ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Electrics in General
 Electricity is the flow of electrons along a conductor
 An operating electrical circuit must form a complete loop
(circuit)
 If the electricity is interrupted (short, popped CB) the
system ceases to operate.
 Wires carry the electrical power (conductor)
 The “return” of the electricity, to complete the circuit
normally runs through the aircraft structure (ground)
 Electricity will seek the path of least resistance
 Electrical systems contain power sources, components,
control devices, and circuit protection
Electrics in General
 There are two major divisions of electrical power: AC and
DC
 Alternating Current (AC)
 Direct Current (DC)
 Large aircraft have both kinds of power available
 Large aircraft have a major electrical system in one kind of
power, and a minor system in the other kind
 Devices change one kind into the other
 Transformer Rectifiers (TRU) change AC to DC (TAD)
 Inverters change DC to AC (IDA)
Electrics in General
 For a deeper understanding of electrical systems, we have to
look at some science
 Here we go…
 All matter is made up of atoms
 Atoms are made of protons, neutrons (nucleus) and electrons
 Protons have a positive charge, neutrons, none and electrons,
a negative charge
 The atomic structure of an atom determines how well it can
conduct electrical current
 This is a function of free electrons
Free Electrons
 Atoms that make up an element known as a conductor give
up and receive electrons in its outer orbits with little
difficulty
 These electrons, known as free electrons move from atom to
atom easily
 There are often many free electrons drifting randomly among
the atoms of a conductor
 When these electrons move in the same general direction an
electrical current exist
Conductors, etc.
 The number of electrons in the outermost orbit of an
element’s atoms determines if it is a conductor,
semiconductor, or nonconductor (insulator)
 The outer orbit (shell) of an atom is known as the valence
orbit
 Atoms with less than 4 valence electrons are conductors,
exactly 4 are semiconductors, greater than 4 are insulators
Electron Flow
 What happens when a conductor is connected to a power
source?
 An electron in the conductor is attracted to the positive
terminal of the source and it leaves the conductor
 Remember, the positive side of the power source attracts the
negatively charged electron
 This idea goes counter to how we frequently think about
electricity; that it flows from positive to negative…
 Continuing, the atom that lost the electron becomes a
positive ion and pulls an electron from the next in line atom
Electron Flow
 This exchange continues until the electron that left the
conductor is replaced by one from the negative terminal of
the power source
 Electron movement happens at about the speed of light
 Remember, a single electron doesn’t move a long the
conductor at that speed, but the electron transfer does
 Kind of like the domino effect
Units of Electrical Measurement
 Quantity: The coulomb (Q) is the basic unit of electrical
quantity and is equal to 6.28 billion, billion electrons
(6.28X1018)
 Flow: When 1 coulomb flows past a point in 1 second there is
a flow of 1 ampere, or 1 amp (current)
 Opposition: The ohm (R) is the standard unit of resistance
(R= a pressure of 1 volt can force a flow of 1 ampere)
Units of Electrical Measurement
 Pressure: The volt (V or E) is the unit of electrical pressure
and is the amount of pressure required to force 1 amp of flow
through 1 ohm of resistance
 Power: The end result for practical electricity is power
 Electrical power is expressed in watts (W)
 One watt is the amount of power dissipated when 1 amp of
current flows under a pressure of 1 volt
Direct vs. Alternating Current
 Direct current (DC) is current which is non-varying in
nature
 As opposed to alternating current (AC) which continually
changes its value and periodically reverses its flow
 AC is much easier to generate in the large quantities need for
homes, businesses and large transport aircraft
 More important is the ease with which we can change the
values of current and voltage to get the most effective use of
electrical energy
Generating AC
 AC power is most commonly generated by a rotary generator
in which a conductor, wound in a coil (or coils), is rotated
within a magnetic field
 As the coil rotates, the voltage starts at zero, rises to peak,
then drops back to zero
 As the coil continues to rotate, the voltage increases in the
opposite direction to a peak and then drops back to zero
 There is one complete cycle of voltage change for each
complete revolution of the coil
 Think of a sine wave
AC Terms and Values
 A cycle is one complete sequence of voltage or current
change, from zero through the positive peak, back to zero,
then through a negative peak and then back to zero
 The number of complete cycles per second is the frequency;
it is expressed in hertz
 One hertz is one cycle per second
 Alternation is one half of an AC cycle in which the voltage
or current rises from zero to a peak and back to zero
Resetting a Circuit Breaker
 In the event a CB pops:
 Wait a few moments (1-2 minutes)
 Turn the component off
 Push the CB back in
 Turn the component back on
 If the CB pops again, DO NOT RESET
 Operate with the system inop
Starter/Generator
 An electric motor is just the opposite of a generator
 Smaller turbine engines use a starter/generator
 With electrical power supplied to this unit, it spins as a
motor which is used to start the engine
 Once the engine is running under its own power, electrical
power is removed from the starter,
 The engine turns what was the starter as a generator to
produce electrical power
Electrics in General: Sources
 The normal source of electrical power is the engine-driven
generator(s). These devices are designed to power the aircraft
electrical systems and components
 On multi-engine aircraft, one generator can supply most of the
aircraft by itself, so that the loss of one generator does not cripple
the aircraft.
