Adamson University

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

MALABON
VERTICAL CITY
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 8
MWF 2:00- 7:00PM

Submitted by:
Bote, Samuel John A.
Sumaya, Jhon Dhell S.

Submitted to:
Prof.: Arch. Roberto S. Duran
Malabon Susceptibility to Flooding and Sinking of Land
1. GROUND SHAKING (Geological Hazard) – All 21 barangaysare susceptible to
ground shaking but Intensity VII might occur in portions of Barangay Acacia, Brgy.
Tinajeros, Brgy. Tugatog and Brgy, Potrero
2. LIQUEFACTION *Earthquake* (Geological Hazard) – All 21 barangaysare
susceptible to liquefaction but Brgys. Maysilo, Tugatog, Tinajeros, Potrero and
portion of Acatia are moderately susceptible.
3. TSUNAMI *Earthquake* (Geological Hazard) – All 21 barangaysare susceptible to tsunami
and all barangays within the locality except for Barangay Potrero is tsunami inundation areas
4. FLOOD (Hydro-Meteorologicall Hazard) – All 21 barangaysare susceptible to flood but
portions of 15 barangays namely Tañong, Baritan, CAtmon,Concepcion, Dampalit, Ibaba, Longos,
MAysilo, Muzon, Niugan, Panghulo, POtrero, San Agustin, Santulan and Tonsuya have very high
susceptibility
5. STORM SURGE (Hydro-Meteorologicall Hazard) – Portions of eight (8) barangays in the
locality are susceptible to storm surge namely Baritan, Concepcion, Dampalit, Flores, Hulong
Duhat, Ibaba, San Agustin and Tañong
Sinking of land of Malabon

UP geologists Fernando Siringan and Kevin Rodoifo said the land in Malabon and its neighboring cities
Navotas and Kalookan has sunk by an average of 2.5 cms - 9.1 cms in 11 years since 1991.

Blame it on water pumping. When water is pumped from ground too much, the land could subside
through the years.

In 2007, the government put in place a moratorium on extracting groundwater not just in these cities but
in the entire Metro Manila. If water continues to be mined, people would get saltwater instead.

According to a 2004 Natural Water Resources Board paper, Metro Manila has a groundwater extraction
rate of 2,548,700 cubic meters per day - which is equivalent to 1,000 swimming pools.

Malabon residents experienced the effects of excessive groundwater extraction 20 years ago.

Tastes like the sea

48-year-old Rosalia Murillo says that they have been buying drinking water at P30 per drum since the
water started tasting like the sea. That’s the other effect of water pumping.
Elenito Bagalihog of NWRB said they asked for the help of the Malabon local government unit in
identifying illegal drillers - 14 of whom are allegedly in the city. The NWRB is undermanned, having
only 14 tracking 22,000 permit holders.

The joint effort was not implemented, however, as factories questioned the legal basis of the monitoring.

Aside from stopping excessive extraction, though, the government also has to factor in land subsidence in
designing flood control infrastructures - or else the project would not work, warn UP geologists.

DR. FERNANDO SIRINGAN, UP GEOLOGIST: Siguro [ang] mali namin sa approach 'no is that we're
geologists and for us, kapag ang pagbabago bawat taon ay sentimetro, mabilis yun, kasi ang tinitignan
lang namin ay thousands of years, even millions. Pero siyempre for a layman, for a non-geologist
mabagal lang yun. Pero isipin mo, maski isang sentimetro kada taon, in 30 years time, 30 sentimetro.
Puwedeng sabihin 30 sentimetro lang pala e, pero kung ikaw ay papasukin ng tubig baha na 30
sentimetro, ano na yun. Gawin mong dalawang sentimetro, kasi ang common ay 2-4 cms. per year. Yun
yung range na nakita namin. At 2 cms. in 10 years time that's 20. At 4 cms in 4 years time that's 40.

This, Siringan said, is one of the major flaws of the polder dike,which was constructed in 2003 to protect
northern Malabon from high tidal waves.

The polder dike is 12.6 meters tall, 8.1 km in width. It will take two hours to walk the whole stretch. In
2012, at the height of the monsoon rains, the polder dike was overtopped.

IMELDA SAYSON, RESIDENT: Mas grabe yung ito.

Rappler: hindi po naharangan?
Sayson: Wala yan tanggal yan.Harang, wala yan, lulutang lang yan.
Rappler: Hind naman po nasira yung bahay niniyo?
Sayson: Wasak yan, pinaayos lang namin yan.

This surprised local officials.

REYNALDO CRUZ, DAMPALIT BRGY. CAPT.: Maraming epekto rito sa amin. Unang-una, lumaki tubig
sa loob, nakarating sa baryo, nakarating sa kalsada, umahon sa mga bahay-bahay. E apektado, hindi
lang naman kami apektado. Tumawid, nakarating sa Obando.

Fears of this happening was raised as early as 2004 by then Malabon Rep. Federico Sandoval.

He said the resilience of the polder dike's foundation was questionable. Its base is a bamboo grid – on top
of it would be a layer of general textile material and sand.

Ripples and waves from the Manila Bay can weaken the sand layer.

Sandoval said that even if the polder remained intact, it would not be an effective barrier against tidal
waves given the level of subsidence of 2.7 cms-9.1 cms per year, as measured by the UP geologists.
But Carla Bartolo, who manages the DPWH KAMANAVA flood control project, said the Japanese
consultants who designed the polder dike took into consideration the problem of land subsidence.

CARLA BARTOLO, KAMANAVA FLOOD CONTROL PROJ. MANAGER: Kinonsider nila yan – kaya
nga ang disenyo namin earth dike kasi nga subsidence. Tapos ang disenyo nila,itataas lang ng itataas,
dadagdagan lang ng dadagdagan, yun ang disenyo nila precisely because of subsidence. Pero yung mga
structures na naka-pilote, yung mga naka-compiles like pumping station, e wala, wala silang ano kasi
naka-pilote naman yun.

