MODULE 1

CHAPTER -1
FUNDAMNETALS
OF CONSTRUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
Construction engineering involves planning and
execution of the designs from transportation, site
development, hydraulic, environmental and structural
and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend
to have higher business risk than other types of civil
engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to
take on a role that is more business-like in nature:
drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical
operations, and closely monitoring prices of necessary
supplies.

1.2. TYPES OF CIVIL CONSTRUCTION:

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of
buildings. The vast majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition
of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer,
paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects
include some elements in common – design, financial, estimating and legal considerations.
Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost
overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed
plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.

Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various

delivery methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional,
management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build
bridging.

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local

building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area
generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost
of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary
dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed
homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. As
residential construction (as well as all other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste,
careful planning again is needed here.

The most popular method of residential construction in the United States is wood framed
construction. As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction
technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments
are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency,
performance and reduce construction waste.
 To some degree each construction project is unique and no two jobs are ever exactly the
same. In its specifics, each structure is tailored to suit its environment, arranged to perform its
own particular function, and designed to reflect personal tastes and preferences. The vagaries
of the construction site and the possibilities for creative and utilitarian variation of even the most
standardized building product combine to make each construction project a new and different
experience. The contractor sets up its factory on the site and, to a large extent, custom builds
each structure. The construction process is subject to the influence of highly variable and
sometimes unpredictable factors. The construction team, which includes architects, engineers,
building tradesmen, subcontractors, material dealers, and others, changes from one job to the
next. All the complexities inherent in different construction sites such as subsoil conditions,
surface topography, weather, transportation, material supply, utilities and services, local
subcontractors, labor conditions, and available technologies are an innate part of construction.
Consequently, construction projects are typified by their complexity and diversity and by the
non-standardized nature of their production. The use of factory-made modular units may
diminish this individuality somewhat, but it is unlikely that field construction will ever be able to
adapt completely to the standardized methods and product uniformity of assembly line
production. On the contrary, many manufacturing processes are moving toward the production
and adopting many of the project management tools originating in the construction industry.

A building can be defined as a structure broadly consisting of walls, floors and roofs,
erected to provide covered space for different uses such as residence, education, business,
manufacturing, storage, hospitalization, entertainment, worship etc. The method adopted for
construction and choice of material to be used in the building depends upon a number of factors
like character of occupancy, location of site, climate, local materials and funds available.

Depending upon the character of occupancy or the type of use, different types of buildings have
been classified in following groups as per national building code:

Residential buildings Educational buildings Institutional buildings

 Assembly buildings Business buildings Mercantile buildings

Industrial buildings Storage buildings Hazardous buildings

1.3. COMPONENTS OF BUILDING:

A building can be broadly divided in two parts: a. Sub-structure and b. Super-structure. The
portion of the building below the surrounding ground is known as sub- structure and the portion
above the ground is termed as super- structure.

The components of a building can be broadly summarized as under:

 Foundation:

It is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which is in direct contact with the
ground and transmits all the dead, live and other loads to the soil on which the structure rests.

 Plinth:

The portion of the building between the ground surrounding the building and the top of the floor
immediately above the ground is called the plinth.

The plinth height should be such that after proper leveling and grading of the ground adjoining
the building there is no possibility of the rain water entering the ground floor. The level of the
surrounding ground is known as formation level or simply ground level and the level of the
ground floor of the building as plinth level.

The built up covered area measured at the floor level is termed as plinth area.

 Walls:

Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space in desired pattern. In a well-planned
layout, the walls divide the space in such a manner so as to achieve maximum carpet area units
like bricks, stone, concrete blocks etc.

 Columns:

A column may be defined as an isolated vertical load bearing member the width of which is
neither less than its thickness. Pier is a vertical load bearing member similar to a column except
that it is bonded into load bearing wall at the sides to form an integral part and extends to full
height of the wall.

 Floors:

Floors are flat supporting elements of a building. The basic purpose of a floor is to provide a firm
and dry platform for people and other items like furniture, stores, equipment etc.

 Doors, Windows, Ventilators:

A door normally consists of two components namely Door Frame and Door Shutter. Doors are
made out of material like wood, steel, aluminium, plastic, flexible rubber etc. They can be side
hung, sliding, folding, revolving or rolling type depending upon the functional requirement. A
window may be defined as an opening left in the wall for the purpose of providing day light,
vision and ventilation.

 Stair:

A stair may be defined as a structure comprising of a number of steps connecting one floor to
another. Stairs may be made from material like timber, stone, bricks, steel, reinforced concrete
etc.

 Roof:

It is the uppermost component of a building and its main function is to cover the space below
and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc. A roof basically consists of two components
namely: the roof decking and the roof covering.

 Building Finishes:
A building is considered incomplete till such time the surface of its components is given
appropriate treatment. Building finishes include items like plastering, pointing, white/ color
washing, painting, varnishing, distempering etc.

 Building Services:

Building services include services like water supply, drainage, sanitation, lighting, electricity,
acoustics, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, fire detection and fire control etc.

 GLOSSARY:

Abrasives
Substances rubbed on wood to smooth the surface. Flint, garnet, aluminum
oxide, and silicon carbide are common abrasives.

Access panel A cover for a portal necessary to reach plumbing or other systems behind a
wall.
Acre A unit of measurement equal to 43,560 square feet.
Actual dimension Size of boards or lumber, distinguished from "nominal dimensions". Term
2x4 is a nominal dimension.
Agent A person (such as a real estate agent) authorized by a principal to transact
or manage some business on his of her behalf.
Aggregate Hard materials such as sand and crushed stone used to make concrete.
Alligatoring Coarse checking pattern characterized by a slipping of the new paint
coating over the old coating to the extent that the old coating can be seen
through the fissures.
Alternating current Electrical current which reverses direction regularly (60 hertz, or cycles
(AC) per second, in the US). As opposed to DC or direct current which does not
reverse direction.
Ampere Also referred to as amp, the rate of flow of electricity through electric
wires.
Apron The flat part of the inside trim of a window. It is placed against the wall
directly beneath the window sill. Also, concrete slab at the approach to a
driveway or garage door.
Apron Concrete slab at the approach to a garage door- Also the wood trim below a
window stool.
Asphalt A brown to black bituminous substance. Most native asphalt is a residue
from evaporated petroleum. Asphalt is used widely in building for such
items as waterproofing roof coverings of many types, exterior wall
coverings, and flooring tile.
Assessment A charge against real property made by a branch of government to cover
the proportionate cost of an improvement such as street or sewer.
Backfill The replacement of earth into a trench or pier excavation around and
against a basement foundation.
Balloon framing A system of framing a building in which all vertical structural elements of
the bearing walls and partitions consist of single pieces. These pieces
extend from the top of the foundation sill plate to the roofplate, and all
floor joists are fastened to them.
Balusters Usually small vertical members in a railing used between a top rail and the
stair treads or a bottom rail.
Beam Any major horizontal structural member.
Bed molding A molding in an angle, as between the overhanging cornice, or eaves, of a
building and the sidewalls.
Bench mark A mark on a permanent object indicating a verified elevation, used by
surveyors as a reference point.
Bevel An angular surface across an edge of a piece of stock.
Blend Mixture, as of two pigments, to obtain a desired color.
Block plane A small hand tool used to shave off or smooth lumber.
Bow The distortion in a board that is no longer flat lengthwise, but has
remained flat across its faces.
Brick mold Standard wood molding used as outside casing around doors and windows.
Brick veneer A facing of brick laid against and fastened to the sheathing of a frame wall.
Building restriction
The outside edge of the area on a property that can be built on.
lines
Cabinet A shop or job-built unit for kitchens or other rooms. Often includes
combinations of drawers, doors, and the like.
Cantilever To overhang such as a projecting beam supported at only one end.
Casement window A window that is hinged at one side so the opposite side opens outward.
Ceiling joist Structural members providing support for a second story floor and a
nailing surface for a lower story's ceiling.
Cement Usually refers to portland cement. A fine gray powder that produces a
bonding paste when mixed with water. (Cement Siding...See Siding)
Clamp A device that holds things together; often used to hold pieces together
while the glue dries.
Close-grained wood Woods with narrow, inconspicuous annual rings. The term is sometimes
used for wood having small and closely spaced pores.
Column A vertical support (often square, rectangular, or cylindrical), as for roofs or
ceilings.
Combination doors or Doors or windows with self-storing or removable glass and screen inserts.
windows The need for handling a different unit each season is thus eliminated.
Concrete A combination of cement and sand, broken stone, or gravel. It is used for
foundations, building construction, walks, and many other purposes.
Corner block A large triangular piece of wood or metal used for added strength at the
corners of frames or where legs and rails join.
Curing The process of aging a new concrete slab with proper moisture to reduce
cracking and shrinkage and to develop strength.
Damp proofing Vapor barrier or coating on foundation walls or under concrete slabs to
prevent moisture from entering the house.
Dead load The weight of the walls, permanent partitions, framing, roofs, and all other
permanent stationary construction in a building, not counting the
occupants and furnishings and movement.
Detail A drawing showing special information about a particular part of the
construction- Details are usually drawn to a larger scale than the other
views and are sometimes section views.
Dormer A projection in a sloping roof, the framing of which forms a vertical wall
suitable for windows or other openings.
Drywall Also known as wallboard, gypsum board, plasterboard, and by the trade
name Sheetrock, a wall-surfacing material composed of sheets of gypsum
plaster sandwiched between a low-grade backing paper and a smooth-
finish front surface paper that can be painted.
Elbow Right-angle bend in stovepipe.
Elevation A drawing that shows vertical dimensions- it may also be the height of a
point, usually in feet above sea level.
Exterior plywood Plywood in which the plies are bonded together using exterior or
waterproof glue.
False ceiling A drop or suspended ceiling, hung on metal or wood grids, to permit
covering exposed ducts, pipes, or beams.
Filler, wood A heavily pigmented preparation used for filling and leveling off the pores
in open-grained woods.
Fire bricks Heat resistant bricks used for lining fireplaces.
Floor plan A drawing showing the arrangement of rooms, the locations of windows
and doors, and complete dimensions- A floor plan is actually a horizontal
section through the entire building.
Flush door A door having flat surfaces.
Fly rafter End rafter of the gable overhang supported by roof sheathing and lookouts.
Footing A masonry section, usually concrete, in a rectangular form wider than the
bottom of the foundation wall or pier it supports. It can be level, stepped
level, or follow the contour of the ground.
Formwork The wooden forms that shape wet concrete.
Foundation The part of a building or wall which supports the superstructure.
Frame (1) The surrounding or enclosing woodwork, as around windows or doors.
(2) The skeleton of a building; that is, the rough structure of a building,
including interior and exterior walls, floor, roof, and ceilings.
Frame construction Construction in which the structural parts are of wood or depend on a
wood frame for support.
Framing The rough structure of a building, including interior and exterior walls,
floor, roof, and ceilings.
Glazing Fitting glass into windows or doors.
Glazing compound Caulking compound used especially for holding window glass in place
because it remains soft underneath the surface.
Granite A fine to medium-coarse grained igneous stone; dense and water-resistant,
it is often used in garden walls, and as stepping stones and specimen rocks.
Gravel Naturally rounded or mechanically crushed stones ranging in size from 1/4
inch to 1 1/2 inches. Often used in gravel gardens, terraces, and water
features.
I-beam A steel beam whose section resembles the letter I.
Level (1) A term describing the position of a line or plane which is parallel to the
surface of still water. (2) An instrument or tool used in testing for
horizontal and vertical surfaces and in determining differences in
elevation.
Light In builder's terminology, space in a window sash for a single pane of glass;
also, a pane of glass. As in 9 light window pane.
Limestone A fine to coarse-grained sedimentary rock; often used as ashlar or
flagstone because it splits easily, limestone also serves as the preferred
rock for constructing rock gardens.
Marble A fine-grained metamorphic rock that is strong and weather-resistant;
more often used in indoor than outdoor paving and walls because of its
cost and its slickness when wet.
Market analysis A study of real estate market conditions used to establish an estimated fair
market value for the sale of a home.
Mason A professional who builds brick, stone, or concrete work.
Masonry Anything constructed of stone, brick, concrete, hollow tile, concrete blocks,
gypsum blocks, or similar materials, or a combination of them.
Masonry cement Cement which is specially prepared for making mortar.
Modular unit A factory-built, transportable building unit designed to be used by itself or
with other, similar units. It is built with standard-size materials.
Offset Ledge of recess where there is a change in material or wall thickness.
Oil paint A paint in which the vehicle is oil.
Paint A combination of pigments with suitable thinners or oils to provide
decorative and protective coatings.
Panel (1) A large, thin board or sheet of lumber, plywood, or other material. (2) A
thin board with all its edges inserted in a groove of a surrounding frame of
thick material. (3) A section of floor, wall, ceiling, or roof, usually
prefabricated and of large size, handled as a single unit in the operations of
assembly and erection.
Panel door A door made up of panels held in place by rails and stiles.
Panel siding Large sheets of plywood or hardboard which may serve as both sheathing
and siding.
Paneling Planks or sheets used as a finish wall or ceiling surface; often with a wood
or simulated wood finish.
Partition wall A wall that divides space but plays no part in a building's structural
integrity.
Piles Long posts driven into the soil in swampy locations or wherever it is
difficult to secure a firm foundation.
Plaster A mixture of lime, sand, and water, used to cover outside and inside wall
surfaces.
Platform framing A method of framing in which each level is framed separately- The subfloor
is laid for each floor before the walls above it are formed.
Plywood A wood product made by fastening together layers of veneer or a
combination of veneer layers and a lumber core. The layers are joined with
an adhesive. Adjoining plies are usually laid with grains at right angles to
each other, and almost always an odd number of plies are used.
Plywood A/C or A/D Plywood that is clear or knot-free on one side only.
Primer The first coat of paint in a job that consists of two or more coats; also, the
paint used for such a coat.
Putty A soft, pliable type of cement, having nearly the consistency of dough. Used
in sealing glass in sash, filling small holes and crevices in wood, and for
similar purposes.
Reinforcing Steel rods or metal fabric placed in concrete slabs, beams, or columns to
increase their strength.
Retaining wall A wall that holds earth in place vertically; a retaining wall can either be
mortared of dry stacked.
Roof The covering or upper part of a building.
Roof sheathing Boards or sheet material, fastened to the roof rafters, on which the shingles
or other roof covering is laid.
Scaffold A temporary structure or platform for workers to sit or stand on when
working at a height above the floor or ground.
Seasoning Removing moisture from green wood in order to improve its serviceability.
Shutters Lightweight, louvered or flush, wood or nonwood covers located at each
side of a window. Some are made to close over windows to shut out light or
give protection from the weather. Others are fastened to the wall and used
as decoration.
Site conditions A term used when describing the conditions of a construction site.
Examples would be: level, sloping, rocky, wet.
Slab A concrete floor placed directly on earth or on a gravel base; usually about
4 inches thick.
Soil The loose upper layer of earth. The bearing soil is the layer of soil on which
the footings are poured.
Span The horizontal dimension between vertical supports- The span of a beam is
the distance between the posts that support it.
Structural sandwich A construction in which layers of relatively high-strength facing materials
construction are tightly bonded to, and act integrally with, a low-density core material.
Survey A drawing made to scale showing the lengths and directions of the
boundary lines of the lot; the surrounding lots and streets; the position of
the house and all exterior improvements such as walkways, driveways,
decks and porticos within the lot; and any existing encroachments.
Tie beam A beam so situated that it holds the principal rafters of a roof together and
prevents them from thrusting the plate out of line.
Volume ceiling A ceiling that is higher than the standard 8 feet. It can be angled or arched
or simply horizontal.
Wet wall A wall framed to enclose a building's main drain/vent stack, water lines,
and drain-waste-vent lines. Sometimes referred to as a plumbing wall.

