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1
EARLY HISTORY AND SCOPE OF
MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiology is the field of science that deals with study of organisms, called
microorganisms, so small that they can be observed only under microscope. The development
of microbiology began only from 19 th century when the world started to appreciate the role
of unseen microorganisms in the processes such as decomposition and disease.
Earlier Earth atmosphere was anaerobic. Cyanobacteria, the first bacteria, evolved ability
to use water as raw material in photosynthesis and produced oxygen gas (0 2 ) as waste. This
led to buildup of 0 2 in atmosphere from 0% to 20% around 2 billion year ago.
Earliest fossil of eukaryotes are about 1.5 billion years old, and animals evolved about 0.6
billion year ago. Thus, all present day life evolved from bacteria. Bacteria are the most abundant
organisms on earth, found everywhere in air, in water, in soil, in sand or on rocks. Billions of
microorganisms are present in per gram of fertile soil. Humans contain 10 13 cells and 1014
bacterial cell. 10% of dry weight of humans is bacterial. Feces of human is composed almost
113rd of bacteria. Bacteria are present in food, beverages, cosmetics even in pharmaceuticals.
Microorganisms are existing since long but could be discovered only after the
invention of microscope. Although, Robert Hooke (1665) invented first microscope, who
observed and described the fruiting structure of mold, but the first man to see microorganisms
in some detail was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1674) of Holland. He was an
amateur microscope builder and constructed simple microscopes that were extremely
preliminary from todays standards. He could draw few prokaryotes and presented his
(3)
1.1 Oov~Jopm ont of Microbiology ns Sclonco
1. 1. t Spontnnoous Gonorntion Thoory and Louis Pasteur
Ft,,m th~· d .,~~ t~f Arl~toll~ t~Ki- 3:.:~ BC) 1woplc believed that living organisms develop
~r,mtrni,ln~i,· fo.nn nt,n - liYin~ (inert) or dC'to mposing matte r. Even the higher organisms
,, .t~ ~U\'t',~'-'-l h.> af\\."t' f\\_)\l\ nonli\'ing thin~gs. This was the theory of abiogenesis, also caJled
.\ ~ S l'\\1l t ,Hl\"'\)U ~ ~t'm.·mtit, n th\o•o ry . In th~ 17'" Century, lta.lian physician Francesco Redi
t H'.!°('1 - m u -) "·h.,llt•t~~d tht· theory of :-:po ntan co us generation for th e first time. He carried
~,ut ~~rk:- ,,f c.'\.pt•1·imt·n.t~ to show thnt tlies do not spring forth from d ecaying meat. For this
~ c' rLh.'\°'\l nw.1t in thn.·t-- t•ontainl'r~. Thi:' first coutnincr was closed with thin cloth, the second
" ith p.l}'<;'r whik tht· third eontnint.·.r was lt-tl uncovered. On subsequent day he found maggots
in tht• ltnl"\l, ~~n~i rontniner a nd the container covered by cloth. The paper covered container
,HJ n,)t show p~s"·m·t• ()f mnggots. Thus, deYclopment of maggot resulted from tl1e presence
. ._, f fly t'~~ nnd nwnt did no t ge nera ted th e mnggots . However, the theory of spontaneous
~cr1t' rJtivn ~ m~iiwd " ·iddy ncerp trd throughout th e 18 th Century.
In th~ mid 0f 18 th Century. Lazzaro Spallnnzani (1729- 1799) demonstrated that
i)utrd.ictio n o f orga n ic substances wns ca us ed by microorganisms that multiply by
1~pn.:i<iu~tiw diYision and did not nrisc spontaneously. He boiled the sealed flask containing
m~,.it. The> he ..1t dt!stroyro tl1 e microbes the reby preventing spoilage indefinitely. It took few
mv~ d ~ades tu tlist-redit th e th eo ry of spontaneous generation.
