Tire-derived rubber playgrounds, pavers & landscape rubber mulch: A Review

Rubber mulch from the playground in Bandon City Park in Bandon, Oregon. NBC News (accessed March 8, 2017)

ABSTRACT
With abundant supply, significant cushioning efficiency, creative aesthetic value, and low maintenance requirements, tire-derived rubber mulch
and in-fill tire crumbs are advertised as a variety along with other grass turf, and organic and inorganic materials for fields, playgrounds and
gardens. However, the question of whether it is an environmentally friendly selection. The major concerns stem from fact that that it is 100%
derived from scrap tires. Tires contains a range of organic contaminants and heavy metals that can volatilize into the air and/or leach into the
percolating rainwater, thereby posing a potential risk to the environment and human health. Rubber mulch is typically made from ground up
recycled tires and has generated a lot of discussion on the benefits and risks or dangers of using it. There seems to be two schools of thought on
rubber mulch. There exist studies, possibly paid for by the rubber mulch manufacturers and tire companies showing benefits while all the
independent studies show that it is toxic and dangerous. This literature review aims to place the health and environmental exposures of tire-
derived rubber playgrounds, pavers and landscape rubber mulch in a scientifically based qualitative and quantitative context.

KEYWORDS
Tire-Derived Products, rubber mulch, ground rubber, synthetic turf, playgrounds, landscape

CONTENTS
1. Introduction
1.1. Waste tire management processes
1.2. Tire-derived products
1.3. Rubber mulch
2. Characteristics & composition of tire-derived products
2.1. Technical characteristics desirable for playground, paver & landscape mulch
3. Human exposures
3.1. Children behavioral exposures
3.2. Inhalation
3.3. Ingestion
3.4. Dermal
4. Environmental impacts
4.1. Soil amendment
4.2. Water & aquatic habitat
4.3. Plant and Horticulture
4.4. Flammability
5. Conclusion & Recommendation
References
1. INTRODUCTION

Page 1 of 22
 Vulcanized rubber is a durable material used
specifically in car and truck tires consumer products. While
durability is important for car and truck tires, it becomes a
problem once those worn-out tires reach its end-of-life.
Disposal of waste tires has been a major problem in soil
waste management (Birkholz et al., 2003; Lee and Yoo,
2011, Huang and Tang, 2007, Sternberg 1997). These waste
tires, if mismanaged, are visually bothersome and
constitute a potential health and environmental hazard.
Stockpile of tires is a source of accrued problems such as
breeding ground for disease carrying vectors (Martinez et
al 2013), contaminated leachate and the possibility of a
fire outbreak (Muzenda 2014, Miranda et al 2013, Senneca
et al 2013, Gulzad 2011, Kar 2011 and Murray 1996). Tire
fires are characterized by difficult to extinguish, incomplete
combustion resulting in thick clouds of toxic black smoke
and the high emissions of toxic gases and toxic oils
(Quarles & Smith 2011, Zipperer et al. 2007, Levesque
2001, Garrod 2000, Narciso 1997, Sternberg 1997).
It is advantageous that several
researchers have been studying ways to reuse
end-of-life tires and prevent its accumulation on
both sanitary landfill and illegal stockpiles.
Modern Methods of Waste Tires Management
Type Process
I - Physical Re-treading
Re-use
Use for engineering
Granulation
II - Thermal De-vulcanization
Co-incineration in cement kilns and power boilers Replacement of fossil fuels, energy
Special combustion
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis + gasification
Cryogenics
Microwave method
III - Nanophase Thermal plasma
Table 1: INDEX OF MODERN METHODS OF WASTE TIRES MANAGEMENT. Source: Heermann 2001 & Viglasky, Klukan, & Jezo 2017
On the physical and thermal processing, these
waste tires are buffed or ground up as mulches, granulates
or crumbs for use on different Tire-Derived Product
Category such as rubber mulch, playground surface,
synthetic turf in-fill tire crumbs, flooring & mats, sports
surfacing, fitness center flooring, outdoor surfacing,
playground surfacing, pavers & tiles, accessibility ramps,
paths & sidewalks; animal care products; and several traffic
related products (Viglasky, Klukan, & Jezo 2017). See Table
2 for the possible applications of recycled rubber from
used tires (Canadian Council of Ministers of the
Environment 1994).
Many innovative uses have been developed
using modern methods such as physical
processing, thermal processing and the recent
researches on nanophase thermal plasma
processing (See Table 1.) (Heermann 2001 &
Viglasky, Klukan, & Jezo 2017). Tire wastes have
been valorize for energy recovery through
different processes as scrap tires have a
comparable energy value to coal. Gasification,
pyrolysis, plasma or combustion in cement kilns
are the main examples of these technologies
(Huang and Tang, 2007; Huang et al., 2007).
Furthermore, used tires have also been applied
as raw material for the production of asphalt or
other pavements applications in road
construction (Kumaran et al., 2008). Although
technically viable, in this case it needs to be
subsidized to be competitive with conventional
aggregates for asphalt pavements (Huang et al.,
2007, Murray 1996).
Products
New tires
Barriers, covers
Landfill engineering, or for various applications including dock
fenders, artificial reefs and barriers, playground swings, etc.
Asphalt additives, re-use in other products such as a layer
under-lining, playground and track surfaces;
For producing de-vulcanized rubber from waste tires
Energy and steel for reuse
Carbon black, pyrolysis oil and synthetic gas – syngas;
Carbon black, steel and synthetic gas; the low value of the end
products, which are usually fuels (oil, pyrolysis gas, char, etc.)
Steel, rubbery granulate
This process can produce products similar to virgin rubber
Production of nanophase materials is by using an ultrafine
powder as the starting material. Preliminary experiments
produced particles with diameters in the range 5 - 100 nm.
Bulk production of nanoparticles or nano-powders.
Nevertheless, the complex morphology and
unstable composition of waste substances, as well as
formal and legal requirements are the main cause of
relatively limited re-use and recycle of waste most specially
of waste tires. The legal requirements in many countries
allowed waste tire recovery, as it alleviates fire-hazard
stockpile of tires and meets the emissions, environmental,
technological and social requirements (Viglasky, Klukan, &
Jezo 2017, Farrag, N.M. 2016, Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment 1994.).
Tire-derived products generally contain either of
waste tire buffings or nuggets of rubber from waste tires
that are ground up whole, after having their steel bands
Page 2 of 22
removed. Almost any tire can be used, including passenger tire prior to retreading. Buffings are generally thin slivers of
vehicle tires and large truck and trailer tires. Buffings are rubber. Nuggets range in size from 10 mm to 32 mm, or
produced from recycled truck tire tread when the 3/8 inch to 1 1⁄4 inch.
remainder of the worn-down tread is removed from the

Sport Surfaces Automotive Construction Geotechnical/ Adhesives and Shock Rubber and
Industry Asphalt Sealants Absorption Plastic Products
Application and Safety
Products
-Kindergarten -Bumpers -Hospital -Rubberized -Adhesives and -Shock -Pipe Insulation
Playgrounds and Industrial, and Asphalt for Roads Sealing Absorbing Pads and Lining
Recreation Areas -Car Body Bathroom and Driveways Compounds for Rails and
Underseal and Flooring Machinery -Baseboards and
- School Sports Rustproofing -Sub-base for Kickplates
Areas Materials -Floor Tile Horse Racing -Textured and -Sound Barriers
Tracks Non-Slip Paints for Highways -Flower Pots
-Athletic Tracks - Splash Guards -Carpet
and Fenders Underlay -Subsoil drainage -Crash Barriers -Garbage Cans
-Tennis and -Compounding
Basketball Courts -Floor Mats for -waterproofing Ingredient (Filler) -Abrasion -Shoe Soles and
Cars and Trucks Compounds for -Drainage Pipes for Rubber Lining in Heels
-Golf Tee-off Areas Roofs and Mouldings and Mining
-Floor Lines for Walls Extrusions Equipment -Wire and Cable
-Swimming Pool Trucks and Vans -Conditioner Insulation
Surrounds and -Foundation
Garden Paths -Dunnage waterproofing -Compounds for -Industrial and
Materials for -Filtering for Conveyor Belting Agriculture Tires
-Lawn Bowing Shipping -Dam, Silo, and Mercury and Repair
Greens Roof Liners Metallic Surfaces -Bam Mats and
Flooring
-Non-Slip Boat Dock -Expansion Joint
Surfaces -Porous Irrigation Compounds -Conveyor
Pipes Rollers and
Idlers
-Roof Coating and
-Road Building and Water Proofing -Filler in Many
Repair Plastic
Mouldings and
Extrusions
Table 2: Possible applications for recycled rubber from used tires. Source: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 1994.

