Data Communication – Spring’17

1)a) What do you mean by data rate and signal rate? An analog signal
has a bit rate of 16 kbps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many
data element are carried by each signal element? How many signal
element do we need?

Ans: Data rate: The data rate defines the number of data elements
(bits) sent in Is. The unit is bits per second (bps).

Signal Rate: The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in Is.
The unit is the baud.

The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is
sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while
decreasing the signal rate. Increasing the data rate increases the speed
of transmission; decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth
requirement.

We can formulate the relationship between data rate and signal rate as

S =c x N x 1/r baud

where N is the data rate (bps); c is the case factor, which varies for each
case; S is the number of signal elements; and r is the previously defined
factor.

Given, S = 1000, N =16 kbps = 16000 bps, and r and L are unknown. We
find first the value of r and then the value of L

S = N x 1/r
Or, r = N/S = 16000/1000 =16 bps/baud

r = log2L

or, L = 2r = 216 = 65536

1)b) Briefly describe the binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) with
necessary figure. We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and
the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d=1?

Ans: In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is

varied to represent data. The frequency of the modulated signal is
constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for the
next signal element if the data element changes. Both peak amplitude
and phase remain constant for all signal elements.

Binary FSK (BFSK)

One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier
frequencies. In Figure 5.6, we have selected two carrier frequencies, f1
and f2. We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the
second if the data element is 1. However, note that this is an unrealistic
example used only for demonstration purposes. Normally the carrier
frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very
small.
As Figure 5.6 shows, the middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle
of the other is f2. Both f1 and f2 are Δf

apart from the midpoint between the two bands. The difference
between the two frequencies is 2 Δf Bandwidth for BFSK Figure 5.6 also
shows the bandwidth of FSK. Again the carrier signals are only simple
sine waves, but the modulation creates a nonperiodic composite signal
with continuous frequencies. We can think of FSK as two ASK signals,
each with its own carrier frequency Cil or f2). If the difference between
the two frequencies is 2 Δf, then the required bandwidth is

B=(l+d)xS+2 Δf

What should be the minimum value of 2 Δf? In Figure 5.6, we have

chosen a value greater than (l + d)S. It can be shown that the minimum
value should be at least S for the proper operation of modulation and
demodulation.
1)c) Which of the three analog-to-analog conversion techniques
(AM,FM, or PM) is the most susceptible to noise? Defend your
answer.

Ans: The most susceptible is AM (Amplitude Modulation) than the FM

and PM because the amplitude is more affected by noise than the
frequency or phase.

Amplitude Modulation

In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude

varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The
frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the
amplitude changes to follow variations in the information. Figure 5.16
shows how this concept works. The modulating signal is the envelope
of the carrier.
As Figure 5.16 shows, AM is normally implemented by using a simple
multiplier because the amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be
changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. AM
Bandwidth Figure 5.16 also shows the bandwidth of an AM signal. The
modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the
modulating signal and covers a range centered on the carrier
frequency. However, the signal components above and below the
carrier frequency carry exactly the same information. For this reason,
some implementations discard one-half of the signals and cut the
bandwidth in half.
2)a) Define carrier signal and its role in analog transmission.

Ans:

2)b) Define scrambling. A telephone subscriber line must have a SNRdb

above 30. What is the minimum number of bits per sample of a
telephone line?

Ans: Scrambling is a technique that does not increase the number of

bits and does provide synchronization. Problem with technique like
Bipolar AMI(Alternate Mark Inversion) is that continuous sequence of
zero’s create synchronization problems one solution to this is
Scrambling.
2)c) Draw the ASK and FSK modulated signal for the following bit
stream: 1001011.

Ans:
2)d) Distinguish between synchronous TDM and statistical TDM

Ans:

Parameter Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM

Working In Synchronous TDM In Statistical TDM slots

data flow of each are allotted
input connection is dynamically. i.e. input
divided into units line is given slots in
and each input output frame if and
occupies one output only if it has data to
time slot. send.

No. of Slots In Synchronous TDM In Statistical TDM, No.

no. of slots in each of slots in each frame
frame are equal to are less than the no. of
no. of input lines. input lines.

Buffers Buffering is not Buffering is done and

done, frame is sent only those inputs are
after a particular given slots in output
interval of time frame whose buffer
whether someone contains data to send.
has data to send or
not.

Addressing Slots in Synchronous Slots in Statistical TDM

TDM carry data only contain both data and
and there is no need address of the
of addressing. destination.
 Synchronization and
pre assigned
relationships
between input and
outputs that serve as
an address.

