Factorization

The polynomial x2 + cx + d, where a + b = c and ab = d,

can be factorized into (x + a)(x + b).

In mathematics, factorization (also

factorisation in some forms of British
English) or factoring consists of writing a
number or another mathematical object as
a product of several factors, usually
smaller or simpler objects of the same
kind. For example, 3 × 5 is a factorization
of the integer 15, and (x – 2)(x + 2) is a
factorization of the polynomial x2 – 4.

Factorization is not usually considered

meaningful within number systems
possessing division, such as the real or
complex numbers, since any can be
trivially written as
whenever is not zero. However, a
meaningful factorization for a rational
number or a rational function can be
obtained by writing it in lowest terms and
separately factoring its numerator and
denominator.
Factorization was first considered by
ancient Greek mathematicians in the case
of integers. They proved the fundamental
theorem of arithmetic, which asserts that
every positive integer may be factored into
a product of prime numbers, which cannot
be further factored into integers greater
than 1. Moreover, this factorization is
unique up to the order of the factors.
Although integer factorization is a sort of
inverse to multiplication, it is much more
difficult algorithmically, a fact which is
exploited in the RSA cryptosystem to
implement public-key cryptography.
Polynomial factorization has also been
studied for centuries. In elementary
algebra, factoring a polynomial reduces
the problem of finding its roots to finding
the roots of the factors. Polynomials with
coefficients in the integers or in a field
possess the unique factorization property,
a version of the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic with prime numbers replaced by
irreducible polynomials. In particular, a
univariate polynomial with complex
coefficients admits a unique (up to
ordering) factorization into linear
polynomials: this is a version of the
fundamental theorem of algebra. In this
case, the factorization can be done with
root-finding algorithms. The case of
polynomials with integer coefficients is
fundamental for computer algebra. There
are efficient computer algorithms for
computing (complete) factorizations
within the ring of polynomials with rational
number coefficients (see factorization of
polynomials).

A commutative ring possessing the unique

factorization property is called a unique
factorization domain. There are number
systems, such as certain rings of algebraic
integers, which are not unique
factorization domains. However, rings of
algebraic integers satisfy the weaker
property of Dedekind domains: ideals
factor uniquely into prime ideals.

Factorization may also refer to more

general decompositions of a
mathematical object into the product of
smaller or simpler objects. For example,
every function may be factored into the
composition of a surjective function with
an injective function. Matrices possess
many kinds of matrix factorizations. For
example, every matrix has a unique LUP
factorization as a product of a lower
triangular matrix L with all diagonal entries
equal to one, an upper triangular matrix U,
and a permutation matrix P; this is a
matrix formulation of Gaussian
elimination.

Integers
By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic,
every integer greater than 1 has a unique
(up to the order of the factors)
factorization into prime numbers, which
are those integers which cannot be further
factorized into the product of integers
greater than one.

For computing the factorization of an

integer n, one needs an algorithm for
finding a divisor q of n or deciding that n is
prime. When such a divisor is found, the
repeated application of this algorithm to
the factors q and n / q gives eventually the
complete factorization of n.[1]

For finding a divisor q of n, if any, it

suffices to test all values of q such that
1 < q and q2 ≤ n. In fact, if r is a divisor of
n such that r2 > n, then q = n / r is a divisor
of n such that q2 ≤ n.

If one tests the values of q in increasing

order, the first divisor that is found is
necessarily a prime number, and the
cofactor r = n / q cannot have any divisor
smaller than q. For getting the complete
factorization, it suffices thus to continue
the algorithm by searching a divisor of r
that is not smaller than q and not greater
than √r.

There is no need to test all values of q for

applying the method. In principle, it
suffices to test only prime divisors. This
needs to have a table of prime numbers
that may be generated for example with
the sieve of Eratosthenes. As the method
of factorization does essentially the same
work as the sieve of Eratosthenes, it is
generally more efficient to test for a divisor
only those numbers for which it is not
immediately clear whether they are prime
or not. Typically, one may proceed by
testing 2, 3, 5, and the numbers > 5, whose
last digit is 1, 3, 7, 9 and the sum of digits
is not a multiple of 3.