1.4. PROJECT STAGES

A construction project proceeds in a rather definite order; the stages of development that follow are
typical.

A. Planning and Definition - Once an owner has identified the need for a new facility, he or she must
define the requirements and delineate the budgetary constraints. Project definition involves
establishing broad project characteristics, such as location, performance criteria, size, configuration,
layout, equipment, services, and other owner requirements needed to establish the general aspects
of the project. Conceptual planning stops short of detailed design, although a considerable amount of
preliminary architectural or engineering work maybe required. The definition of the work is basically
the responsibility of the owner, although a design professional may be called in to provide technical
assistance and advice.
B. Design - The design phase involves the architectural and engineering design of the entire project. It
culminates in the preparation of final working drawings and specifications for the total construction
program. In practice, design, procurement, and construction often overlap, with procurement and
construction beginning on certain segments as soon as the design is completed and drawings and
specifications become available.

C. Procurement and Construction - It refers to the ordering, expediting, and delivering of key
project equipment and materials, especially those that may involve long delivery periods. This
function may or may not be handled separately from the construction process itself. Construction i s ,
o f c o u r s e , t h e p r o c e s s of physically erecting the project and putting the materials and
equipment into place, and this involves providing the manpower, construction equipment, materials,
supplies, supervision, and management necessary to accomplish the work.

D. Owner - The owner, whether public or private, is the instigating party that gets the project
financed, designed, and built. Public owners are public bodies of some kind, and range from the
federal government down through state, county, and municipal entities to a multiplicity of local
boards, commissions, and authorities. Public projects are paid for by appropriations, bonds, or other
forms of financing and are built to perform a defined public function. Public owners must proceed in
accordance with applicable statutes and administrative directives pertaining to advertising for bids,
bidding procedure, construction contracts, contract administration, and other matters relating to the
design and construction process. Private owners may be individuals, partnerships, corporations, or
various combinations thereof. Most private owners have the structure built for their own use:
business, habitation, or otherwise. However, some private owners do not intend to be the end users of
the constructed facility; rather, they plan to sell, lease, or rent the completed structure to others.
These end users may or may not be known to the owners at the time of construction.

E. Architect-Engineer - The architect-engineer, also known as the design professional, is the party or
firm that designs the project. Because such design is architectural or engineering in nature, or often a
combination of the two, the term architect engineer is used in this book to refer to the
design professional, regardless of the applicable specialty or the relationship between the architect-
engineer and the owner. The architect-engineer can occupy a variety of positions with respect to the
owner for whom the design is undertaken. Many public agencies and large corporate owners maintain
their own in-house design capability. In such instances, the architect-engineer is the design arm of the
owner. In the traditional and most common arrangement, the architect-engineer is a private and
independent design firm that accomplishes the design under contract with the owner. Where
the m o d e o f construction is used, the owner contracts with a single party for both design and
construction. In such cases the architect-engineer is a branch of, or is affiliated in some way with, the
construction contractor.

F. Prime Contractor - A prime contractor, also known as a general contractor, is the firm that is in
prime contract with the owner for the construction of a project, either in its entirety or for some
designated portion thereof. In this regard, the owner may choose to use a single prime contract or
several separate prime contracts. Under the single-contract system, the owner awards construction of
the entire project to one prime contractor. In this situation, the contractor brings together all the
diverse elements and inputs of the construction process into a single, coordinated effort and assumes
full, centralized responsibility for the delivery of the finished job, constructed in accordance with the
contract documents. The prime contractor is fully responsible to the owner for the performance of the
subcontractors and other third parties to the construction contract. When separate contracts are
used, the project is not constructed under the centralized control of a single prime contractor. Rather,
several independent contractors work on the project simultaneously, and each is responsible for a
designated portion of the work. Each of the contractors is in contract with the owner and each
function independently of the others. Hence, each of these contractors is a prime contractor.
Responsibility for coordination of these contractors may be undertaken by the owner, the architect-
engineer, a construction manager, or one of the prime contractors who is paid extra to perform
certain overall job management duties.

G. Competitive Bidding - The owner selects a prime contractor on the basis of competitive bidding,
negotiation, or some combination of the two. A large proportion of the construction in the United
States is done by contractors that obtain their work in bidding competition with other contractors.
The competitive bidding of public projects is often required by law and is standard procedure for
public agencies. Essentially all public construction work is done by this method. When bidding a
project, the contractor estimates how much the structure will cost using the architect-engineers
drawings and specifications as a basis for the calculations. The contractor then adds a reasonable
profit to this cost and guarantees to do the entire job for the stated price. Bid prices quoted by the
bidding contractors most often constitute the principal basis for selection of the successful contractor,
with the low bidder usually receiving the contract award. Most bidding documents stipulate that the
work shall be awarded to the lowest responsible bidder.
T h i s g i v e s the owner the right to reject the proposal of a bidding contractor if the contractor is
judged to be unqualified for some reason. If its bid is selected, the contractor is obligated to complete
the work in exchange for the contract amount. Competitive bidding can also be used where the
successful contractor is determined on a basis other than the estimated cost of the construction. For
example, where the contract involves payment of a prescribed fee to the contractor, the amount of the
fee is sometimes used as a basis of competition among contractors. Construction management
services are sometimes obtained by an owner using the fees proposed by the different bidders as the
basis for contract award. This is often referred to as a fee-based bid.

H. Negotiated Contracts - At times it can be advantageous for an owner to negotiate a contract for its
project with a preselected contractor or small group of contractors. It is common practice for an
owner to forgo the competitive bidding process and to handpick a contractor on the basis of its
reputation and overall qualifications to-do the job. A contract is negotiated between the owner and
the chosen contractor. Clearly, such contracts can include any terms and provisions that are mutually
agreeable to the parties. Most negotiated contracts are of the cost-plus-fee type, a subject that will be
developed more fully later.

I. Combined Bidding and Negotiation - An owner sometimes will combine elements of both
competitive bidding and negotiation. One such process is to have a bid where the competing
contractors are required to submit their qualifications along with their bids and are encouraged to
tender suggestions as to how the cost of the project could be reduced. The owner then interviews
those contractors whose proposals appear most favorable and negotiates a contract with one of them.
J. Subcontracting - The extent to which a general contractor will subcontract work depends greatly
on the nature of the project and the contractors own organization. There are instances where the job
is entirely subcontracted, so the general contractor provides only supervision, job coordination,
project billing, and perhaps general site services. At the other end of the spectrum are those projects
where the general contractor does no subcontracting, choosing to do the work entirely with its own
forces. Customarily, however, the prime contractor will perform the basic project operations and will
subcontract the remainder to various specialty contractors. Types of work with which the prime
contractor is inexperienced or for which it is not properly equipped are usually subcontracted, since
qualified subcontractors generally are able to perform their specialty faster and less expensively than
the general contractor. In addition, many construction specialties have specific licensing, bonding, and
insurance requirements that would be costly for the general contractor to secure for intermittent use.
When the prime contractor engages a specialty firm to accomplish a particular portion of the project,
the two parties enter into a contract called a subcontract. No contractual relationship is thereby
established between the owner and the subcontractor. When a general contractor sublets a portion
of its work to a subcontractor, the prime contractor remains responsible under its contract with the
owner for any negligent or faulty performance by the subcontractor. The prime contractor assumes
complete responsibility to the owner for the direction and accomplishment of the total work. An
important part of this responsibility is the coordination and supervision of the subcontractors.

K. Design-Bid-Construct - Traditionally, field construction is not begun until the architect-engineer

has completed and finalized the design. This sequence is still predominant in the industry and is
referred to as the design-bid-construct procedure. While completing one step before initiating the
next may be acceptable to owners on some projects, it will be unacceptably slow to other owners. A
number of financial considerations dictate the earliest possible completion date for many
construction projects. It is possible to reduce the total design-construction time required for some
projects by starting the construction before complete design of the entire project has been
accomplished.