Synchronization Synchronization bits No synchronization bits

are used at the are used
beginning of each
frame.

Capacity Max. Bandwidth The capacity of link is

utilization if all normally is less than
inputs have data to the sum of the capacity
send. of each channel.

Data In Synchronous TDM In Statistical TDM de-

Separation de-multiplexer at multiplexer at receiving
receiving end end decomposes each
decomposes each frame by checking local
frame, discards address of each data
framing bits and unit. This extracted
extracts data unit in data unit from frame is
turn. This extracted then passed to
data unit from frame destination device.
is then passed to
destination device.
3)a) Describe the BPSK with necessary figure.

Ans: Binary PSK (BPSK)

The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two signal
elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°.
Figure 5.9 gives a conceptual view of PSK. Binary PSK is as simple as
binary ASK with one big advantage-it is less

susceptible to noise. In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the

amplitude of the signal; in PSK, it is the phase. Noise can change the
amplitude easier than it can change the phase. In other words, PSK is
less susceptible to noise than ASK. PSK is superior to FSK because we do
not need two carrier signals. Bandwidth Figure 5.9 also shows the
bandwidth for BPSK. The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK,
but less than that for BFSK. No bandwidth is wasted for separating two
carrier signals. Implementation The implementation of BPSK is as
simple as that for ASK. The reason is that the signal element with phase
180° can be seen as the complement of the signal element with phase
0°. This gives us a clue on how to implement BPSK. We use the same
idea we used for ASK but with a polar NRZ signal instead of a unipolar
NRZ signal, as shown in Figure 5.10. The polar NRZ signal is multiplied
by the carrier frequency; the 1 bit (positive voltage) is represented by a
phase starting at 0°; the abit (negative voltage) is represented by a
phase starting at 180°.

3)b) You need to send data 2 bits at a time at a bit rate of 4Mbps. The
carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of levels (Different
frequencies),The baud rates, and the bandwidth.

Ans: We can have L =22 =4. The baud rate is S =4Mbps/2 =2000 Mbaud.
This means that the carrier frequencies must be 2 MHz apart (2 Δf =2
MHz). The bandwidth is B =4 x 2000 =8000.

3)c) Describe the setup phase of virtual circuit network with necessary
figure.

Ans: As in a circuit-switched network, a source and destination need to

go through three phases in a virtual-circuit network: setup, data
transfer, and teardown. In the setup phase, the source and destination
use their global addresses to help switches make table entries for the
connection.

Setup Phase In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual
circuit. For example, suppose source A needs to create a virtual circuit
to B. Two steps are required: the setup request and the
acknowledgment.

Setup Request A setup request frame is sent from the source to the
destination. Figure 8.14 shows the process. a. Source A sends a setup
frame to switch 1. b. Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It
knows that a frame going from A to B goes out through port 3. How the
switch has obtained this information is a point covered in future
chapters. The switch, in the setup phase, acts as a packet switch; it has
a routing table which is different from the switching table. For the
moment, assume that it knows the output port. The switch creates an
entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it is only able to fill three of
the four columns. The switch assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses
an available incoming VCI (14) and the outgoing port (3). It does not yet
know the outgoing VCI, which will be found during the
acknowledgment step. The switch then forwards the frame through
port 3 to switch 2. c. Switch 2 receives the setup request frame. The
same events happen here as at switch 1; three columns of the table are
completed: in this case, incoming port (l), incoming VCI (66), and
outgoing port (2). d. Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again,
three columns are completed: incoming port (2), incoming VCI (22), and
outgoing port (3). e. Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is
ready to receive frames from A, it assigns a VCI to the incoming frames
that come from A, in this case 77. This VCI lets the destination know
that the frames come from A, and not other sources. Acknowledgment
A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame, completes the
entries in the switching tables.

Figure 8.15 shows the process. a. The destination sends an

acknowledgment to switch 3. The acknowledgment carries the global
source and destination addresses so the switch knows which entry in
the table is to be completed. The frame also carries VCI 77, chosen by
the destination as the incoming VCI for frames from A. Switch 3 uses
this VCI to complete the outgoing VCI column for this entry. Note that
77 is the incoming VCI for destination B, but the outgoing VCI for switch
3. b. Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to switch 2 that contains its
incoming VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 2 uses
this as the outgoing VCI in the table. c. Switch 2 sends an
acknowledgment to switch 1 that contains its incoming VCI in the table,
chosen in the previous step. Switch 1 uses this as the outgoing VCI in
the table. d. Finally switch 1 sends an acknowledgment to source A that
contains its incoming VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step. e.
The source uses this as the outgoing VCI for the data frames to be sent
to destination B.

