aldine press an expanded
edition of his Adagia; the work made his European reputation. From
Venice he went to Rome, where he was invited to stay, but Lord
Mountjoy recalled him to England. He used his experiences to produce
the satirical Encomium Moriae (1511; The Praise of Folly) with a
dedication to Sir Thomas More. Between 1509 and 1514 Erasmus was at
work in London and Cambridge on his Greek New Testament and an
edition of the letters of St Jerome. He found a publisher in Johann
Froben of Basle; both works appeared in 1516. Erasmus used only a few
manuscripts of the New Testament and his edition lacked serious
critical scholarship but, the Complutensian Polyglot apart, his text was
the first Greek New Testament printed.
Erasmus had reached the peak of his fame. But the spread of the
Reformation in northern Europe involved him in bitter controversy which
clouded his later years. Luther felt that he detected seeds of radical
criticism of the Catholic Church in Erasmus's writings, and he failed to
366
understand how Erasmus could refuse to follow these lines of reasoning

to their Logical conclusion. The temperaments of the two men were
fundamentally different; Erasmus was appalled at the vitriolic emotional
tOne of the reformers which seemed to him a negation of of the reason
that was God's special gift to man.
In 1517 Erasmus settled at Louvain where he worked on a second edition

of his New Testament (1519). In 1521 religious persecution forced him
to move to Basle where he helped Froben by editing an extensive series
of patristic writers and produced the final version of his Colloquia (1526),
a set of dialogues, started around 1500, in which he exemplified his ideal
of civilized humane discussion of topical matters. He also wrote (1528)
against Reuchlin on the pronunciation of ancient Greek (see Greek
studies). In 1529 he was forced to leave Basle for Fribourg, but he
returned in 1535 to die there.
Erasmus exercised a profound influence over the northern Renaissance,

despite the apparent failure of his ideals. He exploited the printing press
to the full and his published work runs into dozens of volumes, including
editions of Classical authors and the Church Fathers, manuals of prose
style which show his characteristic common sense, works of moral
instruction such as the Institutio principis Christiani (1516), and satirical
squibs like the Encomium Moriae. The fundamental principle of
Erasmian humanism is awareness and recognition of free will, from
which follows the individual's responsibility for his own actions. Erasmus
remained concerned to the last to spread true religion and unity in the
fellowship of Christ through humane learning.
Market House Books Encyclopaedia of the Renaissance, Market

House Books Ltd 1987 .
From BBC.. Shakespeare
Holinshead worked for Reyner Wolfe (d.1573) who had come from
Strasburg and set up as a printer in St Paul's Churchyard, London. He was
the first printer in England to have a large stock of Greek type and
printed the First book in Greek in England.
Between about 1580 and 1640 there was a dominance of drama -

fictional works written to be declaimed upon the stage, rather than to be
read. Drama had hitherto been part of religious expression in the form of
mystery plays performed in churchyards. Now it had become secularised
and moved away from churches to galleried inn yards and purpose-built
theatres. the Puritans condemned plays and, as Puritanism grew, writers
367
and actors had to struggle against increasing opposition. Elizabethan

dramatists often criticised Puritans in their plays.
A lot of Englishmen wrote plays, not all of which were published. the
actors had their lines written out for them on scrolls. Probably only the
playwright had a complete copy of the script and even then, it was
constantly being amended.
In 1592 a writer with an unsavoury reputation, Robert Greene (1558-

92), published a pamphlet complaining about a new and largely
uneducated dramatist who was usurping the position of university
educated men, an 'upstart Cro, beautified with our feathers'. the ignorant
dramatist finding favour with audiences was one William Shakespeare
(1564-1616) and this piece of professional jealousy is the first reference
to him as a London dramatist.
"Those Ignorant Baptists"(From the Montreal Register.), Taken from

