Well Logging Notes

WIRELINE AND PERFORATING
Cased Hole Associate Field Professional

Course Manual Volume I
WPS-TD-20002
Revision A
All information contained in this publication is confidential and proprietary property of
Halliburton Company. Any reproduction or use of these instructions, drawings, or photographs
without the express written permission of an officer of Halliburton Company is forbidden.
© Copyright 2008 Halliburton Company
All Rights Reserved.

Printed in the United States of America
This document was created in support of the Halliburton Wireline and Perforating Associate
Field Professional development program delivered at the Halliburton Training Center. For more
information contact:
Halliburton Energy Services Training Center

1128 Everman Parkway
Fort Worth, Texas 76140
Photo:
Foreground: Dual Well Completion performed in Rock Springs, Wyoming (Courtesy Larry Klein)
Background: Well completion performed in 1956 (Courtesy John Jennings)
Compiled and written by Ameet Agnihotri, Joshua Demond and Shawn McCafferty
*Multiple sources were used to create this document. See bibliography for full accredidation.*
Revision Record
Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional Course Manual Vol. I

WPS Training
Date: August 2008
Description Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional Course Manual
Volume I
Table of Contents
Table of Contents..........................................................................................................................1
Chapter 4 Basic Petroleum Geology and Open Hole Log Analysis ........................13
Preface........................................................................................................................................15
Basic Petroleum Geology ...........................................................................................18
Introduction .................................................................................................................................18
Objectives ...................................................................................................................................19
Earth—An Evolving Planet..........................................................................................................20
Geology Basics ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Three Basic Rock Types.......................................................................................................................... 23
Petroleum-Bearing Rocks .................................................................................................................. 23
The Rock Cycle........................................................................................................................................ 24
Geologic Time.......................................................................................................................................... 25
Age Dating.......................................................................................................................................... 25
Basic Age-Dating Principles ............................................................................................................... 26
Geologic Time Scale................................................................................................................................ 28
Distribution of Oil and Gas Fields Based on Geologic Age ..................................................................... 29
Basic Classification and Types of Sedimentary Rocks............................................................................ 30
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................................................ 30
Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................... 30
Sandstones......................................................................................................................................... 30
Carbonates ......................................................................................................................................... 30
Shales................................................................................................................................................. 31
Evaporites........................................................................................................................................... 31
Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation............................................................................................. 31
Migration of Hydrocarbons ................................................................................................................. 32
Basic Hydrocarbon Chemistry............................................................................................................ 32
Five Major Types of Hydrocarbons of Interest to Petroleum Exploration ................................................ 33
Kerogen/Bitumens .............................................................................................................................. 33
Crude Oil ............................................................................................................................................ 34
Asphalt................................................................................................................................................ 34
Natural Gas ........................................................................................................................................ 34
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Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional Vol. I WPS Training
Condensates ...................................................................................................................................... 35
Temperature Gradient ........................................................................................................................ 35
Pressure Gradient .............................................................................................................................. 37
Reservoir Geology ......................................................................................................................39
Abundance and Production of Sedimentary Formations ......................................................................... 40
Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir ................................................................................................... 41
Depth .................................................................................................................................................. 41
Area and Thickness............................................................................................................................ 41
Porosity .................................................................................................................................................... 43
Controls on Porosity ........................................................................................................................... 46
Permeability ............................................................................................................................................. 49
Examples of Variations in Permeability and Porosity ......................................................................... 50
Fluid Distribution within a Reservoir ........................................................................................................ 51
The “Fluids First” Revolution .............................................................................................................. 51
Reservoir Fluid Mechanics ...................................................................................................................... 53
Capillary Pressure.................................................................................................................................... 55
Irreducible Water Saturation .................................................................................................................... 56
Basic Geological Conditions that Create Petroleum Traps ..................................................................... 57
Hydrocarbon Traps............................................................................................................................. 57
Structural Traps .................................................................................................................................. 57
Anticlinal and Dome Traps ................................................................................................................. 58
Salt Dome or Salt Plug Traps ............................................................................................................. 59
Fault Trap ........................................................................................................................................... 60
Stratigraphic Traps ............................................................................................................................. 62
Lenticular Traps.................................................................................................................................. 62
Pinch-out or Lateral Graded Traps..................................................................................................... 63
Angular Unconformtiy Traps............................................................................................................... 63
Exploration and Mapping Techniques ..................................................................................................... 64
Subsurface Mapping........................................................................................................................... 64
Geophysical Surveys.......................................................................................................................... 65
Structural Contour Maps..................................................................................................................... 67
Cross-Sections ................................................................................................................................... 68
Isopach Maps ..................................................................................................................................... 69
Lithofacies Maps ...................................................................................................................................... 70
Surface Geology ...................................................................................................................................... 73
Subsurface Geology and Formation Evaluation ...................................................................................... 74
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Halliburton Energy Services
Well Cuttings............................................................................................................................................ 75
Cores ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
Logging While Drilling .............................................................................................................................. 77
Formation Testing .................................................................................................................................... 77
Wireline Well-Logging Techniques .......................................................................................................... 77
Borehole Environment ............................................................................................................................. 79
The Basis of Log Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 81
Log Data ............................................................................................................................................. 82
Porosity............................................................................................................................................... 82
Resistivity ........................................................................................................................................... 82
Water Saturation ...................................................................................................................................... 83
Important Terminology and Symbols.................................................................................................. 84
A Note on Water Saturation ............................................................................................................... 87
Review of Permeability ............................................................................................................................ 87
Reserve Estimation.................................................................................................................................. 89
How Much Hydrocarbon can be Recovered from the Reservoir?...................................................... 89
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................92
References..................................................................................................................................94
Open-Hole Log Interpretation for Cased-Hole Field Professionals.........................95
Logging and the Reservoir ..........................................................................................................95
Fundamental Formation Properties ......................................................................................................... 96
Lithology ............................................................................................................................................. 97
Porosity............................................................................................................................................... 97
Fluid Saturations................................................................................................................................. 98
Permeability........................................................................................................................................ 99
The Logging Environment...................................................................................................................... 100
Depth of Investigation Limitations .................................................................................................... 101
The Role of Inference and Assumption ................................................................................................. 103
Understanding Resistivity Logs .................................................................................................104
Formation Water Resistivity................................................................................................................... 104
Porosity .................................................................................................................................................. 105
Pore Tortuosity....................................................................................................................................... 106
Fluid Saturations .......................................................................................................................109
Putting It All Together................................................................................................................112
R T Versus R XO ....................................................................................................................................... 113
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Archie Water Saturation......................................................................................................................... 114
Limitations of the Archie Approach................................................................................................... 115
Water-Wet Formation ....................................................................................................................... 115
Determining Tortuosity Factor and Cementation Exponent................................................................... 116
Determining Formation Water Resistivity (R W ) ...................................................................................... 118
The Danger in Calculating Water Saturation ......................................................................................... 119
Understanding Porosity Logs....................................................................................................120
Two Porosities are Better than One....................................................................................................... 121
Two Porosities? ................................................................................................................................ 121
Photoelectric Factor (P e ) ....................................................................................................................... 122
Starting Out Simple................................................................................................................................ 122
Lithology Indicators ................................................................................................................................ 125
Gamma Ray Indicators..................................................................................................................... 125
Resistivity Indicators......................................................................................................................... 125
Neutron-Density Indicators ............................................................................................................... 126
Other Log Indicators ......................................................................................................................... 126
After Lithology, What Next? ................................................................................................................... 127
Porosity Estimates from Logs ................................................................................................................ 127
Total Porosity versus Effective Porosity ........................................................................................... 128
Density Porosity (Φ D ) Estimates ...................................................................................................... 129
Neutron Porosity (Φ N ) Estimates ..................................................................................................... 130
Combined Neutron-Density Porosity Estimates ............................................................................... 131
Acoustic Porosity (Φ S ) Estimates ..................................................................................................... 135
Summarizing Porosity Logs ................................................................................................................... 137
Appendix A................................................................................................................................139
Chemical Properties of Hydrocarbons ......................................................................................139
The Paraffin Series........................................................................................................................... 139
The Naphthene (Cycloparaffin) Series ............................................................................................. 140
The Aromatic (Benzene) Series ....................................................................................................... 140
NSO Compounds ............................................................................................................................. 140
Chapter 2 Cased Hole Basics................................................................................... 143
Preface......................................................................................................................................145
Introduction to Cased-Hole Services....................................................................... 147
The Legend of Halliburton.........................................................................................................147
Cased Hole Services ................................................................................................. 153
Cement Evaluation/Pipe Inspection....................................................................................................... 153
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Cement Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 153

Pipe Inspection ................................................................................................................................. 154
Cased-Hole Formation Evaluation......................................................................................................... 155
Chemical Source Tools .................................................................................................................... 155
Pulsed-Neutron Tools....................................................................................................................... 156
Natural Gamma-Ray Tools............................................................................................................... 157
Mechanical Services .............................................................................................................................. 157
Plugs................................................................................................................................................. 157
Packers............................................................................................................................................. 158
Setting Tools..................................................................................................................................... 158
Perforating ............................................................................................................................................. 159
Stim Gun/Sleeve............................................................................................................................... 160
Pipe Recovery........................................................................................................................................ 160
Production Logging ................................................................................................................................ 161
Cased-Hole Cables ....................................................................................................163
Cable Properties .......................................................................................................................163
Mechanical Strength .............................................................................................................................. 164
Electrical Continuity ............................................................................................................................... 165
Temperature Rating ............................................................................................................................... 166
Anti-Corrosion Properties ...................................................................................................................... 167
No Joints (Seamless)............................................................................................................................. 167
Cable Care and Operational Considerations ............................................................................169
Installation.............................................................................................................................................. 169
Tension During Installation............................................................................................................... 169
Logging Operations Concerns.......................................................................................................... 170
Basic Cable Care ................................................................................................................................... 170
Seasoning New Cable ...................................................................................................................... 174
Identifying Cable Damage ..................................................................................................................... 177
Compression Gap............................................................................................................................. 177
Cable Kinks ...................................................................................................................................... 177
Corrosion and Wear Indicators......................................................................................................... 178
Location of an Electrical Leak .......................................................................................................... 179
Cased-Hole Depth and Tension................................................................................183
Depth Systems..........................................................................................................................183
Stand-Alone Depth Display Panel (SDDP-A/B)..................................................................................... 184
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Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) Measurement System.................................................................................. 185
AM5K Measuring System ................................................................................................................. 185
AM3K Measuring System ................................................................................................................. 186
AMS4A044 Hoistman’s Touch-Screen Panel................................................................................... 187
AMS4A040/AMS4A041 Winch Operators Panel.............................................................................. 187
Signal Processing .................................................................................................................................. 188
Depth Control Basics ................................................................................................................190
Measurement Principle .......................................................................................................................... 191
Cable Properties .................................................................................................................................... 192
Measuring Head with Built-in Load Cell................................................................................................. 193
External Cable-Tension Measuring System .......................................................................................... 194
Load Cell Calibration.............................................................................................................................. 194
Transportation, Handling, and Storage.................................................................................................. 198
Depth-Measurement Encoders .................................................................................................199
Optical Encoder ..................................................................................................................................... 199
Back-up Encoders.................................................................................................................................. 200
Measuring Wheels ................................................................................................................................. 200
Straight-Line Depth Measurement System............................................................................................ 201
Example............................................................................................................................................ 203
Cased-Hole Depth Control Procedures ....................................................................................203
First Run Procedures ............................................................................................................................. 204
Zeroing the Logging Tool String ............................................................................................................ 204
Example............................................................................................................................................ 204
Rig-Up Length at Surface (RULS) ......................................................................................................... 205
Example............................................................................................................................................ 205
Rig-Up Line at Bottom of Well (RULB) .................................................................................................. 205
Example............................................................................................................................................ 206
Logging-Up Procedures ......................................................................................................................... 206
Final Check....................................................................................................................................... 206
Subsequent Runs/Trips ......................................................................................................................... 206
Total Depth Logger/Bottom Log Interval................................................................................................ 208
Total Depth (TD)............................................................................................................................... 208
Plug-Back Total Depth (PBTD) ........................................................................................................ 208
Total-Depth Logger........................................................................................................................... 208
Bottom-Log Interval .......................................................................................................................... 209
Calculation Examples ...............................................................................................................210
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Example #1 ............................................................................................................................................ 210

Example #2 ............................................................................................................................................ 210
Example #3 ............................................................................................................................................ 211
Example #4 ............................................................................................................................................ 211
Example #5 ............................................................................................................................................ 211
Example #6 ............................................................................................................................................ 211
Example #7 ............................................................................................................................................ 212
Wheel Diameter Error ............................................................................................................................ 212
Cased-Hole Weak Points ..........................................................................................213
Construction ..............................................................................................................................213
Step 1: Preparing the Cable .................................................................................................................. 213
Step 2: Securing the Cable.................................................................................................................... 214
Step 3: Wrapping the Cable................................................................................................................... 215
Step 4: Installing the Brass Core ........................................................................................................... 217
Step 5: Building the Weak Point Assembly ........................................................................................... 218
Step 6: Removing the Inner Armor ........................................................................................................ 225
Step 7: Sliding the Stinger over the Cone ............................................................................................. 226
Step 8: Installing the Cone Retainer ...................................................................................................... 227
Step 9: Installing the Cable Head Sleeve .............................................................................................. 228
Step 10: Cutting the Insulated Conductor Wire ..................................................................................... 229
Step 11: Threading the Boot.................................................................................................................. 230
Step 12: Connecting the Conductor Wire .............................................................................................. 231
Step 13: Final Assembly of the Cable Head.......................................................................................... 232
Step 14: Greasing the Cable Head........................................................................................................ 234
Summary................................................................................................................................................ 235
Weak Point Calculations ...........................................................................................................236
Determining Maximum Weak-Point Value............................................................................................. 236
Weak-Point Construction Calculations .................................................................................................. 238
Determining Weak-Point Strength ......................................................................................................... 239
Maximum Safe Pull and Maximum Pull ................................................................................................. 239
Chapter 3 LOGIQ-CH, Telemetry, Filters, Delays ....................................................243
Preface......................................................................................................................................246
Telemetry ...................................................................................................................247
Basic Telemetry ........................................................................................................................247
Measuring Output .................................................................................................................................. 247
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Recording Output................................................................................................................................... 247
Analysis of Recorded Data (DAS Software) .......................................................................................... 248
Wireline Telemetry Forms.........................................................................................................250
Analog Telemetry................................................................................................................................... 250
Bi-Polar Pulses ...................................................................................................................................... 251
Multiple Sensors/Acoustic Tools............................................................................................................ 253
Digital Telemetry .................................................................................................................................... 255
Basic Digital Telemetry .......................................................................................................................... 256
How Binary Works ............................................................................................................................ 256
Hybrid Telemetry.................................................................................................................................... 260
Filters ......................................................................................................................... 263
Electronic Filters .......................................................................................................................263
Software Filters .........................................................................................................................265
Section 3 ...................................................................................................................................271
LOGIQ-CH .................................................................................................................. 271
Cased-Hole Interface Panel (CHIP)..........................................................................................272
Front Panel ............................................................................................................................................ 273
Back Panel............................................................................................................................................. 274
Internal Components.............................................................................................................................. 275
Tool Power Supply ........................................................................................................................... 275
USB 44 ............................................................................................................................................. 276
SDSDSP (Digital Signals Processor) ............................................................................................... 276
DSP Aux ........................................................................................................................................... 276
CBL1D .............................................................................................................................................. 277
CBL02............................................................................................................................................... 277
Analog-Switch Interface Board (ANASW) ........................................................................................ 277
Applied Free-Point Card ................................................................................................................... 277
Pre-Relays Board (Prelays).............................................................................................................. 277
CCL Board ........................................................................................................................................ 278
TELA R6 Board ................................................................................................................................ 278
Power Supply Auxiliary Board (PSXD)............................................................................................. 278
Audio Board...................................................................................................................................... 278
USBHUB Board ................................................................................................................................ 279
Ultra-Link Module Board (ULLM)...................................................................................................... 279
Telemetry Processing ............................................................................................................................ 279
CCL (Non-SDDP Equipped Systems) .............................................................................................. 282
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Bi-Polar Telemetry (Gamma-Ray Neutron) ...................................................................................... 285

Cement Bond Log Telemetry ........................................................................................................... 286
MUXB2 (Uplink)................................................................................................................................ 287
MUXB2 (Downlink) ........................................................................................................................... 288
Ruggedized Rack-Mounted Portable Computer (RMPC)...................................................................... 289
Printrex 840 DL/G .................................................................................................................................. 289
Flat Panel Monitor.................................................................................................................................. 290
Cable Shooting Panel (CSP) ................................................................................................................. 290
Design and Features ........................................................................................................................ 290
Safe Mode ........................................................................................................................................ 293
Shoot Mode ...................................................................................................................................... 294
Log Mode.......................................................................................................................................... 297
CCL Mode ........................................................................................................................................ 298
Multi-Conductor Shooting Panel....................................................................................................... 299
Delays.........................................................................................................................301
Software Offsets (Delays) .........................................................................................................304
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Cased-Hole Associate Field

Professional

Chapter 1
Basic Petroleum Geology and Open-Hole Logging Analysis
Revision (A)
(August 2008)
Reference No. WPS-TD-20002
12/29/2008 13
All information contained in this publication is confidential and proprietary
property of Halliburton Company. Any reproduction or use of these
instructions, drawings, or photographs without the express written
permission of an officer of Halliburton Company is forbidden.

This document was created in support of the Halliburton Wireline and

Perforating Associate Field Professional development program delivered at
the Halliburton Training Center. For more information contact:

12/29/2008 14
Preface
This WPS Training manual provides information on basic petroleum geology and open-
hole log interpretation for the Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional. Study the
manual to develop a through understanding of the tool before operating or servicing it for
the first time. Observe all notes, cautions, and warnings to minimize the risk of personal
injury or damage to the equipment.
Section 1 Basic Petroleum Geology—This section provides an overview of geological

concepts and processes essential to the petroleum industry.
Section 2 Open-Hole Interpretation for Cased-Hole Field Professionals—This

section focuses on techniques for interpreting various open-hole logs for the purpose of
determining the presence of hydrocarbons and base-formation properties.
Appendix A Chemical Properties of Hydrocarbons—Discussion of the four

classifications of hydrocarbons.
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16 12/29/2008
Section 1
Basic Petroleum Geology
Introduction
Geology is the science that deals with the history and structure of the earth and its life
forms, especially as recorded in the rock record. A basic understanding of its concepts
and processes is essential in the petroleum industry because it is used to predict where
oil accumulations might occur. It is the job of the petroleum geologist to use his or her
knowledge to reconstruct the geologic history of an area to determine whether the
formations are likely to contain petroleum reservoirs. It is also the job of the geologist to
determine whether the recovery and production of these hydrocarbons will be
commercially profitable.
Important concepts that are vital to the production and recovery efforts of any exploration
or energy service include: the physical characteristics of a reservoir, how petroleum
originated and in what type of rock, types of fluids present in the reservoir, how
hydrocarbons become trapped, and basic well log.
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Objectives
After completing this section, you should be able to:
 Define Geology and how it applies to the petroleum industry.

 Define and describe the three basic layers of Earth.
 Differentiate between weathering processes and erosional processes.
 Name the three rock types.
 List the components of the rock cycle.
 Explain the three basic principles of relative age dating.
 Define and explain a rock formation.
 Explain the origin of hydrocarbons.
 Define porosity.
 List the controls on porosity.
 Define permeability.
 Define a reservoir.
 List the two most common reservoir rock types and give some general
characteristics of each type.
 Explain fluid distribution in a petroleum reservoir.
 List and describe the basic hydrocarbon traps.
 Name the different geological mapping techniques used in petroleum exploration.
 Explain the difference between surface and subsurface exploration.
 Explain the basic concepts of well log analysis.
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Earth—An Evolving Planet
About 4.6 billion years ago, Earth began to evolve from a conglomeration of chunks of
matter into a differentiated planet with continents, oceans, and an atmosphere. The
primitive planet grew and began to heat up due to the collision of in-falling material
striking other accreted material at high velocities. There were three general processes
that contributed to the heating of the planet: collision, compression by the weight of the
accreted material, and radioactive decay.
Fig. 1.1.1—Collision of Material Fig. 1.1.2—Compression of Material.

onto Primative Earth.
It is likely that accretion and compression raised the internal average of about 1,000°C.
Radioactive elements also had a profound effect on the evolution of Earth. The decay of
these elements contributed to a rise in interior temperature to approximately 2,000°C,
the temperature at which iron will melt. This is important because the melting of iron,
which makes up about one-third of the planet, initiated the process by which Earth
became the planet we know today. Iron is denser than most other elements on Earth.
When it melted, the iron sank and formed the planet’s core. The other molten materials
were lighter and, therefore, separated and floated upward, creating a layered body. The
very lightest materials floated to the top, cooled, and formed Earth’s crust. This
differentiation also initiated the escape of lighter gases, which eventually led to the
formation of the atmosphere and oceans.
Fig. 1.1.3—Disintegration of Radioactive Elements.
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Geology Basics
The earth is composed of three basic layers: the core, the mantle, and the crust. The
crust is the layer that is of most importance in petroleum geology. Geologists distinguish
between oceanic crust and continental crust. Oceanic crust lies under the oceans and is
thin—about 5–7 mi (8–11 km)—and is made up primarily of heavy rock that is formed
when molten rock (magma) cools. Continental crust is thick—about 10–30 mi (16–48
km)—and is composed of rock that is relatively light as compared to oceanic crust.
Fig. 1.1.4—Cross-Sectional View of the Earth Showing its Internal Structure.
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The crust is continuously changing and moving because of two major forces of nature—
orogeny and weathering/erosion. Orogeny, or mountain building, is a process in which
the layers of the crust are folded and pushed upward by such processes as plate
tectonics and volcanism. Weathering and erosion are the opposing forces in which the
sediments are broken down and transported.
There are two types of weathering:
• Physical—occurs when solid rock is fragmented by physical processes that do

not change the rock’s chemical composition. These processes include wind
(aeolian forces), water (freezing, flowing, wave action, etc.), heat, and even
glacial movement. Frost wedging is one example of physical weathering.
• Chemical—occurs when minerals in a rock are chemically altered or dissolved.