4)a) What do you mean by error detection and error correction?

Distinguish between forward error correction versus error correction
by retransmission.

Ans: Error
A condition when the receiver’s information does not matches with the
sender’s information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from
noise that can introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from sender
to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change
to 0.

Error detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or other

impairments during transmission from the transmitter to the receiver.

Error correction is the detection of errors and reconstruction of the

original, error-free data
4)b) What is hamming distance? Find the hamming distance between
the following two pairs of words.

i) d(010,011) ii) d(10101,11010)

Ans: Hamming distance between two strings of equal length is the

number of positions at which the corresponding symbols are different.
A major application is in coding theory, more specifically to block codes,
in which the equal-length strings are vectors over a finite field.

i) d(010,011) = 1
ii) d(10101,11010) = 4
4)c) How CRC checker know that the receiver data unit is undamaged?
Show the conversion “data word to codeword” in CRC encoder.

Ans: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) An error detection mechanism in

which a special number is appended to a block of data in order to
detect any changes introduced during storage (or transmission).

CRC is based on binary division.

In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check

bits, are appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data
unit becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary
number.

At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same

number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed
to be correct and is therefore accepted.

A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit
and therefore must be rejected.

Encoder

Let us take a closer look at the encoder. The encoder takes the
dataword and augments it with n - k number of as. It then divides the
augmented dataword by the divisor, as shown in Figure 10.15
The process of modulo-2 binary division is the same as the familiar
division process we use for decimal numbers. However, as mentioned
at the beginning of the chapter, in this case addition and subtraction
are the same. We use the XOR operation to do both. As in decimal
division, the process is done step by step. In each step, a copy of the
divisor is XORed with the 4 bits of the dividend. The result of the XOR
operation (remainder) is 3 bits (in this case), which is used for the next
step after 1 extra bit is pulled down to make it 4 bits long. There is one
important point we need to remember in this type of division. If the
leftmost bit of the dividend (or the part used in each step) is 0, the step
cannot use the regular divisor; we need to use an all-Os divisor. When
there are no bits left to pull down, we have a result. The 3-bit
remainder forms the check bits (r2' rl' and ro). They are appended to
the dataword to create the codeword.
4)d) Why window size is half of sequence number in selective repeat
ARQ? Briefly describe Go-Back-N windowing protocol with proper
figure.

Ans: Window size is half of sequence number in selective repeat ARQ.

This is to avoid packets being recognized incorrectly.

If the windows size is greater than half the sequence number space,
then if an ACK is lost, the sender may send new packets that the
receiver believes are retransmissions.

For example, if our sequence number range is 0-3 and the window size
is 3, this situation can occur.

A -> 0 -> B

A -> 1 -> B

A -> 2 -> B

A <- 2ack <- B (this is lost)

A -> 0 -> B

A -> 1 -> B

A -> 2 -> B

After the lost packet, B now expects the next packets to have sequence
numbers 3, 0, and 1.

But, the 0 and 1 that A is sending are actually retransmissions, so B

receives them out of order.

By limiting the window size to 2 in this example, we avoid this problem

because B will be expecting 2 and 3, and only 0 and 1 can be
retransmissions.

Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request To improve the efficiency of

transmission (filling the pipe), multiple frames must be in transition
while waiting for acknowledgment. In other words, we need to let more
than one frame be outstanding to keep the channel busy while the
sender is waiting for acknowledgment. In this section, we discuss one
protocol that can achieve this goal; in the next section, we discuss a
second. The first is called Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request (the
rationale for the name will become clear later). In this protocol we can
send several frames before receiving acknowledgments; we keep a
copy of these frames until the acknowledgments arrive. Sequence
Numbers Frames from a sending station are numbered sequentially.
However, because we need to include the sequence number of each
frame in the header, we need to set a limit. If the header of the frame
allows m bits for the sequence number, the sequence numbers range
from 0 to 2m - 1. For example, if m is 4, the only sequence numbers are
0 through 15 inclusive. However, we can repeat the sequence. So the
sequence numbers are 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,0,
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, 11, ... In other words, the sequence numbers are
modulo-2m.

In the Go-Back-N Protocol, the sequence numbers are modulo 1!",

where m is the size of the sequence number field in bits.

5)a) Define Ethernet. Summarize the goals of Gigabit Ethernet Design.