This method works well for factoring small

integers, but is inefficient for larger
integers. For example, Pierre de Fermat
was unable to discover that the 6th Fermat
number

is not a prime number. In fact, applying the

above method would require more than
10 000 divisions, for a number that has
10 decimal digits.
There are more efficient factoring
algorithms. However they remain relatively
inefficient, as, with the present state of the
art, one cannot factorize, even with the
more powerful computers, a number of
500 decimal digits that is the product of
two randomly chosen prime numbers. This
insures the security of the RSA
cryptosystem, which is widely used for
secure internet communication.

Example

For factoring n = 1386 into primes:

Start with division by 2: the number is
even, and n = 2 · 693. Continue with 693,
and 2 as a first divisor candidate.
693 is odd (2 is not a divisor), but is a
multiple of 3: one has 693 = 3 · 231 and
n = 2 · 3 · 231. Continue with 231, and 3
as a first divisor candidate.
231 is also a multiple of 3: one has
231 = 3 · 77, and thus n = 2 · 32 · 77.
Continue with 77, and 3 as a first divisor
candidate.
77 is not a multiple of 3, since the sum
of its digits is 14, not a multiple of 3. It is
also not a multiple of 5 because its last
digit is 7. The next odd divisor to be
 tested is 7. One has 77 = 7 · 11, and thus
n = 2 · 32 · 7 · 11. This shows that 7 is
prime (easy to test directly). Continue
with 11, and 7 as a first divisor
candidate.
As 72 > 11, one has finished. Thus 11 is
prime, and the prime factorization is
1386 = 2 · 32 · 7 · 11.

Expressions
Manipulating expressions is the basis of
algebra. Factorization is one of the most
important methods for expression
manipulation for several reasons. If one
can put an equation in a factored form
E⋅F = 0, then the solving problem splits
into two independent (and generally
easier) problems E = 0 and F = 0. When an
expression can be factored, the factors are
often much simpler, and may, therefore,
offer some insight on the problem. For
example,

having 16 multiplications, 4 subtractions

and 3 additions, may be factored into the
much simpler expression

with only two multiplications and three

subtractions. Moreover, the factored form
gives immediately the roots x = a,b,c of the
polynomial in x represented by these
expressions.

On the other hand, factorization is not

always possible, and when it is possible,
the factors are not always simpler. For
example, can be factored into
two irreducible factors and
.

Various methods have been developed for

finding factorizations; some are described
below.

Solving algebraic equations may be

viewed as a problem of factorization. In
fact, the fundamental theorem of algebra
can be stated as follows. Every polynomial
in x of degree n with complex coefficients
may be factorized into n linear factors
for i = 1, ..., n, where the ais are
the roots of the polynomial.[2] Even though
the structure of the factorization is known
in these cases, the ais generally cannot be
computed in terms of radicals (nth roots),
by the Abel–Ruffini theorem. In most
cases, the best that can be done is
computing approximate values of the
roots with a root-finding algorithm.

History of factorization of
expressions
The systematic use of algebraic
manipulations for simplifying expressions
(more specifically equations)) may be
dated to 9th century, with al-Khwarizmi's
book The Compendious Book on
Calculation by Completion and Balancing,
which is titled with two such types of
manipulation. However, even for solving
quadratic equations, factoring method
was not used before Harriot’s work
published in 1631, ten years after his
death.[3]

In his book Artis Analyticae Praxis ad

Aequationes Algebraicas Resolvendas,
Harriot drew, in a first section, tables for
addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of monomials, binomials, and
trinomials. Then, in a second section, he
set up the equation aa − ba + ca = + bc,
and showed that this matches the form of
multiplication he had previously provided,
giving the factorization (a − b)(a + c).[4]

General methods

The methods that are described below

apply to any expression that is a sum, or
may be transformed into a sum. Therefore,
they are most often applied to
polynomials, even if they may applied also
when the terms of the sum are not
monomials, that is product of variables
and constants

Common factor

It may occur that all terms of a sum are

products and that some factors are
common to all terms. In this case, the
distributive law allows factoring out this
common factor. If there are several such
common factors, it is worth to divide out
the greatest such common factor. Also, if
there are integer coefficients, one may
factor out the greatest common divisor of
these coefficients.