L. Fast Tracking - Fast tracking refers to the overlapping accomplishment of project design
and construction. As the design of progressive phases of the work is finalized, these work packages
are put under contract, a process also commonly referred to as phased construction. Early phases of
the project are under construction while later stages are still on the drawing boards. This procedure
of overlapping the design and construction can appreciably reduce the total time required to achieve
project completion. For obvious reasons, fast tracking and phased construction sometimes can offer
attractive advantages to the owner and also can be the source of severe coordination problems.

M. Construction Contract Services - A myriad of contract forms and types are available to the owner
for accomplishing its construction needs, and all of them call for defined services to be provided under
contract to the owner. The scope and nature of such services can be made to include almost anything
the owner wishes. The selection of the proper contract form appropriate to the situation is an
important decision for the owner and is one deserving of careful consideration and consultation. The
construction contract can be made to include construction, design-construct, or construction
management services, each of which is discussed in the next three sections.
N. Construction Services - A large proportion of construction contracts provide that the general
contractor have responsibility to the owner only for accomplishment of the field construction. Under
such an arrangement, the contractor is completely removed from the design process and has no input
into it. Its obligation to the owner is limited to constructing the project in full accordance with the
contract terms. Where the contractor provides construction services only, the usual arrangement is
for a private architect-engineer firm to perform the design in contract with the owner. Under this
arrangement, the design professional acts essentially as an independent design contractor during the
design phase and as an agent of the owner during construction operations. The architect-engineer
acts as a professional intermediary between the owner and contractor and often represents the
owner in matters of construction contract administration. Under such contractual arrangements, the
owner, architect-engineer, and contractor play narrowly defined roles, and the contractor is basically
in an adversarial relationship with the other two.

O. Design-Construct - When the owner contracts with a single firm for both design and construction
and possibly procurement services, this is referred to as a design-construct project. This form of
contract is usually negotiated, although occasionally it is competitively bid. Usually the contractor has
its own design section with architects and engineers as company employees. In other cases, however,
the architect-engineer can be a contractor’s corporate affiliate or subsidiary, or the contractor can
enter into a joint venture arrangement with an independent architect-engineer firm for a given
project or contract. The team concept is basic to design-construct. The owner, designer, and builder
work cooperatively in the total development of the project. The contractor provides substantial input
into the design process on matters pertaining to materials, construction methods, cost estimates, and
construction time schedules. In recent years, owners have shown increasing acceptance and usage of
this concept, largely due to the economies of cost and time that can be realized by melding the two
functions of design and construction. Injecting contractor experience and expertise into the design
process offers the possibility of achieving cost savings for the owner. Because fast tracking is possible
under a design-construct contract, the owner may well have the beneficial use of the structure
considerably before it would have under the more traditional design-bid-construct arrangement.
The difference lies in the greater range of responsibilities that the contractor undertakes on behalf of
the owner under a turnkey arrangement. For example, a turnkey contract often includes such services
as land selection and acquisition, project financing, project equipage procurement, and leasing of
the completed facility.

P. Construction Management - The term construction management is applied to the provision of

professional management services to the owner of a construction project with the objective of
achieving high quality at minimum cost. Such services may encompass only a defined portion of the
construction program, such as field construction, or they may include total project responsibility. The
objective of this approach is to treat project planning, design, and construction as integrated tasks
within a construction system. Where construction management is used, a no adversarial team is
created consisting of the owner, construction manager, architect-engineer, and contractor.
The project participants, by working together from project inception to project completion, attempt to
serve the owners best interests in optimum fashion. By striking a balance between construction cost,
project quality, and completion schedule, the management team strives to produce for the owner a
project of maximum value within the most economical time frame. Construction management does
not include design or construction services per se, but involves management direction and control
over defined design and construction activities. Construction management services are performed for
the owner for a stipulated fee by design firms, contractors, and professional construction managers.
Such services range from merely coordinating contractors during the construction phase to broad-
scale responsibilities over project planning and design, project organization, design document review,
construction scheduling, value engineering, field cost monitoring, and other management services.
Selection of the construction manager by the owner is sometimes accomplished by competitive
bidding using both fee and qualifications as bases for contract awards. Usually, however, the
construction management arrangement is considered to be a professional services contract and is
negotiated. These contracts normally provide for a fixed fee plus reimbursement of management
costs.

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the different kinds of buildings?

2. What are the stages of a construction project?
3. Define the following:
a. Mastic
b. Jamb
c. Groove
d. Built-up roof
e. Damper
f. False ceiling
g. Site work
h. Tailpiece
i. Lap joint
j. HVAC
k. Glazing
l. Veneer
m. Formica
4. What is super- structure? What are the different components of a building?
CHAPTER - 2

MASONRY
MASONRY

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound
together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common
materials of masonry construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone,
cast stone, concrete block, glass block, stucco, tile, and cob. Masonry is generally a highly
durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and
workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can significantly affect the
durability of the overall masonry construction.

2.1. APPLICATION

Masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings, retaining walls and buildings.
Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized
nations and may be either weight-bearing or a veneer. Concrete blocks, especially those
with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally
provide great compressive strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse
loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or
concrete with steel reinforcement (typically rebar) offers much greater tensile and lateral
strength to structures.

Advantages

 The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a
building and can protect the building from fire.
 Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure
with reduced life-cycle costs.
 Masonry is non-combustible product.
 Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or
tornadoes.
 Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortar can have a useful
life of more than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or
reinforced concrete.
Disadvantages

 Extreme weather -combined with the right circumstances- can cause degradation of
masonry wall surfaces due to frost damage.
 Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as
reinforced concrete, to avoid settling and cracking.
 Save for concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and
requires more skilled labor than stick-framing.

2.2. STRUCTURAL LIMITATION

Masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength (vertical loads) but is much
lower in tensile strength (twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of
masonry walls can be strengthened by thickening the wall, or by building
masonry piers (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals.

CLASSIFICATIONS

 STONE MASONRY
 BRICK MASONRY
 COMPOSITE MASONRY

2.3.1. STONE MASONRY

The craft of stonemasonry (or stonecraft) has existed since humanity could use and
make tools [citation needed] - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone
from the earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting,
ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, and cities in a wide variety of cultures. Famous
works of stonemasonry include the TajMahal, Cusco's Incan Wall, Easter Island's statues,
the Egyptian Pyramids, Angkor Wat, Borobudur, Tihuanaco, Tenochtitlan, Persepolis, the
Parthenon, Stonehenge, and Chartres Cathedral.

Masonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, at
times simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the resulting stones,
often together with mortar, to form structures.

 Quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone
from the ground.
  Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with diamond-tipped
saws.
 Banker masons are workshop based, and specialize in carving stones into intricate
geometrical shapes required by a building's design. They can produce anything from
stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more
classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a sawn block,
the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way, so the finished work
sits in the building in the same orientation as it was formed on the ground. The basic
tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands
of years.
 Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their artistic ability to carve stone
into foliage, figures, animals or abstract designs.
 Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle,
and traditional lime mortars and grouts. Sometimes modern cements, mastics and
epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding.
Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application
fixings, are also used. The precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled
job.
 Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones and inscriptions.The
modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and
in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate
knowledge of each stone type, its application and best uses, and how to work and fix
each stone in place. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all
of the various branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards
specialization, in other areas towards adaptability.

Types of stone
Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary;
while some also use artificial stone as well.

 Igneous stones: Granite is one of the hardest

stones, and requires such different techniques to
sedimentary stones that it is virtually a separate
trade. With great persistence, simple mouldings
can and have been carved into granite, for example
in many Cornish churches and the city of
Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for
purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops,
flooring, and breakwaters.
 Igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat
harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks such as granite and basalt.

 Metamorphic: Marble is a fine stone

easily workable, that comes in various
colours, mainly white. It has
traditionally been used for carving
statues, and for facing many Byzantine
and Renaissance Italian buildings. The
first and most admirable marble carvers
and sculptors were the Greeks, namely
Antenor (6th century BC), Phidias and
Critias (5th century BC), Praxiteles (4th
century BC) and others who used mainly
the marble of Paros and Thassos islands, the whitest and brightest of all, although
not the finest, and also the Pentelikon marble. Their work was preceded by older
sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, but the Greeks were unmatched in
plasticity and realistic (re)presentation, either of Gods (Apollo, Aphrodite, Hermes,
Zeus, etc.), or humans (Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Phryne, etc.). The famous
Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble. The
traditional home of the marble industry is the area around Carrara in Italy, from
where a bright and fine, whitish marble is extracted in vast quantities.

Slate is a popular choice of stone for memorials and inscriptions, as its fine grain and
hardness means it leaves details very sharp. Meanwhile, its tendency to split into
thin plates has made it a popular roofing material.

 Sedimentary: Many of the world's most

famous buildings have been built of sedimentary
stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in
Rome. There are two main types of sedimentary
stone used in masonry work, limestones and
sandstones. Examples of limestones include Bath
and Portland stone. Yorkstone and Sydney
sandstone are well-known sandstones.
Types of stonemasonry
Types of stonemasonry are:

 Rubble Masonry: When roughly dressed stones are

laid in a mortar the result is a stone rubble masonry.

 Ashlar Masonry: Stone masonry using dressed

(cut) stones is known as ashlar masonry.

 Stone Veneer: Stone veneer is used as a

protective and decorative covering for interior or
exterior walls and surfaces. The veneer is typically
1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and must weigh less than 15
lb per square foot (73 kg m−2) so that no additional
structural supports are required. The structural
wall is put up first, and thin, flat stones are
mortared onto the face of the wall. Metal tabs in
the structural wall are mortared between the
stones to tie everything together, to prevent the stonework from separating from the
wall.

 Slip form Stone masonry: Slip form stonemasonry is a method for making stone walls
with the aid of formwork to contain the rocks and
mortar while keeping the walls straight. Short forms,
up to two feet tall, are placed on both sides of the
wall to serve as a guide for the stone work. Stones are
placed inside the forms with the good faces against
the form work. Concrete is poured behind the rocks.
Rebar is added for strength, to make a wall that is
approximately half reinforced concrete and half
stonework. The wall can be faced with stone on one side or both sides.
Training

Traditionally medieval stonemasons served a seven-year apprenticeship. A similar

system still operates today.
A modern apprenticeship lasts four years. This combines on-site learning through
personal experience, the experience of the tradesmen and college work where apprentices
are given an overall experience of the building, hewing and theory work involved in
masonry. In some areas colleges offer courses which teach not only the manual skills but
also related fields such as drafting and blueprint reading or construction conservation.
Electronic Stonemasonry training resources enhance traditional delivery
techniques.[2] Hands-on workshops are a good way to learn about stonemasonry also.
Those wishing to become stonemasons should have little problem working at heights,
possess reasonable hand-eye co-ordination, be moderately physically fit, and have basic
mathematical ability. Most of these things can be developed while learning.
Tools

Stonemasons use a wide variety of tools to handle and shape stone blocks (ashlar)
and slabs into finished articles. The basic tools for shaping the stone are a mallet, chisels,
and a metal straight edge. With these one can make a flat surface - the basis of all
stonemasonry.
Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon the function for which
they are being used and have many different names depending on locality. There are
different chisels for different materials and sizes of material being worked, for removing
large amounts of material and for putting a fine finish on the stone.
Mixing mortar is normally done today with mortar mixers which usually use a
rotating drum or rotating paddles to mix the mortar.
The masonry trowel is used for the application of the mortar between and around
the stones as they are set into place. Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to as
pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished using tuck pointers, pointing
trowels, and margin trowels, among other tools.
A mason hammer has a long thin head and is called a Punch Hammer. It would be
used with a chisel or splitter for a variety of purposes
A walling hammer (catchy hammer) can be used in place of a hammer and chisel or
pincher to produce rubble or pinnings or snecks.
Stonemasons use a lewis together with a crane or Block and tackle to hoist building
stones into place.
Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners and angle
grinders are much used: these save time and money, but are hazardous and require just as
much skill as the hand tools that they augment. But many of the basic tools of
stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time, even
thousands of years, for instance when comparing chisels that can be bought today with
chisels found at the pyramids of Giza the common sizes and shapes are virtually
unchanged.