Ans: Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting wired local

area networks (LANs), enabling devices to communicate with each
other via a protocol -- a set of rules or common network language.

As a data-link layer protocol in the TCP/IP stack, Ethernet describes how

network devices can format and transmit data packets so other devices
on the same local or campus area network segment can recognize,
receive and process them. An Ethernet cable is the physical, encased
wiring over which the data travels.

5)b) What is the difference between a unicast, multicast, and

broadcast address? If an Ethernet destination address is
07:01:02:03:04:05, what is the type of the address(unicast, multicast
or broadcast)?

Ans: What Is Unicast?

Unicast is defined as the connection that only between a server and a

client, which means it’s a one to one transmission. In computing world,
it’s the most common kind of traffic in TCP/IP networks. For example,
when you send or receive the email, you have to connect to the email
server. And here you use the unicast transmission. In this case, a
unicast frame contains the unique unicast MAC address of the
destination receiver. Therefore, only the specified destination can
receive the unicast traffic, and all other destinations will ignore or can’t
receive unicast traffic. Using this transfer method, the server can send
personalized and accurate information to each client with different
requests. However, when the same information needs to be sent to a
large audience, multicast and broadcast methods will be more efficient.

Figure 1: Example of Unicast One to One transmission

What Is Multicast?

Multicast is a one to many technology that efficiently sends data from

one source to many destinations simultaneously, generally within a
Local Area Network. A multicast frame contains the unique multicast
MAC address of an application, protocol or data stream. To implement
IP multicast communication, equipment like data switch, router
between the source and receivers is required to support IP multicast
function. In multicast model, the network traffic will not increase since
the data packet can be sent to different destinations of one multicast
group by sending one copy of the data, which means the overall
network load can be reduced. However, as we mentioned above, the
operation of multicast requires the assistance of switches with IP
multicast function, so no matter you choose a 10gb ethernet
switch or Gigabit PoE switch, please make sure the switch has that
function.

Figure 2: Example of Multicast One to Many Transmission

What Is Broadcast?

Broadcast is a one to all technology. When a device sends a packet to

the broadcast MAC address (FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF), it will be delivered to all
receivers that connected on the LAN no matter the receiver needs it or
not. Cable television network is the typical broadcast network example.
However, broadcast is not the suitable choice for the public Internet,
because it will generate unnecessary interference and tons of
unwanted data.
Figure 3: Example of Broadcast One to All Transmission

Unicast vs Multicast vs Broadcast: What Are the Differences?

After knowing the definitions of unicast, multicast and broadcast, we’ll

make a comparison of unicast vs multicast vs broadcast.

Multicast vs Unicast

The basic difference is that, in unicast, there is only one sender and one
receiver, while there is a single sender but multiple receivers in
multicast. When we want to send the message to a number of people,
we’d better choose multicast transmission since it can utilize the
bandwidth more efficiently.

Multicast vs Broadcast

In broadcast, the packet transmission is one to all, but in multicast the

transmission is one to many. Besides, multicast requires group
management, in order to ensure the message can be sent to those
hosts which are interested in receiving the message. And the traffic on
the multicast network is under control.

Unicast vs Broadcast
The process of data transmission is different. Unicast only sends the
data to one receiver, but broadcast sends the same data to all receivers
connected in one LAN. Moreover, if you want to share some private or
unique information with another person, you must use unicast network
but not the broadcast.

Here is a table to give you a clear comparison of unicast vs multicast vs

broadcast.

Unicast Multicast Broadcast

Transmission One to one One to many One to all

Utilized
Bandwidth Wasted Wasted
efficiently

Group
No Yes No
management

Security Safest Safe Not safe

From the table, we can see that multicast is the most efficient method
for data transmitting. To meet the market demand, almost all FS
network switches have multicast function.

Given, Ethernet destination address is 07:01:02:03:04:05. The first byte

in binary is 00000111. The least significant bit is 1. This means that the
pattern defines a multicast address.
5)c) Write the differences between a basic service set (BSS) and an
extended service set (ESS) defined by IEEE 802.11?

Ans:

ESS BSS

Extended Service Set (ESS) Basic Service Set (BSS)

ESS has 2 or more access point and BSS has only one access point to
Support mobility between AP's by using connect wireless node, so not Support
mobile IP mobility

BSS s are connected through With AP is called an “infrastructure

distribution system, which is usually a network”
wired LAN

It allows for wider area of coverage Area covered by single AP is limited

More users than the Basic Service Set BSS,is the smallest building block of a
(BSS) WLAN

It is not highly secure It is secure than ESS

5)d) What is the hidden station problem? How do you solve it?
Ans:

A significant difference between wired and wireless LANs is the fact

that, in general a fully connected topology between the WLAN nodes
cannot b assumed. This problem gives rise to ‘hidden’ and ‘exposed’
station problems.