For example,[5]
since 2 is the greatest common divisor of
6, 8, and 10, and divides all terms.

Grouping

Grouping terms may allow using other

methods for getting a factorization.

For example, to factor

one may remark that the first two terms

have a common factor x, and the last two
terms have the common factor y. Thus
Then a simple inspection shows the
common factor x + 5, leading to the
factorization

In general, this works for sums of 4 terms

that have been obtained as the product of
two binomials. Although not frequently,
this may work also for more complicated
examples.

Adding and subtracting terms

Sometimes, some term grouping lets

appear a part of a Recognizable pattern. It
is then useful to add terms for completing
the pattern, and subtract them for not
changing the value of the expression.

A typical use of this is the completing the

square method for getting quadratic
formula.

Another example is the factorization of

If one introduces the imaginary
square root of –1, commonly denoted i,
then one has a difference of squares

However, one may also want a

factorization with real number coefficients.
By adding and subtracting and
grouping three terms together, one may
recognize the square of a binomial:

Subtracting and adding also yields

the factorization

These factorizations work not only over

the complex numbers, but also over any
field, where either 1, 2 or –2 is a square. In
a finite field, the product of two non-
squares is a square; this implies that the
polynomial which is irreducible
over the integers, is reducible modulo
every prime number. For example
 since

since

since

Recognizable patterns

Many identities provide an equality

between a sum and a product. The above
methods may be used for letting the sum
side of some identity appear in an
expression, which may therefore be
replaced by a product.
Below are identities whose left-hand sides
are commonly used as patterns (this
means that the variables E and F that
appear in these identities may represent
any subexpression of the expression that
has to be factorized.[6]

Difference of two squares

For example,

Sum/difference of two cubes

A visual representation of the factorization of cubes
using volumes. For a sum of cubes, simply substitute
z=-y.

Difference of two fourth powers

Sum/difference of two nth powers

In the following identities, the factors
may often be further factorized:
Difference, even exponent
 Difference, even or odd exponent

This is an example showing that the

factors may be much larger than the
sum that is factorized.
Sum, odd exponent

(obtained by changing F by –F in the

preceding formula)
Sum, even exponent
If the exponent is a power of two then
the expression cannot, in general, be
factorized without introducing
complex numbers (if E and F contain
complex numbers, this may be not the
case). If n has an odd divisor, that is if
 n = pq with p odd, one may use the
preceding formula (in “Sum, odd
exponent”) applied to

Trinomials and cubic formulas

Binomial expansions

Visualisation of binomial expansion up to the 4th

power

The binomial theorem supplies patterns

that can easily be recognized from the
integers that appear in them
In low degree:

More generally, the coefficients of the

expanded forms of and
are the binomial coefficients,
that appear in the nth row of Pascal's
triangle.

Roots of unity
The nth roots of unity are the complex
numbers each of which is a root of the
polynomial They are thus the
numbers

for

It follows that for any two expressions E

and F, one has:
If E and F are real expressions, and one
wants real factors, one has to replace
every pair of complex conjugate factors by
its product. As the complex conjugate of
is and

one has the following real factorizations

(one passes from one to the other by
changing k into n – k or n + 1 – k, and
applying the usual trigonometric formulas:
The cosines that appear in these
factorizations are algebraic numbers, and
may be expressed in terms of radicals
(this is possible because their Galois
group is cyclic); however, these radical
expressions are too complicated to be
used, except for low values of n. For
example

Often one wants a factorization with

rational coefficients. Such a factorization
involves cyclotomic polynomials. To
express rational factorizations of sums
and differences or powers, we need a
notation for the homogenization of a
polynomial: if
its homogenization is the bivariate
polynomial

Then, one has

where the products are taken over all

divisors of n, or all divisors of 2n that do
not divide n, and is the nth
cyclotomic polynomial.