2.3.2. BRICK MASONRY

Brick masonry is the process of constructing a building from individual bricks laid in
a specific pattern and bound together, usually by mortar. Occasionally, the term is also used
to refer to the brick units themselves. Masonry is considered a durable construction
method, and brick is one of the most common types of masonry used in industrialized
nations. The strength of a structure created with this method depends on the type and
uniformity of the individual bricks selected, as well as the style of masonry used.

Bricks are made in a range of varieties, each intended for a specific purpose, but all
are created from some combination of sand, water, clay, and heat. Building brick, or
common brick, is used in construction and is often "cored" with two rows of holes to save
material and reduce weight. Face brick is chosen for visible surfaces or exposed walls and
comes in different colors, sizes, and shapes. Firebrick is made with special clay to offer
additional heat resistance in fireplaces or boiler rooms. Glazed brick is coated on one
surface with a ceramic finish that is sanitary and easy to clean, making it popular in
hospitals and laboratories.

Brick masonry can support substantial weight, but does not respond well to shaking,
twisting, or stretching. For this reason, some kind of structural reinforcement, like steel
beams, is usually included, along with rigid insulation boards or fiberglass batts. The most
popular type of masonry is the veneer wall, in which bricks are used to line the surface of a
structure made from another material to make it look like it's made of brick. Solid
brickwork is also popular and features two or more layers of bricks that are bound
together in a specific pattern to form a masonry bond that may be secured with mortar.
Other types include the crinkle-crankle wall, shaped like a serpentine to resist toppling, and
the brick masonry arch, prized for its compressive strength.

Many attributes make brick a practical and popular construction choice. In addition
to the inherent beauty of brickwork, it is also thought to create the impression of solidity
and permanence, so brick homes often sell for higher prices. Brick is almost maintenance-
free, never needs to be painted or stained, and resists damage from wind, fire, and water. It
also offers both noise and thermal insulation, so structures created from it generally stay
cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter.
 TYPES OF BRICKS

Bricks can be divided into two types – (i) Traditional Bricks

and (ii) Modular Bricks.

(i) Traditional Bricks – The dimension of traditional bricks vary from 21 to

25 cm in length, 10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5 to 7.6 cm in height in
different parts of the country. The commonly adopted nominal size of a
traditional brick is 23 X 11.4 X 7.6 cm
(ii) Modular Bricks – With a view of achieve manufact6ure of uniform size of
bricks all over the country, Indian Standard Institute has established a
standard size for the brick. Such a brick is known as modular brick. The
nominal size of a modular brick is taken as 20 X 10 X 10 cm whereas its
actual dimensions are 19 X 9 X 9 cm.

Nominal Thickness of wall -

The thickness of wall which is to be considered in evaluating the quantity of

brickwork in estimates is called Nominal thickness of wall. In fact it is a fictitious
dimension which represents neither the actual thickness of wall (after excluding surface
finishes like plaster renderings etc.) nor the overall thickness of wall including plaster
redering etc. thus the nominal thickness varies from 21.8 cm to 22.4 cm. Similarly the
nominal thickness of one brick wall using modular brick (with allowance of 10 mm. for
mortar joint) is taken as 20 cm. where as its actual thickness is of 19 cm.

BONDS IN BRICK-WORK –

On account of their uniform size and shape, the bricks can be arranged in a variety
of patterns giving rise to different types of bonds. Bonding is essential to eliminate
continuous vertical joints both in the body as well as in thr face of wall thereby imparting
strength to masonry. A wall having defective arrangement of bricks, reduce the strength
and stability of the structure. A wall having continuous vertical joints does not act as a
homogeneous mass to distribute the superimposed load. On the other hand, it may be
assumed to be consisting of small columns and when a particular column of this wall comes
under the load, it fails on account of its inability to distribute the load to the portion of wall
on either side of it.

 ENGLISH BOND – English bond consists of alternate course of headers and

stretches. In this English bond arrangement, vertical joints in the header courses
come over each other and the vertical joints in the stretcher course are also in the
same line. For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive course it is essential to
place queen closer, after the first header in each heading course.
 The following additional points should be noted in English bond construction:
(1) In English bond, a heading course should never start with a queen closer
as it is liable to get displaced in this position.

(2) In the stretcher course, the stretchers should have a minimum lap of
1/4th their length over the headers.

(3) Walls having their thickness equal to an even number of half bricks, i.e.,
one brick thick wail, 2 brick thick wall, 3 brick thick wall and so on, present
the same appearance on both the faces, i .e. a course consisting of headers on
front face will show headers on the back face also.

Isometric view of 1½ brick wall in English bond is shown below,

(4) In walls having their thickness equal to an odd number of half brick, i.e.
1½ brick thick walls or 2½ brick thick walls and so on, the same course will
show stretchers on one face and headers on the other.

(5) In thick walls the middle portion is entirely filled with header to prevent
the formation of vertical joints in the body of the wall.

(6) Since the number of vertical joints in the header course is twice the
number of joints in the stretcher course, the joints in the header course are
made thinner than those in the stretcher course.

 FLEMISH BOND –In Flemish bond, each course consists of alternate headers and
stretchers. The alternate headers of each course are centered over the stretchers in
the course below. Every alternate course starts with a header at the corner. For the
 breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate
courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd
number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond.

Flemish bond is further divided into two different types namely,

1. Single Flemish bond,

2. Double Flemish bond.

1. Single Flemish Bond - This bond is a combination of English bond and Flemish
bond. In this work the facing of the wall consists of Flemish bond and the backing consists
of English bond in each course. This type of bonding cannot be adopted in walls less than
one and a half brick in thickness. This bond is adopted to present the attractive appearance
of Flemish bond with an effort to ensure full strength in the brick work.

2. Double Flemish bond - In Double

Flemish Bond, each course presents the same
appearance both in the front and back
elevations. Every course consists of headers
and stretchers laid alternately. This type of
bond is best suited from considerations of
economy and appearance. It enables the one
brick wall to have flush and uniform faces on
both the sides. This type of bonding is
comparatively weaker than English bond.
 Stretching bond - In this arrangement of bonding, all the bricks are laid as
stretchers. The overlap, which is usually of half brick, is obtained by commencing
each alternate course with a half brick bat. Stretching bond is used for half brick
wall only. This bond is also termed as running bond and is commonly adopted in the
construction of half brick thick leaves of cavity walls, partition walls, etc. Since there
are no headers, suitable reinforcement should be used for structural bond.

 Heading bond - In this type of

bonding all the bricks are laid as
headers on the faces. The overlap,
which is usually-of half the width of
the brick is obtained by introducing a
three-quarter bat in each alternate
course at quoins. This bond permits
better alignment and as such it is used
for walls curved on plan. This bond is
chiefly used for footings in foundations
for better transverse distribution of
load.

 Garden wall bond - This type of bond is suitably adopted for one brick thick wall
which may act as a garden wall or a boundary wall. In garden wall bond, it is
possible to build uniform faces for a wall without much labour or expense. This type
of bond is not so strong as English bond and its use is restricted to the construction
of dwarf walls or other similar types of walls which are not subjected to large
stresses. On accounts of its good appearance, this bond is sometimes used for the
construction of the outer leaves of cavity walls.

There are two types of garden wall bond,

(a) English garden wall bond

(b) Flemish garden wall bond

(a) English garden wall bond- The general arrangement of bricks in

this type of bonding is similar to that of English bond except that the
heading courses are only inserted at every fourth or sixth course.
Usually the arrangement consists of one course of headers to three
 courses of stretchers. A queen closer is placed next to the quoin
header of the heading course to give the necessary lap.

(b) Flemish garden wall bond.This consists of alternate course

composed of one header to three or sometimes even five stretchers in
series throughout the length of the courses. Each alternate course
contains a three quarter bat placed next to the quoin header and a
header is laid over the middle of each central stretcher

 Facing bond - This

arrangement of bricks is adopted
for thick walls, where the facing
and backing are desired to be
constructed with bricks of
different thickness. This bond
consists of heading and stretching
courses so arranged that one
heading course comes after
several stretching courses. Since
the number of joints in the backing and the facing differ greatly, the load
distribution is not uniform. This may sometimes lead to unequal settlement of the
two thickness of the wall.

 Raking bond - This is a bond in brick work in which the bonding bricks are laid at
any angle other than zero or ninety degrees. This arrangement helps to increase the
longitudinal stability of thick walls built in English bond. In this arrangement of
bonding, the space between the external stretchers of a wall is filled with bricks
inclined to the face of the wall. This bond is introduced at certain intervals along the
height of a wall.

There are two common forms of raking bond ;

(a) Herring hone bond

(b) Diagonal bond.

(a) Herring-bone bond

- This type of bond is
best suited for very
thick walls usually
not less than four
bricks thick. In this
arrangement of brick
work, bricks are laid
in course inclined at
45° in two directions
from the centre. This
bond is also commonly used for brick pavings.

(b) Diagonal bond - This bond is best suited for walls which are 2 to 4 brick
thick. This bond is usually introduced at every fifth or seventh course along
the height of the wall. In this bond, the bricks arc placed end to end in such a
way that extreme corners of the series remain in contact with the
stretchers.
 Dutch bond - This bond is a
modification of the old
English cross bond and
consists of alternate courses
of headers and stretchers. In
this arrangement of brick
work, each stretching
course starts at the quoin
with a three-quarter bat and
every alternate stretching course has a header placed next to the three-quarter
brick bat provided at the quoin.

 English cross-bond - This

is similar to English bond
and consists of alternate
course of headers and
stretchers. However, in
this bond, queen closer are
introduced next to quoin
headers and each alternate
stretching course has
header placed next to quoin stretcher. This bond is sufficiently strong and bears a
good elevation.

 Zig-Zagbond: This is similar to herring-bone bond with the only difference that in
this case the bricks are laid in a zig-zag fashion. This is commonly adopted in brick
paved flooring.
  Silverlock’s bond - This is a form of bonding brick-work in which bricks are laid on
edge. It is economical but weak in strength and hence it is only recommended for
garden walls or partition walls. In this bond, the bricks are laid as headers and
stretchers in alternate courses in such a way that headers are laid on bed aid the
stretchers are laid on edge forming a continuous cavity.

2.3.3. COMPOSITE MASONRY

Walls constructed from two or more building materials are termed as composite
walls. The combination may be stone slab in the face work and brick masonry at the
backing or superior stones in the
facing with rubble stone masonry at
the backing and so on. Composite
masonry is adopted to improve the
appearance of a structure by
concealing the inferior work by user of
superior quality of material in the
desired position. This result in great
saving in cost, if properly constructed,
the structure remains equally strong and durable. Stones, bricks, concrete and tiles are the
materials commonly used in such constructions.

COMPOSITE MASNORY WITH STONE AND BRICK

Is this type of construction stone slabs are used in the face work and brick masonry
is used as backing. Stones used may be natural or artificial. The stones are secured to the
backing either by means of metal cramps or by protecting the header in the face work well
inside the backing. It is obvious that the number of joints in the backing will be the much
more of the joints in the facing and as such the bonding between the two leaves.
 1. BRICK BACKED ASHLER - This has been describes in the chapter on Stone
Masonry.

