HUSSEIN SUGAR MILLS LIMITED INTERNSHIP REPORT

ANEES AHMAD

CIIT/SP11-BEC-015/LHR

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Science (Chemical Engineering)

Department of Chemical Engineering

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology

AUGUST 2014
ii
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures vii
Acknowledgments ix
Vision and Mission Statement of Industry x
Executive Summary xi
Chapter-1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is sugar? …………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Properties of Sucrose (Sugar)……………………………………………………… 1
1.2.1 Physical Properties of Sucrose…………………………………………. 1
1.2.2 Chemical Properties of Sucrose………………………………………... 2

a) Oxidation of Sucrose……………………………………………….. 2

b) Hydrolysis of Sucrose……………………………………………… 2
c) Alkaline Degradation………………………………………………. 2
d) Thermal Degradation………………………………………………. 2

1.3 Uses of Sucrose…………………………………………………………………… 3

a) Food Applications……………………………………………………………… 3
b) Feedstock for Chemical Synthesis……………………………………………... 3
c) Fermentation Feedstock………………………………………………………... 3
d) Pharmaceutical Applications…………………………………………………... 3
1.4 Nutrition and Health Aspects of Sucrose………………………………………….. 3
Chapter-2 Sugar Mill Feed Section Specifications & Details 5
2.1 Feed Section (Delivery, Unloading, Weighing & Handling of Cane)…………….. 5
2.2 Feed Table…………………………………………………………………………. 5
2.3 Cane Carrier……………………………………………………………………….. 5
2.4 Leveller…………………………………………………………………………….. 6
2.5 Cutters……………………………………………………………………………... 6
2.6 Magnetic Separator………………………………………………………………… 7
2.7 Shredder……………………………………………………………………………. 8
2.8 Shredded Cane Elevator…………………………………………………………… 9
2.9 Turbines……………………………………………………………………………. 9
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Chapter-3 Mill House 10

3.1 Block Flow Diagram………………………………………………………………. 10
3.2 Mills………………………………………………………………………………... 10
3.2.1 Mills Configuration……………………………………………………. 12
3.2.2 Trash Plate……………………………………………………………... 12
3.2.3 Characteristics of a Mill……………………………………………….. 12
3.3 Imbibition………………………………………………………………………….. 13
3.4 Bagasse Elevator…………………………………………………………………... 13
3.5 Stationary Screen and Rotary Screen……………………………………………… 13
3.6 Mixed Juice Tank………………………………………………………………….. 13
3.7 Juice Supply Configuration to Process House…………………………………….. 14
Chapter-4 Mill Drive by Steam Turbine 15
4.1 Steam Turbine……………………………………………………………………... 15
4.2 Gears……………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Chapter-5 Boiler House 17
5.1 Boiler Feed Water Treatment……………………………………………………… 17
5.1.1 Ion Exchange Process (A special type of Adsorption)…………………. 17
5.1.2 Sodium Zeolite Softening………………………………………………. 17
5.1.3 Zeolites…………………………………………………………………. 18
5.1.4 Boiler Feed Water Specifications………………………………………. 18
5.2 Boiler………………………………………………………………………………. 18
5.2.1 Types of Boiler…………………………………………………………. 18
5.3 Water Tube Boiler…………………………………………………………………. 19
5.4 Configuration of Boilers…………………………………………………………… 21
Chapter-6 Power House 22
6.1 Turbines (Expanders)……………………………………………………………… 22
6.2 Steam Turbine……………………………………………………………………... 22
6.2.1 Way of Working………………………………………………………… 22
6.3 Types of Blades……………………………………………………………………. 24
6.4 Defects of Steam Turbine………………………………………………………….. 24
 v

6.5 Calculation of Shaft Work Produced by Turbine………………………………….. 24

6.6 Electric Generator………………………………………………………………….. 25
6.6.1 Working Principal……………………………………………………… 25
6.7 Synchronization……………………………………………………………………. 25
Chapter-7 Process House 27
7.1 Vapor Line Juice Heaters………………………………………………………….. 27
7.2 Primary Heaters……………………………………………………………………. 27
7.3 Defecation…………………………………………………………………………. 29
7.4 Retention Tanks……………………………………………………………………. 29
7.5 Secondary Heaters…………………………………………………………………. 30
7.6 Flash Tank…………………………………………………………………………. 30
7.7 Distributor…………………………………………………………………………. 31
7.8 Clarifier (Sedimentation)…………………………………………………………... 31
7.9 Mud Mixer…………………………………………………………………………. 32
7.10 Rotary Vacuum Filter…………………………………………………………….. 32
7.11 Evaporators……………………………………………………………………….. 33
7.12 Falling Film Evaporator …………………………………………………………. 33
7.13 Multiple Effect Evaporator……………………………………………………….. 34
7.14 Calculation of Amount of Vapors Generated…………………………………….. 36
7.15 Syrup Tank……………………………………………………………………….. 36
7.16 Batch Pans………………………………………………………………………... 36
7.17 Continuous Pans………………………………………………………………….. 39
7.18 Crystallizers………………………………………………………………………. 39
7.19 Horizontal Crystallizer…………………………………………………………… 39
7.20 Vertical Crystallizer……………………………………………………………… 40
7.21 Pug Mills………………………………………………...……………………….. 42
7.22 Centrifugal Separators (Machines) ………………………………………………. 42
7.23 Remelter………………………………………………………………………….. 42
7.24 Buffer Tank………………………………………………………………………. 43
7.25 Baby Heater………………………………………………………………………. 43
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7.26 Talo Clarifier……………………………………………………………………... 43

7.27 Sugar Grader……………………………………………………………………… 44
7.28 Dryer……………………………………………………………………………… 44
7.29 Hopper……………………………………………………………………………. 44
7.30 Packaging………………………………………………………………………… 44
7.31 Brix and Purity Data……………………………………………………………… 46
Chapter-8 Chemical Laboratory 47
8.1 Brix Test…………………………………………………………………………… 47
8.2 Bagasse Test……………………………………………………………………….. 48
SWOT Analysis of Hussein Sugar Mills Limited 49
References 50
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure-1 ……………………………………………………………………………... 1
Figure-2 ……………………………………………………………………………... 5
Figure-3 ……………………………………………………………………………... 5
Figure-4 ……………………………………………………………………………... 6
Figure-5 ……………………………………………………………………………... 7
Figure-6 ……………………………………………………………………………... 7
Figure-7 ……………………………………………………………………………... 7
Figure-8 ……………………………………………………………………………... 8
Figure-9 ……………………………………………………………………………... 8
Figure-10 ……………………………………………………………………………... 10
Figure-11 ……………………………………………………………………………... 11
Figure-12 ……………………………………………………………………………... 11
Figure-13 ……………………………………………………………………………... 12
Figure-14 ……………………………………………………………………………... 12
Figure-15 ……………………………………………………………………………... 13
Figure-16 ……………………………………………………………………………... 13
Figure-17 ……………………………………………………………………………... 14
Figure-18 ……………………………………………………………………………... 15
Figure-19 ……………………………………………………………………………... 16
Figure-20 ……………………………………………………………………………... 16
Figure-21 ……………………………………………………………………………... 18
Figure-22 ……………………………………………………………………………... 20
Figure-23 ……………………………………………………………………………... 21
Figure-24 ……………………………………………………………………………... 22
Figure-25 ……………………………………………………………………………... 24
Figure-26 ……………………………………………………………………………... 25
Figure-27 ……………………………………………………………………………... 26
Figure-28 ……………………………………………………………………………... 27
Figure-29 ……………………………………………………………………………... 27
Figure-30 ……………………………………………………………………………... 28
Figure-31 ……………………………………………………………………………... 29
Figure-32 ……………………………………………………………………………... 30
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Figure-33 ……………………………………………………………………………... 31
Figure-34 ……………………………………………………………………………... 33
Figure-35 ……………………………………………………………………………... 34
Figure-36 ……………………………………………………………………………... 35
Figure-37 ……………………………………………………………………………... 36
Figure-38 ……………………………………………………………………………... 37
Figure-39 ……………………………………………………………………………... 38
Figure-40 ……………………………………………………………………………... 39
Figure-41 ……………………………………………………………………………... 40
Figure-42 ……………………………………………………………………………... 40
Figure-43 ……………………………………………………………………………... 41
Figure-44 ……………………………………………………………………………... 42
Figure-45 ……………………………………………………………………………... 42
Figure-46 ……………………………………………………………………………... 42
Figure-47 ……………………………………………………………………………... 43
Figure-48 ……………………………………………………………………………... 44
Figure-49 ……………………………………………………………………………... 44
Figure-50 ……………………………………………………………………………... 45
Figure-51 ……………………………………………………………………………... 45
Figure-52 ……………………………………………………………………………... 45
Figure-53 ……………………………………………………………………………... 45
Figure-54 ……………………………………………………………………………... 45
Figure-55 ……………………………………………………………………………... 47
Figure-56 ……………………………………………………………………………... 48
Figure-57 ……………………………………………………………………………... 48
 ix