Siringan said the measurements were wrong.

Don't alarm them

But Bartolo said the geologists' measurements were exaggerated.

In 2003, then DPWH Secretary Bayani Fernando already told Siringan and Rodolfo that they should not
alarm the people with their concerns on the polder dike by directly going to the media instead of the
DPWH.

Fernando said the scenarios geologists warned about did not always happen.

In 2006, however, then DPWH Secretary Hermogenes Ebdane ordered the project design re-assessed.

DPWH engineer Gil Reyes submitted a report, which was never made public. He said though that
corrective measures could be made after the project was done.

Bartolo said the polder dike has been completed - but local officials dispute that. Now they are wondering
if it will ever be completed at all.

REYNALDO CRUZ, DAMPALIT BRGY. CAPT.: E sinasabi ni Sekretarya Carla Bartolo, fully completed
daw, pero kaya nga ang sinasabi namin bilang punong barangay hindi nga kami maniniwala na yan ay
tapos na dahil kasi kami ang nandun sa baryo e, kami nakakakita, kami nakakaalam. Hindi maniniwala
mga ka-baryo ko na yan ay tapos na dahil nung nakaraang bagyo nakita nila pag-apaw ng tubig.

The polder dike - which is 12.6 meters tall - will be raised by another meter following the Habagat
tragedy. The government also has to be more aggressive in preventing excessive groundwater extraction.
These are supposed to address the twin problems of Malabon's flooding and sinking land. Without proper
consultation and inclusive actions, however, the solutions may sink too.

Purple Romero, Rappler. - Rappler.com

High-rise construction on sotft and watery land
The past two decades have seen a remarkable increase in the rate of construction of “super-tall”
buildings in excess of 300 m in height. Figure 1 shows the significant growth in the number of such
buildings either constructed (to 2010) or projected (2015 and beyond). A large number of these
buildings are in the Middle East or in China. Dubai has now the tallest building in the world, the Burj
Khalifa, which is 828 m in height, while in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, the Kingdom Tower is currently under
construction and will eventually exceed 1000 m in height.

Open image in new window

Fig. 1

Total number of buildings in excess of 300 m tall (after [13])

Super-tall buildings in excess of 300 m in height are presenting new challenges to engineers,
particularly in relation to structural and geotechnical design. Many of the traditional design
methods cannot be applied with any confidence since they require extrapolation well beyond the
realms of prior experience, and accordingly, structural and geotechnical designers are being
forced to utilise more sophisticated methods of analysis and design. In particular, geotechnical
engineers involved in the design of foundations for super-tall buildings are leaving behind
empirical methods and are employing state-of-the art methods increasingly.

This paper will review some of the challenges that face designers of foundations for very tall buildings,
primarily from a geotechnical viewpoint. Some characteristic features of such buildings will be reviewed
and then the options for foundation systems will be discussed. The process of foundation design and
verification will be described, and then the application of these principles will be illustrated via four
projects, each of which has presented a different challenge to the foundation designers:

The La Azteca building in Mexico City, Mexico.

The Burj Khalifa in Dubai.

The Incheon 151 Tower in Incheon, South Korea.

A high-rise tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

 Characteristics of tall buildings
There are a number of characteristics of tall buildings that can have a significant influence on foundation
design, including the following:

 The building weight, and thus the vertical load to be supported by the foundation, can be
substantial. Moreover, the building weight increases non-linearly with height, and so both
ultimate bearing capacity and settlement need to be considered carefully.
 High-rise buildings are often surrounded by low-rise podium structures which are
subjected to much smaller loadings. Thus, differential settlements between the high- and low-rise
portions need to be controlled.
 The lateral forces imposed by wind loading, and the consequent moments on the
foundation system, can be very high. These moments can impose increased vertical loads on the
foundation, especially on the outer piles within the foundation system. The structural design of
the piles needs to take account of these increased loads that act in conjunction with the lateral
forces and moments.
 The wind-induced lateral loads and moments are cyclic in nature. Thus, consideration
needs to be given to the influence of cyclic vertical and lateral loading on the foundation system,
as cyclic loading has the potential to degrade foundation capacity and cause increased
settlements.

 Seismic action will induce additional lateral forces in the structure and also induce lateral
motions in the ground supporting the structure. Thus, additional lateral forces and moments can be
induced in the foundation system via two mechanisms:

 Inertial forces and moments developed by the lateral excitation of the structure;
 Kinematic forces and moments induced in the foundation piles by the action of
ground movements acting against the piles.
 The wind-induced and seismically induced loads are dynamic in nature, and as such, their
potential to give rise to resonance within the structure needs to be assessed. The risk of dynamic
resonance depends on a number of factors, including the predominant period of the dynamic
loading, the natural period of the structure and the stiffness and damping of the foundation
system.
 The dynamic response of tall buildings poses some interesting structural and foundation
design challenges. In particular, the fundamental period of vibration of a very tall structure can
be very high (10 s or more), and conventional dynamic loading sources such as wind and
earthquakes have a much lower predominant period and will generally not excite the structure
via the fundamental mode of vibration. However, some of the higher modes of vibration will
have significantly lower natural periods and may well be excited by wind or seismic action.
These higher periods will depend primarily on the structural characteristics but may also be
influenced by the foundation response characteristics.4

Foundation options
Factors affecting foundation selection
The factors that may influence the type of foundation selected to support a tall building include the
following:
 Location and type of structure.
 Magnitude and distribution of loadings.
 Ground conditions.
 Access for construction equipment.
 Durability requirements.
 Effects of installation on adjacent foundations, structures, people.
 Relative costs.
 Local construction practices.

The common foundation options are discussed below.