Hidden Station:

 As seen in the above problem, the transmission range of A

reaches B but not C. Similarly, the range of C reaches B but not A.
Also the range of B reaches both A and C.

 Now, the node A starts to send something to B and C doesn’t

receive this transmission.

 Now C also wants to send data to B and senses the carrier. As it

senses it to be free, it also starts sending to B.

 Hidden terminal problem occurs when two nodes that are outside
each other’s range performs simultaneous transmission to a node
that is within the range of each of them resulting in a collision.

 That means the data from both parties A and C will be lost during
the collision.
  Hidden nodes mean increased probability of collision at receiver
end.

 One solution to avoid this is to have the channel sensing range

much greater than the receiving range. Another solution is to use
the Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA).

The methods that can be employed to solve hidden node problem

are:

1. Increasing Transmitting Power From the Nodes: Increasing the

transmission power of the nodes can solve the hidden node
problem by allowing the cell around each node to increase in size,
encompassing all of the other nodes.

2. Omnidirectional antennas: Since nodes using directional antennas

are nearly invisible to nodes that are not positioned in the
direction the antenna is aimed at, directional antennas should be
used only for very small networks (e.g., dedicated point-to-point
connections).

3. Removing obstacles: Increasing the power on mobile nodes may

not work if, for example, the reason one node is hidden is that
there is a concrete or steel wall preventing communication with
other nodes. It is doubtful that one would be able to remove such
an obstacle, but removal of the obstacle is another method of
remedy for the hidden node problem. Keep these types of
obstacles in mind when performing a site survey.
 4. Moving the node: Another method of solving the hidden node
problem is moving the nodes so that they can all hear each other.
If it is found that the hidden node problem is the result of a user
moving his computer to an area that is hidden from the other
wireless nodes, it may be necessary to have that user move again.

http://www.ques10.com/p/19445/explain-in-short-how-hidden-
station-problem-is-avo/

6)a) Define BSS and ESS.

Ans: Basic Service Set: IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as
the building block of a wireless LAN. A basic service set is made of
stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base
station, known as the access point (AP).

Extended Service Set: An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two

or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs are connected through a
distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution
system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the
distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note
that the extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and
stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The
stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.

6)b) Briefly discuss the layers of Bluetooth.

Ans: Bluetooth layers and Protocol Stack

• Bluetooth standard has many protocols that are organized into

different layers.
• The layer structure of Bluetooth does not follow OS1 model, TCP/IP
model or any other known model.

• The different layers and Bluetooth protocol architecture.

Radio Layer

• The Bluetooth radio layer corresponds to the physical layer of OSI

model.

• It deals with ratio transmission and modulation.

• The radio layer moves data from master to slave or vice versa.

• It is a low power system that uses 2.4 GHz ISM band in a range of 10
meters.

• This band is divided into 79 channels of 1MHz each. Bluetooth uses

the Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) method in the physical
layer to avoid interference from other devices or networks.

• Bluetooth hops 1600 times per second, i.e. each device changes its
modulation frequency 1600 times per second.
• In order to change bits into a signal, it uses a version of FSK called
GFSK i.e. FSK with Gaussian bandwidth filtering.

Baseband Layer

• Baseband layer is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs.

• Bluetooth uses a form of TDMA called TDD-TDMA (time division

duplex TDMA).

• Master and slave stations communicate with each other using time
slots.

• The master in each piconet defines the time slot of 625 µsec.

• In TDD- TDMA, communication is half duplex in which receiver can

send and receive data but not at the same time.

• If the piconet has only no slave; the master uses even numbered slots
(0, 2, 4, ...) and the slave uses odd-numbered slots (1, 3, 5, .... ). Both
master and slave communicate in half duplex mode. In slot 0, master
sends & secondary receives; in slot 1, secondary sends and primary
receives.

• If piconet has more than one slave, the master uses even numbered
slots. The slave sends in the next odd-numbered slot if the packet in the
previous slot was addressed to it.

• In Baseband layer, two types of links can be created between a

master and slave. These are:

1. Asynchronous Connection-less (ACL)

• It is used for packet switched data that is available at irregular

intervals.
• ACL delivers traffic on a best effort basis. Frames can be lost & may
have to be retransmitted.

• A slave can have only one ACL link to its master.