ACKNOWLDGEMENTS Chemist), and Mr.Abdul Wahid (Shift

Chemist). We also thanks Mr.Almas
A great many people have helped us in this
Arshad (Trainee Engineer), for his efforts
internship training. First of all we thanks
to complie this report. We thanks to
respected Mr.Tariq Mahmood (A.G.M.) for
Mr.Azhar Fazal (G.M.T), Mr.Tariq
giving us chance in Husein Sugar Mills
(A.G.M.) for providing us so valuable
(PVT) Ltd. for internship program.
environment, in which our practical growth
Engr.Sohail Akbar’s (P.M.)
occured. We are also thankful to
recommendations to this report have been
Mr.Gulzameer who have entertained us in
invaluable. We thank mechanical staff and
this sugar mill for our practical growth. We
electrical staff for giving us support during
are also thankful to Dr.Engr.Moin-ud-Din
maintenance work in the power house, in
Gahuri for providing us a such type of
the mill house; with mechanical and
opportunity in which our theoratical
electrical engineering point of views. In the
approach is integrated with practical
process house we got support from
knowledge; in order to grasp chemical
Mr.Shahzad (Chief Chemist), Mr.Kashif
engineering concepts in a more favorable
Imran (Senior Chemist), Mr.Nadeem Wali
and pratical way.
(Senior Chemist), Mr.Khizar Aziz (Shift
 x

VISION & MISSION STATEMENT OF INDUSTRY

Our Vision

 A leading producer of sugar and its by-products by providing the highest quality of
products and services to its customers.

 Lowest cost supplier with assured access to long-term supplies.

 Sustained growth in earning in real terms.

 Highly ethical company and the respected corporate citizen to continue playing the role
in the social and environmental sectors of the company.

 To develop an extremely motivated and professional trained work force, which would
drive growth through innovation and renovation.

 To strive for excellence through commitment, honest and team work.

Our Mission

Our mission is to be a dynamic, profitable and growth oriented company by providing

good return on investment to its shareholders and investors, quality products to its customers,
promote agriculture sector secured and friendly environment place of work to its employees
and present the company as a reliable partner to all sugarcane growth and other business
associates.
 xi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Husein sugar mill is located in the Jaranwala city which is the district of Faisalabad. It
is located on the jaranwala road lahore near lahore moor.

Husein Sugar Mills (PVT) Ltd. is one of the pioneers of the sugar industry in punjab.
Main product of company is white refined sugar. The working capacity of Husein Sugar Mills
is 5500 ~ 6000 tons crushing of cane per day. It has maximum capacity of 8500 tons crushing
of cane per day.

The organization believes in strict adherence to commitment, discipline and fair

business principles. The operation activities of the mill revolve on its departments.

There are different types of employees which are hired at need basis, some employees
are permanent who work for whole year and some are temporary (seasonal employees). Husein
sugar mill is giving different incentives or benefits to employees to improve the production.

The management is quite successful in providing a congenital and co-opperative

atmosphere to its employees. The organization provides all the basic facilities to the employees.

From the processing point of view the operation can be summarised in the following
way: Sugar cane is purchased from farmers and is supplied to the mill where it is weighed
conveyed, cutted, and shredded. The juice is then extracted from the shredded cane by milling
operation and the waste bagasse is used in the boilers as a fuel for the production of steam, in
order to meet industrial requirements. Additional bagasse is sailed to the paper and board
making industries. The steam produced is used to drive milling operation by turbines as well
as it is supplied to power house to generate electricity. This sugar mill generates so much
electricity that it can meet the energy requirements of the whole jaranwala city if it is provided
to them.

The extracted juice is then heated and clarified by different equipments to form
concentrated solution. The syrup is then decolorized by chemical treatment in order to produce
refined sugar by different operations.

Other by products are also of importance because they are utilized as the feed stock for
other process. Mud, which is the by product; is utilized to fertilizer field. While molasses are
supplied to ethyl alcohol production plant.
 xii

The final production of refined sugar is 3500 bags per shift. Where as shift is of 8 hours.
And each bag is of 50kg. So final production is of 525 tons/day.
 1

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is sugar?

Sucrose in common language is known as sugar (table sugar). Sucrose having chemical
formula 𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 is also known by its structural name (β-D-fructofuranosyl-α-D-
glucopyranoside). Its molecular weight is 342.3 g/gmole. It belongs to the family of
disaccharides composed of glucose and fructose joined by an α,β-glycosidic bond.[1]

1.2 Properties of Sucrose (Sugar)

1.2.1 Physical Properties of Sucrose

a) Its physical properties are shown in Table-1[1]

Property Value
Density, kg/m3 1587.9
Melting point, °C 160~186
Solubility in H2O at 20 °C, g/g 2
Specific Heat, J/gmole
Crystalline at 20°C 415.8
Amorphous at 22°C 90.2
Heat of solution, kJ/gmole 4.75±0.26
Enthalpy of crystallization at 30°C, 10.5
kJ/gmole

b) Relative sweetness of sucrose and other sweet substances are shown in Table-2[1]

Sweetener Relative Sweetness Sweetener Relative Sweetness

Fructose 1.2~1.8 Saccharin 250~550
 2

Sucrose 1.00 Aspartame 120~200

Glucose 0.60 Sucralose 550~750
Maltose ~0.5 Cyclamate 30~50
Lactose 0.15~0.3 Acesulfame K ~200
Galactose 0.32 Alitame 2000

1.2.2 Chemical Properties of Sucrose [1]

a) Oxidation of Sucrose

Sucrose can be oxidized by HNO3, KMnO4, and H2O2. Under selected

conditions using oxygen with palladium or platinum to form sucronic acid derivatives.

b) Hydrolysis of Sucrose

Sucrose can be enzymatically hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose by invertase.

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 (𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒) + 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 (𝐹𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒)

The reversal is called inversion and the resulting glucose-fructose mixture is called
invert.