The Baptist Reporter, 1846
Some time since a friend of mine in the country was thus addressed by an
influential Paedobaptist: "Those ignorant Baptists! Do you not know that
no person well versed in the languages supports their views of baptism
by immersion?" Now, sir, a statement so utterly false as this, requires to
be exposed—a charge so unfounded, to be met and disproved.
The opinion of the Baptists as regards immersion, is supported:
I. By the concurrent testimony of the most ancient versions.
The Syriac and Latin versions of the second century, the Coptic of the
third, the Ethiopic, and Gothic of the fourth, and the Armenian of the
fifth, all employ words which signify immersion. Some, indeed, with a
degree of recklessness and a want of thorough research, which speaks but
little for their scholarship, have attempted to set this testimony aside, in
defiance alike of Lexicons, and of the evidence afforded by the rituals,
commentaries, and practice of those churches for which these versions
were made. Such persons, forsooth, know Coptic better than the Copts,
and Syriac better than the members of the Syriac churches! Peculiarly
modest, this.
II. By the testimony of the early church, as contained in its rituals, in its
acts of councils, and in the writings of its distinguished members.
368
Its rituals. That of the Nestorians, made probably in the seventh century,
gives the following directions: "They bring them (the children) to the
priest, who, standing on the western side of the baptistry, turns the face of
the child to the east, and dips him in water." In the ritual of Severus,
patriarch of Antioch, the following passages occur, "John mixed the
waters of baptism, and Christ sanctified them, end descended that he
might be baptized in them. Altitude and profundity imparted glory to
him," —" Who hast immersed thy head in the waters." The old
Abyssinian ritual contains the following words, "And the priest shall take
them and immerse them three times." The sacramentary of Gregory the
Great directs that persons to be baptized should be immersed. All the
ancient Greek rituals require immersion. In the Manuale ad usum Sarum,
published in England in the twenty-first year of Henry the eighth, is a
direction to the priest to take the child and dip him in the water. In the
Smalcald articles, drawn up by Luther, it is said, "Baptism is nothing else
than the word of God with immersion in water."
Its acts of councils. The Apostolic Constitutions, probably written in the

fourth century, declare that, "immersion denotes dying with Christ,
emersion a resurrection with him." So also in sect. iv. of the fourth
council of Toledo, it is said, "Immersion is like a descent to the grave, and
emersion from the water as a resurrection." The decretals of Leo speak of
a trine immersion as resembling the three day's burial, and the emersion
from the waters as a resurrection."
Its writers. Tertullian, who died A.D. 220, speaking of the mode of
baptism in Africa, tells us that a baptized person is "let down into the
water, and dipped between the utterance of a few words." "I do not see,"
confesses Professor Stuart, "how any doubt can well remain, that in
Tertullian's time the practice of the African church, to say the least, as to
the mode of baptism, must have been that of trine immersion." Gregory
of Nyssa, says, "Coming into the water...we hide ourselves in it;" and
Basil speaks of three immersions. Thus, then, in Asia Minor, for there
these two bishops lived during the fourth century, the custom was like our
own. Chrysostom, on the third chapter of John, informs us of the manner
in which baptism was administered in Constantinople during the same
century. His words are, "We, as in a sepulchre, immersing our heads in
water, the old man is buried, and sinking down, the whole is concealed at
once; then, as we emerge, the new man rises again," Ambrose, archbishop
of Milan at the same period, says, "Thou saidst, I believe, and thus wast
immerged, that is, thou wast buried." Cyril of Jerusalem, and Jerome in
Bethlehem, likewise gave the same testimony. Thus, then, as late as the
fourth century, immersion was still customary in Europe, Asia Minor, and
369
Africa. The Oriental and Greek churches have always practised dipping,
as they yet do. Even as late as the year 850, W. Strabo speaks of
immersion as being general. Nay, more, in the twelfth century Rupertus
tells us that this was the custom in Germany; while the Episcopalian Wall
confesses that, "in the times of Thomas Aquinas (thirteenth century) and
Bonaventure, immersion was in Italy the most common way." Such,
according to Fuller, was the practice of the English church from the
beginning, —a statement borne out by the language of Tyndale, who, at
the eve of the Reformation, speaks of it as the general practice; and by
the autobiography of bishop Chappell, who states that he was immersed,
as was the custom in the parish in which he was born. With respect to
Scotland, we find the following language in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia,
"In this country, however, sprinkling was never used in ordinary cases till
after the Reformation."
IV. By the testimony of the modern Greeks.
In an important Greek work, published 1757, the following statement