The weathering of potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, a clay, is an example of
chemical weathering.
Fig. 1.1.5—Cross-Sectional View of Weathering and Erosion.
Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As a rock

weathers, it becomes susceptible to erosion. Erosion is the removal of weathered debris.
These and additional forces and processes have resulted in the creation of subsurface
geological formations in which petroleum reservoirs are found.
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Three Basic Rock Types

The earth’s crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of molten rock (magma or lava) from
within the earth’s mantle. Common igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and gabbro.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical

and/or structural changes in response to marked changes in temperature, pressure,
shearing stress, and chemical environment. These changes generally take place deep
within the earth’s crust. Examples of common metamorphic rocks include slate, marble,
and schist.
Sedimentary rocks are formed as sediments, either from eroded fragments of older
rocks or chemical precipitates, lithify by both compaction, as the grains are squeezed
together into a denser mass than the original, and by cementation, as minerals
precipitate around the grains after deposition and bind the particles together. Sediments
are compacted and cemented after burial under additional layers of sediment. Thus,
sandstone is formed by the lithification of sand particles, and limestone is formed by the
lithification of shells and other particles of calcium carbonate. These types of rocks are
typically deposited in horizontal layers, or strata, at the bottom of rivers, oceans, and
deltas. Limestone, sandstone, and clay are typical sedimentary rocks.
Petroleum-Bearing Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are the most important and interesting type of rock to the petroleum
industry because most oil and gas accumulations occur in them; igneous and
metamorphic rocks rarely contain oil and gas.
All petroleum source rocks are sedimentary. Furthermore, most of the world’s oil lies in
sedimentary rock formed from marine sediments deposited on the edges of continents.
For example, there are many large deposits that lie along the Gulf of Mexico and the
Persian Gulf.
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The Rock Cycle
Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are related by the rock cycle, the circular
process by which each is formed from the others. Rocks are weathered to form
sediment, which is then buried. During deeper and deeper burial, the rocks undergo
metamorphism and/or melting. Later, they are deformed and uplifted into mountain
chains, only to be weathered again and recycled.
Fig. 1.1.6—The Rock Cycle.
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Geologic Time
Geologic time and Earth’s geologic history are concepts that need to be clearly
understood in addition to how they relate to the petroleum industry. It takes millions of
years and specific conditions for organic and sedimentary materials to be converted to
recoverable hydrocarbons.
The late eighteenth century is generally regarded as the beginning of modern geology.
During this time, James Hutton, a Scottish physician and gentleman farmer, published
his Theory of the Earth with Proof and Illustrations (1785), which put forth the principle
of uniformitarianism. This principle states that the geologic processes and forces now
operating to modify the earth’s crust have acted in much the same manner and with
essentially the same intensity throughout geologic time, and that past geologic events
can be explained by forces observable today. This is known as the classic concept “the
present is the key to the past.”
Age Dating
Before radioactive materials were discovered, geologists used an understanding of
fossils and some basic geologic principles to determine the relative ages of sedimentary
rock layers; that is, how old they are in relation to one another. Relative dating does not
tell us how long ago something took place, only that it followed one event and preceded
another. Once radioactivity was discovered, geologists used the physics of radioactive
decay to pinpoint a rock’s absolute age; that is, how many years ago it formed. Absolute
dating did not replace relative dating. Instead, it simply supplemented the relative dating
technique.
The principle methods that have been used for direct radiochronology of sedimentary
rocks are as follows:
1. The Carbon-14 technique for organic materials.

2. The Potassium-Argon and Rubidium-Strontium techniques for glauconites,
hornblende, microclines, muscovites, biotites, etc.
3. The Thorium-230 technique for deep ocean sediments and aragonite corals.
4. The Protactinium-231 technique for ocean sediments and aragonite corals.
5. The Uranium-238 technique for apatite, volcanic glass, zircon, etc.
12/29/2008 25
Fig. 1.1.7—Layered Rock Sequence Illustrating Relative Age and Deposition of Strata in
Horizontal Layers.
Basic Age-Dating Principles

To establish a relative time scale, a few simple principle or rules had to be discovered
and applied. Although they may seem rather obvious to us today, their discovery was a
very important scientific achievement.
Stratigraphy is the study of the origin, composition, distribution, and sequence of the
layers of sedimentary rock, or strata. Stratification is the characteristic layering or
bedding of sedimentary rocks. This characteristic is basic to two of the principles used to
interpret geologic events from the sedimentary rock record. First, is the principle of
original horizontality, which states that most layers of sediment are deposited in a
nearly horizontal layer. If a sequence of sedimentary rock layers are folded or tilted, then
it is generally understood that these layers were deformed by tectonic events after their
initial deposition. Second, is the principle of superposition, which states that each
layer of sedimentary rock in a sequence that has not been tectonically disturbed is
younger than the layer beneath it and older than the layer above it. Therefore, a series of
sedimentary layers can be viewed as a vertical time line. This produces either a partial
or complete record of the time elapsed from the deposition of the lower-most bed to the
deposition of the upper-most bed. This rule also applies to other surface-deposited
materials, such as lava flows or beds of ash from volcanic events. If igneous intrusions
or faults cut through strata, they are assumed to be younger than the structures they cut.
This is known as the principle of cross-cutting relationships.
Paleontology, the study of life in past geologic time based on fossil plants and animals,
is an important consideration in the stratigraphic record and is significant in assigning
ages to rock units. In early geologic endeavors, index fossils (fossils with narrow, vertical
stratigraphic ranges) represented the only means for realistic correlation and age
assignment of rock sequences. As illustrated in Fig. 1.1.8, correlation is the process of
relating rocks at one site with those at another site.
26 12/29/2008
Fig. 1.1.8—Correlation of Strata.
In 1793, William Smith, a surveyor working in southern England, recognized that fossils
could be used to date the relative ages of sedimentary rocks. He learned that he could
map rock units from coal quarry to coal quarry over a large distance if he characterized
the layers by their lithology and fossil content. While mapping the vertical rock
sequences, he established a general order of fossils and strata from the oldest at the
bottom to the youngest at the top. This stratigraphic ordering of fossils eventually
became known as the principle of faunal succession and states that fossil faunas and
floras in stratigraphic sequence succeed one another in a definite, recognizable order.
Smith was also the first person to define formations within a rock unit. A formation is a
rock unit that is mappable over a laterally extensive area and has the same physical
properties and contains the same fossil assemblages. Some formations consist of one
rock type, like limestone. Others may be interbedded (e.g., alternating layers of
sandstone and shale that can be mapped as one unit).
By combining faunal succession and stratigraphic sequences, geologists can correlate

formations in a local area or around the world. The petroleum industry relies on the
application of these principles for exploration and production.
12/29/2008 27
Geologic Time Scale
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, geologists built on the knowledge of their
predecessors and started to build a world-wide rock column. Although it will never be
continuous from the beginning of time, the above principles have allowed geologists to
compile a composite world-wide relative time scale.
Fig. 1.1.9—Geologic Time Scale.
28 12/29/2008
Distribution of Oil and Gas Fields Based on

Geologic Age
It is important to know the geologic age of reservoir rocks because rocks of different
ages frequently have different petroleum characteristics and productivity. It is also
important to note that the age of the rock does not necessarily coincide with the time of
oil accumulation. It is only known that it accumulated sometime after the formation’s
deposition.
Table 1.1.1—Distribution of Discovered Oil and Gas

Fields Based on Geologic Age.
Geologic Age % of Fields

Neogene 18
Palaeogene 21
Cretaceous 27
Jurassic 21
Permo-Triassic 6
Carboniferous 5
Devonian 1
1
Cambrian-Silurian
Total 100
12/29/2008 29
Basic Classification and Types of Sedimentary
Rocks
The two main groups of sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of their origin.
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

These rocks are formed as a result of the weathering or fragmentation of pre-existing
rocks and minerals and classified on the basis of their textures, primarily the sizes of the
grains. Sedimentary rocks are divided into three grain types: coarse-grained—
conglomerates; medium-grained—sandstones; and fine-grained—siltstones, mudstones,
and shales. Within each textural category, clastics are further subdivided by mineralogy,
which reflects the parent rock (e.g., a quartz-rich sandstone or a feldspar-rich
sandstone).
Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

These rocks are formed as a result of chemical processes. Primary carbonate deposition
results from the precipitation and deposits formed by plants and animals that utilize
carbonates in their life processes. The most abundant mineral chemically or
biochemically precipitated in the oceans is calcite, which mostly consists of the shelly
remains of organisms and the main constituent of limestone. Many limestones also
contain dolomite, a calcium-magnesium carbonate precipitated during lithification.
Gypsum and halite are formed by chemical precipitation during the evaporation of
seawater.
There are five types of sedimentary rocks that are important in the production of
hydrocarbons:
Sandstones
Sandstones are clastic sedimentary rocks composed of mainly sand-size particles or
grains set in a matrix of silt or clay and are more or less firmly united by a cementing
material (commonly silica, iron oxide, or calcium carbonate). The sand particles usually
consist of quartz, and the term “sandstone”, when used without qualification, indicates a
rock containing about 85-90% quartz.
Carbonates
(Broken into two categories: limestones and dolomites)
Carbonates are sediments formed by a mineral compound characterized by a

fundamental anionic structure of CO 3 -2. Calcite and aragonite CaCO 3 are examples of
carbonates. Limestones are sedimentary rocks consisting chiefly of the mineral calcite
(calcium carbonate, CaCO3), with or without magnesium carbonate. Limestones are the
most important and widely distributed of the carbonate rocks. Dolomite is a common
rock-forming mineral with the formula CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 . A sedimentary rock will be named a
30 12/29/2008
dolomite if that rock is composed of more than 90% mineral dolomite and less than 10%
mineral calcite.
Shales
Shale is a type of detrital sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of fine-grained
material including clay, mud, and silt. Shales have a layered or stratified structure
parallel to bedding. They are typically porous and contain hydrocarbons but generally
exhibit no permeability. Therefore, shales typically do not form reservoirs, but they do
make excellent cap rocks. If a shale is fractured, however, it would have the potential to
become a reservoir.
Evaporites
Evaporites do not form reservoirs like limestone and sandstone but are very important
to petroleum exploration because they make excellent cap rocks and generate traps.
The term “evaporite” is used for all deposits, such as salt deposits, that are composed of
minerals that precipitated from saline solutions concentrated by evaporation. Upon
evaporation, the general sequence of precipitation is: calcite, gypsum or anhydrite,
halite, and finally bittern salts.
Evaporites make excellent cap rocks because they are impermeable and, unlike lithified
shales, they deform plastically, not by fracturing.
The formation of salt structures can produce several different types of traps. One type is
created by the folding and faulting associated with the lateral and upward movement of
salt through overlying sediments. Salt overhangs create another type of trapping
mechanism.
Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation

Source rock refers to the formation from which oil and gas originate. Hydrocarbons are
generated when large volumes of microscopic plant and animal material are deposited in
marine, deltaic, or lacustrine (lake) environments. The organic material may either
originate within these environments and/or may be carried into the environment by
rivers, streams, or the sea. The microscopic plant and animal material is generally
deposited with fine clastic (silt and/or clay) sediments. During burial, the sediments
protect the organic material by creating an anoxic (oxygen-depleted) environment. This
allows the organic material to accumulate rather than be destroyed by aerobic
organisms, such as bacteria. Over time, the organic remains are altered and
transformed into gas and oil by the high temperatures and increased pressure of deep
burial. This process can take tens of thousands of years to occur. The amount of
petroleum generated is a function of the thickness of the accumulated sediments and
organic material, the burial of these materials, and time.
Note: Organically-rich, black-colored shales deposited in a quiet marine, oxygen-

depleted environment are considered to be the best source rocks.
12/29/2008 31
Migration of Hydrocarbons
Primary migration is the process by which petroleum moves from source beds to
reservoir rocks. Secondary migration is the concentration and accumulation of oil and
gas in reservoir rock. Evidence that petroleum does migrate is suggested by the very
common occurrence of active seeps where oil and gas come to the surface either
directly from the source rock or from reservoir rocks. In either case, the petroleum had to
migrate through rocks with sufficient permeability and porosity to allow the fluids to flow
to the surface. Therefore, migration involves rock properties and fluid properties,
including the petroleum, moving through the rocks. Some of the rock and fluid properties
include porosity, permeability, capillary pressure, temperature and pressure gradients,
and viscosity. These and other properties will be discussed in detail in the sections to
follow.
Basic Hydrocarbon Chemistry

Petroleum is a general term for all naturally-occurring hydrocarbons, whether gaseous,
liquid, or solid. It is both simple and complex and is composed almost entirely of carbon
and hydrogen. Impurities like, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen play a somewhat important
role in the formation of hydrocarbon molecules. The numerous varieties of petroleum are
due to the way carbon and hydrogen can combine to form different sized molecules,
thus creating different molecular weights. Thick, black asphalt and yellow, light crude are
examples of two varieties of petroleum with different molecular weights.
A hydrocarbon molecule is a chain of one or more carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms
chemically bonded to them. At room temperature and pressure, molecules with up to
four carbon atoms occur as gases; molecules having five to fifteen carbon atoms are
liquids; and the heavier molecules, with more than fifteen carbon atoms, occur as solids.
Some petroleum contains hydrocarbon molecules with up to sixty or seventy carbon
atoms. The molecular structure of hydrocarbons can vary from simple, straight chains to
more complex, branched chains or closed-ring structures.
Temperature affects the chemical structure of hydrocarbons and can break heavier long-
chain molecules into smaller and lighter molecules. For a more detailed explanation of
the chemical properties of hydrocarbons, refer to Appendix A.
32 12/29/2008
Five Major Types of Hydrocarbons of Interest to

Petroleum Exploration
Kerogen/Bitumens
Shale rock volume is composed of 99% clay minerals and 1% organic material. We have
seen that petroleum is derived mainly from lipid-rich, organic material buried in
sediments. Most of this organic matter is in a form known as kerogen. Kerogen is the
part of the organic matter in a rock that is insoluble when introduced to common organic
solvents. It owes its insolubility to its large molecular size and requires heat to break it
down. Maturation of kerogen is a function of increased burial and temperature and is
accompanied by chemical changes. As kerogen thermally matures and increases in
carbon content, it changes form from an immature light greenish-yellow color to an
overmature black, which is representative of a progressively higher coal rank. Different
types of kerogen can be identified, each with different concentrations of the five primary
elements (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur) and each with a different
potential for generating petroleum.
The organic content of a rock that is extractable with organic solvents is known as
bitumen. It normally forms a small proportion of the total organic carbon in a rock.
Bitumen forms largely as a result of the breaking of chemical bonds in kerogen as
temperature rises. Petroleum is the organic substance recovered from wells and found in
natural seeps. Bitumen becomes petroleum at some point during migration. Important
chemical differences often exist between source-rock extracts (bitumen) and crude oils
(petroleum).
Kerogen is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant (greater than

10%) as to occur in oil shales. It is, however, of great geological importance because it is
the substance that generates hydrocarbon oil and gas. A source rock must contain
significant amounts of kerogen.
Fig. 1.1.10—Shale Rock Composition.
12/29/2008 33
Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of many hydrocarbons that are liquid at surface temperatures and
pressures and are soluble in normal petroleum solvents. Crude oil can vary in
consistency and color due its chemical makeup and the type and amount of impurities it
may contain (e.g., sulfur, nitrogen, etc.).
Crude oil may be classified chemically (e.g., paraffinic, naphthenic) or by its density. This
is expressed as specific gravity or as API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity,
according to the formula:
141.5
API   - 131.5 (Eq. 1.1.1)
s. g. @ 60 o F
Specific gravity (s.g.) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.
API gravity is a standard adopted by the American Petroleum Institute for expressing the
specific weight of oils.
The lower the specific gravity, the higher the API gravity. For example, a fluid with a
specific gravity of 1.0 g cm–3 has an API value of 10°. Heavy oils are those with API
gravities of less than 20° (s.g. > 0.93). These oils have frequently suffered chemical
alteration as a result of microbial attack (biodegradation) and other effects. Not only are
heavy oils less valuable commercially, but they are considerably more difficult to extract.
API gravities of 20 to 40° (s.g. 0.83 to 0.93) indicate normal oils. Oils of API gravity
greater than 40° (s.g. < 0.83) are light.
Asphalt
Asphalt is a dark colored solid to semi-solid form of petroleum (at surface temperatures
and pressures) that consists of heavy hydrocarbons and bitumens. It can occur naturally
or as a residue in the refining of some petroleums. It generally contains appreciable
amounts of sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen and, unlike kerogen, asphalt is soluble in
normal petroleum solvents. It is produced by the partial maturation of kerogen or by the
degradation of mature crude oil. Asphalt is particularly suitable for making high-quality
gasoline as well as roofing and paving materials.
Natural Gas
There are two basic types of natural gas: biogenic gas and thermogenic gas. The
difference between the two is contingent upon conditions of origin. Biogenic gas is a
natural gas formed solely as a result of bacterial activity in the early stages of
diagenesis, meaning it forms at low temperatures, at overburden depths of less than
3,000 ft, and under anaerobic conditions often associated with high rates of marine-
sediment accumulation. Because of these factors, biogenic gas occurs in a variety of
environments, including contemporary deltas of the Nile, Mississippi, and Amazon rivers.
Currently, it is estimated that approximately 20% of the world’s known natural gas is
biogenic. Thermogenic gas is a natural gas resulting from the thermal alteration of
kerogen due to an increase in overburden pressure and temperature.
34 12/29/2008
The major hydocarbon gases are: methane (CH 4 ), ethane (C 2 H 6 ), propane (C 3 H 8 ), and
butane (C 4 H 10 ).
The terms sweet and sour gases are used in the field to designate gases that are low or
high, respectively, in hydrogen sulfide.
Natural gas, as it comes from the well, is also classified as dry gas or wet gas, according
to the amount of natural-gas liquid vapors it contains. A dry gas contains less than 0.1
gal of natural-gas liquid vapors per 1,000 ft3, and a wet gas contains 0.3 gal or more of
liquid vapors per 1,000 ft3.
Fig. 1.1.11—Thermal Maturity Indicators.
Condensates
Condensates are hydrocarbons in transition between gas and crude oil (gaseous in the
subsurface but condensing to liquid at surface temperatures and pressures). Chemically,
condensates consist largely of paraffins, such as pentane, octane, and hexane.
Temperature Gradient
Temperature is generally a function of depth because of the earth’s natural geothermal
gradient. Normal heat flow within the earth’s crust produces a gradient of approximately
1.5°F for each 100 ft of depth below the surface. The temperatures required to produce
crude oil occur between 5,000 and 20,000 ft of depth. Temperatures below 20,000 ft are
generally too high and only generate gas. Temperatures above 5,000 ft are not usually
sufficient to transform the material into crude oil. There are, of course, exceptions to the
rules. Geologic conditions, such as volcanism and tectonics (folding and faulting), can
change or effect the temperature gradient.
12/29/2008 35
Graph 1.1.1—Temperature vs. Depth.
36 12/29/2008
Pressure Gradient
Most pressures that effect rocks are due to the weight of overlying rocks and are called
overburden pressures. Overburden pressure is a function of depth and increases one
pound per square inch (psi) for each ft of depth. At 3,000 ft, for example, the overburden
pressure would be 3,000 psi. Hydrocarbons evolve from an immature stage to oil
generation, oil cracking (wet gas stage), and finally to dry gas generation because of
overburden pressure and the associated increase in temperature.
Fig. 1.1.12—Hydrocarbon Formation as a Function of the Burial of the Source

Rock.
12/29/2008 37
38 12/29/2008
Reservoir Geology
A reservoir is a subsurface volume of porous and permeable rock that has both storage
capacity and the ability to allow fluids to flow through it. Hydrocarbons migrate upward
through porous and permeable rock formations until they either reach the surface as
seepage or become trapped below the surface by a non-permeable cap rock, which
allows them to accumulate in place in the reservoir. Porosity and permeability are
influenced by the depositional pore geometries of the reservoir sediments and the post-
depositional diagenetic changes that take place.
Sandstone reservoirs are generally created by the accumulation of large amounts of

clastic sediments, which is characteristic of depositional environments, such as river
channels, deltas, beaches, lakes, and submarine fans. Sandstone reservoirs have a
depositional porosity and permeability controlled by grain size, sorting, and packing of
the particular sediments. Diagenetic changes may include precipitation of clay minerals
in the pore space, occlusion of pores by mineral cements, or even creation of additional
pores by dissolution of some sediments.
Carbonate reservoirs are created in marine, sedimentary environments with little or no

clastic material input and generally in a location between 30° north and south of the
equator. Porosity types found in carbonate reservoirs can be characterized as vuggy
(pores larger than grains), intergranular (between grains), intragranular/cellular (within
grains), or chalky. Diagenetic changes, such as dolomitization, fracturing, dissolution,
and recrystalization (rare) are extremely important because they have the ability to
create very effective secondary porosity. Cementation, another type of diagenesis,
generally reduces porosity and permeability.
Fig. 1.1.13—Cross-Section of Fig. 1.1.14—Cross-Section of

Sandstone. Carbonate.
12/29/2008 39
Abundance and Production of Sedimentary
Formations
The approximate abundance and production for the three types of sedimentary
formations significant to petroleum production are as follows:
Abundance Of Sedimentary Formations
Sandstone
Carbonate
Shale
Graph 1.1.2—Abundance of Sedimentary Formations.
Production from Sedimentary Reservoirs
60%
50%
Sandstone
40% Carbonate
30% Other
20%
10%
0%
Graph 1.1.3—Production from Sedimentary Reservoirs.
Note: Carbonate reservoirs produce almost twice the amount of hydrocarbons than
sandstone reservoirs. This occurs because of substantial production from
carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East and Mexico.
40 12/29/2008
Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir

Physical characteristics of a reservoir include: the original deposition and subsequent
changes, the type of reservoir (sandstone or carbonate), depth, area, thickness,
porosity, permeability, and capillary pressure.
Depth
The physical characteristics of a reservoir are greatly affected by the depth at which they
occur.
Shallow reservoir—Created by the folding of relatively thick, moderately compacted

reservoir rock with accumulation under an anticline or some trap. The hydrocarbons
would generally be better separated as a result of lower internal reservoir pressures,
less gas in solution, and oil of increased viscosity, resulting from lower temperatures.
Deep reservoir—Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be less

separated with more gas in solution and oil of reduced viscosity because of higher
temperatures. There is often a reduction in porosity and permeability due to the
increased compaction.
Area and Thickness

The total area of a reservoir and its thickness are of considerable importance in
determining if a reservoir is commercial or not. The greater the area and thickness of the
reservoir, the greater the potential for large accumulations of oil and gas. However, there
are reservoirs that produce substantial amounts of hydrocarbons that are not of
considerable size.
12/29/2008 41
Fig. 1.1.15—Area and Thickness of a Reservoir.
42 12/29/2008
Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of void space in a rock to the total volume of rock and reflects the
fluid storage capacity of the reservoir.
volume of void space

Porosity ( )  (Eq. 1.1.2)
total volume of rock
Fig. 1.1.16—Porous Sandstone.