Sugar is destroyed by Ph extremes, and inadequate Ph control can cause

significant sucrose losses in sugar mills.

c) Alkaline Degradation

At high Ph, sucrose is relatively stable; however, prolonged exposure to strong

alkali and heat converts sucrose to a mixture of organic acids (mainly lactate), ketones,
and cyclic condensation products. In aqueous solutions, sucrose is most stable at ~Ph
9.0.

d) Thermal Degradation

At high temperatures (160-180°C), sucrose decomposes with charring, emitting

an odor of caramel. Acid catalyzed thermolysis causes decomposition to glucose and
fructofuranosyl cation. The latter reacts with sucrose to form a complex mixture of
products, including fructoglucan and several ketoses. These substances are examples of
 3

fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and are known to promote the growth of beneficial

intestinal microorganisms.

1.3 Uses of Sucrose

a) Food Applications

Its principle contribution to food is sweetness. However it provides many other

functionalities, e.g. mouth feel and moisture retention. Cereals and backed goods are
the leading consumers of sucrose, followed closely by confectionary products. It is used
as a preservative in jam and jelly. It lowers the freezing point of ice cream and other
frozen desserts to improve product mouth feel and texture.[1]

b) Feedstock for Chemical Synthesis

Sucrose reacts with fatty acids to produce esters with degrees of esterification
(DE) from 1 to 8.[1]
c) Fermentation Feedstock
Sucrose, in the form of beet or cane molasses, is a fermentation feedstock for
production of a variety of organic compounds, including lactic, glutamic, and citric
acids, glycerol, and some antibiotics. Rum is made by fermentation of cane molasses.
Beet and cane molasses are used for production of baker’s and brewer’s yeast. A more
abundantly produced substance is ethanol for use in alcoholic beverages, and as a fuel,
solvent, and feedstock for organic synthesis.[1]
d) Pharmaceutical Applications
Sucralfate, an aluminum salt of sucrose octasulfate, is used as an antacid and
antiulcer medication. Bis- and tris-platinum complexes of sucrose show promise as an
anti-tumor agents. Sucrose monoesters are used in some pharmaceutical preparations.
A sucrose polyester is under evaluation as a contrast agent for magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI). Oral administration of this substance opacifies gastrointestinal tract
and eliminates the need for purging prior to MRI.[1]

1.4 Nutrition and Health Aspects of Sucrose

For many years, there has been concern by medical professionals and
nutritionists over the effects of dietary sugar on human health. Sucrose has been
 4

implicated as a cause of juvenile hyperactivity, tooth decay, diabetes mellitus, obesity,

atherosclerosis, hypoglycemia and nutrient deficiencies.
The sugar task force’s select committee on Nutrition and Human Needs
recommended a daily consumption of sugars at 10% of total calories.[1]
 5

CHAPTER-2 SUGAR MILL FEED SECTION SPECIFICATION AND DETAILS

2.1 Feed Section (Delivery, Unloading, Weighing & Handling of Cane)

Raw material (sugar cane) is imported and weighed on weight balance. Then it is
introduced onto the feeding table by elevating the trawler through jack.[2]

2.2 Feed table

There are four (4) Feed tables in the industry. The purpose of feed table is to transfer
the sugar cane on the cane carrier. Conveyer belts and impellers are mounted on the feed table.
They helps in transportation of cane from feed point to cane carrier.[2]

2.3 Cane Carrier

The Cane Carrier is a moving apron. Cane carrier is a type of conveyer belt which
carries cane from feed table and transport it towards leveler, cutters, leveler, magnetic
separator, shredder, mills, boilers, and finally to bagasse storage point.[2]

It consists majorly of two portion stated as following:

a) The horizontal portion

It is used for horizontal transportation of cane.
b) The inclined portion
It conveys cane horizontally as well as vertically simultaneously.
 6

Cane carrier is driven through electric motor. As this is essentially a constant-speed machine,
and the carrier speed must be frequently varied, the drive is effected by a variable speed
coupler.

2.4 Leveller

Leveller is a set of knives which evens out the layer of cane, so that other size reduction
operations can easily be performed. The leveler blades, which are coated with specific material
which are inert to cane juice, mounted on the shaft which rotates at a specific rpm. The shaft is
driven through electric motor. After passing through the leveler the cane would be at such a
level that can easily be handled in cutters without jamming it. There are two (2) levelers in the
sugar industry one is used before cutters and other one is used after cutters.[2]

2.5 Cutters

Cutters are used to cut the cane into small pieces. Three (3) cutters are installed over
the feed carrier. Two of the cutters are motor driven and third one is driven through steam
turbine. The knives are mounted on the shaft spindle. Different number of knives are used to
make the cutting more effective.[2]

Cutters Specification
Cutter No. Knives Drive Type
Cutter-1 72 Motor Driven
Cutter-2 84 Motor Driven
Cutter-3 96 Steam Turbine Driven
 7

Knives Types

2.6 Magnetic Separator

Magnetic separator is used to remove the iron particles or pieces which become the part
of cutted cane or other iron particles which are already present.

The commonest objects are: pieces of knife blades, sling hooks, broken pieces of slings,
monkey wrenches, horse shoes, bolts and nuts.

If iron pieces are not removed then they jam the mills and pressure feeder, and so it is
required to remove them before cane feeding to mills. Mills are very expensive due to the mill
rollers.[2]
 8

2.7 Shredder

The objective of shredder is to complete the preparation and disintegration of the cane,
so as to facilitate the extraction of juice by the mills. Shredder is a type of hammer mill which
is used to disintegrate the cane. It is driven by steam turbine imported from Germany.

Shredder Specifications
No. of Hammers 76
Weight of Each Hammer 22 kg
No. of Rods 8
No. of Disks 20

It receives the cane from the leveler, which is placed after the third cutter and sends it
to the milling house. The cane is hammered by the hammers mounted on the rod, which is
inserted into the disk holes. These hammers are mounted alternatively. These hammers
disintegrate the cane against a curved metal plate. After shredding this cane is passed to the
milling section by shredded cane elevator.[2]
 9

2.8 Shredded Cane Elevator

It is basically inclined cane carrier which transports shredded cane horizontally as well
as vertically simultaneously to the pressure feeder of mill 1. [2]

2.9 Turbines

It is a device which is used to convert the pressure energy of the superheated steam into
mechanical work. It is basically a type of prime mover. Its further details are given in power
house chapter.

In the feed section two turbines are used. One is used to drive cutter-3 and other one is
used to drive shredder. The turbine specifications are stated below:

Turbine Specifications
Turbine for Cutter-3 Turbine for Shredder
Power 650 kW Power 1800 kW
Inlet Steam Temperature 330°C Inlet Steam Temperature 330°C
Inlet Steam Pressure 22 kgf/cm2 Inlet Steam Pressure 22 kgf/cm2
Outlet Steam Pressure 1.15 kgf/cm2 Outlet Steam Pressure 1.15 kgf/cm2
No. of Rotations Produced 6500 rpm No. of Rotations Produced 5400 rpm
Steam Used 7 tons/hr Steam Used 12 tons/hr
 10

CHAPTER-3 MILL HOUSE

3.1 Block Flow Diagram

The feed handling and juice extraction steps are shown in the diagram below:

Block Flow Diagram [Feed Section + Milling House]

Cane
Weight Balance Feed Table Cane Carrier Leveller

Magnetic
Cutters (3) Leveller Shredder
Separator

H2O
Shredded Cane Mills (5) +
Bagasse Elevator
Elevator Elevators
Bagasse to Boiler House
Baga Cillo

Rotary Screen /
Extracted Juice
Stationary Screen +
Tank Mixed Juice Tank Juice to Process House

3.2 Mills

Mill is a machine which is used to extract the juice from shredded cane. It consist of
two major parts:

1- Pressure Feeder
2- Mill

Pressure feeder consists of three rolls stacked together to form a shape of triangle and
its lower roller is driven through steam turbine. Objective of pressure feeder is to feed the
shredded cane at high pressure to the mill inlet in order to facilitate the cane milling operation
for proper juice extraction and in order to avoid shredded cane back coming effect.