Raft or mat foundations

If high-rise developments contain a multi-level basement, the base of the development may be
founded close to, or even embedded into, competent rock. A raft (mat) foundation to support the
entire structure may be feasible for buildings of moderate height. However, for very tall
buildings, such a shallow foundation may not be able to develop adequate resistance to
horizontal and moment loadings.

Raft/mat foundations are relatively large in size; hence the foundation vertical bearing capacity is
generally not the controlling factor in the design. The effects of lateral and moment loading
should be incorporated into the assessment of ultimate bearing pressure. Soil stiffness is
important in the raft/mat design to understand load distribution in the mat and for evaluating
bending moments and shears in the raft. It is often good practice to look at an upper and lower
bound set of soil stiffness values to evaluate raft performance.

The soil and rock parameters adopted for design should be carefully chosen considering the
variation in the ground conditions (both vertical and horizontal) across the relatively wide
foundation area. The possible effect of future construction activity should also be considered in
the estimation of bearing capacity.

For rafts founded on rock, the bearing capacity is highly dependent on factors such as the
intensity and orientation of joints, degree of weathering and other local or general defects. For a
weak rock mass having very closely spaced discontinuities or heavily weathered rock materials,
it is common practice to consider the conventional bearing capacity equations for soil mechanics
for the foundation design. For more accurate evaluation of the bearing capacity, the geotechnical
strength parameters can be obtained from large-scale field tests in conjunction with an in situ test
program, which will also provide the deformation characteristics of the ground.

Compensated raft foundations

Tall buildings very frequently have one or more basements to cater for car parking and/or
commercial and retail space. In such cases, the construction of the raft involves excavation of the
soil prior to construction of the foundation and the superstructure. Because of the stress reduction
in the underlying ground caused by excavation, the net increase in ground stress due to the
structure will be decreased, and hence it may be expected that the settlement and differential
 settlement of the foundation will also be decreased. The resulting foundation is termed a
compensated or buoyancy raft, and can be very beneficial when constructing buildings on soft
clay or loose sand, as the settlements that occur can be significantly less than those if the
foundation was located at or near the ground surface.

Piled foundations

Often the ground conditions at a site are not suitable for a shallow raft/mat foundation system,
especially for high-rise buildings where the vertical and lateral loadings imposed on the
foundation are significant. In these circumstances, it is necessary to support the building loads on
piles, either single piles or pile groups, generally located beneath columns and load bearing
walls.

A piled foundation for high-rise structures often comprises a large numbers of piles and,
therefore, the challenge in the design is capturing the effects of the group interaction. It is well
recognised that the settlement of a pile group can differ significantly from that of a single pile at
the same average load level due to group effects. Also, the ultimate load that can be supported by
a group of piles may not be equal to the sum of the ultimate load which can be carried by each
pile within the group, and so consideration must be given to the pile group efficiency.

Piled raft foundations

Many high-rise buildings are constructed with thick basement slabs. When piles are used in the
foundation it is generally assumed that the basement slab does not carry any of the foundation
loads. In some cases, it is possible to utilise the basement slab, in conjunction with the piles, to
obtain a foundation that satisfies both bearing capacity and settlement criteria.

A piled raft foundation is a composite system in which both the piles and the raft share the
applied structural loadings. Within a conventional piled foundation, it may be possible for the
number of piles to be reduced significantly by considering the contribution of the raft to the
overall foundation capacity. In such cases, the piles provide the majority of the foundation
stiffness while the raft provides a reserve of load capacity. In situations where a raft foundation
alone might be used, but does not satisfy the design requirements (in particular the total and
differential settlement requirements), it may be possible to enhance the performance of the raft
by the addition of piles. In such cases, the use of a limited number of piles, strategically located,
may improve both the ultimate load capacity and the settlement and differential settlement
performance of the raft and allows the design requirements to be met.

The main advantages of adopting a piled raft foundation are the following:

 As piles need not be designed to carry all the load, there is the potential for substantial
savings in the cost of the foundations.
 Piles may be located strategically beneath the raft so that differential settlements can be
controlled.
 Piles of different length and/or diameter can be used at different locations to optimise the
foundation design.
 Varying raft thicknesses can be used at different locations to optimise the foundation
design.
 Piles can be designed to carry a load approaching (or equal to) their ultimate geotechnical
load, provided that the raft can develop an adequate proportion of the required ultimate load
capacity.
The most effective application of piled rafts occurs when the raft can provide adequate load capacity,
but the settlement and/or differential settlements of the raft alone exceed the allowable values. Poulos
[56] has examined a number of idealised soil profiles and found that the following situations may be
favourable:

 Soil profiles consisting of relatively stiff clays.

 Soil profiles consisting of relatively dense sands.

In both circumstances, the raft can provide a significant proportion of the required load capacity
and also contribute to the foundation stiffness, especially after the pile capacity has been fully
mobilised.

It has also been found that the performance of a piled raft foundation can be optimised by
selecting suitable locations for the piles below the raft. In general, the piles should be
concentrated in the most heavily loaded areas, while the number of piles can be reduced, or even
eliminated, in less heavily loaded areas [31].

There are soil profiles in which piled rafts may not provide much, if any, advantage over a conventional
piled foundation as follows:

 Profiles with very soft clays at or near the surface of the raft, where the raft can
contribute only a relatively small proportion of the required ultimate load capacity.
 Profiles which may be subjected to long-term consolidation settlement; in this case, the
soil may lose contact with the raft and transfer all the load to the piles.
 Profiles which may be subjected to expansive (upward) movements; in this case, the soil
movements will result in increased contact pressures on the raft and the consequent development
of tensile forces in the piles.
Compensated piled raft foundations
There is a reluctance on the part of many foundation designers to consider the use of piled raft
foundations in soft clays, for at least two reasons:

 The soft clay often provides only a modest bearing capacity and stiffness for the raft, with
the piles having to carry the vast majority of load.
 If the soft clay is likely to undergo settlement, for example due to reclamation filling or
dewatering, the soil may settle away from the base of the raft, again leaving the piles to carry the
load.