With abundant waste tire source supply,
significant cushioning efficiency, creative aesthetic value,
and low maintenance requirements, tire-derived products
rubber mulch and in-fill tire crumbs are advertised as a
variety along with other organic and inorganic materials
for playgrounds and gardens. These attributes appeal to
many home gardeners.
Rubber mulch is a product that consists of 100%
waste tire granular rubber particles. The number of this
kind of landscape mulch and playground flooring is
significantly increasing in the last years. Mulch is defined
as any material used to cover the soil surface for a variety
of purposes (Rogstad et al. 2007). Mulches are commonly
applied after shrubs and ground covers are planted in the
landscape. These are chosen for a variety of aesthetic and
economic reasons including eye appeal, color, availability,
lawn maintenance equipment protection, and price.
Mulches are also chosen for a variety of cultural reasons
including reduction in soil moisture evaporation rates to
reduce the water requirements of plants, nutrient content,
reduction in weed competition, moderation of soil
temperatures, dust abatement, control soil erosion and
dust, prevent soil compaction, and visually enhance the
landscape (Quarles & Smith 2011, Appleton and French
1995; Rose and Smith 1996). Mulch materials are generally
classified as organic or inorganic. Organic mulches usually
come from plant materials such as pine needles, wheat
straw, pine bark nuggets of various sizes, shredded western
red cedar and redwood bark, wood chips from recycled
pallets and cocoa shells. Ground and shredded rubber are
also considered organic mulches. Inorganic mulches are
usually derived from non-plant materials such as rock,
gravel and brick chips. Organic and inorganic mulches vary
considerably in terms of size, shape, texture and parent
material, all of which can influence their technical
characteristics for functionality, and their physical
composition for aesthetic value.

Page 3 of 22

Figure 1. SAMPLE OF MULCH. Source: Quarles & Smith, 2011
Artificial turf (also referred to as synthetic turf) is
a surfacing material engineered to mimic the appearance
and sports performance (e.g., shock absorption, energy
restitution, vertical deformation, slide and slip resistance,
and wear resistance) of natural grass on athletic fields, golf
courses, and lawns (Cheng, Hu, and Reinhard 2014). The
first generation artificial turf made of short-pile plastic
fibers was introduced in the 1960s. The improved second
generation products featuring sand infill between the
fibers made artificial turf widely popular in the early 1980s.
The third generation artificial turf introduced in the late
1990s is infilled with crumb rubber or a mixture of sand
and crumb rubber to keep the plastic fibers upright and
provide shock absorption similar to that of natural grass.
The new generation of products have been accepted as
providing improved safety, playability, appearance,
durability, with lower annual operating costs and
maintenance requirements, and have moved rapidly
beyond athletic fields to residential lawns and landscaping
(Toronto Public Health 2015). Artificial turf is now widely
considered as an ideal replacement for grass playing
surface in cases where natural grass cannot grow, or where
maintenance of natural grass is expensive or undesired.
Figure 2. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE MAKEUO OF A
TYPICAL ARTIFICIAL TURF FIELD: (a) the major components of
Density Soil or stone is much heavier than tires and tire product., shred density increases with increasing overburden weight
and with decreasing shred size. The density of whole and shredded tires depends on size, deepness, and compaction.
Whole tires: 7.5 Ibs/cubic foot
Laced passenger tires: 10 Ibs/cubic foot
Stacked or Laced truck tires: 14 Ibs/cubic foot
Durability Tire rubber includes carbon black, UV stabilizers, and antioxidants to increase resistance to wear, sunlight, and
chemical decomposition. These features are independent of particle size. Strength of whole tires is enhanced by
artificial turf, and (b) the built-in drainage system. Source: Cheng,
Hu, and Reinhard 2014
However, in community parks, neighborhood
playgrounds, school playground and residential yards
specially in professional athletic fields, the question of
concerned horticulturists, athletes and concerned parents
that is highly controversial, is whether these tire-derived
product rubber mulches and in-fill tire crumbs are safe for
use to protect plants and trees, and to cover lawns, park
spaces, and athletic fields where children and adults relax
and play (Llompart et al 2012, Claudio, 2008). Much of the
disincentives comes from the end-users varied
experiences. The community even goes to the point of
questioning the appropriateness and rigor of
methodologies used, to which the Virginia Department of
Health Division of Environmental Epidemiology argued that
“sampling methodology done exclusively in a controlled
laboratory setting may not necessarily represent a ‘real
world exposure’ to chemicals in crumb rubber. However,
laboratory analysis provides an alternative to identifying
chemicals (by employing strong extraction techniques and
concentrating chemicals to detectable concentration
before analysis) in crumb rubber that might be present in
low concentrations in the environment (VDH 2015)." Due
to public suspicion of potential health hazard posed by the
VOCs emissions from the in-fill tire crumbs of the synthetic
athletic tracks, no new synthetic tracks were installed in
southern Taiwan since 1997 (Chang et al 1999). Several
researchers hypothesize for and against safe application for
human, flora, fauna and environmental health, and
whether its advantages outweigh those of natural grass,
organic mulch and inorganic mulch.
From an engineering standpoint, tire-
derived rubber as a soil amendment has
performed favorably in slip resistance and
reducing compaction to specialty landscape
surfaces such as sports fields and putting greens
preventing possible injuries due to its technical
characteristics. Hence, it is deemed suitable for
different applications in sporting activities and
children playgrounds. See Table 3, Technical
Characteristics of Whole or Processed Tires to
summarize discussions about some properties
of waste tires that assist designers innovate
several tire-derived rubber products.
Baled tires: 30 Ibs/cubic foot
Shreds (loose–surface compacted):
22-50 Ibs/cubic foot
Shreds (compacted CE uses):
37-60 Ibs/cubic foot
Page 4 of 22
 reinforcing wire and fabric, but this extra strength is lost as wire and fabric are taken away from smaller particles.
Abrasion resistance is clarified by the long life of tires in contact with roads. Tires and shreds are not damaged by blunt
trauma, but they can be punctured by sharp objects.
Moisture Researchers indicate maximum moisture absorption of 2–4 percent Hydraulic Conductivity: Water flows through
Absorption shredded tires readily, even when they are compressed under heavy overburden. Conductivity increases with larger
particle size and decreases with increasing compaction. Conductivity ranges from 0.5 cm/sec for compressed 10–38
mm shreds to more than 20 cm/sec for 25–64 mm loose shreds
Thermal Rubber is a poor thermal conductor and good thermal insulator. Thermal conductivity depends on many variables such
Insulation as particle size, content of reinforcing wire, compaction, moisture content, and ambient temperature".
Acoustic Rubber is a bad acoustic conductor when used with irregular surfaces. There are obstacles have limited crumb rubber
Insulation application for sound barriers such durability of the bonding agent, the flammability, and the cost. An acoustical barrier
of baled tires is limited by aesthetics, economics, and durability of baling wire.
Temperature Tire rubber is qualified for withstanding a full range of temperature extremes without undergoing permanent property
Tolerance change. Flexibility property changes by temperature, but this change is repeatable and reversible"
Energy Content Tires have energy content greater than coal because they are made from oil and gas, so they suitable for use in many
industries such paper, cement, and power
Impact Products of Shredded tire have elasticity and durability that lends to cushioning applications. Loose-fill crumb rubber
Cushioning utilized below playground equipment instead of wood chips, sand, and pea gravel. Crumb rubber has been blended
with polyurethane binders and poured on top of an asphalt base to make a fixed cushioning surface. Crumb rubber has
been compression-molded with polyurethane binders into large (1–3 square feet) interlocking tiles that can be secured
to an asphalt base as a cushioning surface. This is one of the primary capabilities of end-of-life tire that made it suitable
for landscape rubber mulch and synthetic turf.
Color Tire chips can be mixed with some types of paint. This has been fully shown in colored mulch applications where
durability has been shown to depend on the paint, not the rubber substrate. Crumb rubber has been used as a
comparatively cheap substrate and colored ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber has been used as the surface
layer in pour-in-place playground surface cushioning
Table 3. Technical Characteristics of Whole or Processed Tires. Source: Farrag, N.M. 2016 with some edits from the author.