Mill itself also consists of three rolls for juice extraction. The rolls of a mill are stacked
together to form a triangle shape and its upper roller is driven through steam turbine. Objective
of a mill is to extract the juice from shredded cane.

In reality pressure feeder and mill both are integrated to each other in order to form a
six roll stack for easier cane handling. There are five mills are used in series, each mill have a
pressure feeder associated with it. About 80% juice is extracted in mill-1. Feed to each pressure
 11

feeder is introduced by inclined cane carrier. So every mill’s pressure feeder has an inclined
cane carrier associated with it and it precedes to mill. [2]

Mills Specifications
Mill Inlet Clearance Outlet Clearance No. of Rotations
Mill-1 60 mm 30 mm 5 ~ 6.7 rpm
Mill-2 50 mm 25 mm 5 ~ 6.7 rpm
Mill-3 40 mm 20 mm 5 ~ 6.7 rpm
Mill-4 30 mm 15 mm 5 ~ 6.7 rpm
Mill-5 20 mm 10 mm 5 ~ 6.7 rpm

Mill Rollers
 12

3.2.1 Mills Configuration

3.2.2 Trash Plate

Trash plate is a plate with teethes on both sides and it is used among mill rollers. It
fulfills two basic functions:

1- It provides a tight fitting between rollers which improves the crushing and so juice
recovery is improved.
2- Its teeth clarify the space between roller disks to some extant which prevent mill
choking. [2]

Trash Plate Specifications

No of Teethes 40, 50, or 60 mm
Length 1700 mm

3.2.3 Characteristics of a Mill

1- It possess a surface especially constructed to permit it to grip the cane or pieces of

cane which are fed to it, in the best possible conditions.
 13

2- This surface must at the same time be designed in such a way as to break, tear up,
and crush the cane, in order to permit the mills to get to work immediately and
effectively on the broken up material, which is already of the nature of bagasse
rather than cane.[2]
3.3 Imbibition
Even when bagasse is subjected to high and repeated pressures, it never gives up all the
juice which it contains. It approaches to a minimum moisture in the most favorable cases: that
is, it retains a high proportion of juice, amounting roughly to half its weight.
In order to extract as much as possible of the sugar which it retains, it is therefore
necessary to move to some mechanism of more juice removal known as imbibition. Since this
moisture content cannot be reduced, the effort will be made to replace by water the juice
comprising it. In this process the bagasse is sprayed with water, this water spreads in the
bagasse and dilutes the juice which it contains. The next mill will then recover bagasse at
limiting moisture. But this moisture will consist, no longer of absolute juice, but of diluted
juice. Hence sugar will have been extracted; and the operation may be repeated. [2]
3.4 Bagasse Elevator
Bagasse elevator is a type of inclined carrier which transports the bagasse from last mill
outlet to all boilers inlet as well as towards the additional bagasse storage point. [2]

3.5 Stationary Screen and Rotary Screen

It is a stationary screen filter/rotary screen filter used for the separation of suspended
bagasse particles from extracted juice. Rotary screen size is 0.5 ~ 0.7 mm.

Note: Only one filter operates at a time.[2]

3.6 Mixed Juice Tank

It is a tank which stores extracted juice for further processing in process house.
 14

3.7 Juice Supply Configuration to Process House

Extracted
Juice
Tank

Rotary Sceen
DSM Juice to P rocess Hous e
Juice from Mills

Mixed Juice Tank

 15

CHAPTER-4 MILL DRIVE BY STEAM TURBINE

4.1 Steam Turbine

Mills are driven by steam turbines. There are five mills in the industry so there are five
steam turbines installed for each mill. A figure of a typical steam turbine is shown below:

Turbine Specifications
Turbine Steam Power Inlet T Inlet P Outlet P No. of
Used Rotations
Turbine-1 of 10 tons/hr 850 kW 330°C 22 1.15 7500 rpm
Mill-1 kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2
Turbine-2 of 9 tons/hr 850 kW 330°C 22 1.15 3200 rpm
Mill-2 kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2
Turbine-3 of 10 tons/hr 850 kW 330°C 22 1.15 1200 rpm
Mill-3 kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2
Turbine-4 of 9 tons/hr 850 kW 330°C 22 1.15 3200 rpm
Mill-4 kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2
Turbine-5 of 9 tons/hr 850 kW 330°C 22 1.15 3200 rpm
Mill-5 kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2

4.2 Gears

From turbine specification table it is clear that each turbine operates at very high rpm
and the requirement for milling is 5 to 6.7 rpm so turbine rpm should have to be reduced in
 16

order to meet the requirements of mills. For this purpose large size reduction gears are used. In
order to reduce so high rpm to very low rpm very large size single gear is required. If so large
size reduction gear is used then its installation and maintenance requires so much effort that
difficulties will arise during these tasks. Second option of rpm reduction is used practically in
the sugar mill which is that rpm are reduced in a stage wise operation by using many different
sizes gears. The rpm of turbine is reduced up to 5 rpm in stage wise speed reduction operation.
This rpm reduction operation is of mechanical concern so more details are eliminated for the
sake of convenience.[2]

A typical stage wise rpm reduction gear assembly is shown in the figure below:
 17

CHAPTER-5 BOILER HOUSE

5.1 Boiler Feed Water Treatment

It is necessary to treat boiler feed water to remove scale forming ions for proper boiler
operation. Ca2+ and Mg2+ are scale forming ions. Many process have been developed for this
purpose but most economical is the ion exchange process. After water treatment its hardness is
removed and soft water can be used for boiler feed and for other purposes where ever it is
required. [3]
5.1.1 Ion Exchange Process (A special type of Adsorption)
Ion exchangers exchange one ion for another, hold it temporarily, and then
release it to a regenerant solution.
In an ion exchange system, undesirable ions in the water supply are replaced with more
acceptable ions. Ionizable groups attached to the resin bed determine functional capability of
the resin. Industrial water treatment resins are classified into four basic categories:
1- Strong Acid Cation (SAC)
2- Weak Acid Cation (WAC)
3- Strong Base Anion (SBA)
4- Weak Base Anion (WBA)

SAC resins can neutralize strong bases and convert neutral salts into their
corresponding acids. SBA resins can neutralize strong acids and convert neutral salts into their
corresponding bases. These resins are used in most softening and full demineralization
applications. WAC and WBA resins are able to neutralize strong bases and acids, respectively.
These resins are used in dealkalization, partial demineralization, or (in combination with strong
resins) full demineralization. [3]

5.1.2 Sodium Zeolite Softening

Sodium zeolite softening is the most widely applied use of ion exchange. In
zeolite softening, water containing scale-forming ions, such as Ca2+ and Mg2+, passes
through a resin bed containing SAC resin in the sodium form. In the resin, the hardness ions
are exchanged with the sodium, and the sodium diffuses into the bulk water solution. The
hardness-free water, termed soft water, can then be used for low to medium pressure boiler
feed water, reverse osmosis system makeup, some chemical processes, and commercial
 18

applications, such as laundries. The resin is then regenerated with sodium chloride (NaCl) brine
solution in a zeolite softener. [3]
5.1.3 Zeolites
Zeolites are micro porous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as
commercial adsorbents and catalysts. Zeolites occur naturally but are also produced industrially
on a large scale. [4]