 On large transports, there may be more than one generator on
each engine.
 Aircraft have provisions for external power: whether it comes
from the airport or from a ground power cart
 Finally, the APU has a generator that is the size of engine
generators, and it is used on the ground, or as a back-up source in
flight
Electrics in General: Sources
 Direct current (DC) can come from the ground power unit,
or from the APU or, from the aircraft battery
 Aircraft batteries are always DC BATTERIES
 They are used only for two purposes:
 To start the APU
 To power essential components (bus) for a limited time in the
event of a loss of all generators
 Batteries can be lead/acid, or, more popularly now, nickel-
cadmium batteries (NI-Cads).
 24 volts is typical for large aircraft batteries
Electrics in General: Course
 Electricity generated by the generators passes through a “generator
breaker” in order to come “on line” and power the aircraft
 Aircraft components are not wired to the generator, but to a bus; a
common terminal that several components share.
 Large aircraft have both AC and DC buses, and the number
depends upon the number of using units (components, “gizmo’s”)
and the kind of power required.
 Sometimes there are circuit breakers that protect an entire bus
 Normally, there are breakers for each component (e.g., RADAR)
 Many times, a bus can switch its source of power if the primary
source fails
Electrics in General: Force
 AC Current is normally 115volts, and 400 cycles per second
 AC Current is 3 phase power
 AC power is useful in many ways, and AC generators
typically can produce huge amounts of power, so normally
they run about 20-40 % of their capacity.
 Sometimes 28VAC power is needed. So a transformer is used
to “step down” the power from 115v to 28v.
Electrics in General: Force
 DC power is widely used in light planes and business jets
 It can do all but the heaviest of jobs
 DC power comes from DC Generators to DC buses just like
AC power.
 Transformer rectifiers (TRU) are used to convert 115VAC
into 28VDC power whenever the engine and APU generators
are AC generators
 Multiple TRU’s are used
 TRU’s are frequently connected by a bus-tie so they can share
the overall load evenly.
B-737 Electrical System
737 NG Electrical System
 Sources:
 2 engine driven AC generators
 A Constant Speed Drive located in each generator keeps the generator
turning at the same speed, regardless of engine speed
 737 NGs have IDGs: Integrated Drive Generators
 1 APU driven AC generator
 The fuel controller keep the APU generator running at 100% all the time
 When the generator is loaded up, more fuel keeps the APU at 100%
 100% APU speed keep the direct drive Generator at 400 CPS
 External power Plug is located near the nose on the right side
 2 internal batteries (Ni-Cad) provide 60 minutes of power
737 NG Electrics Course
 The 737 has TWO INDEPENDENT CHANNELS
 ONLY ONE source of power can be applied to a channel
 Each engine generator connects to its respective TRANSFER
BUS.
 The transfer buses are the largest buses and power many
components
 These include other AC buses and the TRU’s
 The transfer buses will connect (tie) and form one bus when
the power is lost to one of them.
 The 2 “bus tie breakers” close enabling one transfer bus to
power the other one.
Other AC buses
 Each transfer bus in its respective channel or side of the
aircraft connects to three sub-buses:
 The ground service bus
 The Main bus
 The galley bus(es) A,B,C,D
 Each side of the aircraft has these ac buses
 Another bus, The AC Standby bus, is located on the left side:
 Powered by Transfer Bus 1
 This bus is EXTREMELY IMPORTANT
 This bus can also be powered by the battery, after the battery
power passes through the static inverter to change it to AC.