For example,
since the divisors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, 6, and the
divisors of 12 that do not divide 6 are 4
and 12.

Polynomials
For polynomials, factorization is strongly
related with the problem of solving
algebraic equations. An algebraic equation
has the form

where
where P(x) is a polynomial in x, such that
A solution of this equation (also
called root of the polynomial) is a value r
of x such that

If

is a factorization of P as a product of two

polynomials, then the roots of P are the
union of the roots of Q and the roots of R.
Thus solving P is reduced to the simpler
problems of solving Q and R.
Conversely, the factor theorem asserts
that, if r is a root of P, then P may be
factored as

where Q(x) is the quotient of Euclidean

division of P by x – r.

If the coefficients of P are real or complex

numbers, the fundamental theorem of
algebra asserts that P has a real or
complex root. Using the factor theorem
recursively, it results that
where are the real or complex
roots of P, with some of them possibly
repeated. This complete factorization is
unique up to the order of the factors.

If the coefficients of P are real, one want

generally a factorization where factors
have real coefficients. In this case, the
factors of the complete factorization may
have some factors that have the degree
two. This factorization may easily be
deduced form the above complete
factorization. In fact, if r = a + ib is a non-
real root of P, then its complex conjugate
s = a - ib is also a root of P. So, the
product
is a factor of P that has real coefficients.
This grouping of non-real factors may be
continued until getting eventually a
factorization with real factors that are
polynomials of degrees one or two.

For computing these real or complex

factorizations, one has to know the roots
of the polynomial. In general, they may not
be computed exactly, and only
approximative values of the roots may be
obtained. See Root-finding algorithm for a
summary of the numerous efficient
algorithms that have been designed for
this purpose.
Most algebraic equations that are
encountered in practice have integer or
rational coefficients, and one may want a
factorization with factors of the same
kind. The fundamental theorem of
arithmetic may be generalized to this case.
That is, polynomials with integer or
rational coefficients have the unique
factorization property. More precisely,
every polynomial with rational coefficients
may be factorized in a product

where q is a rational number and

are non-constant polynomials
with integer coefficients that are
irreducible and primitive; this means that
none may be written as the product two
polynomials (with integer coefficients) that
are neither 1 nor –1 (integers are
considered as polynomials of degree
zero). Moreover, this factorization is
unique up to the order of the factors and
the multiplication by –1 of an even number
of factors.

There are efficient algorithms for

computing this factorization, which are
implemented in most computer algebra
systems. See Factorization of
polynomials. Unfortunately, for a paper-
and-pencil computation, these algorithms
are too complicate for being usable.
Beside general heuristics that are
described above, only a few methods are
available in this case, which generally work
only for polynomials of low degree, with
few nonzero coefficients. The main such
methods are described in next
subsections.

Primitive part–content
factorization

Every polynomial with rational coefficients,

may be factorized, in a unique way, as the
product of a rational number and a
polynomial with integer coefficients, which
is primitive (that is, the greatest common
divisor of the coefficients is 1), and has a
positive leading coefficient (coefficient of
the term of the highest degree). For
example:

In this factorization, the rational number is

called the content, and the primitive
polynomial is the primitive part. The
computation of this factorization may be
done as follows: firstly, reduce all
coefficients to a common denominator, for
getting the quotient by an integer q of a
polynomial with integer coefficients. Then
one divides out the greater common
divisor p of the coefficients of this
polynomial for getting the primitive part,
the content being Finally, if needed,
one changes the signs of p and all
coefficients of the primitive part.

This factorization may produce a result

that is larger than the original polynomial
(typically when there are many coprime
denominators), but, even when this is the
case, the primitive part is generally easier
to manipulate for further factorization.

Using the factor theorem

The factor theorem states that, if r is a
root of a polynomial

(that is P(r) = 0 ), then there is a

factorization

where

with and

for i = 1, ..., n – 1.
This may be useful when, either by
inspection, or by using some external
information, one knows a root of the
polynomial. For computing Q(x), instead of
using the above formula, one may also use
polynomial long division or synthetic
division.