5.1.4 Boiler Feed Water Specifications

Boiler feed water should have to meet following specifications in order to minimize
scaling and to maximize efficiency.
Property Value
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) 1400 ~ 1700 ppm
Hardness 0%
pH 8.5 ~ 10

5.2 Boiler
Boiler is an equipment which is used to convert water into steam.
5.2.1 Types of Boilers
There are two main types of boilers:
1- Water Tube Boiler
A water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes
heated externally by the fire.
2- Fire Tube Boiler
A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire, pass
through tubes running through a sealed container of water.
 19

In Husein Sugar Mill there are three water tube boilers are installed to generate steam
from water at different capacities. So further discussion will be related to water tube
boiler only. [4]

5.3 Water Tube Boiler

According to configuration there are three types of water tube boiler:

1- A-Type
2- O-Type
3- D-Type (It is used in the sugar mill)

A water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally
by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gases which heats water in the steam-
generating tubes. In the industry there are three water tube D-type boilers are working with the
following specifications: [4]

Boilers Specifications
Boiler Capacit Furnace Inlet Inlet Outlet Outlet Furnace Outlet
y Area Water T Water P Steam T Steam P T Flue
gases T
Boiler-1 35 16ft by 95°C 38 360°C 24 kgf/cm2 1100 ~ 180°C
tons/hr 17ft kgf/cm2 1200 °C
Boiler-2 40 16ft by 95°C 38 360°C 24 kgf/cm2 1100 ~ 180°C
tons/hr 16ft kgf/cm2 1200 °C
Boiler-3 80 18ft by 95°C 38 360°C 24 kgf/cm2 1100 ~ 180°C
tons/hr 22ft kgf/cm2 1200 °C
 20

Furnace material is cast iron. Furnace inside layer is made of refractory bricks, middle
is of insulating bricks and outer is of cast iron. Furnace tube material is Mild Steel (M.S.).
Tubes are of M.S. No. A192/A520 ASME (American Standard for Mechanical Engineers).

Bagasse is used as a fuel for boiler furnaces. Bagasse having 52% moisture is burned.
Bagasse is the final solid product of mill section. Bagasse from the last mill is sent to the boilers
by bagasse elevator. Air is supplied to furnace by Forced Draft Fan, Secondary Fan, and
Induced Draft Fan. The furnace is operated under negative draft. To produce negative draft
Speed Ratio of (F.D. Fan) : (I.D. Fan) is kept to 1:1.2 ~ 1.5. A steam super heater is integrated
with boiler and in this saturated steam is converted to superheated steam by exchanging heat
with flue gases. An air pre-heater is also integrated with boiler. Flue gases enter the air pre-
heater at 250°C and leave at 180°C. 2 tons of steam is produced per ton of bagasse combusted.
 21

5.4 Configuration of Boilers

Extra Bagasse to Storage

Air

Water Steam
Boiler-3 Steam to Power House
Water Showering
Ash Flue Gases

Air
Power House
Water Steam Steam Steam
Boiler-2 Desuperheater
Flue Gases
Header Steam to
Process House
Ash Milling House
Air

Water Steam Steam to Milling House

Boiler-1
Ash Flue Gases

Bagasse from Mill House

Steam from all three boilers combine in the steam header at 360°C temperature and 24
kgf/cm2 pressure, and then this steam is transferred to milling house, feed section, and power
house to run turbines. When steam reaches the milling house and power house its temperature
becomes 325 ~ 330°C due to heat losses to environment. While the pressure of the steam
reduces to 22 kgf/cm2 due to pressure drop in pipes and valves. After steam turbines its
temperature becomes near about 180°C and then it goes to steam desuperheater, where its
temperature is reduced to 125°C which is the requirement of process house.
 22

CHAPTER-6 POWER HOUSE

6.1 Turbines (Expanders)

Turbine is a device which converts internal energy of the fluid to mechanical work.

There are two fundamental types of turbine:

1- Hydraulic Turbine (Turbine driven by incompressible fluid)

a) Water Turbine (Turbine driven by water)
2- Pneumatic Turbine (Turbine driven by compressible fluid)
a) Steam Turbine (Turbine driven by superheated steam)
b) Gas Turbine (Turbine driven by any other dry gas)
In industrial power house steam turbine is used, so major focus of attention will
be steam turbine.
6.2 Steam Turbine
Steam turbine is a device which converts pressure energy of the superheated steam into
useful work.
Note: It is only a prime mover like as an electric motor.

6.2.1 Way of Working:

The expansion of a gas in a nozzle to produce a high velocity stream is a process which
converts internal energy into kinetic energy, which in turn is converted into shaft work
when the stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating shaft. Thus a turbine (or expander)
consists of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating blades through which vapor or gas flows in a
steady state expansion process. The overall result is the conversion of internal energy of a high
pressure stream into shaft work. When steam provides the motive force as in a power plant the
device is called a turbine; when it is a high pressure gas, such as ammonia or ethylene in a
chemical or petrochemical plant, the device is called an expander. [5]
 23

Turbine consists of a casing in which a turbine router is fitted in such a way that it can
rotate about its axis of rotation. Turbine router has blades on its surface. Superheated steam is
introduced from the inlet pipe line at high pressure and temperature which strikes the router
blades and imparts its pressure energy to it. This pressure energy rotates the turbine router
which generated shaft work.

The shaft work produced by the turbine router is then used to rotate shaft of any
equipment. Turbine’s other rotational parts have oil assembly which decreases friction in order
to improve the efficiency. The oil by circulating continuously inside the equipment got heated
during operation. So, an oil cooling mechanism is required. With the turbine a shell & tube
heat exchanger is used as cooler, for cooling the hot oil; with water as coolant in the shell side.

There are four turbines used in power house. One of them is made by Peter Brother
Hood Company (England), which generates 4MW of work power, and remaining are imported
from Czechoslovakia and each generate 1.25MW work power.

Turbines Specifications
Turbines Steam Power Inlet Inlet P Outlet Outlet P No. of No. of
Used T T Rotations Rotations
before after
reduction reduction
Turbine-1 33 4 330°C 22 180°C 1.15 9067 1500
Peter tons/hr MW kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 rpm rpm
Brotherhood
Turbine-2 11 1.25 330°C 22 130°C 1.15 7500 1500
tons/hr MW kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 rpm rpm
Turbine-3 11 1.25 330°C 22 130°C 1.15 7500 1500
tons/hr MW kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 rpm rpm
Turbine-4 11 1.25 330°C 22 130°C 1.15 7500 1500
tons/hr MW kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 rpm rpm
 24

6.3 Types of Blades

6.4 Defects of Steam Turbine

In the steam turbine defects arise when saturated steam is used instead of superheated
steam. As from the knowledge it is clear that saturated steam have water droplets in it. When
saturated steam is used in the turbine, its water droplets causes pitting to turbine blades. This
pitting phenomenon is the process, in which very small liquid particles at high pressure and
temperature strikes to a surface, causes its momentum transfer to it in such a way that; this
momentum transfer is only to certain points of the blades, instead of even momentum transfer
to turbine blades, so the turbine blades got damage from improper momentum distribution on
blades. In order to save blades and other turbine inside parts from this type of mechanical
damages, it is strongly recommended that superheated steam is used instead of saturated steam.