occurs, "And again, the word baptism will not express any other thing
besides dipping." Strong proof, this! The most able scholar among the
modern Greeks, Dr. Cory, who dies 1834, in the "Synopsis of Orthodox
Doctrine," published for the use of the schools in Athens, says that the
baptized person is "plunged into the water." Indeed the members of the
Greek church call those of the western churches "sprinkled Christians,"
by way of ridicule. Pity that these Greeks had not the valuable assistance
of one Canadian scholar. They might then perhaps better understand their
own language.
V. By the testimony of the most celebrated scholars.
The Reformers Luther, Beza, and Calvin own that immersion was the
practice of the primitive church. Luther's own words are," I would have
those that are to be baptized, to be altogether dipped into the water, as the
word doth sound, and the mystery doth signify." Milton, Seldon, and
Johnson all confess the same. Seldon says, "In England, of late years, I
ever thought the parson baptized his own fingers rather than the child."
The testimony of Bentley and Porson, the two most celebrated Greek
scholars England ever produced, maybe cited in our favour. The former in
his discourse on Free Thinking, defines baptism "dipping." The latter
affirms that Bapto signifies "total immersion," and candidly confesses,
"the Baptists have the advantage of us." Dr. Campbell's language is to the
same effect, Dr. Chalmers, in his Lectures on Romans, states that "the
Original meaning of the word baptism is immersion." Allow me now to
370
refer to the evidence afforded by German critics, who do not themselves

practice immersion, and who are confessedly the masters of the world in
matters of philology.
Schleusner, Bretschneider, and Wahl, the celebrated New Testament

Lexicographers, limit baptism as a religious ordinance to immersion;
while Rost and Passow, in their admirable Classic Greek Lexicons, give
information as much in our favour.
Binghem, Augusti, Winer, and Rheinwald, the most celebrated authors on

Christian Antiquities, affirm that baptism was Originally administered
by dipping. Augusti expressly states that "the word baptism, according to
etymology and usage, signifies to immerse, submerge," etc., and that "the
choice of the expression betrays an age in which the custom of sprinkling
had not been introduced."
Neander, Gieseler, and Guerike, confessedly the most learned church

historians alive, all add their testimony to the foregoing. Neander says,
"There can be no doubt whatever, that in the primitive times it (baptism)
was performed by immersion." Even the Episcopalian historian
Waddington has moral courage enough to avow the same thing.
The latest and best commentators are clear upon this point. Tholuck, on
Romans vi. 4, says that "the candidate in the primitive church was
immersed in water, and raised out of it again," and declares from the
Professor's chair in Berlin, that "baptism always means immersion in the
New Testament." Olshausen affirms the same in his commentary. Hahn,
the celebrated editor of the Hebrew Bible and Greek New Testament,
asserts that baptism takes place "through the immersion of the whole
man." Knapp and a host of other equally learned men, state the same.
Even the Episcopalian Bloomfield says, "I agree with Koppe and
Rosenmuller, that there is reason to regret it (immersion) should have
been abandoned in most Christian churches."
Indeed, to use Professor Sears' own language, "the reasoning adopted in

this country by the abettors of sprinkling, is openly ridiculed in the
German universities."
Now Sir, in view of all that has been said, what are we to think of our
Canadian critic?
If we in this matter are "ignorant baptists," the translators of the most

valuable ancient versions of the Bible were ignorant, the most learned
fathers of the church knew not the meaning of their own language, or the
371
mode in which they administered their own rites, the most professed
scholars of the present day are a set of ignoramuses! Alas! What a
conclusion of the whole matter. Were it not better and safer, and more
just, to regard our learned friend as being ignorant of "what he
affirmeth?"
One of those "Ignorant Baptist."A Brief Lexicon of Greek