2. CHARACTERISTICS AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF
TIRE-DERIVED PRODUCTS
Tires are made up of different types of rubber
elastomers (natural or synthetic rubber) which is a
chemically cross-linked polymer that is neither fusible nor
soluble and cannot be remolded without degradation
(Muzenda 2014). Tires comprise between 80 and 85 %
rubber compound by weight, with the remainder made up
of steel, fabric and cording. See Figure 1 for cross section
of a typical tire. Tire rubber is comprised of the different
types of synthetic rubber most commonly composed of
ethylene–propylene and styrene–butadiene combined
rubber polymer of about 40%-60% with reinforcing agents
such as carbon black (20%-35%), aromatic extender oil
(10%-28%), zinc oxides (+/-2%), Sulphur (+/-2%) and other
chemicals such as vulcanizing agents, processing aids
(plasticizers and softeners), silica, and inorganic fillers,
stabilizers, hydrocarbon oils, textile or steel cords,
antioxidants and antiozonants in different quantities,
depending on the manufacturer (Viglasky, Klukan, & Jezo
2017, Undri 2014, Williams 2013, Li et al., 2010, TRC 2008,
Wik and Dave, 2008, OEHHA 2007, Williams & Besler
1995). Vulcanization is done on tires to increase their
flexibility. Antioxidants and anti-ozonants are added to
tires to extend their lifetime. It is because of the
vulcanization process and addition of antioxidants and
anti-ozonants that tires are non-degradable (Muzenda
2014). Rubber tire debris contains toxic compounds such
as highly aromatic oils and other reactive additives (Zhang
et al., 2008; Kanematsu et al., 2009; Aatmeeyata, 2010;
van Rooij and Jongeneelen, 2010). One of the main
components of extender oil is a highly aromatic oil, which
contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the
range of 300–700 mg kg_1 (Aatmeeyata, 2010) along with
phthalates, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Conversely, the presence of heavy metals and organic
chemicals originating from waste tire must be an exposure
of high consideration.

Page 5 of 22
Figure 3. CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL TIRE. Source: Baranwal, Krishna C. (2003)
When recycled into different tire-derived
products, the tire rubber still retains a number of
chemicals that are known or suspected to cause health
effects (Claudio, 2008). Some studies suggest that the
same chemicals that can be released profusely during a
tire fire may also be released slowly during deterioration of
tire-derived rubber products, such that the release of
airborne chemicals and dust is well established by the
current information. Even the exposure to environmental
factors (See Figure 4) can degrade tire rubber crumb in
artificial turf fields causing accelerated release of its
contaminants toxic gases and toxic oils (Cheng, Hu, and
Reinhard 2014). Environment & Human Health Inc. claims
that the recycled rubber crumbs are not inert, nor is a
high-temperature or severe solvent extraction needed to
release metals, volatile organic compounds, or semi-
volatile organic compounds (EHHI 2007, Li et al 2010,
Matina et al 2007).

Figure 4. INFLUENCE OF THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON DEGRADATION OF TIRE DERIVED RUBBER MULCH AND IN-FILL TIRE CRUMB.
Source: Cheng, Hu, and Reinhard 2014.

Page 6 of 22
 Several studies about the chemical risk toxicity of
tire rubber recycled products have been conducted
(Birkholz et al., 2003; Plesser and Lund, 2004; Anderson et
al., 2006; Crain and Zhang, 2006; Roels, 2006; Mattina et
al., 2007; Moretto, 2007; RAMP, 2007; Kanematsu et al.,
2009; Li et al., 2010). Most previous works have focused on
the toxic chemicals in the leachate of tire rubber material
whereas direct studies about the chemical composition of
ground rubber products are scarce. In particular, the study
of Llompart et al (2013) highlights the presence of a high
number of harmful compounds, frequently at high or
extremely high levels, in these recycled rubber materials.
Thereby concluding that they should be carefully
controlled, and their final use should be restricted or even
prohibited in some cases. This is supported by Li et al
(2010) claiming obtained vapour phase for benzothiazole,
antioxidants and three PAHs released from crumb rubber
material. Moreover, Mattina et al. (2007) claimed that
analytes chemicals reach the vapour phase in both high
SPME experiment temperature and at ambient
temperature.

Target compounds: chemical names and GC-MS detection and performance characteristics
Key Compound CAS number Retention Qualifiers and quantifiers (relative ion Linearity RSD (%) IDLs (ng
time (min) abundances, %)e (R)f mL-1)
2
PAHs
NAP Naphthalene 91-20-3 7.58 102 (8), 127 (13), 128 (100), 129 (11) 1.000 <3.3 0.30
ACY Acenaphthylene 208-96-8 10.12 76 (9), 150 (14), 151 (20), 152 (100) 1.000 <6.0 0.30
ACE Acenaphthene 83-32-9 10.42 76 (17), 152 (47), 153 (100), 154 (95) 1.000 <10 0.30
FLU Fluorene 86-73-7 11.23 82 (11), 165 (91), 166 (100), 167 (14) 1.000 <7.0 0.15
PHN Phenanthrene 85-01-8 12.80 152 (9), 176 (18), 178 (100), 179 (15) 1.000 <3.7 0.15
ANC Anthracene 120-12-7 12.89 152 (7), 176 (18), 178 (100), 179 (15) 0.999 <4.5 0.20
FLA Fluoranthene 206-44-0 15.42 101 (11), 200 (20), 202 (100), 203 (17) 0.999 <3.7 0.15
PYR Pyrene 129-00-0 16.00 101 (13), 200 (20), 202 (100), 203 (18) 0.999 <3.7 0.15
B[a]A Benz[a] anthracene 56-55-3 19.96 114 (11), 226 (26), 228 (100), 229 (19) 0.997 <5.5 0.40
CHY Chrysene 218-01-9 20.10 113 (11), 226 (28), 228 (100), 229 (20) 0.998 <6.5 0.40
B[b]F Benzo[b]fluoranthene 205-99-2 23.97 126 (13), 250 (22), 252 (100), 253 (22) 0.998 <4.4 0.60
B[K]F Benzo[k]fluoranthene 207-08-9 24.06 126 (14), 250 (22), 252 (100), 253 (22) 0.996 <4.7 0.70
B[a]P Benzo[a]pyrene 50-32-8 25.11 126 (13), 250 (23), 252 (100), 253 (22) 0.997 <7.8 1.0
IND Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene 193-39-5 29.02 138 (18), 274 (20), 276 (100), 277 (24) 0.999 <7.9 2.0
D[ah]A Dibenz[a,h]anthracene 53-70-3 29.90 139 (14), 276 (26), 278 (100), 279 (24) 0.998 <9.2 3.0
B[ghi]P Benzo[ghi]perylene 191-24-2 29.93 138 (20), 274 (21), 276 (100), 277 (24) 0.998 <7.2 2.0

Vulcanisation additives, antioxidants and plasticizers

BTZ Benzothiazoleb 95-16-9 8.00 69 (15), 108 (30), 135 (100) 0.997 <3.0 13
TBP 4-tert-Butylphenolb 98-54-4 8.58 107 (36), 135 (100), 150 (21) 1.000 <0.75 10
MBTZ 2-Mercaptobenzothiazoleb 149-30-4 14.26 108 (18), 135 (32), 167 (100) 0.994 <11 1000
BHA Butylated hydroxyanisoleb 121-00-6 10.31 137 (64), 165 (100), 180 (51) 1.000 <9.3 25
BHT Butylated hydroxytolueneb 128-37-0 10.57 177 (7), 205 (100), 220 (25) 1.000 <12 3.5
DMP Dimethyl phthalatec 131-11-3 10.07 77 (16), 163 (100), 164 (10), 194 (6) 0.999 <5.4 20
DEP Diethyl phthalatec 84-66-2 11.22 105 (8), 149 (100), 177 (23) 1.000 <7.8 5.0
DIBP phthalatec 84-69-5 13.36 104 (7), 149 (100), 223 (7) 1.000 <3.5 2.0
DBP phthalatec 84-74-2 14.21 104 (4), 149 (100), 223 (5) 1.000 <7.2 2.0
BBP phthalatec 85-68-7 18.38 91 (55), 149 (100), 206 (24) 1.000 <6.4 16
DEHA Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipated 103-23-1 19.08 112 (25), 129 (100), 147 (19) 1.000 <6.7 12
DEHP Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalatec 117-81-7 21.04 149 (100), 167 (32), 279 (11) 1.000 <4.9 11
DOP Di-n-octyl-phthalatec 117-84-0 23.45 149 (100),279 (8) 1.000 11
DINP Diisonyl phthalateb 28 553-12-0 24.73 149 (100), 167 (7), 293 (17) 1.000 <1.0 500
DIDP Disodecyl phthalateb 26 761-40-0 25.98 149 (100), 167 (10), 307 (20) 1.000 <8.4 1000
a
16 PAHs mixture (2000 µg mL-1 in dichloromethane/benzene, 1:1) purchase from Ultra Scientific Analytical Solutions (Kingstown, USA).
b
Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Steinheim, Germany
c
Fluka Chemie GmbH (Steinheim, Germany)
d
ChemService (West Chester, USA)
e
Numbers in italics correspond to the selected ions monitored in the SIM method for PAHs.
f
PAHs: 2-1000 ng mL-1, other targets: 20-10 000 ng mL-1, with the exception of DIDP and MBTZ (5-500 µg mL-1).