Porosity is expressed as a percentage on a log. When used in calculations, however, it
is important that porosity be expressed in decimal form.
Primary Porosity—Amount of pore space present in the sediment at the time of

deposition or formed during sedimentation. It is usually a function of the amount of space
between rock-forming grains.
Secondary Porosity—Post-depositional porosity. Such porosity results from

groundwater dissolution, recrystallization, and fracturing.
Effective Porosity vs. Total Porosity—Effective porosity is the interconnected pore

volume available to free fluids. Total porosity is all void space in a rock and matrix
whether effective or non-effective.
12/29/2008 43
Fig. 1.1.17—Effective vs. Non-Effective Porosity.
Fracture Porosity—Results from the presence of openings produced by the breaking or

shattering of a rock. All rock types are affected by fracturing, and a rock’s composition
will determine how brittle the rock is and how much fracturing will occur. The two basic
types of fractures include natural, tectonically-related fractures and hydraulically-induced
fractures. Hydraulic fracturing is a method of stimulating production by inducing
fractures and fissures in the formation through the injection of fluids into the reservoir
rock at pressures that exceed the strength of the rock. Hydraulic fracturing can
tremendously increase the effective porosity and permeability of a formation.
Fig. 1.1.18—Fractures in Rock Material.
44 12/29/2008
Vuggy porosity—A form of secondary porosity resulting from the dissolution of the
more soluble portions of rock or the solution enlargement of pores or fractures.
Fig. 1.1.19—Vuggy Porosity in Carbonates.
Maximum Porosity vs. Realistic Porosity—Porosity can approach, in a very well-

sorted, uncompacted sand, a theoretical maximum of 47.6%. In sandstone, this value is
typically much lower due to cementation and compaction. In a carbonate, it is possible to
greatly exceed the theoretical maximum porosity. This may be achieved if the carbonate
is highly fractured along with vuggy porosity.
12/29/2008 45
Controls on Porosity
In sandstone, porosity is largely controlled by sorting. Sorting is a process by which the
agents of transportation, especially running water, naturally separate sedimentary
particles that have some particular characteristic (such as size, shape, or specific
gravity) from associated, but dissimilar, particles. Other important controlling factors
include grain packing, compaction, and cementation.
Well-Sorted Rock—Grains are generally of the same size and shape. If the grains are
well rounded and of similar size, then they will not fit well together, thereby leaving a
large amount of pore space between the grains. Porosity in a well-sorted rock is
generally high.
Fig. 1.1.20—Example of Very Well-Sorted Grains.
Poorly-Sorted Rock—Rock that is composed of a wide variety of grain sizes and

shapes. Porosity can be reduced considerably because smaller or irregularly shaped
grains can be inserted in between the larger grains, thereby reducing the amount of pore
space.
Fig. 1.1.21—Example of Poorly-Sorted Grains.
46 12/29/2008
Grain Packing—Refers to the spacing or density patterns of grains in a sedimentary

rock and is mainly a function of grain size, grain shape, and the degree of compaction of
the sediment.
Fig. 1.1.22—Grain Packing and its Effect on Porosity.
Packing strongly affects the bulk density of the rocks as well as their porosity and
permeability. The effects of packing on porosity can be illustrated by considering the
change in porosity that takes place when even-size spheres are rearranged from open
packing (cubic packing) to tightest or closed packing (rhombohedral packing).
Cubic packing can yield a porosity of 47.6%. Rhombohedral packing yields

approximately 26.0%.
Compaction—Over a long period of time, sediments can accumulate and create

formations that are thousands of feet thick. The weight of the overlying sediments
squeezes the particles together into the tightest arrangement possible. The load
pressure also squeezes out the water that occupies the pore spaces between the
particles, thus reducing the bulk volume of the formation. Compaction is dependent not
only on overburden pressure but also on the different types of clastic materials present
in the formation. Compaction affects porosity and permeability by reducing the amount of
interconnected pore space.
12/29/2008 47
Fig. 1.1.23—Sedimentation Process: Layer A is Compacted by Layer B.
Cementation—The crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in the pore spaces

between clastic particles. The process of lithification (the conversion of unconsolidated
deposits into solid rock) is completed by cementation. Common cementing agents
include calcite (CaCO 3 ), silica (SiO 2 ), and iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Minerals in solution
crystallize out of solution to coat grains and may eventually fill the pore spaces
completely. Porosity and permeability can be reduced significantly through cementation.
Fig. 1.1.24—Effect of Cementation on Porosity.
48 12/29/2008
Permeability
Recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir is an important process in petroleum
engineering, and estimating permeability can aid in determining the amount of
hydrocarbons that can be produced from a reservoir. Permeability is a measure of the
ease with which a formation permits a fluid to flow through it. To be permeable, a
formation must have interconnected porosity (intergranular or intercrystalline porosity,
interconnected vugs, or fractures).
To determine the permeability of a formation, several factors must be known: the size
and shape of the formation, its fluid properties, the pressure exerted on the fluids, and
the amount of fluid flow. The more pressure exerted on a fluid, the higher the flow rate.
The more viscous the fluid, the more difficult it is to push through the rock. Viscosity
refers to a fluid’s internal resistance to flow, or its internal friction. For example, it is
much more difficult to push honey through a rock than it is to push air through it.
Permeability is measured in darcies. Few rocks have a permeability of 1 darcy;

therefore, permeability is usually expressed in millidarcies (md), or 1/1,000 of a darcy.
Permeability is usually measured parallel to the bedding planes of the reservoir rock and
is commonly referred to as horizontal permeability, which, generally, is the main path of
the flowing fluids into the borehole. Vertical permeability is measured across the bedding
planes and is usually less than horizontal permeability. The reason that horizontal
permeability is typically higher than vertical permeability lies largely in the arrangement
and packing of the rock grains during deposition and subsequent compaction. For
example, flat grains may align and overlap parallel to the depositional surface, thereby
increasing the horizontal permeability (see Fig. 1.1.25). High vertical permeabilities are
generally the result of fractures and of solution along the fractures that cut across the
bedding planes. They are commonly found in carbonate rocks or other rock types with a
brittle fabric as well as in clastic rocks with a high content of soluble material. As seen in
Fig. 1.1.25, high vertical permeability may also be characteristic of uncemented or
loosely-packed sandstones.
12/29/2008 49
Examples of Variations in Permeability and Porosity
 Some fine-grained sandstones can have large amounts of interconnected
porosity; however, the individual pores may be relatively small. As a result, the
pore throats connecting individual pores may be fairly restricted and tortuous;
therefore, the permeabilities of such fine-grained formations may be quite low.
 Shales and clays—which contain very fine-grained particles—often exhibit very
high porosities. However, because the pores and pore throats within these
formations are so small, most shales and clays exhibit virtually no permeability.
 Some limestones may contain very little porosity, or isolated vuggy porosity that
is not interconnected. These types of formations will exhibit very little
permeability. However, if the formation is naturally fractured (or even
hydraulically fractured), permeability will be higher because the isolated pores
are interconnected by the fractures.
Fig. 1.1.25—Permeability and Grain Size and Shape.
 Porosity is NOT dependent on grain size.

 Permeability IS dependent on grain size.
50 12/29/2008
Fluid Distribution within a Reservoir

Petroleum reservoirs generally contain a combination of three fluids:
1. Natural Gas
2. Oil
3. Water
As hydrocarbons and water

accumulate in a reservoir,
vertical separation occurs as
a result of the difference in
the specific gravity of the
various fluids. Typically, the
lighter fluids, like gas, rise to
the top of the reservoir.
Below the lighter fluids is a
gas-to-oil transition zone.
This transition zone is a
relatively thin zone above the
oil accumulation. The oil
Fig. 1.1.1—Reservoir Fluid Distribution.
accumulation may be of
primary importance because
it contains crude oil and possibly saturated gas. Below the oil accumulation in most
reservoirs is an oil-water transition zone of varying thickness, which is partly filled with
water and oil. Finally, beneath the oil-water transition zone lies the part of the formation
that is completely saturated with water. It is important to note that all reservoirs may not
contain natural gas, oil, and water. Some formations may only contain water. However,
any formation that contains hydrocarbons will also contain some amount of water. It is
because of this water that we are able to measure the resistivity of a formation in
logging.
The “Fluids First” Revolution

Since the 1960’s, most developments in the logging industry have centered around the
improvement of existing tools and new evaluation techniques. With the advent of
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Logging (MRIL), the industry has been presented with an
exciting method for evaluating hydrocarbon reservoirs. MRI logging had its beginnings in
the late 1950’s and soon after was offered as a commercial service. With continued
improvements in technology and analysis methods, MRIL is quickly becoming a high-
demand service. In 1997, Halliburton Energy Services acquired Numar Corporation,
positioning itself as the industry leader in MRI logging.
With time-honored logging tools, such as the induction, resistivity, and neutron-density,
there have always been limitations due to the effects of the formation upon log response.
These measurements depend upon petro-physical characteristics of the formation,
12/29/2008 51
whereas the main purpose of the logging industry is to investigate the fluids that these
formations contain. MRIL circumvents some of these problems by investigating “fluids
first.” The measurement made by MRIL is not lithology-dependent; therefore, it is a true
measure of the fluids contained in a reservoir. Furthermore, the MRIL provides new
measurements of effective porosity and clay-bound porosity as well as links to reservoir
permeability, fluid viscosity, and fluid type, which have been difficult to establish with
conventional logging tools. An added benefit is that these measurements are made
without nuclear sources.
The “fluids first” revolution is refocusing the industry on the fluids of interest and not
necessarily the rocks that contain these fluids. Over the next few years, MRIL will no
doubt become a highly significant component of any open-hole logging job.
52 12/29/2008
Reservoir Fluid Mechanics

Reservoirs are composed of rock matrix, pores, and capillaries (channels between
matrix grains that connect pores, sometimes called pore throats) of varying sizes. In
sedimentary rocks, all of these pores are fluid-saturated. The fluid is sometimes oil
and/or gas, but water will always be present.
Most water found within the porosity of a reservoir is moderately saline. The degree of
salinity is dependent upon the chemical history of that water. Formation water is typically
salty because most sediments are deposited in marine environments. During deposition
of these sediments, the salty formation water will become entrapped within the porosity.
The salinity of this original formation water, however, may change with geologic time.
Fresh water from the surface may infiltrate the sediments, mixing with the original salty
formation water to form brackish water. In some instances, whether by osmosis or by
fresh water being driven off from nearby formations, it is possible for salty formation
water to be flushed from a formation altogether. The result may be a deep, fresh water-
bearing formation. In some areas, fresh water is encountered at depths as great as
5,000 ft, but in others, salt water occurs at a depth of several hundred feet.
The fluids in a sedimentary rock (whether water, oil, or gas) are constantly subjected to a
variety of forces, which include cohesion, surface tension, adhesion, interfacial tension,
and capillary pressure. The interplay of these forces and their effect on the fluids and
their movement is the subject of fluid mechanics.
Basic to the understanding of fluid mechanics as it applies to hydrocarbon reservoirs is

the concept of surface tension. All molecules in a fluid will attract each other mutually
because of their force of cohesion. This can be demonstrated in Fig. 1.1.27, which
illustrates several molecules of water in a droplet of water. Molecule A will feel equally
balanced forces of cohesion on all sides because of the surrounding water molecules.
Molecule B, however, will feel no comparable attractive force from above. Consequently,
there will be an unbalanced cohesive force at the air-water interface, which attempts to
pull the molecules down and hold them together. This contractile force is called surface
tension. The top layer of molecules acts much like a membrane of rubber, squeezing
against the water below and keeping the air-water interface straight. In a droplet of
water, this same surface membrane keeps the droplet round, as if a balloon filled with
liquid.
Where one liquid is in contact with another liquid or is in contact with a solid, there exists
an attractive force on both sides of their interface called adhesion. This attractive force
is not balanced across the interface because the molecules on one side of the interface
are completely different from those on the other side. The tension resulting from such
unbalanced attractive forces between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid is called
interfacial tension. Interfacial tension accounts for whether a fluid will be adhered to the
surface of a solid or repelled from that surface. Water, for example, will spread out and
adhere to glass because its interfacial tension is low in comparison to that of glass.
Mercury, on the other hand, has an interfacial tension that is high compared to that of
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glass and, therefore, will not adhere to the glass, but rather contract into a droplet. This
principle is extremely important in reservoir fluid mechanics
Fig. 1.1.27—The Principle of Surface Tension.
because these same forces operate between rock material (matrix) and the fluids filling
the porosity. The force of adhesion between water and most matrix material is greater
than that of most oils. Therefore, if a rock contains both water and oil, typically the water
will occur as a film adhering to the rock grains with the oil occupying the space between
(see Fig. 1.1.28). Such a reservoir is said to be water-wet because water is the fluid
phase that is “wetting” the grains of the rock. In some instances, although not as
common, the chemistry of the oil may be such that it is the fluid that is in contact with the
grains of the rock. This type of reservoir is said to be oil-wet.
Fig. 1.1.28—Distribution of Non-Wetting Oil (Black) in a Single Water-Wet Pore

(Water Blank/White).
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Capillary Pressure
Fig. 1.1.29—Capillary Pressure Effects in Reservoirs.
Reservoir rocks are composed of varying sizes of grains, pores, and capillaries
(channels between grains which connect pores together, sometimes called pore throats).
As the size of the pores and channels decrease, the surface tension of fluids in the rock
increases. When there are several fluids in the rock, each fluid has a different surface
tension and adhesion that causes a pressure variation between those fluids. This
pressure is called capillary pressure and is often sufficient to prevent the flow of one
fluid in the presence of another. For example, Fig. 1.1.29 shows that the same adhesive
forces that were mentioned previously will cause water, when in contact with air, to rise
slightly against the walls of its container, against the pull of gravity, and form a concave
meniscus. If several tubes of varying diameter are placed in a water-filled container, a
meniscus forms on the inside walls of the tubes. In the very narrow tubes, the entire air-
water interface will be concave upward. However, surface tension at the air-water
interface will attempt to flatten this interface, thereby causing a slight rise in the level of
water across the entire diameter of the tube. As this occurs, the adhesion of the water to
glass will continue to pull water molecules upward near the edge of the tubes. By this
mechanism, the water level in the tube will continue to rise until the upward force is
balanced by the weight of the water column.
Again, referring to Fig. 1.1.29 above, the strength of the capillary pressure may be
thought of in terms of the concavity of the air-water interfaces seen in the different tubes.
The greater the capillary pressure, the more the air-water interface will be distorted into
concavity by the adhesion of water to glass on the side of the tube. As seen in the
illustration, the air-water interfaces in the narrow tubes exhibit more concavity than do
the air-water interfaces in the wide tubes. Consequently, the height of the water columns
in the B tubes (which are narrow) rise even higher than that of the A tubes (which are
wider). Essentially, capillary pressures are higher for tubes with smaller openings. With
respect to a reservoir, this may be thought of in terms of pore throat diameters.
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Large pore throat diameters:
 Generally yield a lower capillary pressure because of the decrease in the amount
of surface tension.
 Large pores that are often associated with large pore throat diameters will also
contain lesser amounts of adsorbed (adhered) water because the surface-to-
volume ratio of the pore is low.
Small pore throat diameters:
 Generally yield higher capillary pressures because of the greater amount of

surface tension.
 Small pores that are often associated with small pore throat diameters will have a
high surface-to-volume ratio and, therefore, may contain greater amounts of
adsorbed (adhered) water.
Fig. 1.1.30—Grain-Size Effects on Capillary Pressure and Pore-Throat Diameters.
Irreducible Water Saturation

As previously stated, all sedimentary rocks have porosity that is fluid saturated. The fluid
is sometimes oil and/or gas, but water is always present. Water saturation is defined as
the fraction of that porosity that is occupied by water. If the pore space is not occupied
by water, then it must be occupied by hydrocarbons. Therefore, by determining a value
of water saturation from porosity and resistivity measurements, it is possible to
determine the fraction of pore space that is occupied by hydrocarbons (hydrocarbon
saturation).
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Water saturation simply refers to the amount of water that is present in the reservoir and
says nothing about its ability to be produced. In a reservoir containing a small amount of
water, it might be possible to produce this water if capillary pressures are low and the
water is not adsorbed (adhered) onto the surfaces of rock grains. However, if this water
is adhered to the surfaces of rock grains and there is a high capillary pressure, then it is
possible to produce water-free hydrocarbons from a reservoir that does contain some
water.
For any reservoir, there is a certain value of water saturation at which all of the
contained water will be trapped by capillary pressure and/or by adsorption of water on
the surface of rock grains (surface tension). This is referred to as irreducible water
saturation (S wirr ). At irreducible water saturation, all of the water within the reservoir will
be immovable, and hydrocarbon production will be water-free.
Basic Geological Conditions that Create

Petroleum Traps
Hydrocarbon Traps
Hydrocarbon traps are any combination of physical factors that promote the
accumulation and retention of petroleum in one location. Traps can be structural,
stratigraphic, or a combination of the two.
Geologic processes, such as faulting, folding, piercement, and deposition and erosion
create irregularities in the subsurface strata that may cause oil and gas to be retained in
a porous formation, thereby creating a petroleum reservoir. The rocks that form the
barrier, or trap, are referred to as caprocks.
Structural Traps
Structural traps are created by the deformation of rock strata within the earth’s crust.
This deformation can be caused by horizontal compression or tension, vertical
movement, and differential compaction, which results in the folding, tilting, and faulting
within sedimentary rock formations.
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Anticlinal and Dome Traps
The rock layers in an anticlinal trap were originally laid down horizontally then folded
upward into an arch or dome. Later, hydrocarbons migrate into the porous and
permeable reservoir rock. A cap or seal (impermeable layer of rock) is required to permit
the accumulation of the hydrocarbons.
Fig. 1.1.31—Anticlinal Trap.
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Salt Dome or Salt Plug Traps

A salt dome or salt plug trap is created by piercement or intrusion of stratified rock layers
from below by ductile non-porous salt. The intrusion causes the lower formations nearest
the intrusion to be uplifted and truncated along the sides of the intrusion, while layers
above are uplifted, creating a dome or anticlinal folding. Hydrocarbons migrate into the
porous and permeable beds on the sides of the column of salt. Hydrocarbons
accumulate in the traps around the outside of the salt plug if a seal or cap rock is
present.
Fig. 1.1.32—Salt Dome Trap.
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Fault Trap
The faulting of stratified rock occurs as a result of vertical and horizontal stresses. At
some point, the rock layers break, resulting in the rock faces along the fracture moving
or slipping past each other into an offset position. A fault trap is formed when the faulted
formations are tilted toward the vertical. When a non-porous rock face is moved into a
position above and opposite a porous rock face, it seals off the natural flow of the
hydrocarbons, allowing them to accumulate.
Fig. 1.1.33—Fault Trap.
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Fig. 1.1.34—Faulting.
Fig. 1.1.35—Folding.
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Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are formed as a result of differences or variations between or within
stratified rock layers, creating a change or loss of permeability from one area to another.
These traps do not occur as a result of movement of the strata.
Fig. 1.1.36—Stratigraphic Trap.
Lenticular Traps
A lenticular trap is a porous area surrounded by non-porous strata that may be formed
from ancient buried river-sand bars, beaches, etc.
Fig. 1.1.37—Lenticular Trap.
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Pinch-out or Lateral Graded Traps

