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INTRODUCTION

This chapter includes the overview, objectives and importance of pursuing

this study. The scope and limitation to be considered and the definition of terms

that have been used in this study is also presented in this chapter.

Background of the Study

Algae are a variety of aquatic organisms capable of performing

photosynthesis. Algae are a large and diverse groups of oxygenic, phototrophic

and eukaryotic microorganisms. As stated in Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and

Biotechnology, algae are usually not that highly differentiated in the way that

plants are. (2014) The majority of algae live in aquatic habitats. Algae can be

grown in various water resources such as brackish water, seawater, and

wastewater unsuitable for cultivating agricultural crops. With the affliction of algae

in wastewaters, such as municipal, animal and even some industrial runoff, algae

can help in its treatment and purification, while benefiting from using the nutrients

present (Raven, 2014).

The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources

Research and Development of the Department of Science and Technology

(DOST-PCAARRD) reported that the global demand for algal products has

propelled a multibillion algal industry that is estimated to at least be worth US$

1.25 billion annually. In the Philippines, approximately 60 species of algae had

already been screened for use in the food aquaculture industry.

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Due to the rapid development of the algae industry, the government have

formulated several plans which are already underway for the algae industry

through the Algae Research and Commercialization Master Plan. This plan is set

to go through five-year implementation and is a roadmap for developing

commercial uses for Philippine strains of algae.

Algae have the potential to be a major powerhouse in the future

considering its prospective uses in the various industries, e.g. food, energy and

even cosmetics. According to the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources

Officer - Negros Occidental Chapter, the most commonly used algae in Negros

Occidental is macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.). Algae are traditionally used in

Negros Occidental as feed for fisheries in tandem with expired bread. This

practice has been observed in the fisheries around Taloc, Bago City. One source

of macroalgal thalli of fish breeders is the small-scale algae farm on Punta

Taytay, Bacolod City.

The role of algae in waste water treatment has already been established.

However, some researchers found out that algae also has the potential as air

filter pads for some organic compounds in an unpublished study conducted on

2015.

In today’s electronic age, people are starting to consider going paperless.

But there’s still a long way to go before we lose our dependence on this very

important human product. From our newspapers to our paper wrappings, paper

is still everywhere and most of them are ending up in our landfills creating a

staggering amount of paper waste. There was a time when paper was a rare and
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precious commodity. Now it fills our planet. It was initially invented as a tool for

communication, but today, paper is used more for packaging. Packaging

composes a third or more of our trash (Recycler's Handbook, 1990).

Everything takes energy to produce. To produce paper takes twice the

energy used to produce a plastic bag. (Forest Ecology Network, n.d.) According

to, Onondaga Resource Recovery Agency (1998), recycling one ton of paper

saves 682.5 gallons of oil, 7,000 gallons of water, and 3.3 cubic yards of landfill

space.

Filter papers are the simplest type of filter. Filter paper is a type of paper

used to filter solutions. It is a semi-permeable paper barrier that is placed

perpendicular to a liquid or air flow. It is used to separate fine substances from

liquids or air. It is used in science labs to remove solids from liquids, e.g. removal

of sand from water.

Thus, the researcher wants to research on the plausibility of a filter paper

made from recycled paper and macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.).

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to analyze the potential of macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros

sp.) and recycled paper as the primary material in producing filter paper. The

following where the specific queries the study aims to answer:

 Can filter paper be produced using macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros

sp.) and recycled paper as its primary material?

 What is the characteristics displayed by the produced filter paper?

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 Is there a significant difference between filter paper from

macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled paper, and

commercial filter papers in terms of:

o Wet strength

o Volumetric flow rate

o Particle retention

o Efficiency

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will benefit the following sectors of the society:

Government Agencies. The government have several plans in action to

promote the algae industry, especially the Department of Agriculture (DA),

Department of Energy (DOE), and Department of Science and Technology

(DOST) have several studies under development in order to find out the limits of

the potential algae have.

Environmental Sector. Algae as raw material will not harm the

environment. It is a food waste so it is eco-friendly and this study will serve as

base line information for further research for environment as it continues to find

ways to protect environment. Algae as filter paper will also help reduce

deforestation that was caused by the demand for paper products.

Paper Industry. Algae are abundant in the waterways in the Philippines

and the cultivation may be more cost-effective compared to growing trees.

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Algae Industry. This study may provide the algae industry another outlet

and justification for their continued operation.

Agricultural Sector. Algae are commonly ignored or treated as pest to be

eliminated. With this study, the agricultural sector will realize another potential

algae have. This study will also encourage plantation and cultivation of algae in

the country.