Table 4. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS COMMONLY FOUND IN TIRE-DERIVED PRODUCTS. Source: Llompart et al 2013.

Concentration of the targets in the samples (µgg-1). Statistic parameters.

Compound Playgrounds samples Commercial Pavers

Page 7 of 22
 N out Average Median Minimum Maximum N out Average Median Minimum Maximum
of 21 of 9
PAHs
NAP 20 1.93 0.55 0.060 24.2 9 186 134 10.8 595
ACY 11 1.37 0.11 0.037 13.4 9 50.0 37.1 3.89 167
ACE 8 1.75 0.14 0.045 12.8 9 56.0 50.6 2.62 135
FLU 14 2.98 0.61 0.056 47.7 9 326 303 11.3 900
PHN 20 2.31 1.04 0.082 25.5 9 1205 860 66.2 3388
ANC 21 1.80 0.53 0.14 4.72 9 271 176 11.0 816
FLA 20 1.83 1.32 0.17 8.24 9 855 384 65.7 2851
PYR 21 7.73 3.80 0.77 29.5 9 632 286 65.6 2088
B[a]A 6 0.95 0.92 0.12 2.02 9 399 156 32.0 1311
CHY 20 1.88 0.77 0.13 9.16 9 368 150 34.5 1210
B[b]F 4 2.82 2.64 1.67 4.32 9 326 84.8 29.1 1182
B[K]F 4 0.83 0.68 0.27 1.69 9 246 77.5 13.8 872
B[a]P 5 2.23 1.96 0.42 4.66 9 346 97.5 23.1 1244
IND 6 1.37 1.40 0.31 2.77 9 243 27.0 10.2 958
D[ah]A 1 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 9 51.5 8.95 4.60 238
B[ghi]P 8 4.94 4.28 0.22 11.9 9 183 26.6 11.6 743
Total PAHs 21 23.4 8.42 1.25 178 9 5744 2812 396 18699

Vulcanisation additives, antioxidants and plasticizers

BTZ 21 9.60 6.16 0.47 39.9 9 95.6 107 19.6 158
TBP 11 0.43 0.39 0.12 0.78 9 14.8 16.8 8.60 21.0
MBTZ 10 195 185 72 398
BHT 21 7.08 1.78 0.11 23.9 9 19.2 20.8 0.74 39.1
DMP 3 1.08 1.09 0.86 1.30
DEP 13 0.41 0.37 0.082 1.13 5 3.25 2.63 0.41 7.68
DIBP 18 0.97 0.76 0.40 2.45 8 58.4 35.3 7.48 221
DBP 15 0.59 0.43 0.29 1.97 7 43.6 10.1 4.18 151
BBP 2 48.0 48.0 21.9 74.1
DEHA 3 13.1 12.4 7.74 19.3
DEHP 21 20.0 15.6 3.95 63.8 9 359 184 22.4 1205
DINP 8 5415 4179 16.0 20615
DIDP 1 1284 1284 1284 1284
Table 5. CONCENTRATIONS OF TARGET COMPOUNDS. Source Llompart et al 2013.

Figure 5. CONCENTRATION RELEASE OF TARGET COMPOUNDS. Source Llompart et al 2013.

Target compounds identified in the SPME experiments (X: 25 °C, X: 60 °C).

Compound Urban playground samples Commercial pavers
PG1 PG2 PG3 PG4 CP1 CP2 CP3 CP4
NAP X X X X X X X X
ACY X X X X X X
ACE X X X X X X X
FLU X X X X X
PHN X X X X X X X X
ANC X X X X X
FLA X X X X X X X X
PYR X X X X X X X X
B[a]A X X X X