A pinch-out trap is created by lateral differential deposition when the environmental
deposition changes up-dip.
Fig. 1.1.38—Pinch-Out Trap.
Angular Unconformtiy Traps

An angular unconformity trap is one in which older strata dips at an angle different from
that of younger strata. An angular unconformity trap occurs when inclined, older
petroleum-bearing rocks are subjected to the forces of younger non-porous formations.
This condition may occur whenever an anticline, dome, or monocline are eroded and
then overlain with younger, less-permeable strata.
Fig. 1.1.39—Eroded Anticline. Fig. 1.1.40—Eroded Monocline.
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Fig. 1.1.41—Angular Unconformity.
Exploration and Mapping Techniques

Exploration for oil and gas has long been considered an art as well as a science. It
encompasses a number of older methods in addition to new techniques. The explorer
must combine scientific analysis with an imagination to successfully solve the problem of
finding and recovering hydrocarbons.
Subsurface Mapping
Geologic maps are a representation of the distribution of rocks and other geologic
materials of different lithologies and ages over the earth’s surface or below it. The
geologist measures and describes the rock sections and plots the different formations on
a map, which shows their distribution. Just as a surface relief map shows the presence
of mountains and valleys, subsurface mapping is a valuable tool for locating
underground features that may form traps or outline the boundaries of a possible
reservoir. Once a reservoir has been discovered, it is also the job of the geologist to
present enough evidence to support the development and production of that reservoir.
Subsurface mapping is used to work out the geology of petroleum deposits. Three-
dimensional subsurface mapping is made possible by the use of well data and helps to
decipher the underground geology of a large area where there are no outcrops at the
surface.
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Some of the commonly prepared subsurface geological maps used for exploration and
production include: (1) geophysical surveys, (2) structural maps and sections, (3)
isopach maps, and (4) lithofacies maps.
Geophysical Surveys
Geophysics is the study of the earth by quantitative physical methods. Geophysical
techniques, such as seismic surveys, gravity surveys, and magnetic surveys provide a
way of measuring the physical properties of a subsurface formation. These
measurements are translated into geologic data, such as structure, stratigraphy, depth,
and position. The practical value in geophysical surveys is in their ability to measure the
physical properties of rocks that are related to potential traps in reservoir rocks as well
as documenting regional structural trends and overall basin geometry.
Seismic Surveys
The geophysical method that provides the most detailed picture of subsurface geology is
the seismic survey. This involves the natural or artificial generation and propagation of
seismic (elastic) waves down into Earth until they encounter a discontinuity (any
interruption in sedimentation) and are reflected back to the surface. On-land, seismic
“shooting” produces acoustic waves at or near the surface by energy sources, such as
dynamite, a “Thumper” (a weight dropped on ground surface), a “Dinoseis” (a gas gun),
or a “Vibroseis” (which literally vibrates the earth’s surface).
Electronic detectors called geophones then pick up the reflected acoustic waves. The
signal from the detector is then amplified, filtered to remove excess “noise”, digitized,
and then transmitted to a near-by truck to be recorded on magnetic tape or disk.
In the early days of off-shore exploration, explosive charges suspended from floats were
used to generate the necessary sound waves. This method is now banned in many parts
of the world because of environmental considerations. One of the most common ways to
generate acoustic waves today is an air gun. Air guns contain chambers of compressed
gas. When the gas is released under water, it makes a loud “pop,” and the seismic
waves travel through the rock layers until they are reflected back to the surface where
they are picked up by hydrophones, the marine version of geophones, which trail behind
the boat.
The data recorded on magnetic tape or disk can be displayed in a number of forms for
interpretation and research purposes, including visual display forms (photographic and
dry-paper), a display of the amplitude of arriving seismic waves versus their arrival time,
and a common type of display called variable-density. The variable-density display is
generated by a technique in which light intensity is varied to enhance the different wave
amplitudes. For example, low amplitude waves are unshaded, and higher amplitude
waves are shaded black, thus strong reflections will show up as a black line on the
display.
Seismic waves travel at known but varying velocities depending upon the kinds of rocks
through which they pass and their depth below Earth’s surface. The speed of sound
waves through the earth’s crust varies directly with density and inversely with porosity.
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Through soil, the pulses travel as slowly as 1,000 ft/sec, which is comparable to the
speed of sound through air at sea level. On the other hand, some metamorphic rocks
transmit seismic waves at 20,000 ft (approximately 6 km) /sec, or slightly less than 4
mi/sec. Some typical average velocities are: shale = 3.6 km/s, sandstone = 4.2 km/s,
and limestone = 5.0 km/s. If the subsurface lithology is relatively well known from drilling
information, it is possible to calculate the amount of time it takes a wave to travel down
through the earth to a discontinuity and back to the surface. This information is used to
compute the depth of the discontinuity or unconformity. However, the only way to
accurately determine depth is by correlating seismic sections to wireline logs.
Reflections are generated at unconformities because unconformities separate rocks
having different structural attitudes or physical properties, particularly different
lithologies. These principles form the basis for application of seismic methods to
geologic study.
Magnetic Surveys
Magnetic surveys are methods that provide the quickest and least expensive way to
study gross subsurface geology over a broad area. A magnetometer is used to measure
local variations in the strength of the earth’s magnetic field and, indirectly, the thickness
of sedimentary rock layers where oil and gas might be found. Igneous and metamorphic
rocks usually contain some amount of magnetically susceptible iron-bearing minerals
and are frequently found as basement rock that lies beneath sedimentary rock layers.
Basement rock seldom contains hydrocarbons, but it sometimes intrudes into the
overlying sedimentary rock, creating structures, such as folds, arches, or anticlines that
could serve as hydrocarbon traps. Geophysicists can get a fairly good picture of the
configuration of the geological formations by studying the anomalies, or irregularities, in
the structures.
The earth’s magnetic field, although more complex, can be thought of as a bar magnet,
around which the lines of magnetic force form smooth, evenly spaced curves. If a small
piece of iron or titanium is placed within the bar magnet’s field, it becomes weakly
magnetized, creating an anomaly or distortion of the field. The degree to which igneous
rocks concentrate this field is not only dependent upon the amount of iron or titanium
present, but also upon the depth of the rock. An igneous rock formation 1,000 ft below
the surface will affect a magnetometer more strongly than a similar mass 10,000 ft down.
Thus, a relatively low magnetic-field strength would indicate an area with the thickest
sequence of non-magnetic sedimentary rock. Once the magnetic readings have been
plotted on a map, points of equal field strength are connected by contour lines, thus
creating a map that is the rough equivalent to a topographic map of the basement rock.
This can be useful in locating basic geologic structures, although it will not reveal details
of the structures or stratigraphy.
Gravity Surveys
The gravity survey method makes use of the earth’s gravitational field to determine the
presence of gravity anomalies (abnormally high- or low-gravity values), which can be
related to the presence of dense igneous or metamorphic rock or light sedimentary rock
in the subsurface. Dense igneous or metamorphic basement rocks close to the surface
will read much higher on a gravimeter because the gravitational force they exert is more
powerful than the lighter sedimentary rocks. The difference in mass for equal volumes of
rock is due to variations in specific gravity.
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Although mechanically simple, a gravimeter can measure gravity anomalies as small as

one billionth of the earth’s surface gravity. Data collected from gravity surveys can be
used to construct contour maps showing large-scale structures and, like magnetic-
survey contour maps, smaller details will not be revealed.
Geophysicists applied this knowledge, particularly in the early days of prospecting off the
Gulf of Mexico. Often, they could locate salt domes using data from a gravity survey
because ordinary domal and anticlinal structures are associated with maximum gravity,
whereas salt domes are usually associated with minimum gravity.
Structural Contour Maps

Contour maps show a series of lines drawn at regular intervals. The points on each line
represent equal values, such as depth or thickness. One type of contour map is the
structural map, which depicts the depth of a specific formation from the surface. The
principle is the same as that used in a topographic map, but it, instead, shows the highs
and lows of the buried layers.
Contour maps for exploration may depict geologic structure as well as thickness of
formations. They can show the angle of a fault and where it intersects with formations
and other faults, as well as where formations taper off or stop abruptly. The subsurface-
structural contour map is almost or fully dependent on well data for basic control.
Fig. 1.1.42—Structural Map and Longitudinal Profile Section Showing Top of Salt, which is
Datum for Structure Contours.
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Cross-Sections
Structural, stratigraphic, and topographic information can be portrayed on cross-sections
that reproduce horizontally-represented map information in vertical section. Maps
represent information in the plan view and provide a graphic view of distribution. Cross-
sections present the same information in the vertical view and illustrate vertical
relationships, such as depth, thickness, superpostion, and lateral and vertical changes of
geologic features.
Raw data for cross-sections come from stratigraphic sections, structural data, well
sample logs, cores, wireline logs, and structural, stratigraphic, and topographic maps.
Fig. 1.1.43—Completed Geologic Map and Cross-Section.
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Isopach Maps
Isopach maps are similar in appearance to contour maps but show variations in the
thickness of the bed. These maps may be either surface or subsurface depending on
data used during construction. Isopach maps are frequently color coded to assist with
visualization and are very useful in following pinchouts or the courses of ancient stream
beds. Porosity or permeability variations may also be followed by such means.
Geologists use isopach maps to aid in exploration work, to calculate how much
petroleum remains in a formation, and to plan ways to recover it.
Fig. 1.1.44—Isopach Map of Channel Sandstone.
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Lithofacies Maps
Lithofacies maps show, by one means or another, changes in lithologic character and
how it varies horizontally within the formation. This type of map has contours that
represent the variations in the proportion of sandstone, shale, and other kinds of rocks in
the formation.
Fig. 1.1.45—Isopach and Lithofacies Maps.
Identification of source and reservoir rocks, their distribution, and their thickness’ are
essential in an exploration program; therefore, exploration, particularly over large areas,
requires the correlation of geologic sections. Correlations produce cross-sections that
give visual information about structure, stratigraphy, porosity, lithology, and thickness of
important formations. This is one of the fundamental uses of well logs for geologists.
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Fig. 1.1.46—Cross-Section Constructed from Correlated Well Logs.
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Wells that have information collected by driller’s logs, sample logs, and wireline logs
enable the geologists to predict more precisely where similar rock formations will occur
in other subsurface locations.
Subsurface correlation is based primarily on stratigraphic continuity, or the premise that

formations maintain the same thickness from one well to another. A major change in
thickness, rock type, or faunal content can be a geologic indicator that conditions
forming the strata changed, or it may be a signal of an event that could have caused
hydrocarbons to accumulate.
Fig. 1.1.47—Stratigraphic Cross-Section Constructed from Correlated Well Logs Showing

the Effect of Pinchout of Sand 3.
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Surface Geology
There are several areas to look for oil. The first area is obvious, on the surface of the
ground. Oil and gas seeps are where the petroleum has migrated from its source
through either porous beds, faults, or springs and appears at the surface. Locating
seeps at the surface was the primary method of exploration in the late 1800’s and
before.
Fig. 1.1.48—Seeps are Located Either Updip (A) or Along Fractures (B).
Seeps are abundant and well documented worldwide. Oil or gas on the surface,
however, does not give an indication of what lies in the subsurface. It is the combination
of data that gives the indication of what lies below the surface. Geologic mapping,
geophysics, geochemistry, and aerial photography are all crucial aspects in the
exploration for oil and gas.
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Subsurface Geology and Formation Evaluation
Subsurface geology and formation evaluation covers a large range of measurement and
analytic techniques. To complete the task of defining a reservoir’s limits, storage
capacity, hydrocarbon content, ability to produce, and economic value, all
measurements must be taken into account and analyzed.
A potential reservoir must first be discovered before it can be evaluated. The initial
discovery of a reservoir lies squarely in the hands of the explorer using seismic records,
gravity, and magnetics.
There are a number of parameters that are needed by the exploration and evaluation
team to determine the economic value and production possibilities of a formation. These
parameters are provided from a number of different sources, including seismic records,
coring, mud logging, and wireline logging.
Log measurements, when properly calibrated, can give the majority of the parameters
required. Specifically, logs can provide a direct measurement or give a good indication
of:
 Porosity, both primary and secondary

 Permeability
 Water saturation and hydrocarbon movability
 Hydrocarbon type (oil, gas, or condensate)
 Lithology
 Formation dip and structure
 Sedimentary environment
 Travel times of elastic waves in a formation
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These parameters can provide good estimates of the reservoir size and the
hydrocarbons in place.
Logging techniques in cased holes can provide much of the data needed to monitor
primary production and also to gauge the applicability of waterflooding and monitor its
progress when installed. In producing wells, logging can provide measurements for:
 Flow rates
 Fluid type
 Pressure
 Residual oil saturations
Logging can answer many questions on topics ranging from basic geology to economics;
however, logging by itself cannot answer all the formation evaluation problems. Coring,
core analysis, and formation testing are all integral parts of any formation evaluation
effort.
Well Cuttings
Well samples are produced from drilling operations by the drill bit penetrating the
formation encountered in the subsurface. Samples are taken at regular intervals. They
are used to establish a lithologic record of the well and are plotted on a strip sample log.
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Cores
Cores are cut where specific lithologic and rock parameter data are
required. They are cut by a hollow core barrel, which goes down around
the rock core as drilling proceeds. When the core barrel is full and the
length of the core occupies the entire interior of the core barrel, it is
brought to the surface, and the core is removed and laid out in
stratigraphic sequence. It is important to note that the sample may
undergo physical changes on its journey from the bottom of the well,
where it is cut, to the surface, where it is analyzed. Cores are preferable
to well cuttings because they produce coherent rock. They are,
however, significantly more expensive to obtain. Sidewall cores are
small samples of rock obtained by shooting small metal cylinders from a
gun into the walls of a drill hole. Sidewall cores can be taken from
several levels and at different locations by using the versatile sidewall
coring gun tool. Sidewall cores may also be taken using a wireline tool
called the RSCT (Rotary Sidewall Coring Tool).
Fig. 1.1.49—Conventional
Sidewall Core Gun.
Fig. 1.1.50—Wellbore View of Coring Gun.
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Logging While Drilling

Formation properties can be measured at the time the formation is drilled by the use of
special drill collars that house measuring devices. These logging-while-drilling (LWD)
tools are particularly valuable in deviated, offshore, or horizontally drilled wells. Although
not as complete as open-hole logs, the measurements obtained by MWD are rapidly
becoming just as accurate and usable in log analysis procedures.
Formation Testing
Formation testing, commonly referred to as drillstem testing (DST), is a technique for
delivering, to the surface, samples of fluids and recorded gas, oil, and water pressures
from subsurface formations; such data allows satisfactory completion of a well. This type
of testing provides more direct evidence of formation fluids and gases, the capacity of
the reservoir and its ability to produce in the long term, than any other method except
established production from a completed well.
Wireline-formation testers complement drillstem tests by their ability to sample many

different horizons in the well and produce not only fluid samples, but also detailed
formation pressure data that are almost impossible to obtain from a DST alone.
Wireline Well-Logging
Techniques
Wireline logging involves the
measurement of various properties of a
formation including electrical resistivity,
bulk density, natural and induced
radioactivity, hydrogen content and elastic
modulae. These measurements may then
be used to evaluate not only the physical
and chemical properties of the formation
itself, but also the properties of the fluids
that the formation contains. There are
open-hole logs and cased-hole logs.
The open-hole logs are recorded in the
uncased portion of the wellbore. Cased-
hole logs are recorded in the completed or
cased well. There are measurements that
can be made in both the open and cased
holes and some that can only be made in
open holes. Resistivity and density Fig. 1.1.51—Wireline Logging Unit Rigged Up on a
porosity are two examples of Well
measurements that can be made in an
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open hole but not in a cased hole.
Perforation is the wireline procedure of introducing holes through the casing (inner wall)
and/or the cement sheath into a formation so that the fluids can flow from the formation
into the casing. Perforating is generally performed to bring a well into production,
although it could also be performed to establish circulation within the wellbore to free a
tool string that may be stuck.
Fig. 1.1.52—Perforation.
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Borehole Environment
Reservoir properties are measured by lowering a tool attached to a wireline or cable into
a borehole. The borehole may be filled with water-based drilling mud, oil-based mud, or
air. During the drilling process, the drilling mud invades the rock surrounding the
borehole, which affects logging measurements and the movement of fluids into and out
of the formation. All of these factors must be taken into account while logging and during
log analysis. It is important to understand the wellbore environment and the following
characteristics: hole diameter, drilling mud, mudcake, mud filtrate, flushed zone, invaded
zone, and the uninvaded zone.
Fig. 1.1.53—Borehole Environment.

 Hole diameter (d h )—The size of the borehole determined by the diameter of the
drill bit.
 Drilling Mud Resistivity (R m )—Resistivity of the fluid used to drill a borehole
and which lubricates the bit, removes cuttings, maintains the walls of the
borehole, and maintains borehole over formation pressure. Drilling mud consists
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of a variety of clay and other materials in a fresh or saline aqueous solution and
has a measurable resistivity.
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 Mudcake Resistivity (R mc )—Resistivity of the mineral residue formed by

accumulation of solid drilling-mud components on the wellbore walls as the mud
fluids invade the formations penetrated by the borehole.
 Mud Filtrate (R mf )—Resistivity of the liquid drilling mud components that infiltrate
the formation, leaving the mudcake on the walls of the borehole.
Note: Resistivity values for the drilling mud, mudcake, and mud filtrate are determined
during a full mud press and are recorded on a log’s header.
 Invaded Zone—The zone that is invaded by mud filtrate. It consists of a flushed
zone (R xo ) and a transition or annulus zone (R i ). The flushed zone (R xo ) occurs
close to the borehole where the mud filtrate has almost completely flushed out
the formation’s hydrocarbons and/or water. The transition or annulus zone (R i ),
where a formation’s fluids and mud filtrate are mixed, occurs between the flushed
zone (R xo ) and the uninvaded zone (R t ).
 Uninvaded Zone (R t )—Pores in the uninvaded zone are uncontaminated by
mud filtrate; instead, they are saturated with formation fluids (water, oil, and/or
gas).
The Basis of Log Analysis