Scope and Limitations

This study focuses only in the production of filter paper from macroalgal

thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled paper. The study will be conducted in the

Chemical Engineering Laboratory in the University of Saint La Salle with proper

materials used. The produced filter paper will be examined and evaluated in

terms of wet strength, volumetric flow rate, particle retention, and efficiency.

This study is limited as the other important parameters like porosity,

compatibility, and capacity that a standard filter paper is evaluated on will be

bypassed.
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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review includes the conceptual and research literature which are

related to the research problems.

Algae. Algae are a functional group of organisms that perform oxygen

photosynthesis and are not embryophytes — bacterial (cyanobacteria) and

eukaryotic organisms included. Oxygen photosynthesis is monophyletic and

occurs in most major eukaryotic clades due to primary, secondary and tertiary

endosymbiosis followed by the genetic integration of the endosymbionts in the

eukaryotes (Giordano, 2014).

Macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.). The chemical composition of the

Chaetoceros affinis var. willei (Gran) Hustedt grown in batch cultivation has been

significantly influenced by nutrient concentrations in the medium. In the

logarithmic growth phase, the cellular glucan content was comparatively low, but

in the stationary phase, the glucan content showed a rapid increase that

appeared to coincide with the medium's nitrate depletion. This resulted in

exceedingly conspicuous variations in the protein to carbohydrate ratio. This ratio

can easily be determined and appears to be a sensitive and convenient

parameter for characterizing diatom cell physiological status (Myklestad, 1972).

Chaetoceros muelleri (Schütt) was cultivated on a thermal gradient plate,

subjected to two media types with a scope of specific conductances, and

appraised for growth and neutral lipid accumulation. Based on its high growth

rate, tolerance to a broad range of temperatures and specific conductances, and

large quantity of intracellular lipid, C. muelleri may have potential for exploitation
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as a renewable precursor to liquid fuels or as a lipid source, large quantity of

intracellular lipid, C. muelleri may have potential for exploitation as a renewable

precursor to liquid fuels or as a lipid source (McGinnis, 1997). Chaetoceros

affinis was investigated in batch cultures. Aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine,

glutamine, glycine, alanine, valine, and leucine were the most prominent

extracellular amino acids in the exponential phase. Arginine, asparagine, tyrosine

and isoleucine were also produced in the stationary phase. The most abundant

extracellular component released was carbohydrate, of which polysaccharide

accounted for more than 80% (Myklestad, 1989).

Filter paper. Recommended standards are given for the properties

considered of the most importance: alpha-cellulose, copper number, acidity, ash,

bursting strength, and water flow rate. Filter papers utilized for regular qualitative

and quantitative analyses were treated to obtain data for recommended

standards of Quality. The papers were composed of the products of two domestic

and three foreign manufacturers. Tests were made for retention of fine

precipitates, time of flow of water, ash, and wet bursting strength by modified

methods developed at the Bureau. Density, alpha-cellulose, copper number, and

acidity were also evaluated. Instances of filter paper becoming too brittle for use

through deterioration have been observed. Stable papers are characterized by a

high content of alpha-cellulose, a low copper number, and low acidity.

Furthermore, the degraded cellulose of deteriorated filter papers may cause

erroneous analytical results. Recommended standards are given for the

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properties considered of the most importance: alpha-cellulose, copper number,

acidity, ash, bursting strength, and water flow rate (Scribdner, 1947).

Paper production. Freshwater algal biomass and orange and lemon

peels were analyzed as tissue paper pulp supplements. The cellulose and

hemicellulose contents of algal biomass were 7.1% and 16.3%, respectively,

while for citrus peels cellulose content ranged from 12.7-13.6% and

hemicellulose from 5.3-6.1%. For all the materials, lignin and ash content was

equal to or less than 2%, making them appropriate for use as paper pulp

supplements. The addition of algal biomass to paper pulp has significantly

increased its mechanical strength. However, brightness was adversely affected

by chlorophyll. The incorporation of citrus peels in paper pulp had no effect on

the breaking length, increased bursting strength and decreased tearing

resistance. Citrus peel particles behave as coloured pigments thereby negatively

influenced the brightness at 10% proportions. The cost of both materials is

approximately 45% lower than that of a conventional pulp, generating a 0.9–4.5%

reduction in final paper price upon their incorporation to the pulp (Ververis, 2007).
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METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the research design, materials and equipment, and

general procedure to be used in the production of filter paper from macroalgal

thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled paper.

Research Design

This study follows the experimental research design. This involves

procedures that are relevant in the making of quantitative research. This study

will employ techniques in the production of paper, specifically for the production

of filter paper from macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled paper.