Page 8 of 22
CHY
BTZ X X X X
TBP X X X X
BHT X X X X
DMP
DEP X X X X
DIBP X X X X
DBP X X X X
DEHA
DEHP X X X X
Table 6. VOLATILE COMPOUNDS IN BOTH SPME & AMBIENT TEMPERATURES. Source: Mattina et al 2007.
Alongside with those, many governmental
bodies including US, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and
California have reviewed health issues associated with the
use of end-of-life tire rubber. Their assessments did not
find a significant public health threat or it is in regulated
minimal exposures with low concentrations of some
chemicals that have been demonstrated to leach from the
tire crumb, or volatilize as vapor (NYDEC 2008, Castellano
et al 2008). Thus, for the metals and compounds identified
there would be “de minimus” exposures and risk among
anyone using fields with the exception of lead in a single
new turf material. However, the need to avoid lead-based
pigments was advised in these materials as coloring agents
(Lioy & Weisel, 2011).
The California Office of Environmental Health
Hazard Assessment (2007) evaluated the health effects of
recycled waste tires on children and teens in playground
and track products for possible ingestion and dermal
exposures. Constituents studied were 20 VOCs, 14 SVOCs,
15 metals including inorganics, lead, PAH & particulate
matters. It was considered unlikely that a onetime
ingestion of tire shreds would produce adverse health
effects. However, exposure to zinc exceeded its health-
based screening value. Furthermore, ecological effects
from contaminated soil cannot be ruled out based on the
Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRG), although the
selenium level in the soil was only marginally higher than
the PRG and the zinc levels were close to the normal
background levels.
California Office of Environmental Health Hazard
Assessment. (2010). Safety Study of Artificial Turf
Containing Crumb Rubber Infill Made from Recycled Tires:
Measurements of Chemicals and Particulates in the Air,
Bacteria in the Turf, and Skin Abrasions Caused by Contact
with the Surface. PM2.5 and associated elements
(including lead and other heavy metals) were either below
the level of detection or at similar concentrations above
artificial turf athletic fields and upwind of the fields. The
large majority of air samples collected from above artificial
turf had VOC concentrations that were below the limit of
detection. Fewer bacteria were detected on artificial turf
compared to natural turf.
Beausoleil, Price and Muller (2009) argued in
their qualitative literature review on the chemicals in
outdoor artificial turf that it appears that the health risks
for players who use artificial turf are not significant and
that it is completely safe to engage in sports activities on
this type of outdoor field. The conclusions are based on
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X
X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X
X X X X
qualitative analysis of the data on inhalation human
exposure route of VOC, SVOC, inorganics, lead, and PAHs
constituents.
Simon (2010) points to the relative safety of
crumb rubber fill playground and athletic field surfaces.
Generally, these surfaces, though containing numerous
elements potentially toxic to humans, do not provide the
opportunity in ordinary circumstances for exposure at
levels that are actually dangerous. Numerous studies have
been carried out on this material and have addressed
numerous different aspects of the issue. For the most part,
the studies have vindicated defenders of crumb rubber,
identifying it as a safe, cost-effective, and responsible use
for tire rubber.
Hofstra (2007a) claimed that based on exposure
to rubber crumb by swallowing, inhalation and skin contact
and their experimental investigations on skin contact,
there is not a significant health risk due to the presence of
rubber infill for football players an artificial turf pitch with
rubber infill from used car tires.
Cardno Chem Risk (2013) was commissioned by
the Rubber Manufacturers Association for literature
review. Cardno Chem Risk argued that adverse health
effects are not likely for children or athletes exposed to
recycled tire materials found at playgrounds or athletic
fields and that similarly, no adverse ecological or
environmental outcomes from field leachate are likely. The
study presented cancer calculations for arsenic and non-
cancer calculations for antimony. Population evaluated
were 3 to 70 yrs old.
Denly, Rutkowski, & Vetrano (2008) stated that
based on the information reviewed, none of the risk
assessments showed concentrations of contaminants that
would be at a level of concern, even under conservative
assumptions and thus it does not appear that the ingestion
of tire crumb would pose a significant health risk for
children or adults. Their study is a literature review of
several studies on tire crumbs mainly focused on the
results from the CalEPA 2007 study.
Toronto Public Health (2015) claimed that
available evidence indicates that under ordinary
circumstances, adverse health effects among adults and
children are unlikely to occur as a result of exposure to
third generation artificial turf infilled with crumb rubber in
both outdoor and indoor provided it is properly installed
and maintained and users follow good hygienic practices
(for example washing hands, avoiding eating on artificial
turf and supervision of young children to ensure they do
not eat the infill material). However, there are still some
Page 9 of 22
information gaps such as the allergenic potential of latex in
crumb rubber, and the exposure to lead, other metals,
carbon nanotubes, as well as other contaminants have not
been fully investigated nor evaluated in all types of turf
systems.
Nilsson, Malmgren-Hansen, & Thomsen (2008)
stated that more or less all foreign studies conclude that
there are no health problems for users of artificial turf
pitches, neither indoors or outdoors. On the Health
Assessments: “Four representative substances were
selected for the health assessment: benzothiazole,
dicyclohexylamine, cyclohexanamine and dibutyl
phthalate. These substances are present in high
concentrations in contact water from the leaching tests
and are representative of the harmful substances emitted
from the products… The overall assessment is that there
are no health effects associated with exposure to the four
substances tested, with the exception of a potential risk for
developing allergy in particularly sensitive individuals
(benzothiazole and the two amines).”
Cheng, Hu, & Reinhard (2014) covers topics such
as: disposal of scrap tires, composition and production of
tire rubber, ZnO and PAHs in tire rubber, and life cycle
assessment studies. Review of studies where the toxicity
characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) was used
indicated constituent concentrations well below MCLs or
TCLP regulatory limits. However, there remains a
significant knowledge gap that must be urgently addressed
with the fast expansion of the artificial turf market. “Given
the wide range of designs, ages, and conditions of artificial
turf fields, it is likely that the contaminant release and the
environmental impacts are variable from site to site. It is
also important to assess more systematically the risk posed
by the tire rubber crumb on the environment and human
health”.
It is noteworthy that the above literatures,
though stating “it is in regulated minimal exposures with
low concentrations of some chemicals”, it is always
proceeded with “the exception of lead, zinc and other
chemicals for further study”. Moreover, conclusions
encourage further systematic studies on several
information gaps. This is due to the fact that the
experiments were usually one-time or limited exposures,
the constituents studied were limited along with their
unknown potential associated health risks, there are
exposure variables from site to site and the ecological
effects from contaminated soil cannot be ruled out based
on the Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRG), although the
selenium level in the soil was only marginally higher than
the PRG. ChemRisk, Inc (2008) recommended that there is
a need for the development of chemical marker for TWP in
environmental media.
3. HUMAN EXPOSURES
Research provides additional evidence regarding
the potential health risks associated with exposure to
rubber mulch in playgrounds and in-fill tire crumb in turf
fields (Bocca et al. 2009; Kim et al. 2012; Llompert et al.
2012; Menichini et al. 2011; Sadiktsis et al. 2012; Simcox et
al. 2011). Bass and Hintze (2013) determine microbial
populations in a synthetic turf system such as S. aureus,
coliforms in total microbial load. Counts from the MSA
plates revealed a relatively high number of mannitol-
fermenting salt-tolerant bacteria, a possible indication of
staphylococci. However, there seems to be no similar
studies that focus on the health risks posed by rubber
mulches used in home gardens and landscapes. Still, home
gardeners should be aware of potential contaminants
should they choose to use rubber mulches.
Health reports from workers in the rubber
fabrication industry and in the rubber reclamation industry
describe the presence of multiple volatile organic
hydrocarbons, semi volatile hydrocarbons and other toxic
elements in the air. Studies at tire reclamation sites report
the leaching of similar sets of chemicals into the ground
water. Occupational studies document a spectrum of
health effects ranging from severe skin and eye irritation
and respiratory irritation to three forms of cancer (EHHI
2007, Chien et al 2003).
The relationship between exposures to the
rubber workers and those experienced by people using
athletic fields or children in playgrounds covered with
rubber mulch or in-fill tire crumbs is not known, but it is
established that many of the same chemicals that rubber
workers are exposed to are being released from the
ground-up rubber tire crumbs (EHHI 2007). Use of recycled
tire shreds or crumbs in athletic fields, gardening and
playgrounds involves repeated and direct exposures for
both children and adults to tire dust and some chemicals
similar to those in tire plants.
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
report (EHHI 2007), found out-gassing and leaching from
synthetic turf rubber crumbs under aqueous ambient
temperatures that are potential health risks. Several
compounds were present, but four compounds gave the
highest responses on GC/Mass spectrographic analysis.
The four compounds conclusively identified with
confirmatory tests were: benzothiazole; butylated
hydroxyanisole; n-hexadecane; and 4-(t-octyl) phenol.
Approximately two dozen other chemicals were indicated