Log analysis, at the well-site, is performed with the goal in mind of whether or not to run
production casing. This decision is usually based on interpretation and calculation of the
productive capacity of the formation in question. Such an analysis requires an
understanding of what a log measures, the conditions that influence these
measurements, and how the log data can be used to attain the goal.
Well-site analysis generally concerns the evaluation of two types of logs: electrical or
resistivity logs, and porosity logs.
Note: Resistivity and porosity are the single-most important measurements made by
conventional logging tools, and form the foundation on which the entire industry is
built.
With the data presented on these logs and others, analysts can determine not only the
lithology and productive capabilities of the formation of interest, but also the relative
proportion of water (water saturation), and, therefore, hydrocarbons that the formation
contains.
12/29/2008 81
Log Data
The primary information we are trying to determine from log data is:
1. Porosity (Φ)—The percentage of void space in a reservoir, of which is filled with

fluid (either water or hydrocarbons).
2. Resistivity (R)—The resistance of a material to the flow of electrical current
calculated by Ohm’s Law. Porosity and resistivity are used to calculate water
saturation.
3. Water Saturation (S w )—The percentage of the porosity of a reservoir that is filled by
water.
But, we don’t actually measure these parameters directly!
Porosity
To calculate porosity (Φ), we measure bulk density (ρ b ), hydrogen index (HI), and/or
interval transit time (Δt). A sonic tool measures internal transit time (Δt) and is used to
determine the effective porosity of a reservoir. The neutron-density combination is
used to calculate porosity two different ways and provides us with a value of total
porosity.
Remember: Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume available to free

fluids. Total porosity is all void space in a rock and matrix, whether
effective or non-effective.
Resistivity
Resistivity is, perhaps, the most fundamental of all measurements in logging. All
geological materials possess some amount of resistance, or the inherent ability to resist
the flow of an electrical current.
Resistivity (R) is the physical measurement of resistance and is defined as the

reciprocal of electrical conductivity (C).
1000
R (Eq. 1.1.3)
C
Oil and gas are electrical insulators. They will not conduct the flow of an electrical
current; therefore, their resistivities are said to be infinite. Water, however, will conduct
electricity depending upon its salinity. Salt water, with high concentrations of dissolved
solids (e.g., NaCl, etc.), will conduct electricity much more readily than will fresh water.
Therefore, salt water has a much lower resistivity than does fresh water. In most
instances, the water present in a formation will be saline, and will have a resistivity much
lower than, or similar to, the resistivity of the fluid used to drill a well penetrating that
formation.
A current and a voltage are measured using an induction or resistivity tool. From these
measurements, resistivity (R) can be calculated by Ohm’s Law.
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V
R (Eq. 1.1.4)
I
The amount of current flow that can be supported by a formation depends on the
resistance of the formation matrix (i.e., rock) and the conductive properties of the fluids
that formation contains. Salt water, for instance, requires very little voltage to produce a
current flow. The resulting ratio of voltage to current (expressed as resistivity) is,
therefore, low. Oil, on the other hand, requires that extremely high voltages be applied in
order to generate an electrical current. It is because of this condition that the resistivity of
hydrocarbons is said to be infinite (hydrocarbons are insulators).
Example of changes in resistivity with changes in reservoir characteristics:
 Start with a dense quartz sandstone with no porosity. Rock is an electrical

insulatorR = ∞.
 Add porosity, but no fluid occupies the pores. Rock and air are electrical
insulatorsR = ∞.
 Add moderately saline water to formation’s porosity, which is typical of reservoir
rocks. Current conducted through pore waterR decreases.
 Add even more saline water. Even more current conductedfurther decrease
in R.
 Add hydrocarbon to water already occupying porosity; hydrocarbon displaces
water—occupies a volume formerly filled by water. Path of current flow becomes
more tortuousR increases.
Therefore, R depends on the type and amount of fluid present (which is determined by
porosity). Once R has been measured, then you can solve for what proportion of that
fluid is conductive formation water and what proportion is non-conductive pore water.
Note: Formation water, at depth, is almost always saline.
Water Saturation
Water saturation (S w ) is calculated from porosity (Φ) and resistivity (R) and some basic
assumptions.
Assumptions:
 If porosity (Φ) is measured 2–3 in. from the borehole wall, then you must assume
that to be representative of the entire formation.
 If deep resistivity is measured 5–7 ft from the borehole wall, then you must
assume that to be representative of the univaded zone.
These assumptions are used in calculating the water saturation (S w ) of the uninvaded
zone.
12/29/2008 83
Important Terminology and Symbols
Rw Formation water resistivity
Ro Resistivity of the formation if its porosity is filled 100% with water (wet resistivity)
Fr Formation resistivity factor
Φ Porosity
a Tortuosity factor
m Cementation exponent
Rt True resistivity of the uninvaded zone
Sw Water saturation
Consider a formation with a given amount of porosity, and assume that the porosity is
completely filled with saline formation water of a given resistivity. Because saline water
is capable of conducting an electric current, the formation water resistivity (R w ) is quite
low. The measured resistivity of the formation itself (R o , wet resistivity, where porosity is
100% filled with water) will depend upon the formation water resistivity (R w ) and the
formation resistivity factor (F r ).
Ro = Fr  Rw (Eq. 1.1.5)
Rearranging this equation, the formation resistivity factor (F r ) can be quantified as the
resistivity ratio of the entire formation to that of the water present in that formation.
Ro
Fr  (Eq. 1.1.6)
Rw
In this example, formation water resistivity (R w ) is defined as a constant; therefore,

changes in the formation resistivity factor (F r ) will occur only with changes in the overall
formation resistivity (R o ). The one way in which R o can change in a formation of
constant R w is by changing the amount of fluid available to conduct an electrical current.
This is accomplished through changes in porosity. As porosity decreases, the amount of
water available to conduct electrical current is decreased, resulting in an increase in
formation resistivity (R o ). Therefore, formation resistivity factor (F r ) is inversely
proportional to porosity (Φ).
1
F (Eq. 1.1.7)

This relationship between formation resistivity and porosity was first researched by G. E.
Archie, of the Humble Oil Company, while working on limestones in France. Archie had
electric (resistivity) logs from several wells and core porosity from productive zones
within these wells. He noticed that there was some relation between resistivity and
porosity and, thus, was able to identify zones of interest through the use of electric logs
alone. He wanted to know if there was some relationship that made it possible to
determine whether a zone would be productive on the basis of measured resistivity and
core porosity.
84 12/29/2008
Changes in the porosity of a formation may have effects other than simply increasing or
decreasing the amounts of fluids available to conduct electric current. With a change in
porosity, there may be concomitant changes in the complexity of the pore network that
affect the conductive nature of the fluids present, and the formation resistivity factor (F r )
can, therefore, vary with the type of reservoir. These changes are expressed by the
tortuosity factor (a) and the cementation exponent (m).
a
Fr  (Eq. 1.1.8)
m
For the limestones of Archie’s experiments, the tortuosity factors and cementation
exponents were always constant (a = 1.0, m = 2.0). However, this may not be the case
for sandstone reservoirs. Although both parameters can be determined experimentally
for a specific reservoir, log analysts commonly use set values for the tortuosity factor (a)
and cementation exponent (m), depending upon lithology and porosity, which are
presented below.
Table 1.1.2—Standard Values for Tortuosity Factor (a) and Cementation

Exponent (m).
Sandstones
Carbonates Porosity  > 16% Porosity  < 16%
(Humble) (Tixier)
Tortuosity (a) 1.0 0.62 0.81
Cementation (m) 2.0 2.15 2.00
Consider now that the porous formation discussed previously is filled with some
combination of conductive formation water of constant resistivity (R w ) and oil. Oil is an
insulator and will not conduct an electrical current. Furthermore, because the formation
is filled with both water and oil, the resistivity of the formation can no longer be referred
to as wet resistivity (R o ). The measure of formation resistivity in this instance—taking
into account the resistivity of the rock matrix and the fluids contained—is called true
resistivity (R t ). True resistivity of a formation will only be equal to wet resistivity (R t = R o )
when that formation is completely filled with conductive water. However, because some
of the available porosity may be filled with non-conductive oil, the theoretical wet
resistivity (R o ) of that formation is now related to the measured true resistivity (R t ) by
some additional factor, referred to as F .
R o = F  R t (Eq. 1.1.9)
The factor, F , can, therefore, be expressed as a ratio of the theoretical wet resistivity of
that formation (R o ) to the actual measured resistivity of the formation (R t ).
12/29/2008 85
Ro
F  (Eq. 1.1.10)
Rt
In the example formation, because both porosity and formation water resistivity are
considered to be constant, the resulting theoretical wet resistivity (R o ) will be constant.
Therefore, changes in the factor, F , will occur with changes in measured resistivity (R t ).
Under the given conditions, the only way in which true measured resistivity (R t ) of the
formation can change is through the addition or subtraction of conductive fluid.
For example, the addition of oil to the reservoir would result in the increase of that
formation’s measured resistivity (R t ) because some amount of conductive formation
water would be displaced by the oil. Therefore, the factor, F , is dependent upon the
relative proportion of conductive fluids (water) and non-conductive fluids (hydrocarbons)
in the formation.
The factor, F , in the above equations represents water saturation (usually expressed
as S w ), which is the percentage of pore space within a formation that is occupied by
conductive formation water. By substitution of equations, water saturation can be related
to the physical properties of the formation and the conductive properties of the fluids it
contains.
F R w a R
Sw  Sw   w
n n
or (Eq. 1.1.11)
Rt  m
Rt
Water saturation is related to these properties by the exponent, n (saturation exponent).

The saturation exponent may have a range of values dependent upon specific reservoir
conditions, but it is generally assumed to be equal to 2.0. With knowledge of the
production characteristics of the formation in question, it is possible to determine more
accurate values for the saturation exponent.
The equation for water saturation, an expanded version of that presented as a footnote
in Archie’s 1942 publication and commonly referred to as “Archie’s equation,” has
become the foundation of the entire industry of well logging. In its simplest form, Archie’s
equation is often expressed as:
a R
Sw  n  w (Eq. 1.1.12)
 m
Rt
where:
n = saturation exponent (commonly, n = 2.0)
a = tortuosity factor
Φ = porosity
m = cementation exponent
86 12/29/2008
R w = formation water resistivity
R t = true formation Resistivity
A Note on Water Saturation

It is important to realize that while water saturation (S w ) represents the percentage of
water present in the pores of a formation, it does not represent the ratio of water to
hydrocarbons that will be produced from a reservoir. Shaly sandstone reservoirs with
clay minerals that trap a large amount of formation water may have high water
saturations, yet produce only hydrocarbons. Saturations simply reflect the relative
proportions of these fluids contained in the reservoir. Nonetheless, obtaining accurate
values for water saturation is the primary goal of open-hole log analysis. With the
knowledge of water saturation, it is possible to determine that percentage of porosity that
is filled with a fluid other than water (i.e., hydrocarbons) and, therefore, hydrocarbon
reserves.
Review of Permeability
As previously stated, permeability is the property that permits the passage of a fluid
through the interconnected pores of a rock.
Permeability is measured in darcies. A rock that has a permeability of 1 darcy permits 1

cc of fluid with a viscosity of 1 cP (viscosity of water at 68°F) to flow through 1 cm2 of its
surface for a distance of 1 cm in 1 s with a pressure drop of 14.7 psi.
Few rocks have a permeability of 1 darcy; therefore, permeability is usually expressed in

millidarcies (md) or 1/1000 of a darcy.
The permeabilities of average reservoir rocks generally range between 5 and 1,000 md.
A reservoir rock whose permeability is 5 md or less is called a tight sand or a dense
limestone, according to composition. A rough field appraisal of reservoir permeabilities
is:
Fair 1–10 md
Good 10–100 md
Very Good 100–1,000 md
12/29/2008 87
 Absolute Permeability (K a )—Permeability calculated with only one fluid present
in the pores of a formation.
 Effective Permeability (K e )—The ability of a rock to conduct one fluid in the
presence of another, considering that both fluids are immiscible (e.g., oil and
water). Effective permeability depends not only on the permeability of the rock
itself, but also on the relative amounts of the different types of fluid present.
 Relative Permeability (K r )—The ratio of a fluid’s effective permeability to the
formation’s absolute permeability (100% saturated with that fluid). Relative
permeability reflects the amount of a specific fluid that will flow at a given
saturation—in the presence of other fluid—to the amount that would flow at a
saturation of 100%, with all other factors remaining the same.
Graph 1.1.4 illustrates the relative permeabilities of oil and water in an example
formation. In a reservoir that is 100% saturated with oil, the relative permeability of oil
(K ro ) to water is equal to 1. As water saturation increases, the relative permeability of oil
to water will begin to decrease. The value of water saturation where no water will flow is
referred to as irreducible water saturation (S wirr ). At some value of water saturation,
water will begin to flow within the formation because it can no longer be contained by
capillary pressure. With increasing water saturation, the relative permeability of oil (K ro )
to water will continue to decrease. Meanwhile, the relative permeability of water (K rw ) to
oil will increase. Eventually, a value of water saturation will be reached at which the
relative permeability of oil (K ro ) to water is 0. At this point, oil will no longer flow within the
reservoir, and that value of water saturation is referred to as residual oil saturation
(ROS). At water saturations above the residual oil saturation, only water will flow within
the reservoir. In a reservoir that is 100% saturated with water, the relative permeability of
water (K rw ) to oil is equal to 1.
Notice in Graph 1.1.4 that there is a point at which the relative permeability of oil (K ro ) is
equal to the relative permeability of water (K rw ). At this value of water saturation
(approximately 55% in this example), both oil and water will flow with equal ease. This
does not mean that the same amounts of oil and water will be produced from the
reservoir. The amount of fluid flowing is not a direct effect of the relative permeability of a
fluid because different fluids have different viscosities. For example, if water and gas
were existing in a reservoir and had equal relative permeabilities (K rw = K rg ), the more
gas would flow within the formation because the viscosity of gas is much lower than that
of water.
88 12/29/2008
Effective Permeability to Flowing Fluid
1
0.8 Krw
Relative Permeabil
0.6 Kro
0.4
0.2
Swirr ROS
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water Saturation %
Graph 1.1.4—Effective Permeability to Flowing Fluid.
Reserve Estimation
Accurately estimating the reserves of hydrocarbons in the reservoir is extremely
important. This calculation not only relies on computations from log data but also on the
size and shape of a reservoir and correlations of logs from many wells in the field.
Dipmeter data and seismic data also assist the analyst in making accurate calculations.
In summary, a log analyst can say with some reasonable degree of certainty that, for
example, 10% of the volume of the reservoir is full of oil. It is up to others to determine
the size of the reservoir and, therefore, deduce the actual volume of oil available.
How Much Hydrocarbon can be Recovered from the

Reservoir?
First, calculations need to be made to determine the volume of hydrocarbon found in a
trap, or the OIP (oil-in-place). This is accomplished when some reservoir thickness (h) is
delineated to exist over an area (A) to produce a volume (V). If (h) is measured in ft and
(A) in acres, the reservoir volume (V) is expressed in acre-ft.
In actual reservoirs, both porosity and saturation vary laterally and vertically. A useful
quantity for OIP measurements is, therefore, the hydrocarbon pore volume, or HCPV,
which is defined as:
HCPV = Φ(1-S w ) (Eq. 1.1.13)
12/29/2008 89
Thus, at any depth in a well, if both porosity and saturation are deduced from logs, the
concentration of hydrocarbon in the reservoir at that depth can be estimated. For
example, if porosity is 30% and water saturation is 40%, then HCPV = 0.3(1-0.4) = 0.18,
or 18% of the bulk-reservoir volume contains oil. At a neighboring point in the same well,
the value of HCPV may be different. Thus, in order to sum the total oil-in-place (OIP), an
integration of HCPV with respect to depth and area is called for:
OIP = ΣΦ(1-S w )h*A (Eq. 1.1.14)
Fig. 1.1.54—Oil-in-Place.
Second, we must convert the oil-in-place to reserves, which requires two additional
pieces of data: the recovery factor (r) and the formation volume factor (B). Neither of
these can be estimated from logs. The recovery factor is a function of the type of
reservoir and the drive mechanism, and the formation volume factor is a function of the
hydrocarbon properties. The reserves (N), in terms of stock tank volumes, are thus
expressed as:
C    (1 - Sw)h  A  r
N (Eq. 1.1.15)
B
where:
C = a constant, 7,758 bbl/acre
A= acres
Φ = porosity of reservoir, in percent
h = thickness of reservoir, in ft
S h = hydrocarbon saturation, in percent
= 1-Sw (water saturation)
r = recovery factor
90 12/29/2008
B = formation volume factor or shrinkage factor
= 1.33 ± 0.16
volume at downhole conditions

=
volume at STP
Fig. 1.1.55—Graphical Depiction of the Constant, 7758 bbl/acre
12/29/2008 91
Glossary
Accretion—The process by which an object grows larger due to the addition of fresh
material to the outside.
Catagenesis—Middle level (between diagenesis and metagenesis) sediment

consolidation and alteration when most oil and gas are generated.
Cementation—Precipitation of mineral material into intergranular or intercrystalline pore

space.
Chalk—Fine-textured marine limestone formed by shallow water accumulation of

calcareous remains of floating micro-organisms and algae.
Clast—A rock fragment.
Clastic (rock)—A rock composed of clasts.
Compaction—Sediment volume decrease by increase in overburden pressure.
Crystallization—Physical and/or chemical conversion of gaseous or liquid material to

solid crystal.
Diagenesis—The process of converting sediment to rock.
Differentiation—The process by which planets and satellites develop concentric layers

of different compositions.
Dissolution—When solid material in sediment dissolve in interstitial solutions.
Dolomite—Calcium magnesium carbonate: CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 .
Dolomitization—A volume-reducing recrystallization process, which adds the

magnesium ion to calcium carbonate to form dolomite: can occur contemporaneously
with deposition or diagenetically.
Induration—The hardening of a rock or rock material by heat, pressure, or the

introduction of cementing material.
Intergranular—Between the grains of a rock.
Intragranular—Within the grain of a rock.
Lithification—Solidification of sediment to rock: induration, diagenesis.
Metagenesis—Late-stage diagenesis to early metamorphism corresponding to dry gas

generation and thermally over-mature petroleum source sediments.
92 12/29/2008
Oxidation—The chemical combination of oxygen with other substances resulting in

compositional change and elimination of organic material.
Oxidizing environment—A depositional environment in which oxidation occurs.

Chemical elimination of organic material occurs in an oxidizing environment.
Precipitation—The process by which dissolved materials come out of solution.
Recrystallization—The generation of new, usually larger, crystals in a rock.
Reducing environment—A depositional or ecological condition in which oxygen is

diminished or eliminated.
Replacement—A subsurface water process involving solution exchange of one mineral

for another in a rock medium.
Specific gravity—The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.
Terrigenous—Derived from the land: terrigenous sediment.
Viscosity—The property of a substance to offer internal resistance to flow; its internal

friction.
12/29/2008 93
References
Allen, P.A. and J.R. Allen, 1990, Basin Analysis – Principles and Applications: Blackwell
Science Ltd., Osney Mead, Oxford. 451.
Asquith, G.B., 1982, Basic Well Log Analysis for Geologists: The American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK. 216.
Boggs, S. Jr., 1995, Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Second Edition: Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. 774.
Hatcher, R.D. Jr., 1995, Structural Geology – Principles, Concepts, and Problems, Second
Edition: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 525.
Klein, C. and C.S. Hurlbut, Jr., 1977, Manual of Mineralogy: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York, NY. 681.
Levorsen, A.I., 1954, Geology of Petroleum: W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco,
CA. 724.
Link, P.K., 1982, Basic Petroleum Geology, Second Edition: OGCI Publications, Tulsa, OK.
425.
Morris, J., R. House, and A. McCann-Baker, 1985, University of Texas at Austin – Division of
Continuing Education, Austin, TX. 234.
Press, F. and R. Siever, 1994, Understanding Earth: W.H. Freeman and Company, New York,
NY. 593.
Tarbuck, E.J. and F.K. Lutgens, 1991, Earth Sciences, Sixth Edition: Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York, NY. 659.
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Section 2
Open-Hole Log Interpretation for

Cased-Hole Field Professionals
Logging and the Reservoir

Logging provides data that become the foundation for making the most important
decision in the life of a well: plug or complete? It is for this reason alone that we are
obligated to provide our clients with the most accurate data possible. In our haste to
deliver quality data, many times we lose sight of the “plug versus complete” decision and
how logs play a role in it. Our job is to acquire the data. Someone else will interpret them
and evaluate the formation…until they ask us to.
The overall objective of formation evaluation is to assess a reservoir’s ability to produce

hydrocarbon and then use this knowledge to exploit that hydrocarbon by drilling as few
wells as possible. This type of analysis requires as much information as can be obtained
and is multi-faceted with respect to the source of that information. Formation evaluation
incorporates data from seismic surveys, geological studies, mud logs, core data,
production information, economic analyses and logs. In many cases, the decision to plug
or complete a well is made at the wellsite with nothing more than resistivity and porosity
logs.
Wireline logs are a critical source of data and might possibly be the only source of
subsurface information. They provide us with our “first look” at physical properties of the
reservoir. After going to the trouble of planning and drilling a well, logs provide clues
about lithology, the amount of fluids present, what types of fluids they are, and whether
or not they are producible.
Effective and accurate interpretation of logs at the wellsite depends not only upon our
knowledge of formation evaluation principles, but also upon our understanding of their
limitations. No single physical property recorded on a log is a direct indicator of whether
or not a formation contains hydrocarbon. This indirectness is where the science of
measuring a formation’s physical properties meets the art of their interpretation. To
become proficient in the art of interpretation, we must become familiar with the science
of the measurements. Yet, to effectively apply the science of the measurements, we
must first be comfortable with the art of their interpretation.
Above all, log interpretation requires experience, and every expert was once a beginner.
12/29/2008 95
Fundamental Formation Properties
Log responses can be thought of as being functions of two components of the formation
(Fig. 1.2.1), including physical properties of the matrix (solid rock) and physical
properties of any pore fluids. Using logs to investigate one usually requires assumptions
about the other. Because our main interest is the fluid contained in the pore space, we
commonly must assume something about matrix properties. Fortunately, because logs
also respond to matrix properties, we have a means of double-checking our assumptions
and adding validity to the interpretation.
Fig. 1.2.1—Log Responses are Functions of Matrix Properties and Pore Fluid Properties.
Regardless of what we might like to know about a formation, the measurements

presented on conventional open-hole logs (i.e., gamma ray, resistivity, and porosity)
have traditionally been used to estimate four fundamental properties of a formation.
These include:
1. Lithology
2. Porosity
3. Fluid saturations
4. Permeability
Logs do not provide direct measurements of these properties. No tool measures

lithology, or even porosity. Instead, logs measure other physical properties of the
formation that can be related to lithology and porosity. The same is true of fluid
saturations and permeability. Together, knowledge of these four properties can be used
to determine whether or not a formation contains hydrocarbon and has the ability to
produce it. By themselves, these properties are little more than very small pieces of a
very large puzzle.
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Lithology
In simple terms, lithology refers to rock type. Are we evaluating sandstone, limestone,
dolomite, or something else? More correctly, lithology is a property related to the
physical character (framework) and chemical composition (mineralogy) of the rock.
Knowledge of lithology is vital, if only because it gives us an idea of what to expect.
What type of void space might be encountered in a sandstone, and will fluids be able to
flow through these voids? What about in limestone? How will a logging measurement
react to the formation’s mineralogy? These are questions that must be answered in the
early stages of evaluation.
No log provides a measure of lithology. Some measurements (gamma ray, neutron

porosity, density porosity) investigate interactions between the formation and logging
tool at a molecular level and, therefore, depend upon mineralogy. Other measurements
(acoustic porosity) are more sensitive to the framework of the formation. All of these
measurements give us only indicators to use in determining lithology.
Even after the decision to complete a well is made, lithology continues to play an
important role. It provides geologists with the information necessary to reconstruct
depositional environments so they can streamline future exploratory drilling efforts. It
provides reservoir engineers with information about how the rocks will react
mechanically and chemically during production optimization treatments, such as
hydraulic fracturing and acidizing.
Porosity
Porosity (Φ) is a ratio of the volume of void space in a rock to the total volume of rock,
commonly expressed as a percentage.
volume of voids
 (Eq. 1.2.1)
Hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs can have a wide range of porosities, depending upon