• Thus ACL link is used where correct delivery is preferred over fast
delivery.

• The ACL can achieve a maximum data rate of 721 kbps by using one,
three or more slots.

2. Synchronous Connection Oriented (SCO)

• sco is used for real time data such as sound. It is used where fast
delivery is preferred over accurate delivery.

• In an sco link, a physical link is created between the master and slave
by reserving specific slots at regular intervals.

• Damaged packet; are not retransmitted over sco links.

• A slave can have three sco links with the master and can send data at
64 Kbps.

Logical Link, Control Adaptation Protocol Layer (L2CAP)

• The logical unit link control adaptation protocol is equivalent to

logical link control sublayer of LAN.

• The ACL link uses L2CAP for data exchange but sco channel does not
use it.

• The various function of L2CAP is:

1. Segmentation and reassembly

• L2CAP receives the packets of upto 64 KB from upper layers and
divides them into frames for transmission.

• It adds extra information to define the location of frame in the

original packet.

• The L2CAP reassembles the frame into packets again at the

destination.

2. Multiplexing

• L2CAP performs multiplexing at sender side and demultiplexing at

receiver side.

• At the sender site, it accepts data from one of the upper layer
protocols frames them and deliver them to the Baseband layer.

• At the receiver site, it accepts a frame from the baseband layer,

extracts the data, and delivers them to the appropriate protocol1ayer.

3. Quality of Service (QOS)

• L2CAP handles quality of service requirements, both when links are

established and during normal operation.

• It also enables the devices to negotiate the maximum payload size

during connection establishment.

6)c) Make differences among Bridge, Router and Repeater.

Ans: Repeaters:

 The repeater operates in the physical layer.

  These are analog devices that work with signals on the cables to
which they are connected.

 A signal appearing on one cable is regenerated and put out on

another cable. Hence it extends the physical length of LAN.

 Repeaters do not understand frames, packets or headers. They

understand the symbols that encode bit as volts.

 Classic Ethernet, for example, was designed to allow four

repeaters that would boost the signal to extend the maximum
cable length from 500 meters to 2500 meters.

Bridge:

 A bridge connects two or more LANs. It operates at data link layer.

 Like a hub, a modern bridge has multiple ports, usually enough for
4 to 48 input lines of a certain type. Unlike in a hub, each port is
isolated to be its own collision domain.

 When a frame arrives, the bridge extracts the destination address

(for Ethernet, it is 48 bit) from the frame header and looks it up in
a table to see where to send the frame.

 The bridge only outputs the frame on the port where it is needed
and can forward multiple frames at the same time.

 Filtering, forwarding and blocking of frames are functions of

bridges.

 Bridges offer much better performance than hubs and the

isolation between bridge ports also means that the input lines
 may run at different speeds, possibly even with different network
types. A common example is a bridge with ports that connect to
10-, 100-, and 1000-Mbps Ethernet.

 Buffering within the bridge is needed to accept a frame on one

port and transmit the frame out on a different port.

 Bridges were originally intended to be able to join different kinds

of LANs, for example, an Ethernet and a Token Ring LAN.
However, this never worked well because of differences between
the LANs such as frame formats, maximum frame lengths, security
and Quality of service.

Router:

 Routers are devices that connect two or more networks. It

operates at network layer.

 They consist of a combination of hardware and software.

 The hardware can be a network server, a separate computer or a

special device. The hardware includes the physical interfaces to
the various networks in the internetwork.

 These interfaces can be Token Ring, Ethernet, T1, Frame Relay,

ATM or any other technology.

 The software in a router are the operating system and the routing
protocol. Management software can also be used.

 Routers use logical and physical addressing to connect two or

more logically separate networks.
  The network address allows routers to calculate the optimal path
to a workstation or computer.

 The two methods of route discovery are Distance vector routing

and Link state routing.

http://www.ques10.com/p/9660/i-repeater-ii-switches-iii-hubs-iv-
router-v-brid-1/

6)d) What is reuse factor? Why it is necessary? Explain.

Ans: The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same
frequency can be used in the network. It is 1/K (or K according to some
books) where K is the number of cells which cannot use the same
frequencies for transmission.

7)a) Discuss why data link layer is divided into two sub layers. List and
categorize the media access control protocols.