at lower levels organic constituents such as diphenylamine,
2-morpholino-benzothiazole, hydroxy-alkene, aromatic
amine, aromatic amino alcohol/phenol, aromatic phenolic
compound aromatic heterocycle and others (Ginsberg et al
2011b, Ginsberg et al 2011a, Anthony and Latawiec 1993).
These chemicals were released in laboratory conditions
that closely approximate ambient conditions. The study
also detected metals that were leached from the tire
crumbs. Zinc was the predominant metal, but selenium,
lead and cadmium were also identified.
Findings of the chemical analysis conducted by
Yale University on the crumb rubber tire infill used in
synthetic turf and the rubber tire mulch used as surfacing
Page 10 of 22
material in toddler playgrounds. The shredded rubber tire
playground mulch samples tested were provided by the
manufacturer and were purchased in new bags of rubber
mulch for use in gardens and playgrounds. The rubber tire
infill for synthetic turf fields was obtained as new infill
material from installers of synthetic turf fields. There were
5 samples of infill from 5 different installers of fields and 9
different samples of rubber mulch taken from 9 different
unopened bags of playground mulch. It was found that 96
chemicals in the synthetic turf and rubber tire mulch used
as surfacing in toddler playgrounds. Of the 96 chemicals
detected, a little under a half have had never had toxicity
assessments for their health effects. Of the rest, 20% are
probable carcinogens.
12 CARCINOGENS
2-mercaptobenzothiazole
Carcinogen, toxic to aquatic life9,10-
dimethylanthracene
Carcinogen, respiratory irritant and can cause asthma
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
Carcinogen, may cause damage to fetuses
Fluoranthene
Carcinogen, one of the US EPA's 16 priority pollutants,
a PAH
Heptadecane
Carcinogen
Phenol, 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-
Carcinogen
Phenanthrene
Carcinogen, a PAH
Phthalimide
Carcinogen, skin, eye and lung irritant. A
fungicide.Pyrene, 1-methyl-
Carcinogen
Tetratriacontane
Carcinogen, eye and skin irritant. Can cause systemic
damage to central nervous system.
Pyrene
Carcinogen, toxic to liver and kidneys, a PAH
Carbon Black
Carcinogen
Carbon Black makes up to 20% to 30 % of every tire. It
is used as a reinforcing filler. Carbon Black is listed as a
carcinogen by the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC).
Carbon Black, as such, was not analyzed by the Yale
Study because Carbon Black is made up of a number
of chemicals — some of which were found in the Yale
study. Carbon Black is not one chemical — it is made
up of many chemicals — often of petroleum products.
Furthermore, carbon black has no fixed composition,
even of the many compounds it contains. Carbon
black from different sources will have differing
compositions. In our method, carbon black will
register as a series of substances extracted from it.
There is no carbon black molecule, it's a mixture.
20 IRRITANTS
1,4-Benzenediamine, N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-
phenyl-
Irritant — causes skin and eye irritation, toxic to
aquatic life
1,4-Benzenediamine, N-(1-methylethyl)-N'-phenyl-
Irritant — causes skin and eye irritation, toxic to
aquatic life
2(3H)-Benzothiazolone
Irritant — causes skin and lung irritation
2-Dodecen-1-yl(-)succinic anhydride
Irritant — causes eye, skin and lung irritation
3,5-di-tert-Butyl-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde
Irritant — causes eye, skin and lung irritation
Anthracene
Irritant — causes skin, eye and respiratory irritation.
Breathing it can irritate the nose, throat and lungs
causing coughing and wheezing.
Benzenamine, 4-octyl-N-(4-octylphenyl)-
Irritant — causes eye and skin irritation
Benzenesulfonanilide
Considered hazardous, very little testing has been
done on it.
Benzothiazole, 2-(methylthio)-
Irritant — causes skin and eye irritation
Dehydroabietic acid
Toxic to aquatic organisms
Docosane
Irritant — causes skin irritation
Hexadecanoic acid, butyl ester
Irritant — causes eye, skin and lung irritation. Can
cause reproductive effects.
Methyl stearate
Irritant — causes eye, skin and lung irritation
Octadecane
Irritant — causes skin, eye and lung irritation
Octadecanoic acid also known as Stearic acid
Irritant — causes skin, eye and respiratory irritation
Oleic Acid
Irritant — causes skin and eye irritation
Phenol, 2,2'-methylenebis[6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-
ethyl-
Irritant — causes skin, eye and respiratory irritation
Some Target Chemicals Properties and Reported
Actions:
Benzothiazole
Page 11 of 22
 This will cause skin and eye irritation, harmful if
swallowed. There is no available data on cancer,
mutagenic toxicity, teratogenic toxicity, or
developmental toxicity (EHHI 2007). Benzothiazole
(BTZ) is a clear yellow liquid with a sulfur or rubbery
odor (Lewis, 1993). Its heterocyclic structure provides
multiple functionality and opportunities for
derivatization making it a good starting material for
other industrial chemicals. It is a precursor for rubber
accelerators, a component of cyanine dyes, as
slimicides in the paper and pulp industry, and is used
in the production of certain fungicides, herbicides,
antifungal agents and pharmaceuticals (Bellavia et al.,
2000; Seo et. al., 2007). This heterocyclic scaffold is
readily substituted at the unique methyne centre in
the thiazole ring. It is a thermally stable electron-
withdrawing moiety with numerous applications in
dyes such as thioflavin. Some drugs contain this
group, examples being riluzole and pramipexole. The
heterocycle is found in nature (Le Bozec et al, DOI
10.1071/CH9126). Accelerators for the vulcanization
of rubber are based on 2-mercaptobenzothiazole
(Engelet al 2004). This ring is a potential component
in nonlinear optics (NLO) (Hrobarik 2010). The
compound is used also used as an insecticide and
food flavoring agent. It imparts a meaty, nutty or
coffee taste and so is used in various foods as a
flavoring agent at levels up to 0.5 ppm. It has limited
solubility in water (4.3 g/L at 25 C) and has low
volatility (vapor pressure 0.014 mm Hg at 25 C). The
toxicology database for BTZ is limited to short-term,
sub-acute and mutagenicity studies (Bogert and
Husted 1931).
Butylated hydroxyanisole
This is a recognized carcinogen, suspected
endocrine toxicant toxicant, gastrointestinal toxicant,
immunotoxicant, neurotoxicant, skin and sense-organ
toxicant. There is no available data on cancer,
mutagenic toxicity, teratogenic toxicity, or
developmental toxicity (EHHI 2007). Butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA) is an antioxidant consisting of a
mixture of two isomeric organic compounds, 2-tert-
butyl-4-hydroxyanisole and 3-tert-butyl-4-
hydroxyanisole. It is prepared from 4-methoxyphenol
and isobutylene. It is a waxy solid used as a food
additive with the E number E320. The primary use for
BHA is as an antioxidant and preservative in food,
food packaging, animal feed, cosmetics, rubber, and
petroleum products. BHA also is commonly used in
medicines, such as isotretinoin, lovastatin, and
simvastatin, among others. The U.S. National
Institutes of Health report that BHA is reasonably
anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on
evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals.
In particular, when administered in high doses as part
of their diet, BHA causes papillomas and squamou cell
carcinomas of the forestomach in rats and Syrian
golden hamsters (CAS No. 25013-16-5). In mice, there
is no carcinogenic effect, (CAS No. 25013-16-5) and
even evidence of a protective effect against the
carcinogenicity of other chemicals (Lam et al 1979).
When examining human population statistics, the
usual low intake levels of BHA show no significant
association with an increased risk of cancer
(Botterweck et al 2007). The State of California, has,
however, listed it as a carcinogen (California
Proposition 65).
n-hexadecane
This can cause severe irritant based on human
and animal studies. There is no available data on
cancer, mutagenic toxicity, teratogenic toxicity, or
developmental toxicity(EHHI 2007). This is (also called
cetane) is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical
formula C16H34. Hexadecane consists of a chain of 16
carbon atoms, with three hydrogen atoms bonded to
the two end carbon atoms, and two hydrogens
bonded to each of the 14 other carbon atoms. Cetane
is often used as a shorthand for cetane number, a
measure of the detonation of diesel fuel. Cetane
ignites very easily under compression; for this reason,
it is assigned a cetane number of 100, and serves as a
reference for other fuel mixtures. It has one of the
lowest octane ratings, at <−30.
_ 4-(t-octyl) phenol: corrosive and destructive to
mucous membranes. There is no available data on
cancer, mutagenic toxicity, teratogenic toxicity, or
developmental toxicity(EHHI 2007).
Benzene
Page 12 of 22
 Benzene is an important organic chemical
compound. The benzene molecule is composed of 6
carbon atoms joined in a ring with 1 hydrogen atom
attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and
hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon.
It is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the
elementary petrochemicals. Because of the cyclic
continuous pi bond between the carbon atoms,
benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon, the
second [n]-annulene ([6]-annulene). It is sometimes
abbreviated Ph–H. Benzene is a colorless and highly
flammable liquid with a sweet smell, and is
responsible for the aroma around petrol stations. It is
used primarily as a precursor to the manufacture of
chemicals with more complex structure, such as
ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of
kilograms are produced. Because benzene has a high
octane number, it is an important component of
gasoline. Because benzene is a human carcinogen,
most non-industrial applications have been limited.
POTENTIAL HUMAN HEALTH RISK:
CANCER. The strongest data available with respect to
cancer is from the International Agency for Research
on Cancer’s study of the rubber industry (IARC 1987).
Strong and sufficient evidence for cancer in humans
was demonstrated in a series of epidemiology studies
of rubber fabrication facilities throughout the world.
It is however inconclusive for “de minimis” findings
for rubber mulch and in-fill tire crumbs.
Environment & Human Health, Inc. (EHHI 2017)
stated that cancers among soccer players who have
played on synthetic turf and reported their cancers to
University of Washington associate women’s soccer
coach Amy Griffin are identified. In April of 2016,
there were 166 soccer players who had gotten cancer
and 102 of those were goalkeepers. In December