2. BRICK FACING WITH RUBBLE OR CONCRETE BACKING – In this type of

construction, special types of glazed tiles or bricks are used as facing material and rubble
or create or brick is used as backing Terra-Cotta tiles and other such glazed tiles are
commonly used in lavatory blocks and other similar situations.

3. STONE FACING WITH BRICK, RUBBLE OR CONCRETE BACKING - The purpose

of this type of masonry is to make a wall constructed in brick to appear as if constructed in
stone. It is adopted to improve the appearance of the structure at a lesser cost. The stone
slabs seldom exceed 5 to cm. in thickness and are properly secured to the backing.

CEMENT CONCRETE MASONRY

Cement concrete is largely used for
construction purposes on account of its
numerous advantages over the other building
materials. Cement concrete may be used in the
form of pre-cast concrete blocks, plain concrete
slabs or reinforced concrete slabs. Hollow units
may be defined as those units having core-void
areas greater than25% of their gross area. The
blocks may have one or multi-core design to
suit the choice of manufacture. The various
advantages of hollow concrete block masonry are described below:

1. On account of their regular and uniform size and less weight, concrete blocks
afford great facility in masonry construction which ultimately result in rapid execution of
work.

2. Hollow blocks of concrete permit adoption of thinner walls thereby achiving

increased floor area and hence saving of space.

3. There is a great saving of material on account of the blocks being hollow from
inside. The air space (hollow space) in concrete blocks varies from 20 to 40 per cent of
their volume.
 4. On account of the large size of concrete blocks, the numbers of joints in a work
are lesser and hence there is saving of mortar in this type of masonry.

5. The hollow space in the blocks enables the masonry to have good insulating
properties against sound, heat and dampness.

6. On account of good properties of concrete, hollow concrete blocks can be safely

withstanding the atmospheric action and it requires no protective covering as is necessary
in case of brick work.

7. Unskilled labour can be employed in this type of work and on account of the light
weight of the blocks, the construction is speedy and it results in economy in labour cost and
in time.

8. The rough surface of the concrete blocks are manufactured in various shapes and
sizes. The blocks are moulded in machine and can be obtained in the following standards
sizes:

i. Standard size Hollow concrete blocks – 39 cm X 19 cm X 30 cm

ii. Hollow building tiles - 39 cm X 19 cm X 20 cm

iii. Hollow concrete blocks for partition - 39 cm X 19 cm X 10 cm

The face thickness of blocks is kept 5 cm. or more.

Specially shaped blocks are manufactured for corners, skills, lintels and jambs, wall
closures, piers between doors and windows etc. to fit in the job suitably.

In order to ensure maximum economy in construction, the overall length and height
of walls should be so fixed as to make maximum use of full and half-length blocks possible.
The width and height of door and window openings and the wall area between them
should be planned keeping in view the size of blocks available. This is essential to minimum
cutting of blocks and avoids wastage of material and time.

LOAD BEARING WALL TILES –

There are a variety of shapes for load bearing clay tiles. The
tiles may be used for either interior or exterior load
bearing walls. As in the case of hollow concrete blocks, the
surface of the tiles is rough and can be easily plastered if
desired. The tiles may be used with or without any backing
or facing. The tiles are designed to carry the superimposed load plus the weight of the
facing material such as plaster etc.
GLASS BLOCK MASONRY –
There are various shape and sizes of glass blocks available these days. The blocks
are made from structural glass annealed to withstand rigorous use of the material. In
addition, the glass used is such that it is impervious to
grease, chemicals, moisture and does not change its
colour with age. The blocks may be made hollow or
solid. Glass block panels should never be made to
carry loads other than their own weight. They are
generally laid in cement-lime mortar (1:4). In glass
block masonry with blocks more than 30 cm high,
every horizontal joint should be reinforced with
galvanized expanded metal strips. The construction is
so executed that there is complete freedom of
movement of the panel within the enframing members. Provision for expansion is made
along the jambs and the head of each panel and there is proper anchorage of panel at head,
sill and jambs.

Advantages of Glass block masonry –

1. It is attractive in appearance.

2. On account of the dead air space within, the glass block masonry has great heat
insulating value.

3. It is non-porous, non-absorbent and impervious to moisture.

4. it can be easily cleaned and as such it is considered more hygienic.

5. It diffuses the light (which passes through) and with proper selection of suitable
patterns, a wide range of light and decorative effects can be produced.

6. It has good sound-proofing property and thus the room with glass block masonry
walls has improved acoustical effects.

7. Glass block masonry is best suited in places where window openings cannot be
provided and clear glass in objectionable from considerations of privacy.
 2.4. EQUIPMENTS:

Trowels
 A mason's most important tools are her trowels. Trowels usually have triangular-shaped
heads attached to wooden or plastic handles. Masons use their trowels to pick up mortar
and spread it on bricks. They also sometimes use the butt of the trowel's handle to tap the
brick into place in the mortar bed. Trowels come in different shapes and sizes for special
jobs.

Chisels
 Masons use chisels to cut bricks into smaller pieces. They also sometimes use them to
remove bricks that are not sitting correctly and need to be adjusted. A chisel normally has a
metal head that is shaped like the head of a shovel except flat. The edge of the chisel is
slightly sharp.
 Hammers
 Mason's hammers do not look exactly like normal hammers you are accustomed to using.
Instead, a mason's hammer has an iron head with a square face on one end. The other end
has a long chisel. Mason's hammers are also much heavier than normal hammers and can
weigh up to 3 1/2 pounds. Masons use their hammers to split and break up bricks.

Jointers
 Masons use jointers to make mortar joints. Many jointers look like long, flat metal bars with
a bend in the middle. There are several types of jointers. They may be round, flat or
pointed, and masons select their jointers based upon what kinks of mortar joints they need
to make.

Squares
 Masons use their squares to measure right angles and lay corners. Squares are generally
made of wood or metal. They come in a variety of sizes.
 Levels
 Masons use levels to establish plumb and level lines. Plumb lines are lines that are perfectly
vertical. Level lines are perfectly horizontal. Good levels are very lightweight but sturdy.
Masons expect them to be able to withstand rough treatment. Often, levels are made from
wood, hardwood or even plastic. They have vials enclosed in glass. Each vial has a bubble of
air suspended in liquid. When the bubble rests between two center marks on the vial, the
mason knows that his line is level or plumb.

Straightedges
 Straightedges are for extending level or plumb lines. They can be as big as 16 feet long.
Straightedges may be between 1 1/8 and 1 1/2 inches thick and are usually between 6 and
10 inches wide. The top edge of a straightedge must be perfectly parallel to the bottom
edge.

Answer the following questions:

1. What is masonry? Classify masonry.

2. How many kinds of bricks are there? What is bonding? Illustrate each with
diagrams.
3. What is stone masonry? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of masonry.
 4. What are the different kinds of equipment used in masonry?

Answer in brief:

1. What is English bond?

2. What is stone veneer?
3. What is a herring bone bond?
4. What is cement concrete masonry?
5. What are the advantages of glass block masonry?
MODULE 2
 CHAPTER – 1

REINFORCE CEMENT
CONCRETE (R.C.C.)
AND SHUTTERING

3.1. REINFORCE CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.)

3.1.1. INTRODUCTION:
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support forces (loads).
Buildings, bridges and towers are examples for structures in civil engineering. In buildings,
structure consists of walls floors, roofs and foundation. In bridges, the structure consists of
deck, supporting systems and foundations. In towers the structure consists of vertical,
horizontal and diagonal members along with foundation.

A structure can be broadly classified as (i) sub structure and (ii) super structure.
The portion of building below ground level is known as sub-structure and portion above
the ground is called as super structure. Foundation is sub structure and plinth, walls,
columns, floor slabs with or without beams, stairs, roof slabs with or without beams etc. is
superstructure. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood, rocks
natural fibers are used to construct buildings. Apart from this many manmade products are
in use for building construction. Bricks, tiles, cement concrete, concrete blocks, plastic, steel
& glass etc are manmade building materials.

Cement concrete is a composite building material made from combination of

aggregates (course and fine) and a binder such as cement. The most common form of
concrete consists of mineral aggregate (gravel & sand), Portland cement and water. After
mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone like material. Recently a
large number of additives known as concrete additives are also added to enhance the
quality of concrete. Plasticizers, super plasticizers, accelerators, retarders, pazolonic
materials, air entertaining agents, fibers, polymer sand silica furies are the additives used
in concrete. Hardened concrete has high compressive strength and low tensile strength.

Fig. 1.1

Concrete is generally
strengthened using steel bars or rods
known as rebars in tension zone. Such
elements are “reinforced concrete”
concrete can be moulded to any
complex shape using suitable form
work and it has high durability, better
appearance, fire resistance and
economical. For a strong, ductile and
durable construction the reinforcement
shall have high strength, high tensile
strain and good bond to concrete and thermal compatibility. Building components like slab
walls, beams, columns foundation & frames are constructed with reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concreted can be in-situ concreted or precast concrete.

For understanding behavior of reinforced concrete, we shall consider a plain

concrete beam subjected to external load as shown in Fig. 1.1. Tensile strength of concrete
is approximately one-tenth of its compressive strength.
 Fig. 1.2
Hence use of
plain concrete as a
structural material is
limited to situations
where significant
tensile stresses and
strains do not develop
as in solid or hollow
concrete blocks ,
pedestal and in mass
concrete dams. The
steel bars are used in
tension zone of the element to resist tension as shown in Fig 1.2. The tension caused by
bending moment is chiefly resisted by the steel reinforcements, while concrete resist the
compression. Such joint action is possible if relative slip between concrete and steel is
prevented. This phenomenon is called “bond”. This can be achieved by using deformed bass
which has high bond strength at the steel-concrete interface. Rebars impart “ductility” to
the structural element, i.e RC elements has large deflection before it fails due to yielding of
steel, thus it gives ample warning before its collapse.

Fig. 1.3.

3.1.2. Design Loads

For the analysis and

design of structure, the forces
are considered as the “Loads”
on the
Structure: In a structure all
components which are
stationary, like wall, slab etc.,
exert forces due to gravity,
which are called as “Dead
Loads”. Moving bodies like
furniture, humans etc exert
forces due to gravity which are called as “Live Loads”. Dead loads and live loads are gravity
forces which act vertically down ward. Wind load is basically a horizontal force due to wind
pressure exerted on the structure. Earthquake load is primarily a horizontal pressure
exerted due to movement of the soil on the foundation of a structure. Vertical earthquake
force is about 5% to 10% of horizontal earthquake force. Fig. 1.3 illustrates the loads that
are considered in analysis and design.
3.1.3. Materials for Reinforced Concrete

Concrete

Concrete is a composite material consists essentially of

a) A binding medium cement and water called cement paste
b) Particles of relatively inert filler called aggregate

The selection of the relative proportions of cement, water and aggregate is called
“mix design”. Basic requirement of a good concrete are workability, strength, durability and
economy. Depending upon the intended use the cement may be OPC (33,43& 53 Grade),
Rapid hardening cements Portland slag, Portland pozzolona etc. High cement content give
rise to increased shrinkage, creep and cracking. Minimum cement content is 300Kg/m3
and maximum being450Kg/m3 as per Indian code. Mineral additives like fly ash , silica
fume, rice husk ash, metakoline and ground granulated blast furnace slag may be used to
reduce micro cracks . The Aggregate used is primarily for the purpose of providing bulk to
the concrete and constitutes 60to 80 percent of finished product. Fine aggregates are used
to increase the workability and uniformly of concrete mixture. Water used for mixing and
curing shall be clean and free from oil, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar etc. The diverse
requirements of mixability, stability, transportability place ability, mobility, compatibility
of fresh concrete are collectively referred to as workability.

Compressive strength of concrete on 28th day

after casting is considered as one of the measure of
quality. At least 4 specimens of cubes should be tested
for acceptance criteria.