lithology and the depositional and diagenetic histories of the rock. Some produce large
volumes of fluid from as little as 2% porosity, while others might have as much as 70%
porosity (although exceptionally rare). The only means of directly measuring porosity is
to have an actual “piece of the rock,” or core sample. On the other hand, various
physical properties recorded on logs can be related to porosity and provide estimates
rather than measures of this important physical property.
Simply knowing the amount of pore space present is not enough. We must be able to
determine if the porosity is interconnected and is capable of producing fluids (Fig. 1.2.2).
Formations with isolated porosity might very well contain hydrocarbon, but not produce
it. Performing multiple types of porosity measurements (e.g., neutron, density, and
acoustic) helps answer the question of interconnected pore space.
12/29/2008 97
Fig. 1.2.2—Porosity can either be interconnected or isolated. Interconnected pores
contribute to a reservoir’s ability to transmit fluids, whereas isolated pores do not.
An accurate estimate of porosity using neutron, density, and acoustic logs is vital in log
interpretation. Combined with a measure of formation resistivity, porosity is used to
determine the relative quantities of water and hydrocarbon present. Additionally, porosity
estimates make possible the calculation of volumetric hydrocarbon reserves.
Fluid Saturations
With an estimate of porosity, the relative proportions of different fluids (water and
hydrocarbon) occupying that pore space can be determined by incorporating a
measurement capable of distinguishing between them. Water conducts electrical
current, and hydrocarbon does not. Therefore, a measure of a formation’s resistivity
helps in estimating the relative proportions, or saturations, of fluids (Fig. 1.2.3).
Water saturation (S w ) is the fraction of pore space occupied by water. All subsurface
formations contain at least some amount of water, while the remainder of the pore space
is assumed to be occupied by hydrocarbon. With knowledge of water saturation, a
formation’s hydrocarbon saturation (S h ) can be known.
Fig. 1.2.3—Saturation is the Percentage of Pore Space Occupied by a Particular Fluid.
98 12/29/2008
Fluid saturations, though important, are not necessarily good indicators of a formation’s
ability to produce hydrocarbon. Simply because a formation has a water saturation of
30% does not mean it will produce 7 barrels of oil for every 3 barrels of water. At least
some small volume of water present in a formation is irreducible, or incapable of being
produced. In addition, the formation must have interconnected porosity, and the
hydrocarbon present must be moveable in order to be producible. All of these concerns
must be addressed.
Regardless of their limited use in indicating what a formation will produce, saturations do
provide indications of the relative quantities of fluids present. Fluid saturations are
essentially the “starting point” for evaluating a formation’s productive potential: Is
hydrocarbon present and, if so, how much? Beyond this, the objective is to determine if
that hydrocarbon is producible.
Permeability
For a rock to produce fluid, it must be permeable. One requirement is that it must contain
interconnected pores (Fig. 1.2.4). Absolute permeability (k a ) is a rock property
reflecting its ability to transmit a single fluid through its pore space and can only be
measured directly from core samples. A rock’s absolute permeability is largely controlled
by the diameters of connecting passages between pores (or pore throats). The smaller
the pore throat diameter, the more difficult it is for fluid to pass through and the lower the
absolute permeability.
Fig. 1.2.4—Thin-section photograph of limestone containing a large amount of porosity

(shaded dark gray), but pores are not interconnected. This rock has no permeability.
Some logging measurements are influenced by the invasion of drilling fluid into
permeable formations and can be used as qualitative indicators of permeability. Both the
spontaneous potential (SP) measurement and resistivity measurements at multiple
distances form the borehole are useful for this purpose. None of these measurements,
though, can provide a value of permeability. Short of taking core, perhaps the best
method for estimating permeability is from pressure measurements taken with a
formation tester like the SFTT or RDT.
Permeability indicators on logs are often misleading because absolute permeability

might not be the sole factor that determines whether or not a formation can produce the
fluids it contains. Formations of interest to us contain two fluids: water and hydrocarbon.
12/29/2008 99
These fluids are immiscible, so the possibility arises that one of these fluids might be
transmitted through the pore space more easily than the other. Effective permeability
(k e ) refers to a rock’s ability to transmit one immiscible fluid when in the presence of
another. Unfortunately, effective permeability is almost impossible to assess with
conventional wireline logs.
Qualitative permeability indicators on conventional open-hole logs should be taken for

what they are worth—indicators. Still, by combining several such indicators, it becomes
possible to identify those formations likely to produce the fluids they contain.
The Logging Environment

It is convenient to think of log responses in terms of only two contributing factors: matrix
properties and pore fluid properties. However, log data are acquired by sensors located
in the borehole and which are exposed to the influence of such things as borehole
diameter, the resistivity and density of the borehole fluid, and the presence of certain
fluid additives. These borehole properties and their influences on log responses must
also be considered. While the effects of some borehole characteristics can be minimized
through tool design, many can never be completely eliminated. Most residual influence
can be reduced through post-processing environmental corrections, but we must first
recognize these effects before applying these corrections.
The depth to which a formation is invaded by mud filtrate can also have important
implications on the accuracy of logging measurements. Fresh water-based mud typically
has a high concentration of solids, which leads to the development of mudcake adjacent
to permeable formations. As mudcake forms, invasion slows. Saltwater-based mud, on
the other hand, contains very little in the way of solids. Because very little mudcake
develops with saltwater-based mud, permeable formations might experience very deep
invasion. Oil-based mud, although expensive, is typically used in an effort to minimize
filtrate invasion, and air will not invade a permeable rock. Logging measurements with
shallow depths of investigation may be dramatically influenced by the presence of
invaded mud filtrate. Depending upon what type of fluid invaded the formation and
whether or not mudcake develops, those measurements with deeper depths of
investigation are influenced to different degrees.
Invasion of a permeable formation creates a distribution of different fluid types

surrounding the borehole (Fig. 1.2.5). An invaded formation can be described in terms of
the types of fluid (invaded or original) that exist within its pore space at different
distances from the borehole. The flushed zone is that part of the formation immediately
surrounding the borehole in which pores are filled mostly with invaded mud filtrate.
During invasion, mud filtrate causes the partial displacement of original formation fluids.
Although “flushed” implies that all original fluids were displaced during invasion, some
irreducible formation water and hydrocarbon remains. Beyond the flushed zone is the
transition zone in which pores are filled with a mixture of invaded mud filtrate and
original formation fluids. With increasing distance from the borehole, pore fluids
“transition” from mostly invaded mud filtrate to mostly original formation fluids.
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Fig. 1.2.5—The Open-Hole Logging Environment (Halliburton, 1994).
Beyond the depth to which mud filtrate invades a permeable formation is found the
uninvaded zone. Pores of the uninvaded zone are filled only with original formation
fluids (water and hydrocarbon). Measured properties of the uninvaded zone are our
greatest interest because they represent the undisturbed formation, but measured
properties of the flushed zone and transition zone add to our understanding of the rock’s
permeability and the fluids it contains.
Depth of Investigation Limitations

The ability of any logging tool to accurately measure formation properties that are
representative of the different regions of a formation depend upon elements of tool
design and the physics of the measurement. Some logging tools offer shallow
measurements that are sensitive to the borehole properties and properties of the flushed
zone. Other tools provide deeper measurements that are relatively free of borehole
effects and more sensitive to properties of the transition zone or uninvaded zone.
Invasion effects differ on measurements acquired at different depths of investigation
(Fig. 1.2.6).
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Fig. 1.2.6—Depths of Investigation for Selected Halliburton Logging Measurements.
It may seem desirable that all logging measurements have extremely deep depths of
investigation so that only the properties of the uninvaded zone are investigated, but
shallow resistivities are also useful. Some formation-evaluation applications take
advantage of the fact that different measurements are acquired at different depths of
investigation and that some tools offer multiple depths of investigation.
In a temporal sense, measurements of the uninvaded zone reflect formation properties

prior to invasion, while those in the flushed zone reflect formation properties after
invasion. Comparisons between deep and shallow measurements can provide
indications about what types of formation fluids (water or hydrocarbon) were displaced
from the flushed zone during invasion. The extent of invasion, evidenced by differences
in deep and shallow resistivity measurements, provides a qualitative indicator of
permeability.
Vertical Resolution Limitations

In addition to borehole properties and characteristics of invasion, other factors not
directly related to our formation of interest can influence its log responses. The physical
design of a logging tool has a strong impact on its ability to resolve very thin formations.
Some measurements offer a very fine vertical resolution, meaning they are capable of
measuring formation properties without being greatly influenced by overlying and
underlying formations. Still, others offer very coarse vertical resolutions and can be
dramatically influenced by adjacent formation properties. Formation thickness, therefore,
plays a role in determining the accuracy of our interpretation.
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Environmental Corrections: To Do, or Not?

When interpreting logs at the wellsite, you should always keep in mind that most logging
measurements are only estimates of the properties they are intended to represent. Even
though a measurement might have a deep depth of investigation, it is still influenced by
borehole properties to some extent. In some situations this influence may be extreme.
Similarly, measurements in permeable formations can be influenced by the invasion of
mud filtrate, and measurements in thin formations can be influenced by adjacent
formations.
Prior to interpreting the logs, environmental corrections might be necessary to either

minimize or eliminate the adverse effects of borehole, invasion, and bed thickness
characteristics. Failure to perform these corrections when necessary can lead to further
error in our analyses. Fortunately, if a logging tool is used to acquire data in the
environment for which it was designed, then the magnitude of these corrections is often
minimal. However, in those cases where conditions are not optimal, the magnitude of the
corrections may make the difference between success and failure.
The Role of Inference and Assumption

Regardless of a logging tool’s inability to directly measure a required formation property;
regardless of the influence of borehole and invaded mud filtrate; regardless of the tool’s
depth of investigation and vertical resolution; and, regardless of whether or not
environmental corrections are necessary—open-hole logs often provide the only data to
use in evaluating a formation’s productive potential. Considering the hostile borehole
conditions in which logging tools are expected to acquire data, they are extremely
accurate in their measurements. It is the responsibility of the service company to provide
their customers with calibrated and valid data. However, in using these measurements,
the log analyst makes a number of inferences and assumptions that can dramatically
influence the results of the interpretation.
Making assumptions in a process that will ultimately decide whether to plug or complete
a well can be intimidating. Such assumptions are often necessary, especially when no
core samples are available. (Up to this point in the text, some form of the word “assume”
has already been used nine times!) Provided there is some logical basis for our
assumptions, we can take some comfort in the knowledge that our interpretation is as
accurate as it can be without the benefit of additional information. Keep in mind,
however, that additional information means additional cost.
Logging companies offer many specialty services that provide their clients with whatever
additional information is required. Formation testers, borehole imagers, magnetic
resonance logs, and acoustic waveform logs give clients valuable information, but the
acquisition and processing of these data is an additional investment that the client may
not be willing to undertake.
For many clients, the decision to plug or complete a well is based on nothing more than
the interpretation of resistivity and porosity logs—oftentimes at the wellsite. Even though
assumptions are required as substitutes for missing information, these interpretations
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are remarkably accurate if the log analyst is familiar with the basic principles and their
limitations. Successful decisions can be made even with the most basic logs. If not, then
logging companies would never have survived long enough to develop specialty tools!
This is the challenge of wellsite log interpretation.
Understanding Resistivity Logs

Resistivity measurements provided by logs are often poorly understood because we
tend to oversimplify them as being a function only of the type of pore fluid present. It is
very easy to visualize why a formation containing hydrocarbon has higher resistivity, if
only because hydrocarbon is non-conductive. For this reason, novices often equate high
values of resistivity with hydrocarbon and low values of resistivity with water. However,
the measured value of resistivity is also dependent upon matrix properties. This means
that high resistivity does not necessarily indicate hydrocarbon, and low resistivity does
not necessarily indicate water.
The best way to visualize what controls measured resistivity is to think in terms of the
length of current flow through the formation. Current flow follows the path of least
resistance, which, in a clean formation, is through water-filled pore space. The longer the
path of current flow, the higher the resistivity. The amount and distribution of any non-
conductive fluids (i.e., hydrocarbon) in this pore space influences the path of current flow
through the water that is also present. To explain how resistivity measurements respond
to changing formation characteristics, each control must first be considered individually
before being considered together.
Formation Water Resistivity

Before jumping to the complex relationship between resistivity and porosity, we should
first consider the simple influence of water salinity. It can be safely assumed that all
subsurface formations contain at least some small volume of original water that was
either trapped within sediments at the time of their deposition or infiltrated the porous
rock sometime later. Depending upon its source, this water can be salty or fresh. Salinity
generally increases with depth; however, formation water salinity can be quite variable,
depending upon geologic setting.
Formation water resistivity (R w ) is a measure of the original formation water’s ability to

resist the flow of electrical current, expressed in Ω-m. It is a function of water salinity,
and is completely independent of the presence of any non-conductive hydrocarbon or
matrix. Measured resistivity of a formation is directly proportional to the resistivity of the
water contained in its pore space. The higher the salinity, the lower the R w and,
therefore, the lower the value of measured resistivity. Most subsurface formation water is
moderately saline, but as mentioned above, there are exceptions to this generality.
The relationship between formation water resistivity (R w ) and the measured resistivity of
a formation can be expressed as follows:
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(Eq. 1.2.2)
Porosity
Although often thought the case, the absolute amount of porosity does not necessarily
influence resistivity. This can be proven by considering a porous rock that resembles
Swiss cheese (Fig. 1.2.7). In such a rock, there is no way for current to travel through
the formation because it cannot pass through the non-conductive matrix from one water-
filled pore to another. Measured resistivity is infinite. It makes no difference if the amount
of porosity is increased or decreased; measured resistivity of such a rock with isolated
pores is always infinite. Fortunately, these “Swiss cheese” rocks are the exception rather
than the rule.
Fig. 1.2.7—“Swiss cheese” rocks in which all pore space is isolated. A change in porosity
does not result in a change in measured resistivity because there is no interconnected
path for current to travel through the formation. Resistivity is infinite in both cases.
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However, if we consider the two extremes of porosity (Fig. 1.2.8), it can be
demonstrated that resistivity is inversely proportional to porosity. For an open volume of
water (where Φ = 100%), measured resistivity equals formation water resistivity (R w ). On
the other hand, measured resistivity of a volume of solid matrix (where Φ = 0%) is infinite
because, once again, current cannot pass through non-conductive matrix. Although
resistivity is inversely proportional to the amount of porosity, the primary requirement for
current to pass through a formation is the presence of effective pore space. This means
that the path of current flow through the formation is controlled by the complexity of the
interconnected pore network.
Fig. 1.2.8—For an open volume of water (Φ = 100%), measured resistivity equals formation
water resistivity (R w ). For a volume of solid matrix (Φ = 100%), measured resistivity is
infinite.
The relationship between measured resistivity and porosity can be expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.3)
Pore Tortuosity
Up to this point, the measured resistivity of a formation has been considered only in
terms of formation water resistivity (R w ) and the amount of porosity (Φ). There is a
complication in these basic relationships that can be demonstrated by considering two
rocks of equal porosity and containing waters of equal salinity (Fig. 1.2.9). The
measured resistivity of a formation is strongly influenced by matrix properties, including
grain size variations (sorting), grain size and shape, and the presence of cementing
minerals. Because of these influences, rocks of the same porosity and containing
identical waters can very easily have vastly different resistivities.
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Fig. 1.2.9—Two rocks of equal porosity (all effective) and containing waters of equal
salinity do not necessarily exhibit equal values of resistivity.
The complexity of the pore network can be represented by its tortuosity. Tortuosity (τ) is
a ratio of the total length of current flow through water-filled pore space to the linear
length of rock (Fig. 1.2.10). The greater the distance traveled by current over a given
length of rock, the greater its tortuosity. If we think about the open volume of water
illustrated in Fig. 1.2.8, current flow follows a straight-line path, and the resulting value of
resistivity is low (i.e., equals R w ). If this same volume contained spherical beads of non-
conductive glass, then tortuosity is increased, and measured resistivity is higher. Current
flow must follow a longer path as it wanders around the non-conductive glass beads.
This implies that, for a decrease in the amount of effective porosity, there is a
corresponding increase in pore tortuosity. Once again, the measured resistivity is
inversely proportional to porosity—but we must somehow quantify the effect of pore
tortuosity.
Fig. 1.2.10—Pore tortuosity reflects the length of current flow through a water-filled
formation. The greater the tortuosity, the higher the measured resistivity.
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Unfortunately, pore tortuosity is a rock property that cannot be measured, even with
core. Because it exerts such an important control on resistivity, an appropriate
quantifiable parameter that can be substituted for this property is necessary if we are to
better define the relationship between measured resistivity and porosity. Such a
1
parameter can be determined by plotting the log of porosity in a water-saturated
formation against the log of measured resistivity in that same formation. Data points
cluster along a line (Fig. 1.2.11), and the slope of this line (m) can be taken as the
coefficient relating pore tortuosity to the measured resistivity of a formation at a given
porosity.
Fig. 1.2.11—For a water-saturated formation, a log-log plot of porosity versus measured

resistivity yields cementation exponent (m), which relates pore tortuosity to resistivity. R o
is the measured resistivity of a water-saturated formation.
The parameter, m, is known as cementation exponent. Its name is derived from the
fact that one control on the tortuosity of the pore network is the presence of cementing
minerals between matrix grains. As the abundance of cements increases, pore tortuosity
increases. Cementation exponent is variable even in the unlikely event that cements are
absent. Referring once again to the open volume of water illustrated in Fig. 1.2.8, the
cementation exponent for a straight-line current flow is defined as 1.0. As pore tortuosity
increases with a decrease in the amount of effective porosity, cementation exponent
increases.
Cementation exponent (m), unlike tortuosity, is a “measurable” quantity but is not a rock
property. It can be derived experimentally from core, and how this is accomplished will
be discussed later. For now, it is only important to consider how cementation exponent
(m) factors into the relationship between measured resistivity and porosity, expressed as
follows:
1
Water saturation is the percentage of pore space that is occupied by water. “Water-saturated” refers to a rock that is at
100% water saturation, meaning that all pore fluid is water.
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(Eq. 1.2.4)
The application of this relationship to real-world data was not without its problems. In
fact, it was observed early on that the relationship expressed in Eq. 1.2.4 did not work.
Rather than completely abandoning the theoretically-sound principle of pore tortuosity
and its influence on measured resistivity, an additional parameter was introduced to
essentially force-fit the relationship to empirical data. This new parameter was called—
confusingly enough—the tortuosity factor (a). Tortuosity factor (a) is not a rock property.
It is merely a factor that attempts to compensate for the non-linearity of the empirical
relationships observed between measured resistivity and porosity.
Taking into consideration both cementation exponent (m) and tortuosity factor (a), the
relationship between measured resistivity and porosity can be expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.5)
Further experimental work demonstrated that both tortuosity factor (a) and cementation
exponent (m) are variable in different formations. There are no universal values for these
parameters that can adequately describe the relationship between measured resistivity
and porosity in all rocks. For this reason, core is necessary to experimentally determine
tortuosity factor (a) and cementation exponent (m). Where core is not available,
assumptions for these parameters can be made based on average values for formations
of the same lithology. These assumptions and their limitations will be addressed later.
Fluid Saturations
The most often confused aspect of resistivity measurements provided by logs is the
influence of non-conductive hydrocarbon. While it is true that an increasing abundance
of such non-conductive fluid will increase the measured resistivity of a formation, the true
reason for this increase is not often well understood.
Measured resistivity of a rock is inversely proportional to the fraction of its pore space
that is filled by water. The higher the water saturation, the lower the resistivity. This
relationship is expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.6)
Eq. 1.2.6 cannot adequately explain why some formations containing large amounts of
effective pore space can produce large quantities of oil and gas and still exhibit
exceptionally low values of resistivity, nor can it explain why some high-porosity
formations with very high values of resistivity produce only water. The key to
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understanding the effect of hydrocarbon on measured resistivity once again lies in a
consideration of the length of current flow through the formation.
The distribution of a non-conductive fluid within the interconnected (effective) pore space
of a rock affects the length of current travel and, accordingly, exerts a strong control on
resistivity. Fig. 1.2.12 illustrates the same rock at two different water saturations. As the
abundance of non-conductive hydrocarbon increases (i.e., water saturation decreases),
the conductive path available to current flow becomes longer. Current flow must now
wander around the non-conductive matrix and non-conductive fluid. Tortuosity of current
flow is increased, so resistivity must increase.
Fig. 1.2.12—The addition of non-conductive hydrocarbon (i.e., a decrease in S w ) increases

a formation’s resistivity because of an increase in current flow tortuosity.
As discussed previously, tortuosity is a non-measurable rock property. It makes no

difference whether this tortuosity is caused by the complexity of the water-filled effective
pore network or the distribution of non-conductive fluids within that pore space; tortuosity
remains an unknown. An appropriate parameter that can be substituted for this “fluid
tortuosity” is necessary if we are to define the relationship between measured resistivity
and the distribution of non-conductive fluids. This can be achieved by plotting the log of
water saturation in a formation that contains hydrocarbon against the log of measured
resistivity in that same formation. Data points cluster along a line (Fig. 1.2.13), and the
slope of this line (n) is a parameter describing the relationship between measured
resistivity and the distribution of non-conductive fluids in the pore network at a given
water saturation.
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Fig. 1.2.13—For a formation that contains hydrocarbon, a log-log plot of water saturation
versus measured resistivity yields the saturation exponent (n), which relates fluid
distribution to resistivity. R t is the measured resistivity of such a formation, generally
approximated by the deepest-reading measurement.
The parameter, n, is known as saturation exponent. A value for saturation exponent (n)
can be determined experimentally from core. If core is not available, then an assumption
is required. The effect of water saturation (S w ) as a function of the distribution of non-
conductive fluids on the measured value of resistivity can be expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.7)
The basis for assuming a value of saturation exponent (n) depends upon formation
wettability. Wettability is the preference for one fluid (in the presence of another) to
adhere to the grain surfaces of the rock (Fig. 1.2.14). In formations containing both oil
and water, water-wet refers to the condition in which water adheres to grain surfaces
and oil exists as a discontinuous phase. On the other hand, oil-wet is the condition in
which oil adheres to grain surfaces and water is the discontinuous phase. Applying the
principle of resistivity as a function of the length of current flow through a rock, it can be
demonstrated that water-wet formations typically have lower resistivities than their oil-
wet equivalents. This is because—all other factors considered equal—the length of
current flow through the conductive fluid (i.e., water) depends upon whether it is the
continuous or discontinuous fluid in the effective pore space. Most formations are water-
wet, and the average saturation exponent (n) determined experimentally in these
formations is approximately 2.0.
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Fig. 1.2.14—Wettability refers to the type of fluid that adheres to the grain surfaces of a
rock (water or oil). The length of current flow through the conductive fluid (i.e., water)
depends upon whether that water is the continuous or discontinuous fluid.
Putting It All Together