AC power flow
 AC power must be selected ON by the crew in the 737
 EXTERNAL POWER
 Battery Switch on: enables the external power switch
 External power switch to “ON”
 This routes external power to the Bus Tie Breakers, between the transfer
buses
 External power can power the entire aircraft: both transfer buses, all their
subordinate buses and the T/R.s
 It stays connected until the crew replaces it with an engine generator or
the APU
AC power flow: APU
 APU
 The APU generator can also power the entire aircraft on the
ground.
 After starting the APU the pilot can select power on both
channels.
 This occurs because of the workings of the Bus Tie system
 In the air, the APU can power either one bus or both buses, up
to a point:
 Once powered up, close the breaker on the inoperative generator side
 If the APU is powering both buses, the GALLEY BUSES SHED
 If that is not enough load reduction, the MAIN buses SHED also.
 37,000 is the altitude limit for APU electrics (ONLY)
DC Power Sources
 T/R 1 is powered by the transfer bus 1, and it is connected
to T/R 2 by the DC Tie bus
 T/R 2 can be powered by transfer bus 1 or 2
 T/R 2 has the primary mission of powering the battery bus
 T/R 3 is powered by transfer Bus 2
 The battery powers its hot bus all the time;
 and switched hot bus whenever the battery switch is ON
DC Power flow
 TR 1 powers DC Bus 1
 TR 3 powers DC Bus 2
 TR 2 powers the Battery Bus
 TR1 powers the DC Standby bus, as its normal source of
power
 The DC standby bus, like the AC standby bus, and the battery
bus has a backup source of power: the battery
 The battery powers the DC standby bus when the normal
source of power, TR1, or the DC tie bus is unpowered.
Standby Power/Loss of All Generators
 The standby system enables the pilot to land the aircraft
when all of the generators have failed.
 The system uses both the normal and auxiliary batteries
 The crew has 60 minutes of battery power available
 The NG has many features in the standby system
 Captain and Center Display instruments
 VHF 1 Comm. Radio and VHF NAV1
 GPS NAV, transponder, and other nav features
 The following buses are powered:
 Standby AC and DC
 Battery bus, Hot Battery Bus, and Switch Hot Battery bus
AVT4201 Advanced Aircraft Systems

Hydraulics
Hydraulically Actuated Components
 wheel brakes
 nose wheel steering
 landing gear retraction/extension
 flaps and slats
 thrust reversers
 spoilers/speed brakes
 flight control surfaces
 cargo doors/loading ramps
 windshield wipers
 propeller pitch control
Hydraulics System Components
 System components can include: pumps, fluid, lines,
cylinders, reservoirs, accumulators, and backup pumps.
 By adding a pump to the hydraulic fluid, we can increase the
force that the system can apply.
Hydraulic Pumps
 Can be engine driven or electric pumps
 The pumps create pressure and flow which is transferred to
mechanical actuators (cylinders, others) around the aircraft
 Pumps may be continuous operation or periodic
 Large aircraft typically have one pump installed per engine, but
have one or more electrically driven pump(s) for redundancy
Hydraulic Fluid
 Hydraulic systems can produce pressure in excess of 3000 psi,
creating high temperatures
 Fluids are designed to withstand these temps and pressures
without vaporizing
 Important, because if the fluid becomes a gas, we would lose the
properties of a hydraulic system (noncompressibility)
 Hydraulic fluids (pink in color) are highly caustic, DON”T
TOUCH!
Hydraulic Fluid Properties
 Hydraulic fluid should have the following properties:
 High Flash Point: the auto-ignition point for modern
hydraulic fluids is in the range of 475 C
 Lubricant Properties. The hydraulic fluid acts as a
lubricant for the pumps, actuators and motors within the
system.
Hydraulic Fluid Properties
 Adequate Viscosity. Aircraft hydraulic systems must work
efficiently over a broad temperature spectrum. The fluid used
must flow easily at very low temperatures but must also
maintain adequate viscosity at high temperatures.
 Thermal Capacity/Conductivity. Hydraulic fluid acts as
a system coolant. The fluid must be able to readily absorb and
release heat.