Ans: The data link layer functionality is usually split it into logical sub-
layers, the upper sub-layer, termed as LLC, that interacts with the
network layer above and the lower sub-layer, termed as MAC, that
interacts with the physical layer below, as shown in the diagram given
below:
Upper and Lower sub-layers of Data Link Layer

While LLC is responsible for handling multiple Layer3 protocols

(multiplexing/de-multiplexing) and link services like reliability and flow
control, the MAC is responsible for framing and media access control
for broadcast media. The functional overview of LLC and MAC sub-
layers are given in the diagram below :
https://www.slideshare.net/cprakash2011/lecture-7-8-ad-hoc-wireless-
media-access-protocols

7)b) What do you mean by flow and error control?

Ans:

https://techdifferences.com/difference-between-flow-control-and-
error-control.html
7)c) Why we need only two sequence number (0 and 1) in stop and
wait automatic repeat request? Explain

Ans: We need only two sequence number (0 and 1) in stop and wait
automatic repeat request. Because –

1) Sender A sends a data frame or packet with sequence number 0.

2) Receiver B, after receiving data frame, sends and acknowledgement
with sequence number 1 (sequence number of next expected data
frame or packet)
There is only one bit sequence number that implies that both sender
and receiver have buffer for one frame or packet only.

7)d) Which type of orbit does a GEO satellite have? Explain your
answer.
Ans: A GEO satellite has an equatorial orbit since the satellite needs to
remain fixed at a certain spot above the earth.

Data Communication – Autumn’16

3)a) What is quantization error? Describe quantization method for
PCM with example.

Ans: For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference
in the values of its input and output. The processing of the system
results in an error, which is the difference of those values.

The difference between an input value and its quantized value is called
a Quantization Error.
3)b) Write the constellation diagram for ASK, BPSK, QPSK and 4 –
QAM

Ans: A constellation diagram can help us define the amplitude and

phase of a signal element, particularly when we are using two carriers
(one in-phase and one quadrature), The diagram is useful when we are
dealing with multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM
3)c) Describe delta modulation process with proper diagram.

Ans:

 Delta modulation is a Differential Pulse Code modulation (DPCM)

technique in which the difference signal is encoded into a single
bit.

 Delta modulation provides a staircase approximation of the input

sampled signal where only one bit per sample is transmitted.

 This one bit is sent by comparing the present sample value with
the previous sample value and the result whether the amplitude
is to be increased or decreased is transmitted.

 If the step is reduced, 0 is transmitted and if the step is increased

then 1 is transmitted.
  The Fig1 illustrates the block diagram of Delta modulation
transmitter.

Fig1. Delta modulation transmitter

 Sample and hold circuit will sample the analog input signal into
Pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) signal.

 The generated PAM signal is given as one of the input to the

comparator and the other input is a signal from DAC output.

 The Up-down counter stores the magnitude of the previous

sample in the binary value.

 This binary number is converted into equivalent voltage in the

Digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

 The PAM signal and the DAC output are compared in the
comparator, which implies that the sampled signal is compared
against the previous sample to increase or decrease the
amplitude of the DM signal.
  The Up-down counter is incremented or decremented depending
on whether the previous sample is larger or smaller than the
current sample.

 This counter is clocked at a rate equal to the sample rate, which is

updated after each comparison.

 Depending on the results of comparison, the output of the

comparator generates the Delta pulse code modulated signal.

 The Fig2 illustrates the block diagram of Delta modulation

receiver.

Fig2. Delta modulation transmitter

 The receiver of the delta modulator consists of DAC, up/down

counter and LPF. It does not contain the comparator.

 The Delta PCM signal is fed to the up/down counter which works
at the same sample rate as transmitter.

 Depending on the binary input received the value in the up/down

counter is accordingly incremented or decremented.
 Based on the input received from the up/down counter, DAC will
generate the output PAM signal. The output signal of DAC in the
transmitter and receiver is identical to reconstruct the signal.

 This signal is then allowed to pass through a low pass filter which
will filter out the high frequency components from the signal and
thus produce the original analog signal.
5)c) On a fiber optic channel, we choose error detection method, not
error correction. Why? Given a frame 10101011011 and generator :
1001. If the receiver received 10101011011010, is it accurate
reception? Discuss it using CRC method.

Ans:

6)a) Why slotted Aloha is better than pure aloha? Explain.

Ans: Definition Of Pure ALOHA

Pure ALOHA is introduced by Norman Abramson and his associates at

the University of Hawaii in early 1970. The Pure ALOHA just allows
every station to transmit the data whenever they have the data to be
sent. When every station transmits the data without checking whether
the channel is free or not there is always the possibility of the collision
of data frames. If the acknowledgment arrived for the received frame,
then it is ok or else if the two frames collide (Overlap), they are
damaged.