Despite these reservations, piled rafts have been used successfully in the past, most notably in
Mexico City, where Zeevaert [78, 79] pioneered the use of rafts and compensated rafts with
friction piles.
 As the total piled-raft stiffness is directly related to the pile stiffness, the overall behaviour of a
“compensated piled raft” will be affected by the excavation sequence. If the raft weight is lower
than the effective excavation weight, the soil will still behave as an over-consolidated soil during
the first stage of raising the building structure.

For compensated pile rafts, the excavation and pile installation process must be selected to suit
each case. In some buildings, with shallow excavations, the piles can be executed before the
excavation, from the ground level. In others, where greater depth must be achieved, part or the
whole excavation is carried out first and the piles are installed once excavation is complete. The
presence of groundwater can also influence the construction process.

When the piles are constructed in advance of the excavation, the piles will act as anchors,
reducing the tendency for bottom soil heave. The upward soil movement will generate tensile
stresses in the piles. Sommer [75, 76] reported “locked in stresses” for the piles of the
Messeturm Building, in Frankfurt, of about 1.5 MN after excavation.

The design process

Stages of design
There are commonly three broad stages in foundation design:

1.A preliminary design, which provides an initial basis for the development of foundation concepts and
costing.

2. A detailed design stage, in which the selected foundation concept is analysed and progressive
refinements are made to the layout and details of the foundation system. This stage is desirably
undertaken collaboratively with the structural designer, as the structure and the foundation act as an
interactive system.

3.A final design phase, in which both the analysis and the parameters employed in the analysis are
finalised.

It should be noted that the geotechnical parameters used for each stage may change as more
knowledge of the ground conditions, and the results of in situ and laboratory testing, become
available. The parameters for the final design stage should also incorporate the results of
foundation load tests.

Design issues and criteria

The following issues will generally need to be addressed in the design of foundations for high-rise
buildings:
1.Ultimate capacity of the foundation under vertical, lateral and moment loading combinations.

2.The influence of the cyclic nature of wind, earthquakes and wave loadings (if appropriate) on
foundation capacity and movements.

3.Overall settlements.

4.Differential settlements, both within the high-rise footprint, and between high-rise and low-rise areas.

5.Possible effects of externally imposed ground movements on the foundation system, for example,
movements arising from excavations for pile caps or adjacent facilities.

6.Dynamic response of the structure-foundation system to wind-induced (and, if appropriate, wave)

forces.

7.Earthquake effects, including the response of the structure-foundation system to earthquake

excitation, and the possibility of liquefaction in the soil surrounding and/or supporting the foundation.

8.Structural design of the foundation system, including the load-sharing among the various components
of the system (for example, the piles and the supporting raft) and the distribution of loads within the
piles. For this, and most other components of design, it is essential that there be close cooperation and
interaction between the geotechnical designers and the structural designers.

.
Water Treatment for Consumption

Community Water Treatment

Drinking water supplies in the United States are among the safest in the world. However, even in the
U.S., drinking water sources can become contaminated, causing sickness and disease from waterborne
germs, such as Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Hepatitis A, Giardia intestinalis, and other pathogens.

Drinking water sources are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove disease-
causing agents. Public drinking water systems use various methods of water treatment to provide safe
drinking water for their communities. Today, the most common steps in water treatment used by
community water systems (mainly surface water treatment) include:

Figure courtesy of EPA

 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation and flocculation are often the first steps in water treatment. Chemicals with a positive
charge are added to the water. The positive charge of these chemicals neutralizes the negative charge
of dirt and other dissolved particles in the water. When this occurs, the particles bind with the
chemicals and form larger particles, called floc.

 Sedimentation

During sedimentation, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply, due to its weight. This settling
process is called sedimentation.

 Filtration

Once the floc has settled to the bottom of the water supply, the clear water on top will pass through
filters of varying compositions (sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore sizes, in order to remove
dissolved particles, such as dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals.

 Disinfection

After the water has been filtered, a disinfectant (for example, chlorine, chloramine) may be added in
order to kill any remaining parasites, bacteria, and viruses, and to protect the water from germs when
it is piped to homes and businesses.

Learn more about water disinfection with chloramine and chlorine on the Disinfection page.

Water may be treated differently in different communities depending on the quality of the water that
enters the treatment plant. Typically, surface water requires more treatment and filtration than ground
water because lakes, rivers, and streams contain more sediment and pollutants and are more likely to be
contaminated than ground water.

Some water supplies may also contain disinfections by-products, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals,
and radionuclides. Specialized methods for controlling formation or removing them can also be part of
water treatment. To learn more about the different treatments for drinking water, see the National
Drinking Water Clearinghouse's Fact Sheet Series on Drinking Water Treatments.
To learn more about the steps that are taken to make our water safe to drink, visit the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Public Drinking Water Systems webpage. To learn more about
the 90+ contaminants EPA regulates and why, visit EPA's Drinking Water Contaminantspage.
Water Fluoridation

Community water fluoridation prevents tooth decay safely and effectively. Water fluoridation has been
named one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century 1. For more information on the
fluoridation process and to find details on your water system's fluoridation, visit CDC's Community
Water Fluoridation page.
Top of Page

Consumer Confidence Reports

Every community water supplier must provide an annual report, sometimes called a Consumer
Confidence Report, or "CCR," to its customers. The report provides information on your local drinking
water quality, including the water's source, contaminants found in the water, and how consumers can get
involved in protecting drinking water.