Hydraulic Motors
 Relatively small units (compared to electric motors) that
convert hydraulic power into mechanical power (rotary)
 Can be used to turn shafts
 Used to operate flaps or landing gear
Hydraulic Cylinders
 A hydraulic cylinder, sometimes referred to as a linear hydraulic motor
or a hydraulic actuator, is a mechanical actuator that is used to provide a
reversible force in a single direction.
 These are the workhorses of hydraulic systems
 Use a piston within the cylinder to translate hydraulic pressure into
linear mechanical movement
 In aircraft, these can be used to power control surfaces, gear doors, air
stair doors, etc.
Other Hydraulic Components
 Hydraulic lines come in both flexible and rigid forms
 Deliver hydraulic power from the pump to the actuator
Other Hydraulic Components
 Valves direct hydraulic fluid (therefore power) to where it’s
needed.
 Valves can be used to sequence operations, i.e. gear doors
open, gear extends, gear doors close, etc.
Hydraulic Reservoirs
 Reservoirs are used to contain adequate amounts of hydraulic
fluid
 Usually, low-pressure air is applied to minimize fluid foaming
Hydraulic Accumulators
 These units store hydraulic pressure for use in the event of a
pump failure
 Normally consist of a sealed pressure container with a
diaphragm or piston
 System hydraulic pressure compresses nitrogen to store
energy
 Can also be used to control pressure surges or fluctuations
Hydraulic System Threats
 Hydraulic systems are subject to several significant threats. These
include:
 System Overheat. The system exceeds its maximum allowable
operating temperature and must be de-energized.
 Loss of System Pressure. Loss of system pressure can occur in two
different ways; loss of fluid or failure of a hydraulic pump.
 Hydraulic Fluid Contamination. Contamination can be chemical or
particulate in nature and can be caused during fluid production, by
improper servicing of the hydraulic system or by a component failure.
Effects
 Hydraulic system overheat, loss of pressure or fluid
contamination can all result in the loss of the hydraulic
system and the loss of function of those components that it
powers.
 Fluid contamination can also result in loss of hydraulic
system efficiency, fluid leaks, excessive component wear and
premature component failure.
737NG Hydraulic System
 The aircraft has three hydraulic systems
 Named A, B and Standby
 Primary flight controls are powered by both A and B
 The standby system has three designated uses when one or
both A and B fail
A system
 Associated with the left side of the aircraft
 From front to back it powers the following components:
 A autopilot
 Nose gear steering
 Landing gear retraction/extension
 PTU for auto-slat extension
 Alternate brakes
 Ground spoilers and inboard flight spoilers
 Ailerons, elevator, and rudder
 Thrust reverser for #1 engine
A system
 A system has a reservoir containing 4.7 gallons of Skydrol 110
 The reservoir is pressurized by the pneumatic system to approx.
47psi to provide positive fluid flow to the hydraulic pumps
 A has two pumps which provide 3000psi
 Engine driven pump (large capacity)
 Electric (stby) pump located in the wheel well
A system
 In normal operations, both pumps run all the time
 Both pumps are cooled by hydraulic fluid which circulates
around the pump case
 Pulling the fire handle cuts off fluid supply to the pump
B system
 Associated with the right side of the aircraft
 Its pumps are identical to A system
 B system reservoir is larger at 7.2 gallons and is similarly
pressurized
 B system reservoir is larger because if supplies the standby
reservoir through a line on the side of the reservoir called a
balance line
B system
 In the event of a leak that results in a total loss of fluid, the
reservoir will still contain 2.8 gallon of fluid
 Some people call this reserve “Baby B”
 This fluid is intended for and dedicated to the A system PTU
to extend the auto-slats
B system
 Components powered by B system are:
 B auto pilot
 Normal brakes
 Auto brakes
 Landing gear PTU
 Leading edge devices
 Trailing edge devices
 Outboard flight spoilers
 Yaw damper
 Aileron, elevator, and rudder
 Engine reverser, #2 engine
System Comparison
A system B System
 A autopilot  B auto pilot
 Alternate brakes  Normal brakes
 Nose gear steering  Auto brakes
 Landing gear retraction/extension  Landing gear PTU
 PTU for auto-slat extension  Leading edge devices
 Ground spoilers and inboard flight spoilers  Trailing edge devices