6.5 Calculation of Shaft Work Produced by Turbine [5]

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐻2 − 𝐻1 )

𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = (∆𝐻)𝑠

𝑊𝑠 (∆𝐻)
𝜂(𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦) = =
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) (∆𝐻)𝑠

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑊)

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ( )
𝑠
𝑘𝐽
𝐻1 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 ( )
𝑘𝑔
 25

𝑘𝐽
𝐻2 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡( )
𝑘𝑔
6.6 Electric Generator

Electric generator is a device which is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

6.6.1 Working Principal

It produces electricity by electromagnetic induction.

Four generators are used to produce electricity in power house.

Electric Generators Specifications

Generator Output Voltages Produced
Generator-1 11000 Volts
Generator-2 440 Volts
Generator-3 440 Volts
Generator-4 440 Volts
Step down transformers are used to reduce 11000 V to 440 V.

Generators are derived by steam turbine like shown in figure below:

Synchronization

In an alternating current electric deliver power to an electrical grid unless it

power system, synchronization is the is running at the same frequency as the
process of matching the speed and network. If two segments of a grid are
frequency of a generator or other source to disconnected, they cannot exchange AC
a running network. An AC generator cannot
 26

power again until they are brought back

into exact synchronization.

In the power house of the sugar mill,

synchronization is used to match the
frequency of 50 Hz of electricity which is
produced by four generators.[4]
 27

CHAPTER-7 PROCESS HOUSE

7.1 Vapor Line Juice Heaters

After juice accumulator tank, juice

comes to the tubes of vapor line juice heater
and where it is heated. Vapor line juice
heater is the shell and tube heat exchanger
in which heating media is vapors which are
generated by multiple effect evaporators.
Vapor flows in shell side. There are two
vapor line juice heaters are installed in the
industry. Only one of them is operated in
season.

Specifications
Inlet Juice Temperature 25°C
Outlet Juice 35 ~ 40°C
Temperature
Heating Surface Area 400 m2,400 m2
7.2 Primary Heaters

After passing through the vapor line juice heater, the juice goes to the primary heaters.
Primary heaters are actually shell and tube heat exchangers. Vapors from the multiple effect
evaporator are the heating media used in the shell side. Juice from vapor line juice heater is
fed to the tube side of the primary heaters. There are five primary heaters are installed in the
industry. Only two heaters operate during production.

Specifications
Inlet Juice Temperature 35 ~ 40°C
Outlet Juice 72°C
Temperature
Heating Surface Area 160 ~ 400 m2
pH of Juice 4.5 ~ 5.5
28
 29

7.3 Defecation

Lime (CaO) has remained the universal basic defecant from the beginning. The
treatment of juice with lime is called defecation. [2]

Defecation is carried out in order to raise the Ph value of the juice. It is necessary to
raise the Ph value because at low Ph and high temperature juice decomposes which causes
sucrose losses and it is not feasible for industry. Inversion losses can also take place.

In the industry there are three tanks used in which this operation is carried out. First and
last tank acts as holding tanks while in the second tank milk of lime Ca(OH)2 is added to carry
out the defecation process.

1st Defecation Tank:

In the 1st Defecation Tank there is only mixing by stirrer to make the mixture
homogeneous.

2nd Defecation Tank:

In the 2nd Defecation Tank, milk of lime is added to the mixed juice to increase the Ph
from 4.5 ~ 5.5 to 6.8 ~ 7.2

3rd Defecation Tank:

In the 3rd Defecation Tank, holding time is given as retention time in the vessel to
maintain the Ph value at specified point.

7.4 Retention Tanks

After defecation tank, juice enters into retention tank where two other streams also
enters. One of them comes from entrainment separator (Liquid) while other one is scum from
 30

talo clarifier.

7.5 Secondary Heaters

After passing through the retention tanks, the juice goes to the secondary heaters.
Secondary heaters are shell and tube heat exchangers. Juice from retention tanks is fed to the
tube side of the secondary heaters. Vapors from the multiple effect evaporator are the heating
media used in the shell side. There are four secondary heaters are installed in the industry. Only
two heaters operate during production.

Specifications
Inlet Juice Temperature 70°C
Outlet Juice 105°C
Temperature
Heating Surface Area 280 ~ 350 m2
7.6 Flash Tank

After secondary heater the hot juice goes to the flash tank. The main purpose of flash
tank is to remove the water vapors (Partial Vaporization) from the hot juice. For this purpose
the hot juice is introduced into the flash vessel by a diffuser onto the flat plate, where its
pressure is sudden decreased which causes partial vaporization. Removal of vapors prior to
clarification (sedimentation) is necessary otherwise mud rising phenomenon will take place in
the clarification vessel, which causes deficiency in the clarification operation. [4]
 31

When the juice is introduced into the flash vessel by diffuser, then pressure reduction causes
partial vaporization of the juice and vapors are produced. These vapors contain some juice
particles in it. In order to recover these juice particle de-entrainment mesh pad is used some
times in the top of the flash vessel. The liquid juice droplets in the vapors strikes the pad and
return to liquid stream back, while remaining vapors are escaped from the vessel. The total
capacity of the flash tank used in the industry is 31m3.

7.7 Distributor

After flash tank, the hot juice goes to the distributor vessel. The main purpose of
distributor is to distribute the juice in the each clarifier by four different ways. The advantage
of the distributer is to avoid channeling in the clarifier.

7.8 Clarifier (Sedimentation)

The main purpose of the clarifier is to clarify the juice by removing impurities in the
form of mud.

Hot juice enters into the clarifier by four paths that combines in the feed launder. Then
after the filling of the feed launder it falls inside the channel to deplection plate. The purpose
of the deplection plate is to minimize the splashing effect which causes mud disturbance.
Splashing causes to break the mud cake at the bottom of the clarifier due to this mud
disturbance it may come in the juice again and so clarification will not give clarified juice, so
we have to prevent splashing by deplection plate. Impurities are converted into mud by the
addition of a suitable polyelectrolyte. This polyelectrolyte having high molecular weight
attaches impurities with it and form strong bond with them which causes the formation of mud.
This mud having high density starts to fall under the action of gravity to the bottom of the
clarifier which is known as sedimentation, and this is the basic concept which governs this type
of clarification. The polyelectrolyte in the form of solution is supplied to four juice supply
 32

distribution drums, where it is mixed in a certain proportion with hot juice feed which goes
into feed launder. This polyelectrolyte solution in water is made prior to clarification in a vessel
by simple mixing effect. The level of juice raises in the clarification tank and reaches to the
inside and outside launders. Juice enters into these two launders and then with the help of their
separate outlet pipes combine into a compartment of the outlet supply drum. It attains a level
in the compartment and then enters into the second compartment of the outlet supply drum
from which it is supplied to the DSM screens. There are three DSM screens used in the industry
with 0.35mm screen size. The juice is then sent to juice pre heater where its temperature is
increased to 110°C ~ 115°C. The mud is removed from the bottom of the clarifier tank with
the help of the scraper and is sent to the Mud mixer.

There are two clarifiers used in the sugar mill. In first clarifier the deplection plate has
conical upper surface. The height and diameter of first clarifier are 6m and 9.15m respectively.
Second clarifier is of SRI type. In the second clarifier the upper surface of deplection plate is
flat. And in the second clarifier mud scraper also translate itself for better mud removal. The
length and diameter of second clarifier are 3m and 8m respectively. Only one clarifier operates
in the season during production. The temperature inside the clarification tank is kept to 105°C.