Grade of concrete: Based on the compressive

strength of concrete, they are designated with letter H
followed by an integer number represented
characteristic strength of concrete, measured using
150mm size cube. Characteristic strength is defined us
the strength of material below which not more than5% of test results are expected to full.
The concrete grade M10, M15 and M20 are termed as ordinary concrete and those of M25
to M55 are termed as standard concrete and the concrete of grade 60 and above are termed
as high strength concrete. The selection of minimum grade of concrete is dictated by
durability considerations which are based on kind of environment to which the structure is
exposed, though the minimum grade of concrete for reinforced concrete is specified as M20
under mild exposure conditions, it is advisable to adopt a higher grade. For moderate,
severe, very severe and extreme exposure conditions, M25, M30, M35 & M40grades
respectively are recommended. Typical stress-strain curves of concrete is shown inFig.1.4
Reinforcing steel

Steel bars are often used in concrete to take case of tensile stresses. Often they are
called as rebars, steel bar induces ductility to composite material i.e reinforced concrete
steel is stronger than concrete in compression also. Plain mild steel bars or deformed bars
are generally used.
Fig. 1.5.

Due to poor bond strength plain bars are

not used. High strength deformed bars generally
cold twisted (CTD) are used in reinforced
concrete. During beginning of 21st century,
Thermo mechanical treatment (TMT) bars which
have ribs on surface are used in reinforced
concrete. Yield strength of steel bars is denoted as
characteristic strength. Yield strength of mild steel
is250MPa, yield strength of CTD &TMT bars
available in market has 415 MPa or 500 MPa
or550MPa. TMT bars have better elongation than
CTD bars. Stress-strain curve of CTD bars or TMT bars do not have definite yield point,
hence 0.2% proof stress is used as yield strength. Fig1.5 shows stress strain curve of
different steel grades. Steel grades are indicated by Fe followed by yield strength. In the
drawings of RCC, f denotes MS bar and # denotes CTD or TMT bars.

NOTES :

Cement - Cement to be used in the works shall be any of the following types with the prior
approval of the Engineer-in-Charge :

a) Ordinary portland cement, 33 Grade conforming to IS : 269.

b) Ordinary portland cement, 43 Grade conforming to IS : 8112.
c) Ordinary portland cement, 53 Grade conforming to IS : 12269.
d) Sulphate resistant portland cement, conforming to IS : 12330.

Steel - Steel to be used shall conform to IS : 1786. All steel shall be procured from
original producers, no re-rolled steel shall be incorporated in the work. Only new steel shall
be delivered to the site. Every bar shall be inspected before assembling on the work and
defective, brittle or burnt bar shall be discarded. Cracked ends of bars shall be discarded.

Coarse Aggregates - Coarse aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, strong, dense, non-
porous and durable pieces of crushed stone. They shall not consist pieces of disintegrated
stones, soft, flaky, elongated particles, salt, alkali, vegetable matter or other deleterious
materials. All coarse aggregate shall conform to IS: 383 and tests for conformity shall be
carried out as per IS: 2386 parts I to VIII. The maximum value of Flakiness Index for coarse
aggregate shall not exceed35 percent. The coarse aggregate shall satisfy the following
requirements of grading:

Grading Requirements of Coarse Aggregate

IS Sieve Percent by weight passing the sieve

40mm 20mm 12.5mm
63 mm 100 - -
40 mm 95 – 100 100 -
20 mm 30 – 70 95 – 100 100
12.5 mm - - 90 - 100
10 mm 10 – 35 25 – 55 40 - 85
4.75 mm 0–5 0 – 10 0 - 10

Sand/Fine Aggregates - Fine aggregates shall not contain dust, lumps, soft or flaky
materials, mica or other deleterious materials. Fine aggregates, having positive alkali-silica
reaction, shall not be used. All fine aggregates shall conform to IS: 383. The fineness
modulus of fine aggregate shall neither be less than 2.0 nor greater than 3.5.

Water -Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amount of
oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be
deleterious to concrete. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing and
curing of concrete.

Concrete -Concrete shall be mixed either in a concrete mixer or in a batching and mixing
plant. Hand mixing is prohibited. Mixing shall be continued till materials are uniformly
distributed and a uniform colour of the entire mass is obtained and each individual particle
of the coarse aggregate shows complete coating of mortar, containing its proportionate
amount of cement. In no case, mixing shall be done for less than 2 minutes.
Concrete shall be transported and placed as near as practicable to its final position.
Concrete shall not be freely dropped into place from a height exceeding 1.50metres and it
shall be compacted in its final position within 30 minutes of its discharge from the mixer. It
shall be compacted thoroughly by vibration or other means during placing so as to produce
a dense homogeneous void-free mass having the required surface finish.

3.2. SHUTTERING OR FRAMING:

3.2.1. INTRODUCTION:
Framing, in construction is the fitting together of pieces to give a structure support and
shape and sometimes is used as a noun such as "the framing" or "framing members".
Framing materials are usually wood, engineered wood, or structural steel.

Building framing is divided into two broad categories –

Heavy-frame construction (heavy framing) - If the vertical supports are few and
heavy such as in timber framing, pole building framing, or steel framing or many and
smaller called light-frame construction (light framing) including balloon, platform and
light-steel framing. Light-frame construction using standardized dimensional lumber has
become the dominant construction method in North America and Australia because of its
economy. Use of minimal structural materials allows builders to enclose a large area with
minimal cost, while achieving a wide variety of architectural styles. Historically mankind
fitted naturally shaped wooden poles together as framework and then began using joints to
connect the timbers, a method today called traditional timber framing. Timber framing was
superseded by balloon framing beginning in the 1830s in America which is made up of
many light-weight wall members called studs rather than using fewer, heavier supports
called posts, and was nailed together rather than using joinery. The studs in a balloon
frame extend two stories from sill to plate. Platform framing superseded balloon framing
and is the standard wooden framing method today. The name comes from each floor level
being framed as a separate unit or platform.

Modern light-frame construction– Usually it is gain strength from rigid panels

plywood and other plywood-like composites such as oriented strand board (OSB) used to
form all or part of wall sections but until recently carpenters employed various forms of
diagonal bracing to stabilize walls. Diagonal bracing remains a vital interior part of many
roof systems, and in-wall wind braces are required by building codes in many
municipalities or by individual state laws in the United States. Special framed shear walls
are becoming more common to help buildings meet the requirements of earthquake
engineering and wind engineering.

The alternative to framed construction is generally called mass wall construction

which is made from horizontal layers of stacked materials such as log building, masonry,
rammed earth, adobe, etc.

3.2.2. DIFFERENT FRAMING:

Walls - Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of
exterior walls and interior partitions, both of bearing walls and non-bearing walls. These
stick members, referred to as studs, wall plates and lintels (headers), serve as a nailing
base for all covering material and support the upper floor platforms, which provide the
lateral strength along a wall. The platforms may be the boxed structure of a ceiling and
roof, or the ceiling and floor joists of the story above. The technique is variously referred to
colloquially in the building trades as stick and frame, stick and platform, or stick and box as
the sticks (studs) give the structure its vertical support, and the box-shaped floor sections
with joists contained within length-long post and lintels (more commonly called headers),
support the weight of whatever is above, including the next wall up and the roof above the
top story. The platform also provides the lateral support against wind and holds the stick
walls true and square. Any lower platform supports the weight of the platforms and walls
above the level of its component headers and joists. Framing lumber should be grade-
stamped, and have a moisture content not exceeding 19%.

There are three historically common methods of framing a house.

Balloon framing using a technique suspending floors from the walls was common
until the late 1940s, but since that time, platform framing has become the predominant
form of house construction. Platform framing
often forms wall sections horizontally on the
sub-floor prior to erection, easing positioning
of studs and increasing accuracy while cutting
the necessary manpower. The top and bottom
plates are end-nailed to each stud with two
nails at least 3.25 in (83 mm) in length (16d or
16 penny nails). Studs are at least doubled
(creating posts) at openings, the jack stud
being cut to receive the lintels (headers) that
are placed and end-nailed through the outer
studs. Wall sheathing, usually a plywood or other laminate, is usually applied to the
framing prior to erection, thus eliminating the need to scaffold, and again increasing speed
and cutting manpower needs and expenses. Some types of exterior sheathing, such as
asphalt-impregnated fiberboard, plywood, oriented strand board and wafer board, will
provide adequate bracing to resist lateral loads and keep the wall square, (Construction
codes in most jurisdictions require stiff plywood sheathing.) others, such as rigid glass-
fiber, asphalt-coated fiberboard, polystyrene or polyurethane board, will not. In this latter
case, the wall should be reinforced with a diagonal wood or metal bracing inset into the
studs. In jurisdictions subject to strong wind storms (hurricane countries, tornado alleys)
local codes or state law will generally require both the diagonal wind braces and the stiff
exterior sheathing regardless of the type and kind of outer weather resistant coverings.
Corners

A multiple-stud post made up of at

least three studs, or the equivalent, is
generally used at exterior corners and
intersections to secure a good tie between
adjoining walls and to provide nailing support
for the interior finish and exterior sheathing.
Corners and intersections, however, must be
framed with at least two studs.

Nailing support for the edges of the ceiling is

required at the junction of the wall and ceiling where partitions run parallel to the ceiling
joists. This material is commonly referred to as 'dead wood' or backing.

Exterior wall studs

Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of
exterior walls and interior partitions. These members referred to as studs, wall plates and
lintels, serve as a nailing base for all covering
material and support the upper floors, ceiling and
roof.

Exterior wall studs are the vertical members to

which the wall sheathing and cladding are attached.
They are supported on a bottom plate or
foundation sill and in turn support the top plate.
Studs usually consist of 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89
mm) or 1.5 in × 5.5 in (38 mm × 140 mm) lumber
and are commonly spaced at 16 in (410 mm) on centre. This spacing may be changed to 12
in (300 mm) or 24 in (610 mm) on centre depending on the load and the limitations
imposed by the type and thickness of the wall covering used. Wider 1.5 in × 5.5 in (38 mm ×
140 mm) studs may be used to provide space for more insulation. Insulation beyond that
which can be accommodated within a 3.5 in (89 mm) stud space can also be provided by
other means, such as rigid or semi-rigid insulation or batts between 1.5 in × 1.5 in (38 mm
× 38 mm) horizontal furring strips, or rigid or semi-rigid insulation sheathing to the
outside of the studs. The studs are attached to horizontal top and bottom wall plates of 1.5
in (38 mm) lumber that are the same width as the studs.
Interior partitions

Interior partitions supporting floor, ceiling or roof loads are called load bearing
walls; others are called non-load bearing or simply partitions. Interior load bearing walls
are framed in the same way as exterior walls.
Studs are usually 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89
mm) lumber spaced at 16 in (410 mm) on
center. This spacing may be changed to 12 in
(300 mm) or 24 in (610 mm) depending on
the loads supported and the type and
thickness of the wall finish used.

Partitions can be built with 1.5 in × 2.5

in (38 mm × 64 mm) or 1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm
× 89 mm) studs spaced at 16 or 24 in (400 or
600 mm) on center depending on the type
and thickness of the wall finish used. Where a partition does not contain a swinging door,
1.5 in × 3.5 in (38 mm × 89 mm) studs at 16 in (410 mm) on centre are sometimes used
with the wide face of the stud parallel to the wall. This is usually done only for partitions
enclosing clothes closets or cupboards to save space. Since there is no vertical load to be
supported by partitions, single studs may be used at door openings. The top of the opening
may be bridged with a single piece of 1.5 in (38 mm) lumber the same width as the studs.
These members provide a nailing support for wall finish, door frames and trim.