 View the CDC's guide to Understanding Consumer Confidence Reports

 See if your CCR is posted online (United States Environmental Protection Agency Local
Drinking Water Information)

Household Water Treatment

Even though EPA regulates and sets standards for public drinking water, many Americans use a home
water treatment unit to:

 Remove specific contaminants

 Take extra precautions because a household member has a compromised immune system
 Improve the taste of drinking water

Household water treatment systems are composed of two categories: point-of-use and point-of-
entry (NSF). Point-of-entry systems are typically installed after the water meter and treat most of the
water entering a residence. Point-of-use systems are systems that treat water in batches and deliver water
to a tap, such as a kitchen or bathroom sink or an auxiliary faucet mounted next to a tap.
The most common types of household water treatment systems consist of:

 Filtration Systems
A water filter is a device which removes impurities from water by means of a physical barrier,
chemical, and/or biological process.
 Water Softeners
A water softener is a device that reduces the hardness of the water. A water softener typically uses
sodium or potassium ions to replace calcium and magnesium ions, the ions that create "hardness."
 Distillation Systems
Distillation is a process in which impure water is boiled and the steam is collected and condensed in a
separate container, leaving many of the solid contaminants behind.
 Disinfection
Disinfection is a physical or chemical process in which pathogenic microorganisms are deactivated or
killed. Examples of chemical disinfectants are chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone. Examples of
physical disinfectants include ultraviolet light, electronic radiation, and heat.

WATER TREATMENT FOR DISPOSAL OR

REUSE
Sludge treatment, reuse and disposal

Sludge is produced from the treatment of wastewater in on-site (e.g. septic tank) and off-site (e.g.
activated sludge) systems. This is inherently so because a primary aim of wastewater treatment is
removing solids from the wastewater. In addition, soluble organic substances are converted to bacterial
cells, and the latter is removed from the wastewater. Sludge is also produced from the treatment of storm
water, although it is likely to be less organic in nature compared to wastewater sludge.

Bucket latrine and vault latrines store faecal sludge, which needs to be collected and treated. These two
types of latrine are not discussed in Section 4, because no treatment is involved at the latrines. In the
former case human excreta is deposited in a bucket and the content of the bucket is emptied daily, usually
at night giving the term ‘night soil the faecal sludge. In the latter the excreta is stored in a vault for a
longer period of up to two weeks before removal. The content of the vault should preferably be removed
mechanically.

The characteristics of sludge vary widely from relatively fresh faecal materials generated in bucket
latrines to sludge which has undergone bacterial decomposition for over a year in a double pit latrine. The
treatment required is therefore dependent on the characteristics of the sludge. The former may contain
large numbers of pathogens, whereas the latter will contain much less due to pathogen die-off. Sludge
should, however, always be handled with care to avoid contact with pathogens. Sludge may be
contaminated with heavy metals and other pollutants, especially when industrial wastes are disposed into
the sewer. Pre-treatment of industrial wastes is therefore essential before discharge to the sewer.
Treatment of sludge contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals or toxic chemicals will be
more difficult and the potential for re-use of the sludge will be limited.
Faecal sludge contains essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and is potentially beneficial as
fertilisers for plants. The organic carbon in the sludge, once stabilised, is also desirable as a soil
conditioner, because it provides improved soil structure for plant roots.

Options for sludge treatment include stabilisation, thickening, dewatering, drying and incineration. The
latter is most costly, because fuel is needed and air pollution control requires extensive treatment of the
combustion gases. It can be used when the sludge is heavily contaminated with heavy metals or other
undesirable pollutants. Prevention of contamination of the sludge by industrial wastes is preferable to
incineration. A conversion process to produce oil from sludge has been developed, which can be suitable
for heavily contaminated sludge (Skrypsi-Mantele, et al 2000). The costs of treatment of sludge are
generally of the same order as the costs of removing the sludge from the wastewater.

Stabilisation

Faecal sludge collected from bucket or vault latrines has a very high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
and is generally putrid and odorous. Primary and secondary sludges from an activated sludge treatment
plant also have a high BOD and may be difficult to dewater. Even sludge from a septic tank, which has
undergone bacterial decomposition over at least a year, still has a high BOD. Stabilisation is the term used
to denote the process of BOD reduction. The stabilisation process can be carried out under aerobic or
anaerobic conditions.

Aerobic stabilisation of primary and secondary sludges can be carried out in an aeration tank in the same
manner as in an activated sludge process. Because of the high oxygen requirement, this process is energy
intensive and costs are high. Aerobic stabilisation requires less energy when carried out as part of a
composting process. For composting of sludge, its solids content should be increased to at least 15 % so
that it can be handled as a solid.

Thickening and dewatering (see below) of primary and secondary sludges are required to achieve the
required solids content. Faecal sludge may contain high enough solids. Mixing with dry materials such as
dry sawdust may assist with achieving the required solids content as well attaining the required carbon to
nitrogen ratio for composting.

Composting

Composting is an aerobic bacterial decomposition process to stabilise organic wastes and produce humus
(compost). Compost contains nutrients and organic carbon which are excellent soil conditioners.
Composting takes place naturally on a forest floor where organic materials (leaf litter, animal wastes) are
converted to more stable organic materials (humus) and the nutrients are released and made available for
plant uptake. The process is slow on a forest floor, but can be accelerated under optimum conditions.

The optimum conditions for composting are a moisture content of about 50 %, a carbon to nitrogen ratio
of about 25 to 30, and temperature of 55 oC. Because wastewater sludge is rich in nutrients, its carbon to
nitrogen ratio is low (5 to 10). It is also high in moisture. Addition of dry sawdust, which is very high in
carbon to nitrogen ratio (500) can adjust both the moisture and carbon to nitrogen ratio. Other waste
materials that can be used for this purpose are mulched garden wastes, forest wastes and shredded
newspaper.