Up to this point, it has been shown that the measured resistivity of a formation is a
function of five separate factors, which can be expressed by the three following
relationships:
1.
2.
3.
Combining each of these three relationships results in the following expression:
(Eq. 1.2.8)
What should be obvious from Eq. 1.2.8 is that the measured resistivity of a formation is
not only a function of the amount of hydrocarbon present. In simplest terms, measured
resistivity depends upon the resistivity of formation water and its distribution within an
interconnected (effective) pore network. The distribution of water within effective pore
space is influenced by the amount and distribution of non-conductive hydrocarbon;
therefore, the resistivity measurement remains a good indicator of the presence of
hydrocarbon. What must be remembered, however, is that other factors are at work.
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R T Versus R XO
Resistivity measurements made at different distances from the borehole in a porous and
permeable formation respond to different fluids. For any formation, it can be assumed
that the rock is homogeneous and that porosity near the borehole is the same as
porosity far from the borehole. While this is not always a safe assumption (particularly in
carbonates), it provides a starting point from which an investigation into the different
types of fluids occupying that pore space can begin.
The uninvaded zone is that portion of a formation existing farthest from the borehole and
which is not contaminated by the invasion of mud filtrate. Fluid types present in the
uninvaded zone included original formation water and, hopefully, hydrocarbon. Ignoring
any influence of the borehole on our ability to measure resistivity, we can assume that a
resistivity measurement at a sufficiently deep depth of investigation approximates
uninvaded zone resistivity (R T ). Therefore, R T depends upon the resistivity of
formation water (R w ) and the tortuosity of current flow through this water as determined
by the amount and distribution of non-conductive hydrocarbon. This relationship is
expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.9)
The flushed zone is that portion of an invaded formation existing closest to the borehole
and which extends only a few inches into the formation. Filtrate invasion within this zone
causes the partial displacement of original formation water and hydrocarbon. Flushed
zone resistivity (R XO ) will depend upon the resistivity of the “water” in that pore space—
2
here, mud filtrate (R mf )—and the tortuosity of current flow as determined by the amount
and distribution of non-conductive hydrocarbon remaining in the flushed zone after
invasion. By assuming a homogeneous formation and substituting for the resistivity
terms of Eq. 1.2.9, resistivity of the flushed zone (R XO ) can be expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.10)
where:
R mf = mud filtrate resistivity
S xo = flushed zone water saturation
2
For the purposes of this discussion, we are assuming that mud filtrate is water-based. Water-based mud filtrate is
conductive and can, therefore, be distinguished from hydrocarbons on the basis of its resistivity. Oil-based mud filtrate, on
the other hand, cannot be distinguished from formation hydrocarbons using a resistivity measurement, and evaluation of
logs where it is used is slightly different from those where water-based mud filtrate is present.
12/29/2008 113
Again ignoring any influence of the borehole on our ability to measure resistivity, we can
assume that a resistivity measurement at a sufficiently shallow depth of investigation
approximates R XO . As water-based mud filtrate invades a formation, that mud filtrate
mixes with original formation water; therefore, R mf may not adequately describe the
resistivity of a mixture of both mud filtrate and original formation water. Nevertheless,
shallow resistivity measurements are often assumed to be an approximation of R XO .
Because shallow and deep measurements of resistivity logs provide estimates of both
R T and R XO , Eq. 1.2.9 and Eq. 1.2.10 can be solved for the variables of most interest to
our customers—water saturations (S w and S xo ). It is only with the benefit of additional
information, such as porosity, water salinity, and the complexity of the pore network that
this is possible.
Archie Water Saturation

Water saturation of the uninvaded zone (S w ) provides an indication of the relative
proportions of water and hydrocarbon existing in the pore space. With a measure of
deep resistivity, and assuming that it represents R T , then Eq. 1.2.9 can be rearranged to
solve for water saturation of the uninvaded zone in what is referred to as the “Archie
equation” as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.11)
Not all fluids existing in effective porosity are moveable. Some water and hydrocarbon is
trapped in place by surface adhesion, high capillary pressures within small pore throats,
high viscosities, or other factors. Because of this, water saturation of the uninvaded zone
(S w ) does not provide a good indication of the relative proportions of fluids that will be
produced from the formation. A water saturation of 20% does not mean the formation will
produce 2 barrels of water for every 8 barrels of oil. It is simply an estimate of what the
formation contains in the subsurface. As such, calculating a value of S w is essentially the
starting point for evaluating the producibility of the formation.
Water saturation of the flushed zone (S xo ) helps us answer the question of fluid
moveability through its comparison with S w . If S xo = S w , then it is an indication that
hydrocarbon was not displaced by water-based mud filtrate in the flushed zone during
invasion and, therefore, an indication that any hydrocarbon present is not moveable. On
the other hand, if S xo > S w , then it is an indication that hydrocarbon was displaced by
water-based mud filtrate during invasion and that the hydrocarbon is producible
(granted, the formation must be permeable and have sufficient pressure).
With a measure of shallow resistivity, and assuming that it represents R XO , then Eq.
1.2.10 can be rearranged to solve for water saturation of the flushed zone as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.12)
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Limitations of the Archie Approach

Novices risk falling into the trap of placing too much trust in their water saturation values
calculated with the Archie equation. Much of this misconception results from a poor
understanding of the assumptions implied. True values for tortuosity factor (a),
cementation exponent (m), and saturation exponent (n) might need to be assumed for
lack of core data. However, other limiting assumptions of the Archie equation must be
kept in mind when using it to evaluate a formation’s water saturation.
Clean Formation
The Archie equation assumes a clean formation, which means one that contains less
than 10–15% shale or clay fraction. Physical properties of clay minerals existing in a
formation cause porosity estimates to be too high. In addition, because clay minerals in
shale are actually conductive, their presence causes our resistivity measurements to be
lower than they would otherwise be. To the Archie equation, higher porosity and lower
resistivity equates to more water. Therefore, using the Archie equation in shaly
formations produces S w results that are too high.
Single Water Phase

The Archie equation assumes a single phase of formation water and does not
distinguish between water that is producible (or “free”) and water that is irreducible (or
“bound”). All formations contain at least some volume of water, part of which is free to
produce and the remainder of which is trapped by surface adhesion or capillary pressure
in small pore throats. Very fine-grained reservoirs often result in calculated S w values
that are high but may produce very little water. This is because a large percentage of
that water is made irreducible by surface adhesion and capillary pressure within the
small pores. The Archie equation “sees water as water,” and thus provides an estimate
of the total water saturation of a formation.
Effective Pore Space

The controls on measured resistivity that have been discussed up to this point have all
assumed that any pore space present is interconnected, so it should come as no
surprise that the Archie equation relies on this same assumption. The presence of any
isolated pore space in a rock results in resistivity values being higher than normal
because current follows in a much more tortuous path through the formation. In
formations that contain such isolated pores, S w results from the Archie equation are
often too low.
Water-Wet Formation
Finally, the Archie equation assumes that the reservoir is water-wet. When we assume
saturation exponent (n) equals 2.0, we are assuming that this parameter reflects the
effect of fluid tortuosity on resistivity in an average water-wet formation. In oil-wet
formations, S w results from the Archie equation are often too low.
12/29/2008 115
Determining Tortuosity Factor and Cementation
Exponent
Obviously, one important concern for calculating water saturations is the reliability of
tortuosity factor (a) and cementation exponent (m) values. The importance of core
samples in the process of evaluating producibility of a formation can best be exemplified
by considering how these parameters are determined when they are available.
The relationship between measured resistivity and the porosity of a formation is

adequately described by Eq. 1.2.5. Resistivity is a function of the amount of water-filled
pore space and its tortuosity. Suppose that a core sample is available and that all fluids
existing in its pore space can be evacuated. Porosity of the core sample can then be
measured by one of several methods.
The evacuated pore space of this core sample can then be saturated with a brine of
known salinity (i.e., known R w ). The resistivity of this water-saturated core sample (R o )
can then be expressed as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.13)
If porosity and formation water resistivity (R w ) are known, then cementation exponent
(m) can be solved by holding tortuosity factor (a) constant. The constant value chosen
for tortuosity factor is usually 1.0, which is based upon the assumption of an inverse
3
linear relationship between resistivity and porosity (see Eq. 1.2.3). It is by this method
that the tortuosity factor and cementation exponent are determined experimentally from
core samples. Rotary sidewall coring often provides a core sample of sufficient size for
performing such tests.
But what if a core sample is not available? Whole coring is a costly investment, and
wireline coring poses certain risks and associated costs. Values for tortuosity factor and
cementation exponent must still be obtained so that the water saturation of the formation
can be evaluated.
Assumptions are required in the absence of core-derived data. The most commonly
assumed values for tortuosity factor and cementation exponent are illustrated in Fig.
1.2.15. The basis for these assumptions is experimental studies of core data, so there is
at least some validity in their use. However, assumed values might not be appropriate
for the formation being evaluated, and the potential uncertainty resulting from these
assumptions must be kept in mind.
3
Notice that, even when core is available, assumptions are still involved with its analysis.
116 12/29/2008
Fig. 1.2.15—Typical Assumed Values for Tortuosity Factor and Cementation Exponent.
An understanding of the meaning of cementation exponent values as they apply to pore

tortuosity becomes important later in the qualitative interpretation of resistivity logs. Fig.
1.2.16 pictorially illustrates how cementation exponent (m) varies as a function of pore
tortuosity. Cementation exponent, itself, does not depend upon the additional tortuosity
of current flow through a formation caused by the introduction of non-conductive
hydrocarbon. That “fluid tortuosity” is quantified by the saturation exponent, as discussed
earlier.
12/29/2008 117
Fig. 1.2.16—Cementation exponent (m) varies as a function of pore tortuosity. In the
illustrated rocks, pore space is water-saturated; therefore, current flow tortuosity is only a
function of pore tortuosity.
The most important things to keep in mind when assuming values for tortuosity factor (a)
and cementation exponent (m) are that the values listed in Fig. 1.2.15 represent clean
formations that contain effective porosity. Where these conditions are not met, the
assumptions are inappropriate, and there is not a reliable method for predicting their
values in those instances. Make the most reasonable assumptions based on the
information available to you, but also realize potential uncertainty in your calculations.
Determining Formation Water Resistivity (R W )

Oddly enough, the reservoir fluid that is most important to the accurate evaluation of a
formation is not hydrocarbon, but water. Water—whether salty or what we consider to be
“fresh”—supports the flow of current through formations with interconnected pore space,
thereby allowing their finite resistivities to be measured. Any current flow through a
clean, shale-free formation occurs in water, and not in rock matrix or hydrocarbon.
Water’s ability to conduct current is proportional to its salinity, and saltwater, with its high
concentration of dissolved solids, is a better conductor than fresh water. Both saltwater
and fresh water are better conductors than matrix or hydrocarbon, which are electrical
insulators.
Formation water resistivity (R w ) is one of the critical variables for determining water
saturation. While small errors in values of R w might not cause critical uncertainty in S w
calculations, larger errors in R w can make the difference between deciding to complete
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or abandon a potential reservoir. A value of R w that is too high causes us to

overestimate the amount of water present (i.e., higher S w ), and one possible result might
be to overlook a hydrocarbon-productive formation because we believe it contains too
much water. On the other hand, a value of R w that is too low can cause us to become
interested in a formation that contains a large volume of water but not enough
hydrocarbon to be economical.
There are many potential sources for a value of formation water resistivity (R w ), the most
accurate of which tend to be actual water samples from the formation of interest. These
samples can be taken from formation testers, such as SFTT and RDT, drill-stem tests
(DST), or even produced water. Each source has its distinct advantages and
disadvantages. Water catalogs are another potential source in many geographic regions
where records of R w have been maintained for many years. These cataloged R w values
are derived from actual water samples, so their use is subject to the limitations of
whatever method was used to collect them. In many cases, for lack of a water sample or
water catalog, it may be acceptable to assume some commonly used R w value for the
particular geographic region.
Resistivity and porosity measurements provided by logs can also be used to derive
formation water resistivity (R w ) when no other source is available, or when it is desirable
to cross-check values from those of another source. While there are several methods for
obtaining R w from logs, the most straightforward method involves observing resistivity
and porosity responses to locate a formation that obviously contains water and
assuming that it is water-saturated (S w = 100%). For a formation that is completely
water-saturated, Eq. 1.2.11 can be solved for R w as follows:
(Eq. 1.2.14)
The Danger in Calculating Water Saturation

Armed with little more than an idea of lithology and measurements of resistivity and
porosity, it is possible to calculate water saturation (S w ) of a clean formation with the
Archie equation (Eq. 1.2.11). It becomes the simple task of reading values from a log,
assuming some parameters, plugging them into the equation, and calculating a result.
However, this is where our evaluation of a formation’s producibility can become anything
but simple. A common oversight is to calculate S w and automatically accept it as valid.
Very little thought is given to matrix and fluid properties influencing the log
measurements (particularly resistivity). Oftentimes, the validity of assumptions is rarely
questioned, and rarely is the possibility of uncertainty considered.
Our failure to recognize how matrix and fluid-related properties affect logging
measurements, how the resulting error is compounded by uncertainty in our
assumptions, and how inaccurate our S w results can quickly lead to mistakes. Once a
formation is completed and its production confirms what was predicted by S w
calculations, the venture is deemed a success and our confidence in log interpretation
12/29/2008 119
grows. When a formation’s production contradicts its calculated S w , however, the
accuracy of the log measurements—rather than the accuracy of our interpretation of
them—is often called into question.
By the time oversights, mistakes, and uncertainties are recognized, it may be too late to
take remedial action. Production casing might have already been set, or the well might
have already been plugged. The effective interpretation of a formation’s producibility
requires a thorough understanding of the measurements, variables, assumptions, and
calculations involved.
Understanding Porosity Logs

Even using the best technology available, porosity cannot be measured with any wireline
tool. This usually comes as a surprise considering the fact that neutron, density, and
acoustic porosity curves are presented on clients’ logs. The porosity values we present
on logs are only estimates derived from measurements of other formation properties that
can be related to porosity. Density porosity and neutron porosity can be used to
demonstrate this principle.
The bulk density (ρ b ) of a formation measured by the SDLT is dependent upon three
factors, including:
1. The density of the solid rock (matrix) within the measured volume
2. The volume of void space (porosity) within the measured volume
3. The density of the fluid(s) filling any void space present
Of these three factors, the one of greatest interest to our clients is porosity. From a
measurement of ρ b , it is only possible to derive a value for porosity if the matrix density
and fluid density are known or assumed. Very rarely does the client know the precise
rock or fluid properties before we log the well. (After all, that is why we are logging the
well—to learn more about formation properties!) Density porosity is calculated from a
linear relationship with ρ b and using assumed values for matrix density and fluid density.
The density porosity curve that appears on a log is only as accurate as our two
assumptions that were used to calculate it.
The same principle applies to the porosity estimates from a neutron tool. The DSNT
measures the distribution of thermal neutrons in a formation. This distribution is related
to the abundance of hydrogen and, assuming all hydrogen exists in pore fluids, can be
used to estimate porosity. Just like ρ b , the distribution of thermal neutrons is also related
to matrix properties as well as fluid properties. To estimate porosity with a neutron tool,
we must also make assumptions and, once again, our estimate is only as accurate as
the two assumptions.
In this chapter, we will examine the assumptions involved in calculating porosity with the
SDLT and the DSNT, and how inaccuracies in our assumptions can affect their validity.
We will also examine how SDLT and DSNT response can be used to determine
lithology. Lithology and porosity are closely related rock properties, and, to better
understand our estimates of these properties from logs, they must be considered
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together. An early understanding of these basics (presented here in a non-technical

approach) helps to simplify more detailed quality control and interpretation issues.
Two Porosities are Better than One

By now you have probably noticed that density porosity and neutron porosity are
frequently presented together. There is a simple reason for this: by itself, one estimate of
porosity is not very useful because it depends upon too many unknowns. A change on
the density porosity curve or the neutron porosity curve might truly represent a change in
the porosity of the formation, or that same change might also result from a change in the
type of matrix or the type of fluid. The fact of the matter is that we do not know what is
causing the change if we have only one porosity curve.
As an example, consider a density porosity curve that reads 20% in a particular

formation. Is 20% porosity correct for that rock? You can look at the log header and
determine what assumptions were used to calculate porosity. But by simply knowing
those assumptions, is the value of 20% porosity correct? You still cannot conclude
because you are working only with assumptions at this point.
Because any porosity estimate involves two unknowns (matrix and fluid), there must be
some other independent method of solving for both of these unknowns if we are to place
any confidence in our porosity estimate. A second porosity curve fits this requirement.
Density porosity and neutron porosity curves are calculated assuming the same matrix
and the same fluid can be used together to gain more confidence in our assumptions
and, therefore, the accuracy of the porosity estimate.
If both density porosity and neutron porosity curves read 20% for the same rock, then we
can be more confident—though still not absolutely sure—that our assumptions are
correct. Still, more information is needed (e.g., another lithology indicator and resistivity,
if available). Two porosity curves that read the same value and that are calculated with
like assumptions indicate a greater probability that the matrix and fluid assumptions are
correct. Notice the important phrase here: a greater probability. Equal curve values do
not prove that the assumptions are met; they only mean that there is a better chance.
But, what if the two porosity curves are not the same?
Two Porosities?
A rock has one, and only one, value of porosity, but it is quite common to see neutron
porosity and density porosity values on a log that are not equal. This condition indicates
one thing: your matrix and fluid assumptions are not met. Two porosity values that are
not equal but that were calculated with like assumptions can be used to conclusively
indicate your assumptions are incorrect. By process of elimination, you have ruled out
one possible solution for lithology.
An important characteristic of density porosity and neutron porosity is that their

responses tend to be opposing. We will not yet worry about why this is the case, other
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than to say that where one is overestimated, the other is underestimated, and vice
versa. Any difference between density porosity and neutron porosity estimates on a log
can assist in determining formation lithology and—interestingly enough—a more
accurate value for porosity. Why? Because the curves are different, you already know
what the rock is not. Now you must discover what the rock is.
Photoelectric Factor (P e )
The photoelectric factor (or P e ) curve provides one of the fastest, though not
necessarily most accurate, methods of determining lithology from logs. All minerals have
characteristic P e values that depend upon their chemical compositions (Fig. 1.2.17).
However, all rocks contain more than just one mineral, so the P e response of a formation
is best used as an indicator of its predominant lithology.
Fig. 1.2.17—Characteristic P e Values of Minerals Common to Sedimentary Rocks.
Lithology determination is not always as easy as reading a P e value. As an example,

consider the mineral calcite, which is the primary component of limestone. Not all
limestones have a P e of 5.08 because other minerals besides calcite are present. Minor
amounts of quartz or clay minerals cause limestone P e values to be lower than 5.08.
Similarly, most dolomites contain at least some small percentage of anhydrite, resulting
in a P e greater than 3.14. For rocks having approximately the same P e (e.g., limestone
and anhydrite), it is impossible to distinguish between them on the basis of P e alone.
Further complicating this is the fact that rarely do we deal with pure lithologies. For that
reason, additional lithology indicators like gamma ray, neutron porosity, density porosity,
and even resistivity are essential.
Starting Out Simple