 Ailerons, elevator, and rudder  Outboard flight spoilers
 Thrust reverser for #1 engine  Yaw damper
 Aileron, elevator, and rudder
 Engine reverser, #2 engine
Standby Hydraulic System
 Standby to Boeing means last resort; it is designed for
extreme conditions
 The standby system powers three things on the aircraft
 The standby rudder actuator
 Engine reversers
 Leading edge device emergency extension
Standby Hydraulic System
 Standby reservoir holds 2.8 gallons and is located between
the wheel wells
 Fed by the B reservoir
Standby Hydraulic Pump
 The standby pump comes on four ways: two without any pilot
input, two with pilot input
 No pilot input: 1)Loss of A or B system above 60 knots on the
ground, or 2)with flaps extended in the air
 With pilot input: 1)Pilot can turn on the standby pump and
2)pilot can turn on the alternate flap master switch. This activates
the standby with the flaps up so the leading edge devices can be
extended
Part 2: Landing Gear, Steering and
Brakes
 Each main gear has two wheels, nose gear has two smaller
wheels
 All tires are inflated to 190psi
 If the number 1 engine fails (A system) there is a backup
transfer from the B system
 This transfer is used for gear retraction during single engine
climb out
Landing Gear
 Nose wheel steering is available at all times
 Differential braking is available if AC or DC electrical power is
available
 A system powers steering through the “down line” of the nosed
gear
 No A system means no steering (unless the aircraft is equipped
with alternate NWS)
 Main gear caster 3 degrees
 Air/Ground sensors are located on the right main gear and nose
gear
Gear Operation
 Gear handle connects to a selector valve which directs fluid
to either side of the actuator, extend or retract
Gear Operation
 Main brakes are automatically applied during gear retraction
 Nose gear rubs against a snubber
 Gear handle in the up position disables the anti-skid (no longer
needed)
 Gear handle in neutral releases hydraulic fluid from the actuators
back to the reservoir
 Gear is mechanically locked in the up position
Gear Operation
 Gear handle to the down position directs fluid to the extend
side of the actuators and unlocks the uplocks
 Gear is locked in the down position by an over center
mechanism
Alternate Extension
 Manual handles with pull cables are beneath the cockpit floor
 Mains require 45 pounds of pull, nose 25
 Gear free falls and lock via over-center mechanism
Nose Wheel Steering
 78 degrees by wheel, 7 degrees by pedal
 Wheel can override the pedals
 A bypass pin is required for towing and pushback
 Disables steering and towbar accidents
Part 3: Normal, Alternate and
Accumulator Brakes
 Normal Brakes
 Toe brakes are powered by System B
 Pedals move cables that open the “Normal Brake Metering
Valves”
 Fluid ports through the metering valve according to how
hard the pedals are pushed
 Fluid goes through the anti-skid valves to the brakes
AVT 4201 Advanced Aircraft Systems

Flight Controls
Flight Control Basics
 Small aircraft use rudimentary flight control systems
 These systems consist of cable and/or pushrod actuated
control surfaces
 Control systems become much more complex as aircraft get
larger and fly at higher speeds and greater speed ranges
Flight Controls: Aerodynamic Issues
 Large turbine powered aircraft must resolve the
aerodynamics of high-speed cruise with the slow flight and
lift required for takeoff and landing
 High speed flight is best achieved with small, thin, low-
camber swept wings with low drag
 Safe takeoff and landings need thick, high-camber, high-lift
wings with high drag
Control Surfaces
 Flaps and Leading Edge Devices
 The combination of high-speed cruise and acceptable takeoff,
approach and landing performance is achieved through the
use of flaps and leading edge devices
 These systems convert the wing from one configuration to
another
Flaps
 Flaps are high-lift devices that increase the camber of the
wing and, with certain types of flaps, increase the surface
area of the wing
 Turbine aircraft almost without exception use slotted flaps,
Fowler flaps or a combination of the two
Slotted Flaps
 When extended, these form a space between the leading
edge of the flap and the trailing edge of the wing
 The gap allows high-speed, high-pressure air to pass through
the slot and over the upper portion of the flap
 This prevents air separation and increases lift
 Some aircraft use double and even triple slotted flaps
Fowler Flaps
 Fowler flaps, when extended move on tracks aft of the