Lintels (headers)

Lintels (or, headers) are the horizontal

members placed over window, door and other
openings to carry loads to the adjoining studs.
Lintels are usually constructed of two pieces of 2
in (nominal) (38 mm) lumber separated with
spacers to the width of the studs and nailed
together to form a single unit. The preferable
spacer material is rigid insulation. The depth of a lintel is determined by the width of the
opening and vertical loads supported.
Wall sections

The complete wall sections are

then raised and put in place,
temporary braces added and the
bottom plates nailed through the
subfloor to the floor framing
members. The braces should have
their larger dimension on the vertical
and should permit adjustment of the
vertical position of the wall.Once the
assembled sections are plumbed, they
are nailed together at the corners and
intersections. A strip of polyethylene is often placed between the interior walls and the
exterior wall, and above the first top plate of interior walls before the second top plate is
applied to attain continuity of the air barrier when polyethylene is serving this function.

A second top plate, with joints offset at least one stud space away from the joints in the
plate beneath, is then added. This second top plate usually laps the first plate at the corners
and partition intersections and, when nailed in place, provides an additional tie to the
framed walls. Where the second top plate does not lap the plate immediately underneath at
corner and partition intersections, these may be tied with 0.036 in (0.91 mm) galvanized
steel plates at least 3 in (76 mm) wide and 6 in (150 mm) long, nailed with at least three
2.5 in (64 mm) nails to each wall.

Balloon framing

Balloon framing is a method of wood construction – also known as "Chicago

construction" in the 19th century – used primarily in Scandinavia, Canada and the United
States (up until the mid-1950s). It utilizes long continuous framing members (studs) that
run from the sill plate to the top plate, with intermediate floor structures let into and nailed
to them. Here the heights of window sills, headers and next floor height would be marked
out on the studs with a storey pole. Once popular when long lumber was plentiful, balloon
framing has been largely replaced by platform framing.

It is not certain who introduced balloon framing in the United States. However, the first
building using balloon framing was probably a warehouse constructed in 1832 in Chicago,
Illinois, by George Washington Snow. The following year, Augustine Taylor (1796–1891)
constructed St. Mary's Catholic Church in Chicago using the balloon framing method. In the
1830s, Hoosier Solon Robinson published articles about a revolutionary new framing
system, called “balloon framing” by later builders. Robinson’s system called for standard
2x4 lumber, nailed together to form a sturdy, light skeleton. Builders were reluctant to
adopt the new technology, however, by the 1880s, some form of 2x4 framing was standard.
Alternatively, the balloon frame has been shown to have been introduced in Missouri as
much as fifty years earlier.

The name comes from a French Missouri type of construction, mason en boulin,
boulin being a French term for a horizontal scaffolding support. Historians have also
fabricated the following story: As Taylor
was constructing his first such building, St.
Mary's Church, in 1833, skilled carpenters
looked on at the comparatively thin framing
members, all held together with nails, and
declared this method of construction to be
no more substantial than a balloon. It would
surely blow over in the next wind! Though
the criticism proved baseless, the name
stuck. Although lumber was plentiful in
19th-century America, skilled labor was not.
The advent of cheap machine-made nails,
along with water-powered sawmills in the early 19th century made balloon framing highly
attractive, because it did not require highly skilled carpenters, as did the dovetail joints,
mortises and tenons required by post-and-beam construction. For the first time, any
farmer could build his own buildings without a time-consuming learning curve.It has been
said that balloon framing populated the western United States and the western provinces
of Canada. Without it, western boomtowns certainly could not have blossomed overnight. It
is also a fair certainty that, by radically reducing construction costs, balloon framing
improved the shelter options of poorer North Americans.[citation needed] For example,
many 19th-century New England working neighborhoods consist of balloon-constructed
three-story apartment buildings referred to as triple deckers.

The main difference between platform and balloon framing is at the floor lines. The
balloon wall studs extend from the sill of the first story all the way to the top plate or end
rafter of the second story. The platform-framed wall, on the other hand, is independent for
each floor.

Balloon framing has several disadvantages as a construction method:

The creation of a path for fire to readily travel from floor to floor- This is mitigated with the
use of fire stops at each floor level.

The lack of a working platform for work on upper floors- Whereas workers can readily
reach the top of the walls being erected with platform framing, balloon construction
requires scaffolding to reach the tops of the walls (which are often two or three stories
above the working platform).

The requirement for long framing members -Larger balloon-framed buildings will have
central bearing walls which are actually platform framed and thus will have horizontal sill
and top plates at each floor level, plus the intervening floor joists, at these central walls.
Wood will shrink much more across its grain than along the grain. Therefore, the
cumulative shrinkage in the center of such a building is considerably more than the
shrinkage at the perimeter where there are many fewer horizontal members. This problem,
unlike the first three, takes time to develop and become noticeable.

Present-day balloon framing buildings often have higher heating costs, due to the lack of
insulation separating a room from its exterior walls. However, this can be remedied
through the addition of insulation, as with any other framed building.

Since steel is generally more fire-resistant than wood, and steel framing members can be
made to arbitrary lengths, balloon framing is growing in popularity again in light gauge
steel stud construction. Balloon framing provides a more direct load path down to the
foundation. Additionally, balloon framing allows more flexibility for tradesmen in that it is
significantly easier to pull wire, piping and ducting without having to bore through or work
around framing members.[citation needed]

Platform framing -

In contrast, in platform framing a floor box and joists making up the platform is built
and placed on a supporting under structure (Sill plates, headers, or beams) where it sits flat
and gets fastened down against wind lifting with galvanized metal tie straps. Once the
boxed floor platform is squared, leveled and fastened then subfloor, walls, ceilings, and roof
are built onto and above that initial platform, which can be repeated floor by floor, 'without
the slow downs and dangers of fastening and leveling rough-sawn joists of a new floor
together to the walls from ladders extending one or even two stories up.
Generally, the flooring ('platform') is constructed then the walls built on top of that layer,
then another atop that, and so forth making for quick efficient labor saving construction
methodologies and those have quickened further as technologies such as joist hangers have
been developed to speed and enhance the technology. The methods and techniques have
become so common and pervasive that even Skyscrapers use a modified form of platform
framing techniques and indeed the same tools and technologies once construction builds
the initial structural skeleton. Once the platform floor is laid down, the builder's crew can
with chalk line, rule and pencil directly transfer an outline of the exterior and interior
walls, their openings and relative locations with ease and precision from the plans or
builders blue prints. As the survey group lays down the notations and chalk lines, a
carpenter crew can follow behind and lay down 2x4 'bottom plates' and tack them to the
floor box. The topmost wall plates are cut only to the outside dimensions of the walls.
Butting two other two by fours against these cut to size and fastened bottom plate allows
the crew to rule across all three with square and lay out studs, cripple studs, and openings
for that particular wall. The two loose studs are then quickly flipped on edge after openings
are cut in, and studs added on the
marks with quick reliable end nailing
through the respective top and
bottom plates. A few minutes later the
whole wall section can be levered up
and aligned in place and braced for
later application of the top plates and
adjoining walls.

The method provides builders

options and flexibility such as when
and where there is a floor-level
opening (doorway) the next wall
section can be aligned and fastened in
place separately with the top plate
added then used then a lintel and cripple studding added, or the entire wall could have
been cut and joined at the top all along and lifted up as one entity. In the end, the outside
walls are plumbed and fastened together with 'ell-configured reinforced corners' that
provide nailing wood in the interior angles and strength to the building forming in effect
wide posts at each corner and fastened lastly by overlapped top plates which stagger their
joints from the ones capping each plate by which the studs are end nailed together. Each
wall from top to bottom ends up with a doubled plate, studs, and a doubled plate, where
structurally the doubled plates spread the weight of the roof and loading across the studs
of the wall, ultimately to the foundation. Overall, the framed structure sits (most
commonly) atop a concrete foundation on pressure treated wood 'sill', or 'beam'. When on
concrete, the sill plate is anchored, usually with (embedded) 'J' bolts into the concrete
substrate of the foundation wall. Generally these plates must be pressure treated to keep
from rotting from condensing moisture. By various standards the bottom of the sill plate is
located a minimum 6 inches (150 mm) above the finished grade (the surrounding ground)
per standard builders practices, and frequently more dependent upon building codes of the
relevant jurisdiction's local building codes.

3.2.3. MATERIALS:
Light-frame materials are most often wood or rectangular steel, tubes or C-channels.
Wood pieces are typically connected with nail fastener nails or screws; steel pieces are
connected with nuts and bolts. Preferred species for linear structural members are
softwoods such as spruce, pine and fir. Light frame material dimensions range from 38 mm
by 89 mm (1.5 in by 3.5 in; i.e., a Dimensional number two-by-four to 5 cm by 30 cm (two-
by-twelve inches) at the cross-section, and lengths ranging from convert 2.5 mm ft for walls
to convert 7 m ft or more for joists and rafters. Recently, architects have begun
experimenting with pre-cut modular aluminum framing to reduce on-site construction
costs. Wall panels built of studs are interrupted by sections that provide rough openings for
doors and windows.

Openings are typically spanned by a header or lintel that bears the weight of
structure above the opening. Headers are usually built to rest on trimmers, also called
jacks. Areas around windows are defined by a sill beneath the window, and cripples, which
are shorter studs that span the area from the bottom plate to the sill and sometimes from
the top of the window to a header, or from a header to a top plate. Diagonal bracings made
of wood or steel provide shear (horizontal strength) as do panels of sheeting nailed to
studs, sills and headers.

Wall sections usually include a bottom plate which is secured to the structure of a
floor, and one, or more often two top plates that tie walls together and provide a bearing
for structures above the wall. Wood or steel floor frames usually include a rim joist around
the perimeter of a system of floor joists, and often include bridging material near the center
of a span to prevent lateral buckling of the spanning members. In two-story construction,
openings are left in the floor system for a stairwell, in which stair risers and treads are
most often attached to squared faces cut into sloping stair stringers. Interior wall coverings
in light-frame construction typically include wallboard, lath and plaster or decorative wood
paneling.

Exterior finishes for walls and ceilings often include plywood or composite
sheathing, brick or stone veneers, and various stucco finishes. Cavities between studs,
usually placed 40–60 cm (16–24 in) apart, are usually filled with insulation materials, such
as fiberglass batting, or cellulose filling sometimes made of recycled newsprint treated with
boron additives for fire prevention and vermin control. In natural building, straw bales, cob
and adobe may be used for both exterior and interior walls.

The part of a structural building that goes diagonally across a wall is called a T-bar. It stops
the walls from collapsing in gusty winds.

Roofs

Roofs are usually built to provide a

sloping surface intended to shed rain or
snow, with slopes ranging from 1 cm of rise
per 15 cm (less than an inch per linear foot)
of rafter length, to steep slopes of more than
2 cm per cm (two feet per foot) of rafter
length. A light-frame structure built mostly
inside sloping walls comprising a roof is
called an A-frame.

Roofs are most often[citation needed] covered with shingles made of asphalt,
fiberglass and small gravel coating, but a wide range of materials are used. Molten tar is
often used to waterproof flatter roofs, but newer materials include rubber and synthetic
materials. Steel panels are popular roof coverings in some areas, preferred for their
durability. Slate or tile roofs offer more historic coverings for light-frame roofs.

Light-frame methods allow easy

construction of unique roof designs. Hip
roofs, slope toward walls on all sides and
are joined at hip rafters that span from
corners to a ridge. Valleys are formed when
two sloping roof sections drain toward each
other. Dormers are small areas in which
vertical walls interrupt a roof line, and
which are topped off by slopes at usually
right angles to a main roof section. Gables
are formed when a length-wise section of
sloping roof ends to form a triangular wall
section. Clerestories are formed by an interruption along the slope of a roof where a short
vertical wall connects it to another roof section. Flat roofs, which usually include at least a
nominal slope to shed water, are often surrounded by parapet walls with openings (called
scuppers) to allow water to drain out. Sloping crickets are built into roofs to direct water
away from areas of poor drainage, such as behind a chimney at the bottom of a sloping
section.