2016, there are 186 soccer players who have gotten
cancer and 116 of them are goalkeepers. Therefore,
62% of the soccer players who have gotten cancer are
goal keepers, who are known to be the most heavily
exposed to the synthetic turf. The average age of the
soccer players who have gotten cancer is 20-21 years
old. Of the 186 soccer players who have gotten
cancer, 48 have Hodgkin's Lymphoma, 26 have non-
Hodgkin's lymphoma, 42 have Leukemia, 17
sarcomas, 11 have testicular cancer, 9 have thyroid
cancer, 9 have brain cancer, 3 have lung cancer. There
are reported 74 soccer players with either Hodgkin's
lymphoma or non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, while there
are 42 soccer players who have gotten leukemias. In
the general population there are usually more
leukemias than lymphomas. In this instance, there are
almost double the number of lymphomas to
leukemias. All in all, there are 116 cases of blood
cancers among the 186 who have gotten cancer. That
means 62% of the soccer players who have gotten
cancer have gotten blood cancers. As of June 2017,
There are 234 total athletes who have played on
synthetic turf, have cancer and have known to report
their cancers to Amy Griffin.
ALLERGIC RESPONSES. Allergies are addressed in
studies from both California (OEHHA 2007) and
Norway (NIPHRH 2006), indicating a moderate level of
health concern. Inadequate data is available to
address the concerns about allergic reactions, but it is
possible that sensitized individuals will respond to the
exposures. With so many children having asthma
today, this is a real concern (Castellano et al 2008).
Further, the Norway study (NIPHRH 2006) indicates
high levels of latex exposures from the tire crumbs
and recommends that such fields not be installed
because of the high prevalence in the population of
latex sensitivity.
SKIN, EYE AND RESPIRATORY IRRITATION. Skin, eye
and respiratory irritation is the most common action
identified in the literature for these chemicals
(Environmental Defense Fund Scorecard). That
probably reflects the regulatory requirement for such
testing before the chemical can be shipped in
commerce (Castellano et al 2008). These studies are
the most basic of the toxicology testing schemes
expected for materials with continuous human
exposures. Based on the chemical structures of the
aliphatic chemicals present, it is not surprising that
they are listed as severe irritants. The irritation
potential of aliphatic compounds increases with chain
length up to 10 carbons and with increased branching
of the molecules.
3.1. Child-specific Exposures
Because of differences in physiology and
behaviors, exposures among children are expected to
be different than exposures among adults. Children
may be more exposed to environmental toxicants
because they consume more food and water per unit
of body, they have higher inhalation rates per unit of
body weight, and they have higher surface area to
volume than adults. The chemical exposure pathways,
especially in the case of children, can include dermal
absorption, inhalation, and even ingestion, directly
from the material (EHHI 2007, Cheng et al 2014).
Page 13 of 22
 Figure 6. Major exposure pathways for users to hazardous substances in rubber mulch & tire crumbs. Source: Cheng et al 2014.
The major exposure pathways for athletes,
children and occasional users to the hazardous substances
in rubber mulch and artificial turf fields are dermal uptake,
ingestion and inhalation. Rubber mulch and tire crumb can
be intentionally or incidentally ingested by the field users,
particularly children. SVOCs and VOCs volatilized from the
tire rubber crumb and the fine particulates resuspended
from the field can be inhaled. The organic contaminants
and heavy metals on the exterior surfaces of the fiber
blades and rubber infill, as well as the fine rubber granules,
can stick to the skin and clothes upon contact. As a result,
the users can also be exposed to these substances through
dermal uptake and incidental ingestion such as via hand-
to-mouth activity (Cheng, Hu, and Reinhard 2014).
3.2. Inhalation
The particulate exposures due to tire dust and
chemicals contained in the dust that can be released in the
lungs are especially troublesome. Nearly every test
adequate to assess the risk that was reported found one or
two dozen compounds released from particulates
(Llompart 2013, Li et al 2010, Mattina et al. 2007, NIPHRH
2006). There are processes in the body that can release the
chemicals contained in the rubber particles. Moreover,
potent carcinogens are found in the tire dust. Only the
assumption of limited exposure could support the
conclusions of low cancer risk.
3.3. Dermal
Recent studies have shown that young children can
be exposed to toxicants during normal oral exploration of
their environment and by touching floors, surfaces, and
objects such as toys (Eskenazi et al., 1999; Gurunathan et
al., 1998; Lewis et al., 1999; Nishioka et al., 1999). Dust
and tracked-in soil accumulates most effectively in floor
surfacing, where young children spend a significant
amount of time (Lewis et al., 1999). Children living in rural
areas may experience higher exposures to pesticides and
toxicants than do other children. Toxicants may be tracked
into their homes by family members. In addition, children
in play in nearby fields are exposed via consumption
(Eskenazi et al., 1999).
In terms of risk, children may also be more vulnerable
to environmental pollutants because of differences in
absorption, excretion, and metabolism (U.S. EPA, 1997a).
The cellular immaturity of children and the ongoing growth
processes account for elevated risk (AAP, 1997). Toxic
chemicals in the environment can cause
neurodevelopmental disabilities. The developing brain can
be particularly sensitive to environmental contaminants.
For example, elevated blood lead levels and prenatal
exposures to even relatively low levels of lead result in
reductions of intellectual function and behavior disorders.
Authors have described the importance of exposure timing
(i.e., preconceptional, prenatal, and postnatal) and how it
affects the outcomes observed (Selevan et al., 2000, Myers
and Davidson, 2000).
3.4. Ingestion
The potential for exposure to contaminants via
ingestion source is greater for children because they are
more likely to ingest more soil than do adults as a result of
behavioral patterns present during childhood. Inadvertent
soil ingestion among children may occur through the
mouthing of objects or hands. Mouthing behavior is
considered to be a normal phase of childhood
development. Deliberate soil ingestion is defined as pica
and is considered to be relatively uncommon. Because
normal, inadvertent soil ingestion is more prevalent and
data for individuals with pica behavior are limited, current
researches focuses primarily on normal soil ingestion that
occurs as a result of mouthing or unintentional hand-to-
mouth activity. (U.S.EPA 2002)
U.S.EPA (2002) response to questions from
parents about risks of exposure to tire crumbs in
playgrounds was that while there was no evidence of risk
based on the existing literature, data gaps exist (Anderson,
Kirkland, Guidotti, & Rose, 2006). In contrast, Dye et al
(2006) claims that in general, people who swallow
granulates will be exposed in the range 0.1-1000 ng for
each chemical depending on the chemical and granulate
type. Based on laboratory tests which show that the
chemicals are released over a long period of time (until no
further chemicals remain), it is therefore reasonable to
assume that chemicals will be released throughout the
Page 14 of 22
entire digestion period and turn to be above minimal (Dye
et al 2006).
4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Dillon (2017) examined the relationship between
temperature environment and leachate zinc concentration
and hypothesized that higher temperatures would lead to
increased zinc release by rubber mulch and higher
leachate zinc concentrations. It is argued that a significant
decrease in mean leachate zinc concentration as
temperature increased was shown between the 29oC (M =
5.733, SD = 1.486) and 71oC (M = 4.133, SD = 0.516)
treatments and the 5oC (M = 6.533, SD = 0.743) and 71oC
treatments (F(2, 42) = 22.19, p< 0.01). Therefore, within
these intervals, decreasing temperatures increased rubber
mulch breakdown and leachate zinc concentration.
Because tires are created at high temperatures during the
vulcanization process, it is reasonable to consider that tires
are strongest at higher temperatures.
4.1. Leachate and Soil Amendments
The leaching problem increases as the particle
size of recycled tires decreases. In other words, the smaller
the particle size, the greater the potential for leaching.
Toxins associated with crumb rubber, a more finely ground
type of rubber used on athletic fields, are well docu-
mented (Li et al. 2010; Llompert et al. 2012; Menichini et
al. 2011; Simcox et al. 2011). An interesting research on
the presence of hazardous chemicals in synthetic turf
material from recycled tires concludes that PAH levels are
above health-based soil standards (Zhang et al., 2008).
Previously, a study conducted by the Norwegian Building
Research Institute had concluded that the total
concentration of PAH in the recycled rubber granulates
exceeded the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority’s
normative values for most sensitive land use (Plesser and
Lund, 2004).
Decomposition and toxicity of rubber mulch.
Ground rubber is advertised as permanent mulch, but
permanent is a relative term. Tires contain rubber and
other naturally occurring chemicals, which are broken
down by microbes over time (Cheng et al 2014). Many
bacterial species can use rubber as their sole energy
source. Naturally occurring white-rot and brown-rot fungal
species also break down the chemicals found in tires.
Decomposition of rubber means that breakdown products,
including heavy metals and other chemicals of concern,
leach into the surrounding soil and water. Rubber leach-
ates also contain various plasticizers and accelerators used
during the vulcanizing process, a process in which rubber is
chemically treated to give it useful properties such as
strength or elasticity.
The metals zinc, cadmium and lead were also
identified as contaminants from tire rubber released into
ground water (Birkholz, Belton, and Guidotti 2003). With
the exception of zinc, there is insufficient data to assess
the health or environmental risks of any of these metals. It
appears clear that the zinc levels are high enough to be
phytotoxic if they enter the ground water or soil. It is
doubtful that there is any human toxicity from zinc at the
levels reported.
4.2. Plant and Horticulture