trailing edge of the wing
 These flaps change the camber of the wing and also increase
its surface area
 Initial flap extension, lift increases with little increase in drag
 Midrange, lift and drag increase
 Full extension increases drag with little increase in lift
Leading Edge Devices
 Leading edge devices (LED) effectively lower the angle of
attack of the wing
 LED’s increase the lift the wing produces
 By decreasing the angle of attack of the wing, LED’s increase
lift by keeping the airflow attached over the top of the wing
 Most common type of LED is a slat or leading edge flap
Slats
 Secondary airfoils mounted on the leading edge of the wing
 When extended, increase the wing’s camber
 Slat extension creates a slotted leading edge
Leading Edge Flaps
 Two kinds: drooping flaps and Krueger flaps
 Drooping flaps (nose flaps) are hinged to effectively droop
the leading edge down
 Krueger flaps hinge forward from under the leading edge
Roll Spoilers
 Roll spoilers are flat panels mounted on the top of the wing
surface
 Assist the ailerons in roll control
 Usually interconnected with the ailerons
 As with ailerons, roll spoiler deployment is regulated as a
function of airspeed
 These aid to counter adverse yaw
Ground Spoilers and Lift Dump
Mechanisms
 Due to all the high lift devices used for landing, it is desirable
to eliminate that lift as quickly as possible on touchdown
 Lift dump shortens landing distance and increases braking
effectiveness
 Ground spoilers usually deploy automatically under some
combination of power setting and weight-on-wheels
Flight Spoilers and Speed Brakes
 Modern jets are so aerodynamically “clean”, or “slippery”,
that even with power at idle it can be difficult to get desired
descent rates
 Add to that the need to decelerate in a descent and it can be
near impossible to get the desired performance
 Flight spoilers disrupt the airflow over the wing in order to
increase descent rates without increasing airspeed
737NG Flight Controls
 The 737NG uses most all of the components we’ve just
discussed
 The primary flight control system uses conventional control
wheel, column and pedals linked mechanically to hydraulic
power units
 Flight controls are powered by redundant hydraulic sources,
systems A and B
737NG Elevator
 Hydraulically actuated, powered by hydraulic system A
and/or B
 Controlled by either (or both) control yokes, or by either
autopilot
 The elevators are joined by a torque tube; they must move
together, but can be separated in the event of an elevator jam
 Elevators are hinged to a moveable horizontal stabilizer
 Each elevator has a balance tab to assist in relieving dynamic
load pressures
737NG Elevator
 Trim is accomplished by positioning the horizontal
stabilizer, not the elevator
 In the event of a total loss of hydraulic pressure, the elevators
can be positioned with some difficulty by the pilots in the
manual reversion mode
 In this mode the pilots move the yoke which moves cables,
actuators and subsequent cables to move the elevator
Elevator Jam
 In the event the control column becomes jammed, Capt. and
FO yokes can be separated by brute force due to an “override
mechanism”
 The force required is greater than the force required for
manual reversion
Elevator Feel System
 Due to the fact that the control surfaces are actuated by
hydraulics, there is no direct sensation back to the pilot for
control “feel”
 The 737 provides flight control feel back to the control yoke
through the hydraulic system
 Control feel is speed dependent
737NG Ailerons
 One aileron per wing, equipped with a balance tab
 Deflecting the control yoke for roll moves cables attached to
the system A and B power control units (PCU)
 The PCU’s move cables and cranks to move the ailerons
737NG Ailerons
 A Transfer Mechanism provides the means to separate the
Captain’s and FO’s roll control cable system
 Captain’s yoke is connected to the ailerons
 FO’s yoke is connected to the roll spoilers
 Like the elevators, the yokes can be forced to separate so the
un-jammed circuit can be used to control the aircraft
737NG Rudder
 Single rudder is powered by a two chamber PCU and when
necessary, a standby hydraulic PCU
 There is no autopilot input to the rudder
 The rudder trim operates the same rudder PCU’s, so,
 If you have rudder, you have rudder trim
Rudder Pressure Reducer
 To avoid overstressing the aircraft, the rudder system uses a
pressure reducing system
 Above 1000 feet radio altitude, the pressure reduces to