3.2.4. STRUCTURE:

Light-frame buildings are often erected on monolithic concrete-slab foundations

that serve both as a floor and as a support for the structure. Other light-frame buildings are
built over a crawlspace or a basement, with wood or steel joists used to span between
foundation walls, usually constructed of poured concrete or concrete blocks. Engineered
components are commonly used to form floor, ceiling and roof structures in place of solid
wood. I-joists (closed-web trusses) are often made from laminated woods, most often
chipped poplar wood, in panels as thin as 1 cm (0.4 in), glued between horizontally
laminated members of less than 4 cm by 4 cm (two-by-twos), to span distances of as much
as 9 m (30 ft). Open web trussed joists and rafters are often formed of 4 cm by 9 cm (two-
by-four) wood members to provide support for floors, roofing systems and ceiling finishes.

Answer the following questions:

Explain the term “structure”. What is reinforced concrete?

What are the materials required for reinforced concrete?

What is reinforcing steel? What is coarse aggregate? What are the grading requirements for
coarse aggregate?

What is shuttering? Discuss.

Write a note on wall framing of a house.

How are interior partitions framed?

What are exterior wall studs? How are they framed?

Write an essay on balloon framing.

Illustrate platform framing.

What are the light frame materials?

How is a roof framed?

CHAPTER – 2

MAINTENANCE
OF STOCK
MAINTENANCE OF STOCK

4.1. Purchase (Procurement) System and Procedure:

 All the major procurements are routed through the Head Office (HO). Construction
materials available locally are procured at site with prior approval from owner and
consultant. All procurements are made against site approved indents. Purchasing is
done using Oracle based ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) System. All Purchase
requisitions and orders are formulated and approved online in this system. A
requisition is mandatory for all purchases routed through the purchase department
at HO. Every item purchased has its individual code for its identification. The
Purchase officer automatically gets assigned to requisition lines in the ERP system
based on the item code for codified items. For non-codified items, the Purchase
officer may enter the requisition manually. Local purchases are made and approved
at site. This is done on the system by creating a purchase order. The authority for
the approval of any purchase order is set in the ERP system. A Purchase order is
mandatory for all purchases with a particular value of over Say Rs. 5000/- and for
all items that need to be stocked.
 The indent for the consumable materials is raised by the user or the planning
department, looking at the stocks available. This indent is then sent to the stores
where the Store-in-charge checks for the availability of the materials in the store. if
the material is not available in the store then the Store-in-charge sends the indent to
the Project Manager for approval. This is then forwarded to the purchase
department. The purchase department looks into the vendor list based on
experience of past projects and invites quotations from various vendors. The
quotations sent by the vendors are examined and a comparative statement is made.
Based on the comparative statement, the selection of vendor for the particular
material is done. While receiving the material, a gate entry is first made at the
security cabin. The vehicle carrying the material is then allowed inside the site
premises. A gate entry is then made at the security cabin. The store then receives
the material. The record of this is maintained on a daily basis in the Daily Material
Receipt Register (DMRR). The received material is then entered into the ERP
system.
Flow Chart showing procurement on site

Indent for consumables raised by user department or the planning

department Indent send to stores to check the availability of materials

Requisition done through ERP system

Material available

The store in-charge sends the approval to the Project Manager

Indent forwarded to purchase department

Purchase department invites quotation from vendors

Comparative statements of quotations made

Selection of vendor

Placing order of material from selected vendor

Purchase order sent to HO for approval

 4.2. Procurement of Free Issue Material i.e. Owner supplied Material:
 The dates for procurement and receiving of free issue are fixed at the start of the
project. The owner issues notification to the contractor to receive the free issue
material according to these dates. Invoice copies are made by the work contractor
showing the requirement of the material. For free issue materials, the work
contractor does not place any purchase indents. The planning in-charge prepares an
item wise Material Issue Voucher and submits it to the Managing Contractor for
withdrawal of material. The Work Contractor (WC) advises the Management
Contractor (MC) about the receipt of material and the certificate after the material is
received on site. After the receipt of the materials, the work contractor inspects the
material. The work contractor’s Material Controller along with the MC’s Material
controller check the materials against the packing list, purchase order etc. for item
conformation, quantity and visual damages. The following records are made Goods
Receiving Report (GRR) Over / Short Supply, Damage (OSD) and Non-Conformance
Material Report (if applicable)
 The OSD report is made if the quantity received is more or the material received is
defective. WC’s Material Controller then informs the WC’s QC (Quality Controller)
for quality inspection. WC’s QC raises an RFI (Request for Inspection) to MC’s QC.
WC’s QC along with MC’s QC then carry out receipt inspection to verify that the
material is confirming to purchase specification requirements, all traceability, Test
Certificates etc are available and are complying. The observations of the WC’s QC
and MC’s QC are recorded in “Receipt Inspection of Materials”. In case of any non
conformity, the WC’s QC informs the MC’s QC for further actions and decisions. The
WC along with the MC jointly inspect all materials for any defects, damages, and
shortages and check the bills of material, certificates, and documents for any errors
and issue Over, Shortage and Damage (OSD).

4.3. STORE MANAGEMENT:

Role of Store Section in Store Management:

 The Store Section maintains a proper and up-to-date record of all material received
and issued at site. The Stores also ensures proper stocking, stacking and
preservation of material. It shall see to it that the material stored is easy to retrieve
to prevent damage and deterioration. Storage and Issue shall be done as per First-
In-First-Out (FIFO) System, i.e. the material that has been procured first will be used
up first. The Store-in-charge receives, provides identification and ensures
traceability, if applicable, of all materials in the stores. If the material procured is not
for immediate use, then the Store-in-charge ensures that the material is stored in a
 suitable environment and maintained during storage to prevent loss, damage, or
degradation. The test / batch certificates of all materials are received along with the
material and are forwarded to the Quality Control Section at site. Material receipt
record is maintained in the Daily Material Receipt Format. For all goods received,
stores must prepare Material Receipt Note (MRN). Purchase order ( P.O) no. for
which MRN is prepared must be filled in all MRN’s. As acknowledgement of material
receipt and acceptance, a stamp is provided on the back side of the vendor’s bill /
challan . The store record is maintained in a ledger and all issues are done through
issue requisition only. Any material is not allowed to go in or out of the store
without a gate pass.
 The Store-in-charge ensures that the material is not issued without proper
authorization. Store section ensures that a buffer stock of all critical and fast moving
items like spares, consumables etc. is maintained and any problem being faced is
brought to the notice of the Site-in-charge. The minimum stock level of critical items
is maintained as per the lists provided by the planning section. The Store Section is
authorized to raise a purchase indent in consultation with the Planning Section for
maintaining the minimum stock level of critical items. A register is maintained
showing the status of purchase indents. The Store section also keeps in touch with
the Procurement section for procurement of indented materials. The register
showing the status of indented items is updated as soon as any material is received
on site by them against their purchase indents. The Store section inspects the
condition of all stored materials having a shelf life periodically and takes preventive
measures for such materials. The records maintained by the stores are Daily
Material Receipt; Stock & Issue Record; and List of minimum stock levels of critical
consumables (from planning section).

Flow chart for Receipt of Materials on site

Material at gate

Security checks delivery receipt/challan and put ‘IN’ stamp on DR/challan and notes in the
register

Security informs store and QC

Store checks challan/DR

QC does the visual checks

Material is accepted

Store inform buyer

Buyer/Store In-charge sends the material to vendor back

Security puts ‘OUT’ stamp on challan/DR

QC takes the sample for testing of physical properties

Weighs the material at site/nearby place

Transporter unloads the material

Store enters in DMR and updates in system

Store issues the material and maintain the stock status

Security puts ‘OUT’ stamp on challan / DR

Responsibilities of the Store-in-charge:

 The Store-in-charge should always be available in the store. He should enforce

proper control, keeping vigil on the stock, issues, discrepancies, abnormal
consumption, accumulation of sub-standard inventory etc. He should coordinate
with the site execution team lead by the Construction Manager for smooth running
of the project. He should keep the Construction Manager (CM) updated with the
position of all essential commodities so that the CM is able to take suitable action
for restocking of items before they go out of stock and the work is hampered. On
receipt of authorised requisition, the required materials should be issued to the
user section in the least possible time as possible. Once in every month he should
send the certified physical closing balances of holding stock to HO for comparing
with the system balances and record.

Role of Planning Department (Section) in Store Management:

 The Planning Department on site also plays an important role in management of

materials and stores. The Planning Section ensures the availability of owner
supplied materials and consumables after inspection and analyses the record of
material consumed and balanced quantity. All record about the owner supplied
materials is maintained by the planning section. The planning section prepares an
activity schedule, breaking activities into a micro level and deploys manpower,
equipment, and consumables for completing the work in scheduled time. It also
prepares a list of minimum stock level for consumable materials and monitors the
stock level against it. A copy of this minimum stock level is sent to the store section
for maintaining the level of such materials. Daily status report of stock level is
collected from the Store section. The Planning section revises the minimum stock
level from time to time and informs the Store section accordingly.
 Organization chart for Store

Sr. Gen Manager

Area Manager

Project Manager
Dy. Project Mgr.

Planning Qty Surveyor Offc Engg. Construction Mgr Material Engg. Safety officer
Engg.

Storekeeper/
timekeeper
CAD
Asstt. QS draughtsman Chief Land Proj Engg. QC inspectors
surveyor

Site Engg.
Asstt. Land
Surveyor

Foreman

Format for Material Issue

 Material Reconciliation: Material Reconciliation is carried out at an interval of

every 1 month period or at the completion of each task. The Stores In-Charge
prepares a statement showing item wise details of total receipted quantity, issued
quantity and balance quantity if any, including scrap indicating their location. A
copy of this is submitted to the planning department. The leftover of the materials
are offered for checking and inspection. The surplus materials which are not
required on site for any further activities are returned to the store by the user
department. These materials are recorded in the Material Return Record which is
maintained by the stores department. Material Controller prepares the actual
material taken off against each drawing and upon receipt of material statement and
reconciliation.
 Ancillary consumption of steel and cement is to be taken into account while
reconciliation. For example: Trestle Foundation Supporting arrangement for
 shutters Sign board supports Through bolts Laps and chairs Fencing works Steel
and cement testing Ladder fabrication Casting yard construction.
 Issue Slip

4.4. INVENTORY MAINTENANCE:

 ‘Inventory’ means goods kept in stock. It helps in smooth running of project,
hence its control is necessary. Excess stock will end the job in a loss (due to
additional cost for storage, interest on capital, damage, insurance, watch and
ward etc) And less stock will hamper the progress of work, extra expenditure
on emergency purchase, idling of plant and labour. An inventory control system
is a set of procedures that suggest when to reorder and how much to order.
Demand is assessed based on planning various construction activities.
Replenishment of stock is based on study of pattern of issues and consumption.
We generally use the ABC analysis for inventory control. This analysis tends to
segregate all items into three categories i.e. A,B,C on the basis of their usage
value. A class- usually 5 to 10 percent of total items amounting to 70 to 75
percent of money spent on materials. It will be dealt with by the site in-charge
and also monitored by H.O. B class- generally percent of total items amounting
to 70 to 75 percent of money spent on materials. It will be monitored by site in-
charge and store keeper. C class- As many as70 to 80 percent of total items
amounting to 10 to 15 percent of money spent on materials. It can be dealt by
the store keeper alone. The stock levels of A and B category items should be
discussed in the site weekly meetings and corrective measures taken promptly.

Answer the following questions:

1. Discuss the procurement system of materials.
2. What is the role of store section in store management?
3. What is inventory? How is it maintained?
4. What is the process for receiving materials on site?