Terminology
372
ΕΥΡΕΤΗΡΙΟ
air, 302 Christian, 63, 64, 71, 74, 77, 79, 80,
Alphabet, 143, 220 82, 84, 90, 91, 114, 116, 123, 144,
ancient, 62, 64, 66, 69, 71, 73, 77, 78, 191, 217, 218, 224, 281, 304, 317,
81, 84, 86, 88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 97, 328, 332, 333, 336, 337, 365, 370
103, 104, 112, 114, 116, 141, 143, Chrysoloras, 363
147, 151, 152, 153, 164, 168, 181, Church Fathers, 366
182, 183, 184, 187, 190, 191, 192, Classical, 69, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 82,
193, 196, 199, 201, 202, 209, 214, 85, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102,
215, 216, 223, 224, 225, 228, 231, 109, 110, 111, 114, 141, 142, 143,
236, 259, 262, 263, 286, 291, 299, 144, 145, 146, 165, 166, 167, 168,
321, 325, 331, 333, 364, 366, 367, 183, 195, 200, 202, 213, 215, 217,
368, 370 220, 255, 256, 262, 264, 282, 287,
Anglo-Saxon, 300, 304 291, 292, 302, 303, 322, 325, 327,
Aristotle, 64, 67, 77, 84, 91, 93, 97, 330, 331, 332,鼨 335, 337, 339, 365,
109, 114, 150, 151, 152, 153, 167, 366
202, 203, 215, 229, 232, 233, 235, Classical Greek, 96, 112, 143, 144,
246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 253, 147, 165
254, 255, 256, 258, 259, 262, 263 Classical scholars, 325
authors, 82, 100, 147, 175, 264, 282, culture, 313
366, 370 democracy, 3, 9, 46, 67, 68, 187,
Aρ. Kωνσταντινίδης, 346, 347, 348 190, 207, 339
Bank, 61 dialect, 300, 303, 304
Bible, 63, 71, 82, 84, 90, 112, 115, dialect of a language, 327
116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 150, 160, dictionary, 59, 303, 305
217, 305, 318, 319, 321, 365, 370 dramatic, 69, 72, 75, 82, 85, 97, 107,
Boethius, 91, 114, 363 110, 145, 202, 207
book, 305 economic, 10, 27, 49, 72, 152, 159,
Bookshelf, 58 169, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177,
Britannica, 58, 60 178, 191, 207, 247, 260, 302, 326,
called, 64, 76, 90, 96, 100, 102, 104, 327, 332, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341,
112, 113, 118, 123, 152, 161, 163, 351, 353, 356, 358
171, 172, 174, 179, 182, 183, 185, Economic, 61, 260, 289, 358
186, 187, 189, 190, 195, 198, 199, economists, 151, 253, 358
201, 202, 206, 208, 215, 219, 220, economy, 10, 49, 169, 171, 172, 173,
225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 236, 237, 174, 176, 178, 180, 194, 196, 251,
281, 284, 285, 286, 299, 315, 316, 252, 253, 257, 258, 260, 261, 351,
318, 319, 320, 325, 330, 355, 356, 352, 356
364 Encarta, 58, 59
Cambridge, 61, 63, 110, 111, 122, 161, Encyclopaedia, 59, 260, 365, 366
304, 314, 316, 364, 365 England, 299, 300, 301, 303, 305
capitalism, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, English, 295, 296, 299, 300, 301, 302,
174, 179, 180, 252, 254, 259, 262, 303, 304, 305
349, 351, 352, 353, 355, 356 English Language, 120, 153, 163, 288,
Cd Rom, 58, 288 314, 315, 320, 325, 326
Chaucer, 302, 305
373
Erasmus, 63, 66, 73, 80, 98, 363, 364, 222, 223, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229,
365, 366 230, 231, 233, 234, 235, 236, 238,
Europe, 59, 61, 289, 299 242, 243, 255, 256, 264, 280, 281,
European language, 143, 165, 325, 282, 286, 287, 289, 291, 292, 296,
326, 327, 328 297, 299, 302, 303, 305, 306, 307,
first, 8, 11, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 75, 311, 312, 313, 315, 316, 319, 321,
76, 77, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 325, 327, 328, 330, 331, 333, 334,
92, 94, 95, 97, 102, 106, 107, 108, 335, 336, 338, 342, 344, 363, 364,
111, 112, 113, 117, 118, 119, 120, 365, 366, 368, 369, 370, 371
121, 123, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, Greek city, 5, 30, 183, 333
151, 152, 153, 156, 158, 161, 164, Greek philosophy, 291
166, 171, 173, 174, 177, 181, 182, Greek scholars, 363, 364
183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, Greek words, 302
191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, Greeks, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 19, 25, 27,
202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 30, 36, 39, 46, 47, 92, 112, 140, 143,
210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 148, 151, 164, 166, 181, 182, 183,
218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191,
226, 227, 228, 230, 231, 232, 233, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198,
234, 235, 236, 249, 250, 253, 256, 199, 202, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210,
257, 258, 260, 261, 281, 284, 285, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218,
287, 288, 302, 303, 304, 305, 313, 219, 220,鼨 221, 222, 223, 224, 225,
315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 324, 226, 227, 228, 231, 232, 234, 235,
332, 333, 334, 340, 341, 349, 350, 236, 245, 255, 281, 295, 297, 333,
354, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368 334, 335, 338, 344, 348, 363, 364,
First Greeks, 185 369
Graecae, 147, 364 Greeks first, 181
Graecique, 364 Hellenism, 184, 206, 289, 332, 333,
Grammar, 144, 216 334, 335
Greece, 69, 91, 93, 99, 103, 107, 111, Hellenistic, 69, 94, 110, 111, 143, 144,