Research Methodology

This study endeavors to convert macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and

recycled paper to filter paper. The general process flow diagram for the

production of filter paper from macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled

paper will be found in this section, specifically in Figure 1.

This section includes the washing of macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.,

bleaching of the recycled paper, the grinding of macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros

sp.) and recycled paper, the mercerization of the pulp from macroalgal thalli

(Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled paper, screening of the first phase of the filter

paper, the drying of the first phase of the filter paper, the sizing and creping of

the filter paper, and finally the final drying of the product, the filter paper.
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Macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.)

Recycled Paper Washing

Bleaching Grinding

Pulping Dilute NaOH

Washing

Screening

Drying

Gelatine or
Sizing and Creping
Acrylate Polymer

Drying

Filter Paper

Figure 1. General Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Filter Paper from

Macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and Recycled Paper

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First Washing. Removal of other unnecessary solid particles such as

dust, dirt, and grime.

Bleaching. Deinking or the removal of printing inks and other unwanted

elements such as colors or pigments on the paper.

Grinding. The macroalgal thalli (Chaetoceros sp.) and recycled paper will

then be grinded into a pulp.

Pulping. Pulp mercerization, the addition of hot diluted sodium hydroxide

for getting high bulk and porosity.

Second Washing. Removal of the black liquor, contain lignin fragments,

carbohydrates from the breakdown of hemicellulose, sodium carbonate, sodium

sulfate and other inorganic salts, from the solution.

Screening. The formation of the initial form of the filter paper, and

screening out any irregularities found in the mixture.

Drying. Eliminating the moisture from the mixture for the formation of the

initial form of the filter paper.

Sizing and Creping. Coating with sizing, a glue-like substance usually

gelatine or acrylate polymer, and creping, to create gathers, giving it a crinkly

texture like that of crêpe.

Second Drying. The final removal of moisture to finalize the form of the

filter paper.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ashless filter papers for quantitative analysis. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://www.hahnemuehle.com/en/filtration/lab-filtration/filter-

paper/quantitative-filterpapiere/ashless-filter-papers-for-quantitative-

analysis.html

Backman, S. (1984). Method of making filter paper. Retrieved from

https://patents.google.com/patent/US4710402A/en

Barsanti, L. (2014). Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology. Boca

Raton, Florida: CRC Press.

Big plans underway for a Philippine microalgae industry. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph/home/portal/index.php/quick-information-

dispatch/2108-big-plans-underway-for-a-philippine-microalgae-industry

EarthWorks Group. (1990). The Recycler's Handbook: Simple Things You Can

Do. Pennsylvania: EarthWorks Press.

Giordano, M. (2014). Algae. Current Biology, 24 (13) R590.

ID2. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://online.fliphtml5.com/nryf/xszl/#p=1

Imani, R., et al. (2011). Production of antibacterial filter paper from wood

cellulose. Retrieved from

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TCGHN_Prodn_Antibacterial_Filter_Paper_Cellulose_1286.pdf.

McGinnis, K. M. (1997). Characterization of the growth and lipid content of the

diatom Chaetoceros muelleri. Journal of Applied Phycology 9 (1), 19–24.

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Myklestad, S. (1972). Production of carbohydrates by the marine diatom

Chaetoceros affinis var. willei (Gran) Hustedt. I. Effect of the concentration

of nutrients in the culture medium. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology

and Ecology 9 (2), 125-136.

Myklestad, S. (1989). Rate of release of extracellular amino acids and

carbohydrates from the marine diatom Chaetoceros affinis. Journal of

Plankton Research 11 (4), 763–773.

Onondaga Resource Recovery Agency. (1998) Waste Reduction is a Smart

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Paper comes from Trees… (2014, May 13). Retrieved from

http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Paper-Waste-Facts

Raven, A. J. (2014). Current Biology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cell Press.

Schmidt, H. (1986). Process for manufacturing articles of filter paper. Retrieved

from https://patents.google.com/patent/US4718883A/en

Scribdner, B. W. (1947). Development of Standards for Analytical Filter Papers.

Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 39.

The Impact of Paper Waste. (2018). Retrieved from

http://www.stopwaste.org/preventing-waste/impact-paper-waste

Ververis, C. (2007). Cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and ash content of some

organic materials and their suitability for use as paper pulp supplements.

Bioresource Technology, 98 (2), 296-301.

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Wood, T. (n.d.). Paper or Plastic? Neither!. Retrieved from

http://www.forestecologynetwork.org/climate_change/plastic_or_paper.ht

ml