For example, for the polynomial

one may easily see that the
sum of its coefficients is 1. Thus r = 1 is a
root. As r + 0 = 1, and
one has

Rational roots
Searching rational roots of a polynomial
makes sense only for polynomials with
rational coefficients. Primitive part-content
factorization (see above) reduces the
problem of searching rational roots to the
case of polynomials with integer
coefficients such that the greatest
common divisor of the coefficients is one,

If is a rational root of such a polynomial

the factor theorem shows that one has a

factorization
where both factors have integer
coefficients (the fact that Q has integer
coefficients results from the above
formula for the quotient of P(x) by
).

Comparing the coefficients of degree n

and the constant coefficients in the above

equality shows that, if is a rational root

in reduced form, then q is a divisor of

and p is a divisor of Therefore there is
a finite number of possibilities for p and q,
which can be systematically examined.[7]

For example, if the polynomial

has a rational root then p must
divides 6, that is
and q must
divides 2, that is Moreover, if
x < 0, all terms of the polynomial are
negative, and, therefore, a root cannot be
negative. That is, one must have

A direct computation shows that is a

root, and that there is no other rational

root. Applying the factor theorem leads
finally to the factorization

AC method

For quadratic polynomials, the above

method may be adapted, leading to the so
called ac method of factorization.[8]

Let consider the quadratic polynomial

with integer coefficients. If it has a rational

root, its denominator must divides a
evenly. So, it may be written as a possibly
reducible fraction By Vieta's formulas,

the other root is

with Thus the second root

is also rational, and the second Vieta's
formula gives

that is

Checking all pairs of integers whose

product is ac gives the rational roots, if
any.

For example, let consider the quadratic

polynomial

Inspection of the factors of ac = 36 leads

to 4 + 9 = 13 = b, giving the two roots

and the factorization

Using formulas for polynomial

roots

Any univariate quadratic polynomial

can be factored using the
quadratic formula:

where and are the two roots of the

polynomial.

If a, b, c are all real, the factors are real if

and only if the discriminant is
non-negative. Otherwise, the quadratic
polynomial cannot be factorized into non-
constant real factors.
The quadratic formula is valid when the
coefficients belong to any field of
characteristic different from two, and, in
particular, for coefficients in a finite field
with an odd number of elements.[9]

There are also formulas for roots of cubic

and quartic polynomials, which are, in
general, too complicated for practical use.
The Abel–Ruffini theorem shows that
there are no general root formulas in terms
of radicals for polynomials of degree five
or higher.

Using relations between roots

It may occur that one knows some
relationship between the roots of a
polynomial and its coefficients. Using this
knowledge may help factoring the
polynomial and finding its roots. Galois
theory is based on a systematic study of
the relations between roots and
coefficients, that include Vieta's formulas.

Here, we consider the simpler case where

two roots and of a polynomial
satisfy the relation

where Q is a polynomial.
This implies that is a common root of
and Its is therefore a
root of the greatest common divisor of
these two polynomials. It follows that this
greatest common divisor is a non constant
factor of Euclidean algorithm for
polynomials allows computing this
greatest common factor.

For example,[10] if one know or guess that:

has two
roots that sum to zero, one may apply
Euclidean algorithm to and
The first division step consists in adding
to giving the remainder of
Then, dividing by gives
zero as a new remainder, and x – 5 as a
quotient, leading to the complete
factorization

Unique factorization domains

The integers and the polynomials over a
field share the property of unique
factorization, that is, every nonzero
element may be factored into a product of
an invertible element (a unit, ±1 in the case
of integers) and a product of irreducible
elements (prime numbers, in the case of
integers), and this factorization is unique
up to rearranging the factors and shifting
units among the factors. Integral domains
which share this property are called unique
factorization domains (UFD).

Greatest common divisors exist in UFDs,

and conversely, every integral domain in
which greatest common divisors exist is
an UFD. Every principal ideal domain is an
UFD.

A Euclidean domain is a integral domain

on which is defined a Euclidean division
similar to that of integers. Every Euclidean
domain is a principal ideal domain, and
thus a UFD.