112, 113, 115, 143, 164, 165, 184, 165, 211, 212, 282, 291, 330, 334,
187, 188, 189, 190, 193, 195, 196, 335, 336
197, 205, 206, 209, 210, 213, 214, Historical, 62, 71, 72, 83, 105, 113,
216, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 117, 120, 144, 153, 164, 170, 185,
226, 227, 236, 238, 243, 248, 249, 191, 193, 197, 248, 253, 254, 259,
263, 282, 290, 291, 307, 313, 326, 262, 263, 264, 265, 287, 303, 324,
330, 331, 333, 336, 337, 342, 349 325, 327, 331, 353, 356, 365
Greek, 11, 13, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, History, 9, 21, 60, 62, 71, 72, 80, 81,
67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 90, 97, 107, 143, 149, 151,
78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 153, 156, 180, 183, 184, 186, 187,
88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 190, 191, 197, 198, 202, 206, 211,
98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 223, 224,
108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 116, 120, 225, 235, 236, 247, 249, 251, 262,
121, 122, 123, 141, 142, 143,鼨 144, 263, 264, 280, 281, 284, 289, 291,
145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 299, 304, 314, 315, 316, 317, 319,
154, 157, 160, 164, 165, 166, 167, 320, 325, 326, 327, 328, 330, 331,
168, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 332, 334, 349, 352
188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, idea, 75, 104, 119, 162, 173, 178, 182,
195, 196, 198, 199, 202, 203, 205, 191, 193, 198, 203, 215, 224, 227,
206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 229, 232, 259, 260, 261, 334, 350,
214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 351
374
influence, 62, 67, 69, 70, 74, 82, 86, Linguistic, 296, 307, 308
103, 109, 112, 117, 121, 157, 159, Linguistic History, 326
161, 163, 166, 184, 191, 197, 200, literature, 11, 14, 62, 70, 73, 75, 77,
201, 221, 224, 228, 249, 252, 257, 85, 97, 98, 99, 110, 112, 116, 143,
262, 284, 286, 287, 288, 291, 299, 147, 149, 157, 164, 171, 174, 176,
300, 303, 304, 316, 317, 319, 320, 184, 190, 200, 201, 206, 207, 208,
327, 331, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 216, 217, 220, 222, 234, 321, 335,
349, 366 363, 365
influenced, 72, 73, 80, 83, 84, 85, 92, Luther, 63, 323, 364, 365, 368, 369
93, 103, 109, 117, 167, 192, 199, Marx, 60
201, 288, 302, 303, 304, 315, 319, Medicine, 288, 291
327, 330, 334, 352 Multipedia, 58, 288
Internet, 58, 59, 60, 61, 305, 306 mythology, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 76, 79,
language, 64, 66, 68, 75, 82, 84, 85, 81, 82, 83, 85, 87, 89, 96, 103, 104,
92, 103, 111, 115, 116, 117, 118, 106, 218
119, 120, 121, 143, 144, 145, 148, name, 65, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79, 83, 84,
153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 85, 90, 92, 107, 108, 113, 160, 164,
161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 183, 185, 189, 194, 202, 219, 230,
168, 169, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, 286, 299, 301, 302, 324
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 195, 197, Old English, 299, 300, 301, 302
203, 216, 219, 220, 222, 224, 234, original version, 181
243, 253, 280, 281, 282, 284, 286, origins, 84, 104, 181, 219, 221, 249,
287, 288, 299, 300, 302, 303, 304, 253, 280, 303, 333, 338
305, 309, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, Oxford, 58, 60, 80, 108, 118, 122, 153,
319, 320, 321, 323, 325, 326, 327, 161, 250, 304, 305, 364, 365
328, 329, 330, 331, 335, 337, 350, Petrarch's, 363
351, 352, 353, 355, 356, 357, 363, Philosophy, 91, 98, 113, 118, 149, 151,
364, 369, 370 220, 247, 248, 250, 255, 256, 260,
Language, 288, 296, 299, 302, 304, 262, 291
306, 307, 312 Plethon, 363
language and literacy, 169, 181 Poems, 149
language groups, 322, 326 police, 182
languages, 66, 75, 84, 85, 89, 99, 100, policy, 65, 80, 176, 177, 179, 357
102, 103, 113, 117, 121, 141, 153, Political, 59, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 77,
154, 156, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 80, 93, 96, 104, 105, 111, 150, 152,
167, 177, 195, 234, 280, 282, 284, 183, 187, 191, 202, 208, 214, 218,
286, 287, 299, 300, 302, 303, 314, 248, 249, 250, 251, 255, 256, 257,
315, 316, 319, 320, 321, 324, 325, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 291, 316,
326, 328, 329, 350, 351, 367 318, 327, 331, 333, 335, 338, 339,
Lascaris, 363 340, 341
Latin, 63, 66, 68, 73, 75, 77, 80, 89, Political Economy, 150, 152
97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 110, 113, Politician, 63, 80, 98
117, 120, 121, 122, 141, 142, 154, Politics, 64, 93, 102, 106, 111, 152,
156, 157, 160, 164, 165, 166, 167, 153, 189, 192, 194, 196, 207, 216,
168, 169, 181, 195, 200, 201, 219, 249, 250, 255, 295, 314, 331, 342,
226, 282, 284, 285, 286, 287, 299, 353
300, 302, 303, 304, 305, 312, 316, Program, 357
317, 319,鼨 321, 323, 325, 327, 328, Shakespeare, 93, 98, 99, 100, 105,
329, 330, 335, 337, 363, 367 108, 109, 110, 223, 234, 287, 302,
lexicon, 121, 320, 325, 329 304, 305, 366, 367
375
system, 291 Γλώσσα, 4, 6, 7, 120, 125, 128, 129,