If a frame is
damaged, then the stations wait for a random amount of type and
retransmits the frame till it transmits successfully. The waiting time of
the each station must be random and it must not be same just to avoid
the collision of the frames again and again. The throughput of the Pure
ALOHA is maximized when the frames are of uniform length. The
formula to calculate the throughput of the Pure ALOHA is S-=G*e^-2G,
the throughput is maximum when G=1/2 which is 18% of the total
transmitted data frames.

Definition Of Slotted ALOHA

After the pure ALOHA in 1970, Roberts introduced an another method

to improve the capacity of the Pure ALOHA which is called Slotted
ALOHA. He proposed to divide the time into discrete intervals called
time slots. Each time slot corresponds to the length of the frame. In
contrast to the Pure ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA does not allow to transmit
the data whenever the station has the data to be send. The Slotted
ALOHA makes the station to wait till the next time slot begins and allow
each data frame to be transmitted in the new time slot.

Synchronization can be achieved in Slotted ALOHA with the help of a

special station that emits a pip at the beginning of every time slot as a
clock does. The formula to calculate the throughput of the Slotted
ALOHA is S=G*e^-G, the throughput is maximum when G=1 which is
37% of the total transmitted data frames. In Slotted ALOHA, 37% of the
time slot is empty, 37% successes and 26% collision.

Conclusion:

The Slotted ALOHA is somewhat better than the Pure ALOHA. As the
probability of collision is less in Slotted ALOHA as compared to Pure
ALOHA because the station waits for the next time slot to begin which
let the frame in a previous time slot to pass and avoids the collision
between the frames.

https://techdifferences.com/difference-between-pure-aloha-and-
slotted-aloha.html

6)b) i) In wireless LAN, CSMA/CA is used instead of CSMA/CD, why?

ii) Draw the flow diagram of CSMA/CA

Ans: i) Over a wired medium like an Ethernet cable it is possible to

detect a collision (CD) by measuring the power level on the medium
itself. Measuring the power level in a RF environment is not possible
with the precision required to detect a packet collision and therefore
CD is not possible but collision avoidance is the best we can get.

Collision detection would allow a network to have better performances

than what it is possible to accomplish with Collision Avoidance, that
requires ACK packets and therefore create overhead. In order to
overcome these performance limitations many wireless networks used
TDMA based approached to medium access control rather than
CSMA/CA. Particularly in Point-to-multipoint Wireless networks where
directional antennas are deployed, the hidden terminal issue can
negatively impact the overall network performances in a significant
way. Therefore CSMA/CA is not a solution to provide good throughput.
TMDA based solutions are much more common in order to avoid the
hidden terminal issue.
ii) Flow Diagram of CSMA/CA

6)c) Describe the three controlled access methods.

Ans: In controlled access, the stations seek information from one

another to find which station has the right to send. It allows only one
node to send at a time, to avoid collision of messages on shared
medium.
The three controlled-access methods are:

1. Reservation

2. Polling

3. Token Passing

Reservation

 In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation

before sending data.

 The time line has two kinds of periods:

1. Reservation interval of fixed time length

2. Data transmission period of variable frames.

 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M

slots, and each station has one slot.

 Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during

the slot 1. No other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.

 In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by

inserting a 1 bit into i th slot. After all N slots have been checked,
each station knows which stations wish to transmit.

 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames
in that order.

 After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.

  Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any
collisions.

The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five slot
reservation frame. In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have
made reservations. In the second interval, only station 1 has made a
reservation.

Polling

 Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just

like the teacher, a controller sends a message to each node in
turn.

 In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are

secondary stations. All data exchanges must be made through the
controller.

 The message sent by the controller contains the address of the

node being selected for granting access.
  Although all nodes receive the message but the addressed one
responds to it and sends data, if any. If there is no data, usually a
“poll reject”(NAK) message is sent back.

 Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high

dependence on the reliability of the controller.

Token Passing
 In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to
each other in form of ring and access of stations is governed by
tokens.

 A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate

from one station to the next in the some predefined order.

 In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another

adjacent station in the ring whereas incase of Token bus, each
station
uses the bus to send the token to the next station in some
predefined order.

 In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station

has a frame queued for transmission when it receives the token, it
can send that frame before it passes the token to the next station.
If it has no queued frame, it passes the token simply.

 After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations
(including itself) to send the token to their neighbors and the
other N – 1 stations to send a frame, if they have one.

 There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or

insertion of new station, removal of a station, which need be
tackled for correct and reliable operation of this scheme.