Composting can be carried out in a specially built composter, such as an inclined rotating cylinder, fed on
one end with the raw materials, and the aerated product collected at the other end. As the materials are
slowly tumbled over a period of about one week, they are mixed and aerated. Because bacterial
decomposition produces heat, temperatures in the insulated composter can easily reach 55oC. The
immature compost is then windrowed for at least 12 weeks to allow the composting process to complete,
with occasional turning of the windrow.

Composting can be more simply carried out in windrows (Figure 32). Regular turning of the windrows
assists with mixing of the materials and more importantly supply the oxygen to the bacteria. Temperatures
can reach 55 oC, because compost has a good heat insulating property. Turning of the compost also
ensures that all parts of the windrow reach the required 55oC essential for pathogen destruction. Turning
is required every two to three days in the first two weeks when temperature is 55oC or above. After this
period frequent turning of the compost windrow is not required as less heat is generated and less oxygen
is required while the compost undergoes maturation.

Windrow composting of faccal sludge

Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial decomposition process that stabilises organic wastes and produces a
mixture of methane and carbon dioxide gas (biogas). The heat value of methane is the same as natural
petroleum gas, and biogas is valuable as an energy source. Anaerobic digestion is usually carried out in a
specially built digester, where the content is mixed and the digester maintained at 35 oC by combusting
the biogas produced. After digestion the sludge is passed to a sedimentation tank where the sludge is
thickened. Biogas is collected from the digester (Figure 33). The thickened sludge requires further
treatment prior to reuse or disposal.

Anaerobic digestion can also be carried out at a slower rate in an unmixed tank or pond. Covering is
usually by a UV resistant plastic sheet, because of the large area needed to be covered, and biogas is
collected from the top of the sheet. Storage of biogas can be in a cylindrical tank with a floating roof.
The cylindrical roof floats on water and its position is determined by the volume of the gas stored under
the pressure of the roof. Biogas can also be stored in a balloon, but only under low pressure.
 Simple anaerobic digestion process

Thickening

Sludge contains a high concentration of solids, but its water content is still high. Combined primary and
secondary sludge from an activated sludge treatment plant contains about 2 % solids and hence 98 %
water. One kg of dry sludge is associated with 49 L of water. Thickening to 5 % solids means one kg of
dry solids is associated with 19 L of water, thus 30 L of water has to be removed.

Thickening is carried out in a sedimentation tank or in a sedimentation pond (Figure 34). The latter is
advantageous if land area is available, because the sludge can be allowed to settle over a much longer
period and a higher solids content of the thickened sludge is achieved. The water removed from
thickening needs treatment. It can be returned to the inlet of an off-site wastewater treatment plant, or in
the case of sludge from on-site units by an aerobic treatment process such as lagooning.

Sludge thickening pond

Dewatering and drying

Dewatering aims to reduce the water content further so that the solids content of the sludge is about 20 %
(equivalent to 1 kg dry sludge with 4 L of water). The sludge can then be handled like a solid. Dewatering
can be done mechanically using a filter press (employing pressure or vacuum), or a centrifuge. It can also
be done using drying beds. A drying bed consists of a 30 cm bed of sand with an under-drainage (Figure
35). Sludge is applied on the sand bed and is allowed to dry by evaporation and drainage of excess water
over a period of several weeks depending on climatic conditions. Bacterial decomposition of the sludge
takes place during the drying process while moisture content is sufficiently high. During the rainy season
the process may take a longer time to complete and sizing the area of the drying beds should take this into
account.

Sludge drying bed

Sludge reuse

Raw sludge from activated sludge treatment plants has been applied directly onto agricultural land
particularly in the United Kingdom. This practice is considered unsatisfactory because of the presence of
pathogens in the sludge in high numbers. There has been no thorough study, however, which has shown
that there is an increase in the risk of acquiring illnesses associated with pathogens in the raw sludge
when proper handling procedure and non-entry to the land following application is observed.

Reuse of composted sludge as a soil conditioner in agriculture and horticulture returns carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus and elements essential for plant growth back to the soil. Less chemical fertilisers are required
and the organic carbon helps to improve soil structure for soil aeration, water percolation and root growth.
The nitrogen and phosphorus are also released gradually for plant uptake compared to the more soluble
chemical fertilisers. The potential of leaching of the nutrients to ground or surface water by rainfall run-
off is much reduced. Pathogens and heavy metals can, however, limit the reuse of sludge.

Pathogens should be reduced to levels that do not pose health hazards to workers handling the sludge,
potential health hazards from the spreading of helminth eggs and from horticultural produce contaminated
by pathogens. Composting of the sludge to attain a temperature of 55 oC for two weeks followed by
windrow maturation produces compost that meets these conditions. Stabilised sludge, which has been
dewatered and dried on sand beds to attain a low moisture content, can meet the same conditions.

Heavy metals and toxic chemicals are difficult to remove from sludge. Preventing these chemicals from
entering the wastewater or sludge should be the aim of wastewater management for sludge intended for
reuse in agriculture or horticulture. Reuse may still be possible for purposes such as mine site
rehabilitation, highway landscaping or for landfill cover. Sludge that has been conditioned for reuse is
called ‘biosolids•E/p>

Conversion of sludge, which is heavily contaminated by heavy metals or toxic chemicals, to oil is
technically feasible (Enersludge process). A full-scale plant is operating in Perth, Western Australia
(Bridle et al., 2000). The conversion is by a pyrolysis process, heating dried sludge to a high temperature
in the absence of oxygen or with a controlled amount of oxygen. Capital and running costs of an oil from
sludge process are high.
Sludge disposal

Final or ultimate disposal of sludge, which cannot be reused, is by landfilling or incineration. Since
sludge for landfilling usually contains heavy metals or toxic chemicals, lining of the landfill with clay or
plastic liner may be required to prevent contamination of groundwater. Incineration of sludge is by a
multiple hearth furnace or fluidised bed furnace. Energy input is required to dry the sludge before
combustion is self-sustaining. Combustion flue gases usually need treatment to meet air pollution control
standards. Investment and operating costs are high.