Terms, 7, 59, 325 130, 134, 136, 238, 240, 243, 265,
Testament, 63, 64, 73, 82, 84, 90, 112, 282, 283, 289, 293, 294, 295, 298,
120, 122, 144, 146, 148, 166, 203, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313,
211, 305, 321, 363, 364, 365, 366, 343, 345, 346, 348, 349, 359
370 Γλωσσικό Συνέδριο, 128, 292, 294,
TLG, 58 295
translation, 305 γλωσσολογία, 297, 298, 306, 307, 309,
word, 5, 6, 29, 65, 66, 70, 71, 79, 81, 314
85, 88, 89, 96, 112, 116, 122, 123, γλωσσολογικές έρευνες, 361
145, 148, 154, 155, 157, 158, 160, Γραμματική, 297, 307
162, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 174, γραπτής Γλώσσας, 128
189, 190, 198, 199, 215, 220, 223, δημοτική, 295, 308
230, 234, 242, 243, 286, 299, 301, διακρίθηκαν, 362
314, 317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 323, διάλεκτος, 295
324, 328,鼨 329, 348, 352, 353, 358, διασπορά, 290
368, 369, 370 διδασκαλία της αρχαίας, 312, 361
words, 47, 66, 68, 71, 79, 81, 85, 88, διδασκαλία της ελληνικής, 312, 313,
89, 96, 108, 110, 116, 121, 122, 145, 314, 360
147, 149, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, διεθνής γλώσσα, 293
160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 175, Εγκυκλοπαίδεια, 306
180, 183, 205, 208, 219, 220, 222, ΕΚΕΒΙ, 362
224, 226, 235, 242, 253, 263, 264, εκμάθηση της ελληνικής, 360
286, 287, 288, 299, 300, 301, 302, Έλληνας, 126, 133, 283, 360
303, 304,鼨 305, 317, 318, 319, 320, Έλληνες, 1, 8, 10, 21, 49, 126, 128,
324, 325, 328, 329, 350, 351, 352, 130, 132, 133, 135, 138, 140, 292,
353, 358, 364, 367, 368, 369 294, 295, 360
writers, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 82, 98, 104, ελληνικά διδάσκονται, 360
113, 120, 142, 143, 146, 167, 172, ελληνικά χειρόγραφα, 361
187, 198, 215, 216, 235, 236, 256, ελληνικές, 7, 26, 30, 58, 101, 130,
363, 366, 368 245, 264, 265, 290, 293, 294, 305,
Αγγλία, 290, 292 311, 344, 346, 347, 348, 359, 360,
Αγγλικά, 131, 240, 362 361
Αλέξανδρος, 60, 133, 361 ελληνικές μελέτες, 361
Αμερική, 296 ελληνικές σπουδές, 360
αποσπάσματα, 8, 11, 58, 149, 280, Ελληνική Γλώσσα, 128, 133, 238,
288, 290, 361 239, 292, 293, 294, 295, 298, 306,
αρχαίων ελληνικών, 361 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313,
βιβλίο, 313 345, 349, 359
βιβλίων, 58, 60, 240, 361 ελληνική πηγή, 359
Βυζαντινή, 131, 132, 134 ελληνικής, 3, 6, 13, 17, 20, 21, 25, 28,
Γαλλία, 290, 292 43, 126, 128, 129, 130, 140, 238,
Γαλλικά, 362 239, 243, 265, 266, 282, 289, 293,
γαλλικής Γλώσσας, 362 294, 295, 297, 307, 309, 310, 312,
Γερμανία, 290, 292, 294 313, 343, 346, 347, 348, 359, 360
Γερμανικά, 306, 362 Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, 72, 134, 238,
γερμανικής Γλώσσας, 362 282, 283, 292, 293, 294, 295, 309,
γλώσσα, 289, 292, 293, 294, 295, 297, 310, 311, 312, 313, 346, 361
298, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, ελληνικής επιγραφικής, 359
313
376
ελληνικής προέλευσης, 265, 266, 347, μετάφραση, 307, 313