In a Euclidean domain, Euclidean division

allows defining a Euclidean algorithm for
computing greatest common divisors.
However this does not imply the existence
of a factorization algorithm. There is an
explicit example of a field F such that
there cannot exist any factorization
algorithm in the Euclidean domain F[x] of
the univariate polynomials over F.

Ideals
In algebraic number theory, the study of
Diophantine equations led
mathematicians, during 19th century, to
introduce generalizations of the integers
called algebraic integers. The first ring of
algebraic integers that have been
considered were Gaussian integers and
Eisenstein integers, which share with usual
integers the property of being principal
ideal domains, and have thus the unique
factorization property.

Unfortunately, it soon appeared that most

rings of algebraic integers are not principal
and do not have unique factorization. The
simplest example is in which
and all these factors are irreducible.

This lack of unique factorization is a major

difficulty for solving Diophantine
equations. For example, many wrong
proofs of Fermat's Last Theorem (probably
including Fermat's "truly marvelous proof of
this, which this margin is too narrow to
contain") were based on the implicit
supposition of unique factorization.

This difficulty was resolved by Dedekind,

who proved that the rings of algebraic
integers have unique factorization of
ideals: in these rings, every ideal is a
product of prime ideals, and this
factorization is unique up the order of the
factors. The integral domains that have
this unique factorization property are now
called Dedekind domains. They have many
nice properties that make them
fundamental in algebraic number theory.

Matrices
Matrix rings are non-commutative and
have no unique factorization: there are, in
general, many ways of writing a matrix as
a product of matrices. Thus, the
factorization problem consists of finding
factors of specified types. For example the
LU decomposition gives a matrix as the
product of a lower triangular matrix by an
upper triangular matrix. As this is not
always possible, one generally considers
the "LUP decomposition" having a
permutation matrix as its third factor.

See Matrix decomposition for the most

common types of matrix factorizations.

A logical matrix represents a binary

relation, and matrix multiplication
corresponds to composition of relations.
Decomposition of a relation through
factorization serves to profile the nature of
the relation, such as a difunctional
relation.
See also
Euler's factorization method for integers
Fermat's factorization method for
integers
Monoid factorisation
Multiplicative partition
Table of Gaussian integer factorizations

Notes
1. Hardy; Wright (1980). An Introduction
to the Theory of Numbers (5th ed.).
Oxford Science Publications.
ISBN 978-0198531715.
2. Klein 1925, pp. 101–102
3. In Sanford, Vera (2008) [1930], A Short
History of Mathematics, Read Books,
ISBN 9781409727101, the author
notes “In view of the present emphasis
given to the solution of quadratic
equations by factoring, it is interesting
to note that this method was not used
until Harriot’s work of 1631".
4. Harriot, Artis Analyticae Praxis ad
Aequationes Algebraicas
Resolvendas
5. Fite 1921, p. 19
6. Selby 1970, p. 101
7. Dickson 1922, p. 27
 8. Stover, Christopher AC Method -
Mathworld Archived 2014-11-12 at
the Wayback Machine
9. In a field of characteristic 2, one has 2
= 0, and the formula produces a
division by zero.
10. Burnside & Panton 1960, p. 38

References
Burnside, William Snow; Panton, Arthur
William (1960) [1912], The Theory of
Equations with an introduction to the
theory of binary algebraic forms (Volume
one), Dover
 Dickson, Leonard Eugene (1922), First
Course in the Theory of Equations, New
York: John Wiley & Sons
Fite, William Benjamin (1921), College
Algebra (Revised), Boston: D. C. Heath &
Co.
Klein, Felix (1925), Elementary
Mathematics from an Advanced
Standpoint; Arithmetic, Algebra, Analysis,
Dover
Selby, Samuel M., CRC Standard
Mathematical Tables (18th ed.), The
Chemical Rubber Co.

External links
 Look up factorisation or factorization
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wolfram Alpha can factorize too .

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Factorization&oldid=896578131"

Last edited 2 months ago by Texvc2…

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.