Louis Pasteur (18:!~ -18 95) finall y d e monstrated that living organisms were
n":: p,unsi ble fo r rharigt"s in the food material.
p1~sence of more than onl' 0~15anism in the culture. He could explain the formati on of but)Tic
acid,_as a rr sult ~f fcrm~nta~1on th ~1t was carried l>y different microorganisms present in sa me
medmm a_long with Iac:tir acid . Another impmtant rep011 of paprr, published in the year 1861
(b), mentioned the existence of anaerobic life . To cicmonstratr this, he passed strea m of air
thro~~h some of the cultures an~ a stream of carbon - dioxide through others {1.e. anaerobic
condition). He found the growth m both thl' culhtrc~. This effect is called ·Pas teur effect '.
Although the large number of scientists were convinced by Pasteur's experiment , but
still lot supported the theory of spontaneous generation . The final end to th e deba te of
spontaneous generation theory came in Pasteur's publication of 1861 (c). In this paper he
reported that microorganism could exist as airborne contaminants. Pasteur in the same paper
further demonstrated how to get the contamination free medium using fam ous swan neck
flask (Fig.1.1). He showed that gro,,tl1 rould not occur in sterile medium unless contamination
,ia air (dust) occurred.
The English physicist John Tyndall. a grea t ad mirer of Pas teu r, de monstrated that
med ium could be sterilized by boiling fo r five minutes . But, he fou nd that few orga nisms
,ut,1\ed even afte1 boiling for five hours Tyndall , thu s co nclud ed th at so~1r bacteria had
tw,; types of life forms heat ~table (e ndos pore) and hea t sensi tive (\'ege tat1ve cell) Ounng
tlit. ~amt' r1c no<l a b<Jtant-"l named Fcr<li nan<l Cuhn {1876) described endospores and their
!H;st !)table properties, T, nJall then·forc devised a pro<.'l'dUrt' fo r dc-;troymg the endospo rl'
Appll ocl Mlt..:robl
4 Olci~ 'y
From the days of Aristotle (384-322 BC) people believed lh~t living or~anisms develop
spontaneously from non-living (inert) or decomposing matter. lwen t~1 e h1gh~r organisms
was supposed to arose from nonliving things. This was the t_hcory of. a~1ogcncs1s, also called
as spontaneous generation theory. In the ti 11 Century, Ita~ian phys1c1a_n Fr_anccsco Rcdi
(1626-1697) challenged the theory of spontaneous generation for the first time . He carrietl
out series of experiments to show that flies do not spring forth from decaying meat. For this
he placed meat in three containers. The first container was closed with thin cloth, the second
with paper while the third container was left uncovered. On subsequent day he found maggots
in the uncovered container and the container covered by cloth. The paper covered container
did not show presence of maggots. Thus, development of maggot resulted from the presence
of fly egg and meat did not generated the maggots. However, the theory of spontaneous
generation remained widely accepted throughout the 18 th Century.
th
In the mid of 18 Century, Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) demonstrated that
putrcfact_ion ?~ ~rganic s~bstanc~s was caused by microorganisms that multiply by
reproductive d1v1s1on and did n~t anse spontaneously. He boiled the sealed flask containing
meat. The heat de~troye~ the mICrobes thereby preventing spoilage indefinitely. It took few
more decades to discredit the theory of spontaneous generation.
,,
jl(
I . 'bl , h . ma Y emonstrated that living organisms were
1 cs pons1 e 1or c anges m the food material.
pres~nce of more than one organism in the culture. He could explain the formation of butyric
arid, as a result of fermentation that was carried by different microorganisms present in same
medium along with lactic acid. Another imp01tant repo1t of paper, published in the year 1861
(b). mentioned tl1e existence of anaerobic life. To demonstrate this, he passed stream of air
through some of the cultures and a stream of carbon-dioxide through others (i.e. anaerobic
condition). He found the growth in both the cultures. This effect is called 'Pasteur effect' .
.Although tl1e large number of scientists were cpnvinced by Pasteur's experiment, but
still lot supported the theory of spontaneous generation . The final end to the debate of
spontaneous generation theory came in Pasteur's publication of 1861 (c). In this paper he
reported that microorganism could exist as airborne contaminants. Pasteur in the same paper
further demonstrated how to get the contamination free medium using famous swan neck
flask (Fig.1.1). He showed that growth could not occur in sterile medium unless contamination
,ia air (dust) occurred.