359 Μακεδονία, 293
Ελληνισμός, 289, 290 Μπαμπινιώτης, 298
επίδραση, 289, 292, 293, 294 Ναυτεμπορική, 58, 59
επικοινωνία, 297, 311 Νεοελληνική, 293, 298, 306, 307, 308
επικοινωνίας, 312, 313 Όμηρος, 133
Ευρώπη, 61, 292 ονοματολογία, 348
Εφημ., 307, 308, 309, 311 ορθογραφία, 311
Ηρόδοτος, 133, 362 ορολογία, 294
θεωρία, 306, 307, 313 Παλαιολόγος, 360
Θησαυρός, 312 Περικλής, 133
ιστορία, 290, 292, 293, 298, 309 πηγές, 294
Ιστορία της γλώσσας, 297 Πλάτων, 9, 27, 44, 133, 306
Ιταλία, 290, 292, 294 Πολιτική, 59, 61, 311
Καντακουζηνός, 360 πολιτισμός, 295
καταγωγή, 3, 6, 29, 127, 266, 309, Πρώτη, 2, 43, 128, 129, 283, 347,
359 360, 362
Κέντρου Μετάφρασης, 362 Πρώτη φορά, 128, 347, 362
λατινικά, 360 Πρώτο, 128, 133, 139, 292, 346, 347
λέξεις, 8, 11, 53, 120, 135, 140, 241, Πρώτοι, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16,
243, 264, 265, 288, 293, 305, 342, 19, 35, 43, 49, 55, 237, 361
344, 346, 347, 348, 359 Πρώτον, 62, 134
λέξη, 60, 99, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, ρίζα, 288
140, 150, 243, 309, 342, 343, 345, Σολωμός, 127, 128
348 Συμβολή, 306, 307
Λεξικό, 59, 306, 310, 311 σύστημα, 296, 306
λεξιλόγιο, 294, 295 φιλοσοφία, 9, 14, 27, 43, 123, 126,
λεξιλογίου, 359 133, 345, 360
Λουκάρης, 360 Φιλοσοφίας, 362
μελετών είναι στο, 361

Greeks Was The First

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1

GREEKS WAS THE

Πρώτη επεξεργασία 18/4/2002, νέα συμπλήρωση 28/11/2004,

2. Greek rivers are shallow and non-navigable..............................................213

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