1000psi
 If any engine fails, the pressure reverts to 3000psi
Yaw Dampers
 Yaw dampers have been standard features of swept wing
aircraft for decades
 The yaw damper accomplishes two things
 It dampens yaw at high speed flight to avoid the “Dutch Roll”
effect and,
 It senses adverse yaw in a turn and adds appropriate input to
the rudder PCU’s to provide coordinated flight
 With the 2-axis autopilot, we still have coordinated flight
Secondary Flight Controls
Part 2
Horizontal Stabilizer
 Pitch trim is accomplished through positioning the horizontal
stabilizer (stab)
 Power to do this is provided by a two speed electric motor,
or by two manual trim wheels on the center control stand
 Each pilot has a trim wheel, the electric motor is actuated by
a switch on the control yoke or by the autopilot
Speed Brakes
 The four flight spoilers also act as speed brakes
 When the speed brake lever is moved aft, all four spoiler
panel deploy proportionally to the travel of the handle
 When acting as speed brakes, the spoiler can still assist in roll
Ground Spoilers
 Prior to landing the speed brakes are “Armed” for automatic
deployment upon touchdown
 Upon touchdown (ANY squat switch, left or right), power
levers at idle, and radio altimeter is less than 10 feet, the
flight spoilers deploy
 When the right strut is compressed, the four ground spoilers
deploy
Ground Spoilers
 Ground spoilers do three things:
 Slows the aircraft and kills any residual lift,
 Immediately puts weight on the wheels to assist in anti-skid
and autobrakes to stop the aircraft, and
 Makes it very hard to make a perfect landing
Ground Spoilers
 If the pilots do not arm the spoilers, they all (12) deploy
when the thrust reversers are selected
 They can be manually deployed upon touchdown, but there is
a 9,600# weight penalty
 All spoilers deploy automatically on an aborted takeoff when
the reversers are deployed
Leading Edge Devices
 The LED’s extend as a function of flap deployment
 Positioning the flap handle to 1, 2 or 5 will extend the LED’s
Trailing Edge and Alternate Flaps
 The 737NG has two Fowler flaps on each wing
 One is inboard and one is outboard of the engine blast trail
 The NG uses three flap settings for takeoff, 1, 5, and 15
 15, 30, and 40 for landing
Alternate Flaps
 Alternate flaps are available in the event of a B system failure
 The Alternate Flap Master Switch is selected on and the
control switch is momentarily pushed
 The LED’s will extend, the flaps will extend (slowly) as long
as you hold the switch
 The Standby Hydraulic System pump powers the actuators
Autoslat System
 This is an added stall protection feature
 With flaps set at 1, 2, or 5, Autoslat is armed and the autoslat
computer is active
 If that computer receives a “critical angle of attack” signal
from the AOA vanes, the computer extends the slats fully
AVT4201 Advanced Aircraft Systems

Pneumatics
(Air Systems)
Pressurization: Differential
 The main measure of a pressurization system’s efficiency is
known as its maximum differential (max dif)
 This is the ratio of cabin pressure vs. outside air pressure
 Certified maximum operating altitude is determined not by
aircraft performance, but by the pressurization system’s
ability to meet oxygen requirements in the regulations
Pressurization: Indicators and
Controls
 Pilots control pressurization by setting one or more variables
on the pressurization controller
 We monitor cabin altitude, cabin rate of climb, and
differential
 Most aircraft (but not the 737…) require that they be
completely depressurized for takeoff and landing
Pressurization: Safety
 It is important that the aircraft land unpressurized (or at low
pressure)
 This is because pressurization stresses the fuselage
 Hard landings could cause structural damage
 Also, opening aircraft doors may be impossible while
pressurized (not to mention the pain it can cause to
everyone’s ears…)
Pressurization: Safety
 Safety devices are installed to address some of these issues
 Positive Pressure Relief Valves (safety valves, or relief valves)
vent excess pressure if the max dif is exceeded
 Dump Valves allow pilots to manually vent cabin pressure
 These can be used to “dump” pressure in the event of a
pressurization computer failure or to remove smoke from the
cabin
Loss of Cabin Pressurization
 The most obvious is a rapid decompression or an explosive
decompression
 The sudden change in air pressure can cause a fog to form in
the cabin, ears will “pop”