The English physicist John Tyndall, a great admirer of Pasteur, demonstrated that
medium could be sterilized by boiling for five minutes. But, he found that few organisms
su rvived even after boiling for five hours. Tyndall, thus concluded that some bacteria had
two types of life forms- heat stable (endospore) and heat sensitive (vegetative cell). During
the same period a botanist named Ferdinand Cahn (1876) described endospores and their
hfat stable prope rties, Tyndall therefore devised a procedure for destroying the endospore,
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1, 1 'J <HH rtt r ""my of rn ~utt l'lu m ,d Hubo,t Koch
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ri llvwut ,,, ,li h'•o tH' w,111 d 111• 1, , 111l• •l'l l1111 tif 11111 )~ 11 ~ Mir .Jw tepl, Li,,tcr ( 18:l7 - 191 :.! ) , wh,, w
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:,11d tl111 1l 111 1dt ipll1•'! i11 tl w hrJd y l{()b r!JI Kqch (1H-1 :1 J<JH>) 11 r,c d th <' sam<~ basis and proposed
" ( )u•· ruit·r·olu.- 1 01u· d l 1t t•u 11t c• I lwory" .
Hohcrt l<oda ( 1Ht1 :i JlJ J<J) lt ypqth1 i1izec..l that u11t/1rCJ.X l1acillus ( a gra m +vc bacteria)
1
wa ri 11 11' 1·:iw11 • ()I ;1111hra x di1>1:;u1c i 11 cow. Koc- Ii pn,vcd his hypothes is correct by demonstratin g
wlll'11 1J w l,:icill i t:1k1•11 1,,,,u tl H'. HJ>lt!Ctl ol dead animal was inn oc ulated into a mice and th e
i,lf,·,·1,·d 1111 n ~ 1il1uw1·d id<·11 ti l'a l 1,yrnptorn :, . Furth er, Kot h s howed th at by growing baciJl 1 in
p1111• 1·1dtu1t• o v,·,· i,t•v,·r~ll py111 : rati1Jn H, t <Ju lJ :~till cau se anthrax in later gen erati on .
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1 A HJH:1·ili c: 111ic11Jbc 1111 1s t be 111 1:M!lll i u :.dl di sca:,,c t a5cs .
:! Mi1·1u b<: 11111 :, I l,t c.: rdti va tcd outsid e host as a pure <.:u lt urc .
:: . W lw 11 p1111 : rnlton: <J f 111icrc,lic is inoculate<l into health y hosts , di sease symp toms
id1•11ti c-a l t<J I l11 HH, ()f initial h<ml mu st he rcpro<lucc<l .
1 Mi c1c,l11: c-;111 IH: iH<J l atcd agai n in p11 n : cu lture frum th e expe rim e nta ll y in oculated
ltc r , 1.
1.1.3 Goldon Ago of Microbiology (Lato 1800's)
Initial atkinpls to isolate mkrolic8 use<l sli ced potatoes or nutrient m edia containing
;•,1· lati11 J Jq w,:ve r, )1,d:itin n o t usefu l <.1 s solidifyin g agent as it melts above 28°C an<l some
liact, ·ria hydrolyze it wi t Ii c.: nzyrn c. But Fu11n ic: llesse (wife of Koch ass istan t) suggested agar,
:1·. a g!'l l111 ~•. i1J!,,:11t whi ch was used in cc,oking. Agar rapidly became th e standard geJling agent
fCJ t mi cn,l>ial inolat i()IJ l> c.:cau sc (jf its relative ly inertness (only some marine microbes have
('1tzyn1e!S t<, digc:-. t ag,:ir) . AJ!,ar o nl y melts at high tempe ra tures (100°C) and once melted , it
rc1u:1i11 H liqu id 1111til about 45''C also th e point at which it gels . This provides vast temperature
ra11g t fo r rni<-robi ol,,gis t:; l o wo rk . To<lay it is used as '.!% in solid medium . Rich ard Pet ri ,
an<J th ,'. r Kuc-/ 1 :11;si st an1 dcw loped Pdr i pl ..1tc (J 1sh) .