Wastewater and storm water reuse

Human excreta and wastewater contains useful materials. These are water, organic carbon and nutrients
and should be regarded as a resource. In their natural cycles they are broken down by micro-organisms
and become useful to plants and animals, thus sustaining natural ecosystems. When improperly disposed
these substances can cause pollution, because the organic materials exert oxygen demand, and the
nutrients promote algal growth in lakes, rivers and near-shore marine environments.

Human excreta and wastewater also contain pathogens. Reuse of the wastes must ensure that public health
is maintained. Planned reuse is the key to wastewater reuse. Planning for reuse ensures that public health
and protection of the environment are taken into account. Reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation of
crops, for example, will need to meet (i) standards for indicator pathogens, and (ii) plant requirement for
water, nitrogen and phosphorus. WHO and others have developed standards for reuse of wastewater for
various purposes. Further details of these standards can be found in the Regional Overviews in the Source
Book, published by IWA and IETC. Plant requirements for water and nutrients are plant-specific and site-
specific (dependent on soil type and climate) and information on these requirements need to be obtained
from local information sources.

Wastewater reuse for agriculture

Treated wastewater from off-site treatment plants can be reused for irrigation of parks and gardens,
agriculture and horticulture, tree plantation and aquaculture, if these exist or can be established not far
from the wastewater treatment plants. For these purposes the wastewater should generally be treated to
secondary wastewater standard (< 20 mg/L BOD and < 30 mg/L SS). Total coliforms should be < 1000
organisms per 100 mL for irrigation by spraying. When sub-surface irrigation is used this requirement
may not be necessary. A period of non-entry to irrigated sites may need to be observed, particularly for
wastewater-irrigated parks and gardens. Irrigation of vegetables for direct human consumption requires a
much stricter guideline.

Because requirement of wastewater for plant growth is governed by climatic conditions, soil and plant
type, there may be a need for storage of the wastewater. An alternative to storage, if land area is not
available for this purpose, is to dispose of wastewater that is excess to requirement. A combination of
wastewater for irrigation and aquaculture (see below) is also an option that can be considered.

Land application for treatment of wastewater (Slow rate land application and grass filtration) when
combined with growing of grasses for grazing by sheep or cattle plus the “cut and carry system can
properly be considered as treatment and reuse of wastewater.

Wastewater reuse for aquaculture

Wastewater reuse for aquaculture has been practised in many countries for a considerable period of time.
It has the potential of wider application in the tropics. There is great diversity of systems involving
cultivation of aquatic species, (mainly fish) and plants (mainly aquatic vegetables such as water spinach).
The Source Book, published by IWA and IETC, contains a detailed section on aquaculture and a case
study is presented in the Regional Overview for Central & South America.

Farmers and local communities have developed most reuse systems; the primary motivating factor has
been reuse of nutrients for food production rather than wastewater treatment, and with scant attention to
either waste treatment or to public health. In most aquaculture systems, wastewater is not reused directly
in aquaculture and the nutrients contained in the wastewater are used as fertiliser to produce natural food
such as plankton for fish. These nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, are also taken up directly by
large aquatic plants such as duckweed which is cultivated for animal feed, and aquatic vegetables such as
water spinach and water mimosa cultivated for human food.

As wastewater provides a source of nutrients for aquaculture, it is technically feasible to link it up with
most sanitation technologies, providing that land is available at reasonable cost. Farmers have learned by
experience how to culture fish, first in static-water nightsoil-fed ponds and more recently in conventional
wastewater-fed fishponds. Research has provided a scientific basis for the key parameters in wastewater-
fed aquaculture practice developed earlier by farmers and these can be found in the Source Book,
published by IWA and IETC.

There are a number of constraints to wastewater-fed aquaculture and they need to be considered where the
practice is considered to be an option. They include:

 lack of knowledge of aquaculture as a technical option in wastewater treatment and reuse.

 limited available sites in peri-urban areas where wastewater is available for reuse
 rapid urbanisation in developing countries threatens the existing wastewater-fed systems
 rapid eutrophication from both urbanisation and industrialisation
 improved sanitation reduces the availability of nightsoil for agriculture and aquaculture.
 rapid industrialisation contaminates nutrient-rich domestic wastewater with industrial wastewater.
 social and cultural acceptance of wastewater-fed
 climate - wastewater-fed aquaculture involves the farming of warmwater organisms

Schematic of wastewater reuse strategies

Despite the constraints listed above, there is considerable potential for the reuse of wastewater in
managed aquaculture in the tropics. A correctly managed system would limit public health risks and
wastewater should never be reused without prior treatment if the produce (fish or aquatic vegetables) is
intended for direct human consumption. Figure 36 presents strategies for the reuse of wastewater through
aquaculture.

There are a number of situations where wastewater-fed aquaculture has significant potential for
incorporation into existing and proposed improved sanitation schemes:

 Developing countries that cannot afford mechanical wastewater treatment schemes. Although
aquaculture in stabilisation ponds requires more land, it produces significant benefits such as
increased employment for local people and revenue from sale of produce which, in turn, can be
used to subsidise the wastewater treatment.
 Arid and semi-arid countries have an increasing need to reuse water as well as nutrients contained
in wastewater. Pilot projects on culture of fish in treated stabilisation pond effluents have been
successfully completed in arid areas in Egypt, the Middle East, Peru and in Latin America.

Wastewater reuse for industry

Treated wastewater can also be used for industrial purposes if suitable industries are not far from the
treatment plant. Industry’s requirement for water quality ranges widely, from very pure water for boilers
of electricity generation to lower water quality for cooling towers. Treated wastewater can fulfil the lower
range of this requirement, e.g. water for cooling towers. Secondary-treated wastewater after chlorination
may be adequate for this purpose.