7.9 Mud Mixer

Mud from the clarifier goes into the Mud Mixer. The main purpose of mud mixer is to
form the thick (viscous) mud, by adding the milk of lime, polyelectrolyte, and bagacillo into it.
Addition of bagacillo to the mud, is necessary, otherwise vacuum filter will not furnish a
satisfactory filtration. It is estimated that 3-6 kg bagacillo per ton cane should be introduced.
Usually 8 and 12 mesh screens are used to obtain bagacillo from mill house. Capacity of mud
mixer is 7m3.

7.10 Rotary Vacuum Filter

After the mud mixer the thick mud goes into the vacuum filter. In vacuum filter the
juice is extracted from the mud by suction with the help of vacuum pump. The suction divider
plate is used in suction head. There are two vacuum zones in the vacuum filter. The first one is
high vacuum zone and second is low vacuum zone. In high vacuum zone the vacuum is of 18
to 20 in of Hg due to more number of visible tubes and in low vacuum zone the vacuum is of
8 to 10 in of Hg due to the less number of visible tubes. In no vacuum zone the mud scrapping
by scrapper from the rotating drum will be more. Mud is scrapped from the drum and with the
 33

help of chute and conveyor it is conveyed to the mud disposal hopper. Mud is used as a fertilizer
in the fields. The suction product goes into the vacuum receiver tanks. From vacuum receiver
tanks liquid portion goes to clear cloudy juice tanks, and then it is recycled to defecation tank.
In the vacuum receiver tank some juice vapors are present due to suction effect.

From the vacuum receiver tank the juice vapor portion is supplied to entrainment
separator. In the entrainment separator juice droplets will separate from vapors portion. The
liquid portion goes to the retention tank, while the vapor portion will condense during passing
through cascade condenser. There are four vacuum filters are installed in the industry. 1 ton/hr
crushing requires 0.45m2 area of filtration. Filtering area of each vacuum filter is 56m2.

7.11 Evaporators

Evaporator is an equipment that is used to concentrate the solution by evaporating the

solvent (water).

There are two types of evaporators are used in the industry. Which are following:

1- Falling Film Evaporator (FFE)

2- Multiple Effect Evaporator (MEE)

7.12 Falling Film Evaporator

These are, like long vertical columns. It is a special type of shell and tube heat
exchanger. The process fluid to be evaporated, flows downward from the FFE top side by
gravity as a continuous film through tubes. The fluid creates a film along the tube walls,
progressing downwards (falling). The fluid distributor has to be designed carefully in order to
maintain an even liquid distribution for all tubes along which the solution falls. Heating
medium is placed on the outside of the tubes so it acts like a shell and tube heat exchanger.
Condensing steam is used as a heating medium which flows in the shell side.
 34

Steam consumption is lower in the falling film evaporator than a simple cylindrical
evaporator, because the juice flows in the form of film. In this way the heat transfer coefficient
is enhanced, so more evaporation occurs hence the load on the boiler is decreased. So it is an
energy efficient evaporator. [4]

7.13 Multiple Effect Evaporator

It is also a type of shell and tube heat exchanger. In this evaporator vapors or steam
which is used for first effect as a heating media will condense and the vapors produced by
evaporation of solution will be used in next effect as heating media, while the same solution is
evaporated in multiple effects. This Process repeats in the remaining effects. Such type of ten
effects are installed in the industry while five of them works for the produced capacity. [6]

There is a gap between the half bundles of tubes which is known as central well. The
width of the central well is ¼ times of the diameter of the evaporator. Juice enters from the
bottom of calandria and after heat exchange it comes back from central well. Water present in
the juice is evaporated and collected from the top and is further utilized as heating media to the
next evaporator. Concentrated juice is collected from the bottom and it is sent to the next body.
Juice discharges as concentrated juice termed as syrup is collected from last body (evaporator).
 35

Juice enters the FFE from juice preheater at 110°C ~ 115°C, and after passing through
FFE it enters into MEE which increase the Brix and converts juice to syrup. There are two
FFE’s are installed in the industry, one of them is in working condition. There are ten
evaporators other than FFE’s. These evaporators are used in multi effect. No of effects required
depends upon the required heat transfer area. In usual production, five effects are used in order
to get the required evaporation. At the entrance of 1st effect brix is 15, while at the outlet of 5th
effect brix is 65.

Precautions:

i. Shut down condition: In shut down condition the water should circulate in the
evaporator tubes. Otherwise the tubes would collapse and the tubes are the heart of
the evaporator. So it should be handled carefully.

ii. Scale formation: This is the salting out of materials. The salted out materials are
deposited on the walls of heating tubes. This causes clogging of tubes and thus
reduce the heat transfer coefficient. Then sodium hydroxide is circulated during
heat exchanger cleaning to remove the scaling.

iii. Corrosion: Many solutions attack ferrous metals thus causing damage to
evaporators and contamination of products. It is therefore important to use
evaporators whose material of construction is compatible with the solution being
evaporated.

Evaporator Heating Surface Area

(m2)

F.F.E. 1 3500
 36

F.F.E. 2 3500

Evaporator 1 3000

Evaporator 2 1800

Evaporator 3 2450

Evaporator 4 880

Evaporator 5 500

Evaporator 6 1250

Evaporator 7 900

Evaporator 8 900

Evaporator 9 500

Evaporator 10 500

7.14 Calculation of Amount of Vapors Generated

Amount of vapors generated in these multiple effect evaporators is given by the

following formula:

𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑥𝑖𝑛
𝐸 = (1 − )𝑚
𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓

E = Mass of water evaporated

Brix in = Brix into the evaporator

Brix out = Brix out of the evaporator

m f = Mass flow rate of juice at inlet

7.15 Syrup Tank

After multiple effect evaporators the syrup goes to the syrup tank through pump. The
main purpose of the syrup tank is to store the syrup and to give some residence time to the
syrup to become homogeneous.

7.16 Batch Pans

Batch pan is an equipment in which syrup concentration is increased by heating it under

vacuum. By increasing temperature vacuum decreases, while by decreasing temperature
 37

vacuum increases.

The syrup is sent to A-Batch Pan (No.4 or 5). A1-Molasses and B-Sugar is added into
it which improves the rate of nucleation. In the pan the mixture is boiled through vapors under
vacuum. In the similar way A-Heavy after dilution is sent to the B-Batch pan where it is mixed
with c-seed and the mixture is heated with vapors under vacuum. B-Heavy after dilution is sent
to the C-Batch pan where it is mixed with c-light and the mixture is heated with vapors under
vacuum. Vacuum of 25 ~ 26 in of Hg is created. Vapors from 2nd effect are used for heating
purposes.
38
 39

NOTE: The process is clearly shown in the block flow diagram and it is self-explanatory so
only general details are explained.

7.17 Continuous Pans

Continuous pans are used in which further syrup vaporization is achieved by heating
with vapors under vacuum.

Syrups after batch pans are sent to their corresponding continuous pans for further
vaporization.

7.18 Crystallizers

There are two main types of crystallizers:

1- Horizontal crystallizer
2- Vertical crystallizer

7.19 Horizontal Crystallizer

The crystallizer, horizontal in shape with open top side is called horizontal crystallizer.
The crystallization process consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth.

Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules dispersed in the solvent start to gather
into clusters that become stable under the current operating conditions.
 40

The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the
critical cluster size. Nucleation and growth continue to occur simultaneously while the
supersaturation exists. Supersaturation is the driving force of the crystallization hence the rate
of nucleation and growth is driven by the existing supersaturation in the solution.

There are 12 horizontal open crystallizers in the process house.

Crystallizers Used for

Crystallizer 1 Refine sugar

Crystallizer 2 Refine sugar

Crystallizer 3 Refine sugar

Crystallizer 4 A-1 sugar

Crystallizer 5 A-grain

Crystallizer 6 A-massecuite

Crystallizer 7 A/B-massecuite

Crystallizer 8 B-massecuite

Crystallizer 9 B-grain

Crystallizer 10 B-massecuite

Crystallizer 11 C- massecuite

Crystallizer 12 C-grain

7.20 Vertical Crystallizer

Vertical crystallizer is used in cane sugar industry for efficient sugar crystallization
from low-purity crystal suspensions.
 41

There are four vertical crystallizers used in the industry. First crystallizer is used for
crystallizing the B-massecuites and the remaining three are used for crystallizing C-
massecuites. The brix achieved is nearly 98°. The temperature is decreased to 40ᴼC.

Vertical Massecuite No. of Volume Capacity (kg) Brix out

Crystallizer Coils (m3) (volume*density)

Crystallizer 1 B-massecuite 18 175 262 98ᴼ

Crystallizer 2 C-massecuite 18 175 262 101ᴼ

Crystallizer 3 C-massecuite 18 175 262 101ᴼ

Crystallizer 4 C-massecuite 18 175 262 101ᴼ

Vertical cooling crystallizer concept is based on a vertical unit with cooling tube
bundles. The aim is to remove as much sucrose as possible from the mother liquor by
continuing the crystallization of crystals that have already formed.

Benefits and features: [2]

 Easy operation also with highly viscous massecuites

 Vertical design requires only little floor space, outdoor installation is possible (no
building costs).

Shape of Sugar Crystal (Sucrose)

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7.21 Pug Mills

After crystallizers their respective massecuites are sent to the respective pug mills.
The main purpose of pug mill is to prevent the massecuite from solidifying by the mixing
process, through rotating shaft on which the rods are fixed.

7.22 Centrifugal Separators (Machines)

They separate the phases by filtration using centrifugation process. The walls of the
centrifuge basket are porous, and the liquid filters through the deposited cake of solids and is
removed. After pug mill massecuites are sent to centrifugal machines for separation of crystals
from mother liquor.

7.23 Remelter

After A-centrifuge, A-sugar is sent to the remelter and wasted sugar is also added in the
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remelter. This remelter melts both sugars and makes a homogeneous mixture. This mixture is
sent to the buffer tank.

7.24 Buffer Tank

The main purpose of the buffer tank is to give the residence time to make the mixture
homogeneous. The entering temperature to the buffer tank is 70°C.

7.25 Baby Heater

After buffer tank the mixture goes to the baby heater. The main purpose of the heater
is to heat up the mixture. The entering temperature of the mixture is 68°C and the outer
temperature is approximately 80 to 85°C.

7.26 Talo Clarifier

The fundamental operation in this clarifier is the separation of scum from liquor by
froth floatation method with the addition of additive chemicals.

Additives:

1- Talo Float (Used to decrease the density of scum in order to start floatation)
2- Talo Floc (Used to clarify the juice)
3- Phosphoric Acid (Used to maintain the pH level)
4- Lime Sucrate (Fine Liquor + Milk of Lime + Hot water) (Used to maintain the pH
level)
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Temperature Condition: 80 ~ 85°C, pH Condition: 6.4 ~ 6.5

7.27 Sugar Grader

Sugar grader is used to separate the different sizes sugar crystals for market and
industrial operation demands. Particle Size of Sugar grain 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 mesh is produced as
per market requirement.

7.28 Dryer

Drier is used to dry the final product sugar crystals with the help of steam.

7.29 Hopper

Hopper is used to supply the final sugar to packaging section.

7.30 Packaging

After hopper sugar is packed into 50 kg bags. Manual packaging is used and it is closed
by sewing machine. In 8 hr shift 3500 bags are produced.
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7.31 Brix and Purity Data

Material Brix Purity

%
Clear J 15 80
Syrup 64 81
A-Grain 94 87
A-Mass 95 84
A-Heavy 82 65
A-Sugar 97 97
B-Heavy 90 45
B-Light 75 90
B-Grain 93 72
B-Mass 98 68
B-Sugar 98 96
B-Seed 96 96
C-Grain 80 72
C-Mass 101 51
C-Light 81 65
C-Sugar 98 81
C-Seed 95 94
Fine 65 97
Liquor
A1-Mass 91 92
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CHAPTER-8 CHEMICAL LABORATORY

In chemical laboratory there are two major tests that often performed three times in a shift
(8 hours period).

1- Brix Test
2- Bagasse Test

8.1 Brix Test

This test is performed by the instrument known as hydrometer. A hydrometer is an

instrument used to measure the specific gravity of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of
the liquid to the density of water.

A hydrometer is made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted
with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. To get the reading from the hydrometer
following steps are performed.

1. Fill the glass cylinder with sample.

2. Put the hydrometer with the bulb end down. It will bob up and down in the sample.
Note that; the sample may overflow from the cylinder.
3. Assure that the hydrometer is not in contact with the sides of the cylinder and take
the reading.
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8.2 Bagasse Test

Pol in the bagasse is tested by polarimeter, after the extraction of pol by pol extractor.

a- Pol Extractor

The pol extractor is a mixer developed for the quick determination of pol% in cane and
mill bagasse and fiber% in the cane and bagasse. Cold water is used for the extraction of pol
and for the determination of fiber, hence the method is called as cold water dissection method.
For finding pol in cane or bagasse a weighed quantity of the sample along with the
predetermined quantity of water is mixed in the vessel for a set time. The homogeneous liquid
thus formed is filtered by adding lead sub acetate in it and it is polarized for the pol reading.

b- Polarimeter

The polarimeter is an instrument used for determining the optical rotation of substances.
In this way, the concentration, content and purity of certain substances can be found. Therefore,
the polarimeter has become one of the most useful Instruments in laboratories of sugar industry.
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SWOT ANALYSIS OF HUSSEIN SUGAR MILLS LIMITED

 STRENGTHS
 Husein Sugar Mills has hardworking, cooperative and trained staff. As well as
very friendly environment.
 The turnover ratio is very low because it is offering best packages to its
employees.
 ISO certified
 The HR department is working for the increasing communication and
computer skills of lower staff.
 Ease of access to the top management.

 WEAKNESS
 No integrated control system to control the plant.
 The packaging is manually controlled causing more men power.
 Operation of plant below its capacity due to low demand

 OPPORTUNITY
 The demand of sugar is increasing with the passage of time therefore the
importance of this sugar plant has much increased.
 Generation of electricity from bagasse (waste) for use in process.

 THREATS
 Availability of raw material (cane) only in three months in year
 Due to political and safety condition of Pakistan, there are security threads to
Husein Sugar Mills.
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REFERENCES

1. Kirk Othmer, “Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology”, Vol.23, Ed.4th.

2. E.Hugot, “Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering”, Ed.3rd.
3. Kirk Othmer, “Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology”, Vol.25, Ed.4th.
4. Wikipedia a free Encyclopedia
5. J.M.Smith, “Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics”, Ed.7th.
6. Coulson & Richardson’s, “Chemical Engineering”, Volume-2.