There are benefits and drawbacks of rubber
mulch for landscape and horticulture applications. Rubber
mulches are widely available, easy to apply, and come in a
variety of colors. However, studies have found rubber
mulches and mats made from tires to be less effective in
tree establishment or in controlling weeds than mulches
and mats made from organic materials such as wood chips
or natural fibers (Arthur and Wang 1999; Calkins et al.
1996; Stokes 2012).
Furthermore, researchers have observed leaf
yellowing, reduced tree growth, and increased tree
mortality when rubber mulch is used (Stokes 2012). Soil
tests revealed high levels of zinc, which is incorporated
during tire manufacturing. Zinc is accumulated by plants
and can result in the yellowing leaf symptoms (Bush et al.
2001, 2003). Llompert et al (2013) claimed that the levels
of PAH reported were significantly higher than allowable
for agricultural or industrial soils.
Zinc deficiency appears to be the most common
micronutrient deficiency in crop plants; it is particularly
common in high-pH soils (Alloway 2008). Plants that grow
in soils that are zinc-deficient are more susceptible to
disease. Zinc is added to the soil primarily through the
weathering of rocks, but humans have added zinc through
fossil fuel combustion, mine waste, phosphate fertilizers,
pesticide (zinc phosphide), limestone, manure, sewage
sludge, and particles from galvanized surfaces. Excess zinc
is toxic to plants, although zinc toxicity is far less
widespread (Broadley 2007). Although zinc is an essential
requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful.
Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron
absorption (Fosmire, 1990). The free zinc ion in solution is
highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate
fish (Eisler 1993). The Free Ion Activity Model is well-
established in the literature, and shows that
just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some
organisms.
Besides, rubber mulches can also lead to pest
problems. A recent study reported that female Asian
cockroaches preferred rubber mulches for shelter, as did
their offspring. In contrast, wood chips were least
preferred by roaches (Snoddy and Appel 2013).
Rubber mulches have not proved to be
particularly good choices for horticultural production. In
comparison studies of several mulch types, rubber tire
mulch was less effective in controlling weeds in
herbaceous perennial plots than wood chips. Similarly,
sawdust made a better mulch for tree production in terms
of weed control, microbial biomass, and soil chemistry.
Another comparative study found rubber to be less
effective than straw or fiber mulch in establishing
turfgrasses.
4.3. Water and aquatic habitat
Page 15 of 22
 However, a project in the eastern United States
used 400,000 whole tires to create a series of reef from
New England to Florida. They provided improved habitat
for certain types of game fish and also helped rehabilitate
polluted bottom areas. The total cost of this project was
less than the commercial disposal costs for the tires would
have been (Stone et al 1974, Murray 1996). In Canada,
connected webs of tires have been used to line the surface
of freshly cleared reservoir slopes at hydroelectric projects
that stabilize the underwater slope and provide habitat for
freshwater animals (Murray 1996).
4.4. Flammability
Landfilled tires pose a high risk of fire (Gulzad
2011, Muzenda 2014, Miranda et al 2013, Senneca et al
2013 and Kar 2011). Although waste tires cannot be
ignited easily, when ignited they are difficult to extinguish.
Serious fire mishaps have occurred due to landfilled tires
such as in Rhinehart tire fire of Virginia, USA in 1983; the
great Kuwait tire fire of Jahra, Kuwait in 2012; the
Watertown tire fire of Wisconsin, USA in 2005 and the
Westley tire fire of California, USA in 1999 (Murray 1996).
It took several months to put out these fires. Not only did
the waste tire fire pollute the atmosphere, but it was also
reported that water bodies in the nearby vicinity were
contaminated with lead and arsenic (EHHI 2013). That
illustrates the seriousness of waste tire fires. Tire fire are
characterized by incomplete combustion resulting in thick
clouds of toxic black smoke and the high emissions of toxic
gases and toxic oils. When incinerated openly, they release
toxic gases, which are prone to cause cancer and mutation
disorder (CIWMB 1996, U.S.EPA 2014).
Figure 3. Relative values of three combustion characteristics between eight mulch treatments. [1] Average maximum flame height. [2] Average
rate of fire spread. [3] Average maximum temperature measured at four inches above the bed. Source: Quarles & Smith 2011.
Maintaining a noncombustible, ignition–resistant
area immediately adjacent to the house and other
structures is particularly important (Quarles & Smith 2011,
Mercker 2010, Florida Department of Community Affairs
and Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services 2004, Deneke 2002 and Glendale Fire Prevention
Bureau undated). During a wildfire, embers may
accumulate in this area, providing an ample source of
ignition for combustible materials. It is therefore important
that the house is separated from the mulch by lawn and a
concrete sidewalk, distance of which depends on the
flammability of the mulch. Shredded rubber, pine needle
A combustible material is defined as one capable
of igniting and burning (Berube 1991). Unfortunately,
many mulches are combustible which is a major drawback
when used in commercial, institutional, and home
landscapes, whether located in wildfire-prone areas or not.
(Quarles & Smith 2008, Zipperer et al. 2007, Levesque
2001, Garrod 2000, Narciso 1997, Sternberg 1997)
Compared to a dozen organic mulches, rubber mulch was
the most likely to ignite and most difficult to extinguish
(Steward et al. 2003). The risk of a mulch fire can be
ignited by an improperly discarded cigarette, a simple
smoldering mulch from subsurface mulch fire, or a wild
fire. This has prompted the Environmental and Safety
Department of the University of Maryland to developed a
mulch fire standard operating procedure (Mulch Fire
Standard 2002).
On separate plots of mulches that were ignited
by a drip torch, As expected, rubber mulch produced the
greatest flame height and temperature (Quarles & Smith
2011, Zipperer et al. 2007). Though, based on cumulative
values for the three combustion characteristics, shredded
rubber, pine needles and shredded western red cedar
demonstrated the most hazardous fire behavior. Still,
shredded rubber mulch burned at the hottest average
maximum temperature (in excess of 630° F measured at
four inches above the mulch bed) and produced the
greatest flame heights which averaged over 3 feet. It
ignited easily and burned intensely for a prolonged period.
Nonetheless, the most rapid rate of fire spread came from
shredded western red cedar, traveling at an average rate of
47.9 feet per minute, seconded by the pine needles
(Quarles & Smith 2011).
and shredded western red cedar mulches demonstrated
the most hazardous combustion characteristics and are
recommended by Quarles & Smith (2011) for use in areas
more than 30 feet from the house.
This is supported by the arguments of Stewart et al (2003)
and Playground Fires 1997 that decorative ground rubber
(rubber mulch) ignited each time it was exposed to the
propane torch and produced spreading flames in 60
seconds.
Not only do rubber mulches perform less
effectively in the landscape, they possess an additional,
unwanted characteristic. Compared to a dozen other
Page 16 of 22
mulch types, ground rubber is more likely to ignite and
more difficult to extinguish. In areas where the possibility
Table #12. Ease of ignition rating of 13 commonly used mulch. Source: Stewart et al 2003.
6. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
While recycling waste tires is an important issue to
address, it is not a solution to simply move the problem to
our landscapes, playgrounds, and surface waters.
The production of rubbers and tires cannot be halted
or reduced as its need and demand is increasing day by
day. However, the life period and performance of these
goods can be prolonged. Furthermore, as these scraps are
increasingly dumped; a suitable means of utilizing these
wastes should be explored. Though these wastes are
engaged in the recycling process, its proportion is meager
considering the amount of accumulation of these scraps.
Hence, an appropriate mode of treating of these wastes in
the context of energy recovery should be explored as the
need for energy is doubling up. Thus, the need is to find
out a way to recover useful energy from these wastes with
minimal damage to the surroundings.
Rubber mulches can be attractive, easy to find and
apply, and may not need frequent re-application. However,
there are significant problems associated with using these
mulches. In the short term, rubber mulch is not as
effec¬tive as other organic mulch choices in controlling
weeds. Furthermore, rubber mulches can attract insects
(e.g., cockroaches), and they are highly flammable. In the
long term, decomposing rubber mulch releases heavy
metals and organic chemicals with unknown effects on
of natural or man-made fires is significant, rubber mulches
should not be used.
human and environmental health. Other organic mulch
choices, especially wood chips, are better performers and
pose none of the environmental risks attributed to rubber
mulch. Literature shows that ground-up rubber tire mulch
increases the potential of zinc toxicity and indicates that it
is unsuitable for use in production of nursery plants.
Therefore, it is recommended for ground-up rubber tire
mulch not be used for gardens.
The available information is sufficient and strong
enough to raise plausible questions with respect to acute
toxicity for susceptible persons, and for cancer risks.
Furthermore, it is evident that the tire crumbs and tire
mulch release chemical compounds into the air and
ground water. Tire crumbs constitute a chemical exposure
for humans and the environment. The release of airborne
chemicals and dust is well established. The chemical
release and leachate can occur under ambient conditions
experienced in the summer season. It is clear that the
recycled rubber crumbs are not inert, nor is a high-
temperature or severe solvent extraction needed to
release metals, volatile organic compounds, or semi-
volatile organic compounds. Those published health
assessments that indicate de minimis risk should not be
applied to the in-fill tire crumb of synthetic turf and rubber
mulch for playgrounds with open layers of recycled waste
tires.
Page 17 of 22

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