K1,t'l1 !-l'1-1 h tH Tl..' .l.lS in ickntifying :rn thrax disease ca used by bacterium Bacillus anth ra~is
bl lioth KoC' h a nd J>as lc ur to id entify th e cau ses of many disea ses such as cholera , tuberculosis.
pb1.~1w , e tc . m H1, '. nc •xt kw cl c:cad es (late 188</s) call ed th e "Colden Age of Microhiolo~'.'
( - 1 H70 19 :.r n J. I l <J w l'vc r man y 111 icrnl>io logists rc)!,a rd th e present as a new "Go lden Age
Chaptor • 1 . Early History ond Scopu of Mlot:roblolooy 7
This is dut· to thl' t.lewlupmt'nt of nwlrl'ul11r hiolngkal lt'rh11iqm·s. PCR , 111olt•<·tilu r phyloJt~ny,
and otha clrvclopmcnts that has ~ivt• n llt' W i11si~hts and op1•1u·d n world of IIC'W rf'lu~uch
dircrtions and ways of understnndinR 111il'rolws.
Winogradsky (eurly 1qoo 's) stu<lil•d soil mierobes, showed hu<.·k rin chanKc Htute of
nitorgen, sulphur, inm and ca rhon . Many can "l'at" inorgunic mutter, to ~ct ncccRNUJ)' energy.
Bcijcrinrk (t•arly t()t~o's) showl'd root nodules of some plants contain L>uctcriu that fix
nitrogen, produce most ammonia on t'arth .
Edward Jenner in 1796 discovt~rcd that cow pox (vaccinia) induced protection
against human small pox, procedure latter culled as vaccination. Pasteur and Roux reported
that incubating cultures longer than normal in the laborulory resulted in attenuated bacteria
that could no longer cause disease. Pasteur and Chambers developed other vaccines such as
attenuated anthrax vaccine and attenuated rabies vaccines.
Joshph Lister (1827-1912) developed a system of surgery designed to prevent
microorganisms from entering wounds ~ phenol (carbolic acid) sprayed in air around surgical
incision, decreased number of post operative infections in patients.
In 1890 Ehrlich proposed a theory of immunity in which antibodies were responsible
for immunity (antitoxin). He is known as father of modern chemotherapy. He demonstrated
the concept of selective toxicity. He also developed staining procedure to identify tubercule
bacilli.
Alexander Fleming (1928) observed that the growth of the bacterium
Staphylococcus aureus was inhibited in the areas surrounding the colony of a mold that had
contaminated a Petri plate. The mold was identified as Penicillum notatum and its active
compound as penicillin.
Christian Gram (1853-1935) demonstrated staining method that could differentiate
Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Raymond Sabouraud (1890-1910) developed culture media to study yeast and
molds.
Dimitri Ivanovski (1892) demonstrated that virus pass through the filters used to
remove bacteria.
Sleman Waksman (1940) discovered antibiotics such as tetracyclines and
streptomycin. ·
Watson and Crick, Franklin and Wilkins (1953) determined the structure of DNA
molecule.
genetic engineering. This branch has been drawing tremendous attention. Biotechnology
ses on the aspects such as the nature of genetic information, the regulation, development
function of a cell, the method of production of new microbial cells useful in industrial
robiology using techniques of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering provides
v)edge for insertion of new genes and explains its role in the diagnosis of certain diseases.
According to the opinion of Rene Dubos, a microbiologist, microbiology is a profession
remains in contact with all other branches of natural sciences and thus, contribute in
variety of ways to the betterment of human life.
Review Questions
. Describe the contribution of Leeuwenhoek in the development of microbiology.
. What is the doctrine of spontaneous generation ? How it was disproved ?
. What is the contribution of Pasteur in the field of microbiology ? Describe his various
papers.
. What is Pasteurization ? Explain.
Describe the process of Tyndallization.
Explain Koch's postulate. What significant contribution did Koch made to the
development of medical microbiology ?
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