With off-site treatment plants reuse of wastewater may be limited by the need to pipe treated wastewater
to where it is needed. To implement wastewater reuse in houses for toilet flushing, watering of gardens
and other purposes which do not need drinking quality water, a third pipe-reticulation system is required,
that is in addition to the reticulation to provide drinking water and the sewer to collect the wastewater.
Care is also needed to prevent cross-connection between drinking water and treated wastewater.

'Sewer mining' is the term given to the withdrawal of wastewater from a sewer for reuse near to the point
of withdrawal. This provides an opportunity for reuse without having to pipe treated wastewater from the
centralised treatment plant. Wastewater needs to be treated to the standard required for the reuse, and may
duplicate the function of the centralised treatment plant.

Wastewater and storm water disposal

Disposal of wastewater and storm water should preferably be considered only when reuse options are not
feasible. Ultimate disposal of wastewater is either onto land or water (river, lake, ocean).

Wastewater disposal to water environments

Disposal into a lake, stream or ocean needs to take into account the ability of the receiving water to
assimilate wastewater. The natural purification capacity of the environment is limited. Even when
wastewater is disposed to the ocean, the area surrounding the outfall can be sufficiently polluted and the
pollutants (including pathogens) can be washed towards the beaches. Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)
promote the growth of algae in the receiving water. In lakes and sensitive water environments the removal
of nutrients may be required. Furthermore if the wastewater contains high levels of heavy metals and
toxic chemicals, these may have to be removed before wastewater disposal. Over the years the
requirement for disposal into water environments have become stricter as the impact of pollutants is better
appreciated. It can be expected that this trend towards more stringent discharge requirements will
continue

Storm water disposal

The ultimate disposal for storm water is onto land (by infiltration to groundwater) and to water
environments (river, lake, ocean). These have been covered as part of storm water treatment and reuse,
because they utilise infiltration as a general technique. Techniques for storm water reuse are those that
delay its ultimate flow to water environments to improve flow management and hence reduce the
frequency and extent of flooding. At the same time these techniques also generally remove pollutants
(particulates and oils) prior to the water reaching a river, lake or the sea, while creating amenities such as
wetlands, waterfowl habitats and water-based passive and active recreational facilities.
VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION
 Next generation vertical transport system

Modern concept of vertical transport system. (Also moving horizontally)

Improving performance

In all buildings, whether standard or super-tall, our VT experts must consider the needs and numbers of
occupants. In a residential building, for example, in addition to the people themselves, furniture
movement, cargo delivery and security must be taken into account.

The best lift systems can help transform a building’s functionality, sustainability and occupant wellbeing.

The vertical transportation strategy is critical to the success of a tall building. Elevators occupy a
considerable amount of space and therefore influence the amount of lettable space in the building.
However, there must be enough elevator capacity for the building to function properly. This is
particularly true for tall, slender buildings and mixed-use developments.

Evolving Elevator Technology

VT strategies are evolving rapidly with the increase of super-tall buildings. In such cases, a vertical
transportation system of shuttle elevators, where separate banks of lifts serve groups of floors, has
traditionally proven to be the most efficient solution from both a passenger and space point of view,
creating the need for sky lobbies.

Advances in elevator technology mean that strategies are constantly evolving. Double-decker elevators
have increased capacity and triple-decker versions are in development, while “twin” cabins can move
independently within the same shaft. There are also technologies that enable energy to be recovered from
an elevator’s counterweight and reused elsewhere, while advances in control technology allow passengers
to input their destination in the lobby so that the system works out the ideal travel profile for each
elevator. The development of super-strength carbon-fibre belts means that a single elevator can now
travel over 1,000 metres, where previously steel cables meant the number of floors that an elevator could
serve was limited to 100.
 Comparison of multi-car double deck depending on travel height: handling capacity

Comparison of multi-car double deck depending on travel height: velocity

Comparison of multi-car double deck depending on travel height: interval

Comparison of multi-car double deck depending on travel height: number of cabins
Example of designating the proper position that depends on the function
MAP OF MALABON

Malabon, officially the City of Malabon, is one of the cities and municipalities that make up Metro
Manila in the Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 365,525. [1]Located just
north of Manila, it is primarily a residential and industrial town and is one of the most densely populated
cities in the metropolis. It has a total land area of 15.96 square kilometers.

Malabon is part of the sub-region of Metro Manila informally called CAMANAVA, which consists
of CAloocan, MAlabon, NAvotas, and VAlenzuela cities. Caloocan lies to the south and east, Navotas to
the west, and Valenzuela to the north. Malabon also borders the town of Obando in the province
of Bulacan to the northwest.
Location within Metro Manila

Political map of Malabon

PHOTOS OF VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT ON
WATER
1. The Dragonfly- a giant winged vertical farm for New York City. (An urban farm concept by Vincent
Callebaut.

2. The Hive- a vertical city proposal by Hungarian architect Gergeley Gaal.

REFERENCES:

Sinking Cities. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/24194-sinking-cities

High Rise Construction on Soft Land. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/

A Next Generation Vertical Transportation System. Retrieved from https://www.ctbuh,org/papers

Vertical Transportation Design. Retrieved from https://www.arup.com

Vertical Transportation. Retrieved from https://www.wsp.com

The Dragonfy. Retrieved from https://www.inhabitat.com/dragonfly-urban-agriculture-concept-for-ny/

Malabon City. In Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.m.wikipedia.org

Vertical Plug-in City. Retrieved from http://www.evolo.us/architecture/vertical-plug-in-city/

Malabon Map. Retrieved from https://www.nababaha.com

United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved from

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/freshwater/sb_summary/10.asp