 Worse is a slow, or gradual decompression
 It is very helpful if you know what your hypoxia symptoms
are
Air and Vapor Cycle Machines
 When you compress a gas, it gets hot
 When expanded, gas cools; it transfers heat to the
surrounding air
 If you start with a liter of air at a given temperature and
compress it into a smaller volume, it will be hotter than it
was originally
 If you remove some of the heat (heat exchange)from that
compressed gas and then expand it, it will be cooler than it
was to begin with
Air Cycle Machine
 High pressure bleed air first passes through a compressor
 It is then routed through a heat exchanger or two to remove
heat
 It then passes through an expansion turbine into a larger
chamber dramatically cooling it
 The work of turning the turbine also acts to significantly cool
the air
Vapor Cycle Machine
 A vapor cycle machine when installed in your car or home is
known as an air conditioner
 ACM’s use air to cool the compressed air
 VCM’s use a liquid (refrigerant)
 To further cool the air, the refrigerant experiences a phase
change (gas to liquid)
Air Conditioning Units (Packs)
 To control cabin temperature, two or more temperature mixing
valves mix bleed air with cooled air from the ACM/VCM
 This entire, bundled unit is called a “pack” (Pressurization Air
Conditioning Kit)
 The pack is controlled by either an automatic temperature
control unit, or manually
B-737 Pneumatic System
737NG Engine Bleed Air
 Air is bled from the CFM56 engine at the N2 high-speed
compressor
 Specifically from the fifth stage compressor
 If 5th stage air is not sufficient, it can be automatically
augmented with 9th stage bleed
 The bleed valves are selected “open” by the pilots
 The bleed valves operate through a self-regulating control
system
737NG APU Bleed Air
 APU bleed air is important during ground operations
 The APU bleed air is used for starting the engines,
heating/air conditioning, and to pressurize the water and
hydraulic reservoirs
 It is NOT used for anit-icing
737NG Bleed Air: Pressures
 The amount of pressure in the system depends on engine
RPM and altitude
 On a sea-level takeoff it may reach 60-80psi
 At altitude at cruise power it may be at 20psi
 30psi is needed to start most engines
 The amount of pressure supplied by the APU varies less
because that engine runs at 100%
Engine Anti-Ice
 Bleed air from stage 5 (stage 9 also, if needed) is routed to
the engine cowl
 This is pre-conditioned air, so it has not been cooled in an
ACM
 This air is wholly contained within the engine system
Wing Anti-Ice
 Just inboard of the engines in the cross-bleed manifold are
the left and right wing anti-ice valves
 These operate in the air ONLY
 These are large volume users of bleed air and cause
noticeable impact on engine performance
Air Conditioning and Pressurization
 The air conditioning system provides fresh, filtered air
continuously during flight
 If one pack is inop, the flight may not climb above 25,000, if
both inop, the flight may not pressurize
 All air enters through the N2 compressor
 The filters in the system are remarkable (1 micron), changed
regularly
 Aircraft air is cleaner than an operating room
Air Cycle Machines
 During pack operation, outside air is ducted from the wing
root through the ACM and then exits out the bottom of the
aircraft (heat exchanger)
 The air is dumped overboard taking a lot of heat with it
 The 737 uses a two stage heat exchanger
 The air passes through a water separator then down to a
blending duct, then to distribution
Air Conditioning System Protection
 Primarily supplied by temperature sensors
 If the ACM overheats, the pack valve closes automatically
 Duct overheat lights illuminate if the temperature reaches
190 degrees
 Simultaneously, the mixing valves drive to full cold
 If the condition continues another temp sensor will trip the
pack
Pressurization
 The aircraft is pressurized to a differential of either 7.45,
7.80, or 8.35 depending on altitude
 At 9.1psi the pressure relief valve opens
 Pressurized areas include the cockpit, cabin, baggage
compartments, and the electronics and equipment
compartment (called the E/E)
 There are two outflow valves, one aft, one forward
Pressurization
 The main outflow valve (aft) is the primary exit point for
most of the cabin air
 Secondary outflow occurs through the Overboard Exhaust
Valve (forward outflow valve)
 This is the exit point for forward cabin air and warm air from
the E/E compartment
 Can also be opened to exhaust smoke from the E/E