The first things to consider when working with porosity logs are the matrix and fluid
assumptions and the porosity scales. Matrix and fluid assumptions are defined by client
request, and are found in the Parameters Report or Header of the log. Clients often
request certain matrix assumptions based on what types of rocks they expect to
encounter; however, in geographic areas where complex lithologies are the rule,
porosities are often calculated assuming limestone. By first considering the matrix and
fluid assumptions, you have a known reference for determining lithology. Porosity
scales, also defined by client request, are usually based on how much porosity is
122 12/29/2008
typically expected in the rocks to be logged. By considering porosity scales, you can
establish references for estimating more accurate porosity values as well as identifying
lithology.
Fig. 1.2.18 illustrates a neutron-density log where porosity curves are calculated
assuming a limestone matrix and water-filled pore space. Knowing this, and as a first
approximation, we can say there is a good probability that water-filled limestone exists
where neutron porosity and density porosity curves equal. Such a lithology estimate can
be confirmed by considering the P e response. If both porosity curves equal and P e reads
approximately 5, the most probable solution for lithology is limestone.
The importance of using combined neutron-density responses to confirm or reject

lithology estimates based on P e response can also be demonstrated with Fig. 1.2.18.
Notice that P e responses in both the limestone and anhydrite intervals are the same
(approximately 5). Without some other indicator besides P e , it is impossible to
distinguish between these two lithologies. Gamma ray responses in these intervals are
also very similar. However, neutron porosity and density porosity curves do not overlay
in the anhydrite interval. This means that the matrix and fluid assumptions are not
correct for that interval, and that its lithology cannot be limestone. Anhydrite is proven by
the fact that density porosity reads a strongly negative value (a characteristic to be
discussed later in this chapter).
Notice also in Fig. 1.2.18 that porosity curves do not overlay in the sandstone interval
where density porosity is greater than neutron porosity. This is because a limestone
matrix was assumed for calculating porosities, and the lithology of this interval is not
limestone (as confirmed by the P e response). Anytime porosity curves do not overlay
because of an incorrect matrix assumption, the response is referred to as matrix effect.
Matrix effect can result in the cross-over of porosity curves (see the sandstone and
halite intervals where Φ D > Φ N ) as well as separation of porosity curves (see the shale,
dolomite, and anhydrite intervals where Φ N > Φ D ).
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Fig. 1.2.18—Neutron-density log showing porosity curves calculated assuming a
limestone matrix and water-filled pore space. Only in limestone are both porosity curves
equal and P e approximately 5.
Imagine what would happen to the porosity curve responses above (Fig. 1.2.18) if shale
was added to the sandstone interval. A “true” shale is characterized by a neutron
porosity that is much greater than density porosity. Adding shale to the sandstone
causes its neutron porosity to increase and its density porosity to decrease, thereby
reducing the magnitude of the matrix effect cross-over. At some volume of shale, the
neutron and density porosity curves will actually overlay, giving the impression that the
interval is limestone. A quick glance at the P e curve should confirm that the interval is
not limestone because it will not read ~5.0.
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Determining lithology from neutron-density responses is not always as easy as these

few examples make it appear and is almost an art that requires practice in order to
master. For this reason, we will take a closer look at how neutron-density logs and other
logs can help answer the lithology question before we deal with the porosity question.
Lithology Indicators
In most cases, determining a formation’s predominant lithology can be accomplished by
a quick glance at the P e curve. This is particularly true in regions where there is little
variation in the types of rocks logged. In other regions where many different rock types
exist in a single well or where formations have complex mineralogies, lithology
determination often relies upon indicators provided by several curves. A brief look at the
applications of some other lithology-dependent measurements helps.
Gamma Ray Indicators

Gamma ray is considered by some to be the primary lithology indicator, but its use as
such is actually very limited. The gamma-ray curve responds to a formation’s natural
radioactivity—principally from potassium, uranium, and thorium—and shale often
contains higher concentrations of these elements than other rocks. High gamma-ray
responses often indicate shale, but it should be kept in mind that gamma ray in shale
can range from as low as 70 to several hundred GAPI units.
Using gamma ray to identify the lithology of a rock that is not shale is much more
problematic. Sandstone, limestone, and dolomite generally contain lower concentrations
of radioactive elements than shale, so their gamma ray responses are low in
comparison. However, this is not always the case. Some dolomites can exhibit high
gamma-ray responses because of trace amounts of uranium. Although uranium is not a
typical chemical component of dolomite, its size is such that it fits well within dolomite’s
crystal structure. As a result, these “hot dolomites” can be easily confused with shale. In
addition, “sandstone” is not always quartz sandstone. The “granite wash sands” of the
Texas Panhandle consist of grains of orthoclase rather than quartz. Orthoclase contains
large amounts of potassium and can result in a gamma ray response that is easily
confused with shale.
In summary: Never trust in a gamma ray curve as the sole indicator of lithology!
Resistivity Indicators
Resistivity is most commonly used to identify the type of fluid present, but it also has
limited use as a shale indicator. Shale, unless fractured, is impermeable and not invaded
by mud filtrate. Resistivity measurements at multiple depths of investigation in shale are
equal, and, because of the conductive nature of clay minerals, measured resistivities are
often low (commonly 1–10 Ω-m).
Resistivity can also be used to indicate tight (low-porosity) formations because of its
inverse relationship to porosity. Evaporite rocks (e.g., anhydrite and halite) lack porosity
12/29/2008 125
and exhibit exceptionally high values of resistivity. Low-porosity limestones and
dolomites can exhibit equally high values. The primary use of resistivity as a lithology
indicator is to distinguish something that is shale from something that is not shale.
More than any other lithologies, novices tend to confuse shale and dolomite because of
their similar nuclear responses. Gamma ray, P e , and neutron-density responses of these
two rocks can be virtually identical. In many cases, the simplest means of distinguishing
one from the other is a resistivity curve.
Neutron-Density Indicators
By themselves, neutron porosity and density porosity curves cannot be used to
determine lithology to any degree of accuracy. Neutron porosity is calculated from a
measure of the distribution of thermal neutrons in a formation, which varies as a function
of fluid type, amount, and rock type. Density porosity is calculated from a measure of a
formation’s bulk density, which also varies as a function of fluid type, amount, and rock
type. Variations in the type and amount of pore fluids can easily be mistaken as a
change in lithology if only one porosity curve is considered.
For now, it is important to understand that the calculation of neutron and density porosity
values appearing on a log requires assumptions of lithology and fluid type. Most porosity
curves are calculated assuming a limestone matrix, although sandstone and (much less
frequently) dolomite are other possibilities. Most porosity curves are also calculated
assuming that any pore space is filled with water. If neutron and density porosity curves
appearing on a log are calculated with like assumptions, then together they can be used
to determine lithology. It may seem like a circular argument, but it works!
Two rules of thumb can help you in using neutron-density logs to determine lithology.
They include:
1. Always consider the matrix assumption and fluid assumption used to calculate
neutron porosity and density porosity.
2. Never exclude the P e curve or gamma-ray curve from lithology estimates based on
neutron-density responses.
Other Log Indicators

Almost every logging measurement (with the possible exception of MRIL) has at least
some small dependency on lithology and can be used, to some degree, for estimating
the rock type. Spontaneous potential (SP) usually displays a static response in shale
while showing deflections in permeable formations. The caliper can even be used to
distinguish shale from harder formations, such as sandstone and carbonates that are
much more resistant to erosion caused by the drill bit.
Whatever the method used, your lithology determination should always include
information from as many curves as possible. The limitations of each measurement
should also be considered. When will this curve be useless as a lithology indicator? How
is this response influenced by shale? Never trust in one lithology indicator while ignoring
all the others.
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After Lithology, What Next?

Once lithology is determined, that information becomes critical in many different
applications. Geologists can predict what type of pores might be present and whether or
not they are interconnected and capable of producing fluids. Based on lithology
information from several wells within an area, they might be able to reconstruct
depositional environments in an effort to determine the best locations for drilling future
wells. Reservoir engineers gain vital clues about how effective stimulation treatments,
such as hydraulic fracturing and acidizing, might be. At the wellsite, lithology estimates
are necessary for assuming variables required to calculate water saturation.
In some cases, quick-look methods of determining the predominant lithology might not
provide the amount of detail necessary. True, the formation may be mostly quartz
sandstone, but is the smaller fraction calcite, dolomite, or some other mineral? In
situations where relative proportions of different mineralogy components are required, a
number of software applications and graphical methods are available.
Porosity Estimates from Logs

Porosity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of the volume of void space in a rock to the total
volume of rock, often expressed as a percentage.
volume of void space

 (Eq. 1.2.15)
Porosity is a rock property that can only be measured if a core sample is available.
Because of the costs and risks involved, core is rarely taken, and no logging tool
provides a measure of porosity. Various physical properties of a formation can be,
however, related to its porosity. Bulk density, the velocity of acoustic energy, and the
distribution of thermal neutrons are all measurable properties than can be used to
estimate porosity.
The bulk density (ρ b ) of a formation is a function of the rock’s matrix density, the amount
of porosity, and the density of fluids filling that pore space. If lithology and fluid type is
known or assumed, then porosity can be calculated from a measure of bulk density.
Similarly, the velocity of a compressional acoustic wave through a formation is a function
of its velocity through the rock matrix, its velocity through the pore fluids, and the amount
of pore fluids present. If lithology and fluid type is known or assumed, then porosity can
be calculated from a measure of compressional wave velocity. Finally, all pore fluids
(gas, oil, and water) contain hydrogen. Assuming that hydrogen is present only in pore
fluids and not the rock matrix, a measure of a rock’s hydrogen abundance (with the
neutron tool) can be used to estimate porosity.
Each of these methods requires assumptions, and the porosity values obtained from
density, acoustic, and neutron tools should only be considered estimates. While it is true
that a formation’s measured bulk density, compressional wave velocity, and hydrogen
12/29/2008 127
abundance are related to pore fluids, they are also related to the rock matrix. Only when
we are sure of lithology can we be confident in the accuracy of porosity estimates these
tools provide.
Total Porosity versus Effective Porosity

When interpreting porosity logs, it is important to consider how porosity contributes to
producibility. A rock might contain a large amount of void space, but fluids occupying
those voids will not be producible if there is no interconnectivity between the voids. Enter
the concept of total porosity versus effective porosity.
A formation’s porosity depends upon both depositional processes and the sequence of
chemical and physical changes that affect the rock after deposition (diagenetic
processes). When sand-sized sediments are deposited, well-interconnected pores exist
between them. The amount of original porosity depends upon characteristics of the
sediments themselves, such as their sorting, packing, roundness, and sphericity.
Geologists refer to pore space created during deposition as primary porosity (Fig.
1.2.19).
Fig. 1.2.19—Examples of Primary Porosity in Sedimentary Rocks.
Diagenetic processes that alter a rock after its deposition can dramatically reduce or
increase its original porosity. In some cases, primary porosity existing at the time of
deposition is reduced by compaction and cementation of sediments. In other cases, pore
space can actually be created after deposition by dissolution or fracturing of rock matrix.
This is particularly true in carbonates. Pore space created after deposition is known as
secondary porosity, examples of which are illustrated in Fig. 1.2.20.
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Fig. 1.2.20—Examples of Secondary Porosity in Sedimentary Rocks.
As defined here, “primary” and “secondary” refers only to the timing of porosity
development. To the log analyst, the degree of interconnectivity of these pores is of far
greater importance than the time at which they were created. Both primary and
secondary pores can either be interconnected or isolated, but isolated pores do not
conduct fluids and do not contribute to a formation’s permeability.
Log interpretation requires a different definition of pore types, one that can be related to
producibility. Effective porosity (Φ E ) refers to pore space that is interconnected, while
isolated porosity refers to pore space that is not. Together, these fractions of
interconnected and isolated pores contribute to the formation’s total porosity (Φ T ).
Density Porosity (Φ D ) Estimates

The bulk density (ρ b ) of a formation is a function of three variables: the rock’s matrix
density (or grain density), the amount of pore space present, and the fluid density of
whatever fluid occupies the pore space. If lithology and fluid type are known, then a
measure of bulk density can be used to calculate porosity by the following linear
expression:
(Eq. 1.2.16)
Lithology and fluid type are rarely known to any degree of accuracy before logging, and
both matrix density (ρ ma ) and fluid density (ρ fl ) in Eq. 1.2.16 are input assumptions
based on client requirements. This means that density porosity (Φ D ) is only correct when
those assumptions are met, and that we must know the lithology of a formation to gain
confidence in the accuracy of Φ D . Furthermore, Φ D provides us with an estimate of the
formation’s total porosity.
The assumption for matrix density (ρ ma ) is often based upon the lithology of formations
expected to be encountered while logging. If formations of interest are mostly limestone,
then the client might require a limestone matrix density assumption. If formations of
interest are mostly sandstone, then the client might require a sandstone matrix density
assumption. Regardless, we must remember that Φ D is most accurate when that
assumption is correct. Commonly assumed values for matrix density include the
following:
 Sandstone (quartz)—2.65 g/cc

 Limestone (calcite)—2.71 g/cc
 Dolomite—2.87 g/cc
At this point, it is easy to see why anhydrite displays a strongly negative density porosity
(see Fig. 1.2.18). If the measured bulk density of a rock (ρ b = 2.98 g/cc for anhydrite) is
greater than the matrix density assumption, then Φ D will be negative according to Eq.
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1.2.16. When assuming a limestone matrix (ρ ma = 2.71 g/cc), Φ D in anhydrite is
approximately -15%.
In many cases, clients request that Φ D be calculated assuming a limestone matrix even
when they know their formations of interest are mostly sandstone. In doing this, the
client is aware that Φ D is incorrect in sandstones, but limestone is an “industry standard
rock” and many clients expect to see responses that are based on a limestone
assumption. With another porosity measurement, such as that from the neutron tool, the
inaccuracy of the matrix assumption can be recognized and dealt with.
The assumption for fluid density (ρ fl ) is based upon the density of the borehole fluid. The
depth of investigation of the bulk density measurement is very shallow (about 7 in.), and,
in a permeable formation, it is reasonable to assume that pores within this zone of
investigation are mostly filled with invaded borehole fluid. Fluid density assumptions,
therefore, depend upon the type of drilling fluid used.
Commonly assumed values for fluid density include the following:
 Fresh water-based mud—1.0 g/cc

 Saltwater-based mud—1.1 g/cc (or 1.15 g/cc)
 Oil-based mud—0.85 g/cc (variable, depending upon mud)
4
 Air-drilled borehole—1.0 g/cc (see footnote )
Density porosity (Φ D ) calculated using these matrix and fluid assumptions is not very
useful by itself. Because of the combined matrix and fluid dependencies, it is possible to
mistake a change in fluid type as a change in porosity. More likely is the possibility of
mistaking a change in lithology as a change in porosity. For best results in estimating a
formation’s total porosity, the Φ D measurement must be used in combination with
another porosity measurement, usually neutron porosity. For now, it is important to
understand that Φ D is only correct when our assumptions are met.
Neutron Porosity (Φ N ) Estimates

All pore fluids (whether gas, oil, or water) contain hydrogen, so a measure of the
formation’s hydrogen abundance can provide an estimate of its fluid-filled volume. This
is, of course, assuming that the rock matrix itself contains no hydrogen. Neutron
porosity (Φ N ) is based upon this concept, and is used to estimate a formation’s total
porosity.
Unfortunately, the neutron tool’s measurement of hydrogen abundance is not solely

dependent upon the amount of fluid present (i.e., porosity). There is also a lithology
effect; some lithologies are better disposed to slowing and absorbing neutrons than
others and mislead us as to the actual hydrogen abundance. To determine an accurate
value of porosity with the neutron measurement, we must assume that the formation
logged is a certain lithology. This principle is identical to that of calculating density
porosity.
4
In an air-drilled borehole, it is always assumed that the fluid that fills pores of the flushed zone (i.e., close to the borehole)
is water, regardless of mud type.
130 12/29/2008
When logging a neutron tool, a neutron lithology is assumed, and Φ N will be the most
accurate when this assumption is met. If we assume limestone and log through a
sandstone, then Φ N will be in error. However, if we assume sandstone and actually log
through a sandstone, then Φ N will be more accurate, and any remaining inaccuracy is a
function of the hydrogen abundance of any pore fluid.
The neutron lithology assumption must match the matrix density (ρ ma ) assumption for
density porosity if we are to use the neutron and density porosity curves together for any
purpose. Commonly assumed neutron lithologies include the following:
 Sandstone
 Limestone
 Dolomite
 Limey sandstone
 Limey dolomite
Apart from the lithology effect on hydrogen abundance, there is also a fluid effect. Some
pore fluids contain a larger amount of hydrogen per unit volume than others. For
example, gas contains much less hydrogen per unit volume than water and oil. This
means it is possible to mistake a change in fluid type as a change in porosity when only
considering Φ N . For this reason, and much like density porosity, Φ N has very little use as
the sole indicator of porosity.
Neutron porosity (Φ N ) is always calculated assuming that pore space is filled with fresh
water. While the reason for this may seem confusing at first, it is simply because oil and
water contain very similar amounts of hydrogen per unit volume. If our neutron lithology
assumption is correct for the formation of interest, then oil-filled pore space and water-
filled pore space will show little, if any, difference in Φ N . Gas-filled pore space, on the
other hand, causes a noticeable difference in Φ N when compared to water-filled or oil-
filled pore space. In the next section of this chapter, we will consider how a change in
fluid type affects the neutron tool’s response, and how we can determine an accurate
value of porosity when our assumptions do not agree with the true rock and fluid
properties.
Combined Neutron-Density Porosity Estimates

Individually, neutron porosity (Φ N ) and density porosity (Φ D ) represent a formation’s total
porosity. Both values are dependent upon matrix and fluid assumptions, and only when
the actual lithology and fluid type matches our assumptions do these two porosity values
have the greatest probability of being correct. It is for this reason that both Φ N and Φ D ,
when presented together, must assume like lithologies.
Fig. 1.2.21 again illustrates a neutron-density log where both porosities are calculated
assuming a limestone matrix and fresh water-filled pore space. This implies that both
porosities are only correct in limestones that contain fresh water. A quick glance at the
interval labeled “Limestone” confirms this: Φ N and Φ D overlay in this interval where P e ≈
5. It is, indeed, a limestone.
12/29/2008 131
Estimating total porosity in this limestone interval is easy. Both porosity curves display
the same value (~ 15%); therefore, 15% must be the total porosity of that limestone.
However, the sandstone interval (where P e ~ 1.8), immediately below the limestone,
exhibits cross-over resulting from an incorrect matrix assumption. How can total porosity
be estimated in this sandstone interval where the two porosity curves are different?
Recall that neutron porosity and density porosity often exhibit opposing responses.
Where Φ N is underestimated because of an incorrect matrix assumption, Φ D is
overestimated, and vice versa. It is logical to expect that a fairly accurate value for total
porosity of the sandstone might be determined by taking the average of the two porosity
values. Because the matrix effect on one porosity curve is not equally opposite the
matrix effect on the other porosity curve, a weighted average can be used. Cross-plot
porosity (Φ XP ) is one means of estimating total porosity based on a formation’s neutron
and density responses, regardless of the accuracy of matrix assumptions. Cross-plot
porosity is calculated by the following equation:
(Eq. 1.2.17)
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Fig. 1.2.21—Neutron-density log showing porosity curves calculated assuming a

limestone matrix and water-filled pore space. Only in limestone are both porosity curves
equal and P e approximately 5.
Using Eq. 1.2.17, it is possible to estimate the total porosity of the sandstone interval
even though Φ N and Φ D are calculated assuming limestone. Similarly, the same
equation can be used to estimate total porosity of the dolomite interval, even though
porosity curves there exhibit separation instead of cross-over.
Cross-plot porosity (Φ XP ) is an acceptable method of estimating total porosity when

lithology does not match the matrix assumption. However, it should be used with
caution. Eq. 1.2.17 should not be applied in evaporite formations, such as halite and
anhydrite. Halite (see Fig. 1.2.21) contains no pore space and Φ D calculated assuming
12/29/2008 133
any matrix results in a dramatic overestimate of porosity (because halite has such a low
ρ b ). Applying Eq. 1.2.17 in evaporite formations results in values of total porosity that are
too high.
Fig. 1.2.22 changes things slightly and illustrates a neutron-density log where both
porosities are calculated assuming a sandstone matrix and water-filled porosity. This
implies that both porosities have the greatest probability of being correct in water-filled
sandstone.
Fig. 1.2.22—Neutron-Density Log Showing Porosity Curves Calculated Assuming a

Sandstone Matrix.
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Notice in Fig. 1.2.22 that Φ N and Φ D overlay across the interval labeled “intermediate oil
or water.” When both porosity curves provide the same value, it is a fairly accurate
(though not conclusive) indication that our assumptions are met. This interval is
sandstone (which can be confirmed from the P e value of ~ 1.8). However, notice that
cross-over develops between Φ N and Φ D curves at shallower depths within the same
low gamma-ray sandstone interval. In this example, lithology remains constant, but fluid
type changes.
Neutron porosity (Φ N ) and density porosity (Φ D ) are almost always calculated assuming
all pore fluid is water. The two curves should overlay in formations containing water that
are of the same lithology as the matrix assumption (sandstone, as indicated in Fig.
1.2.22). As the pore fluid changes from water to intermediate oil to light oil to gas, the
amount of cross-over between Φ N and Φ D increases. Gas contains much less hydrogen
per unit volume than water; therefore, a formation that contains gas will have a lower Φ N
than one that contains water in an equal volume of pore space. Similarly, gas has a
much lower fluid density (ρ fl ) than is assumed in Eq. 1.2.16 for calculating density
porosity (ρ fl = 1.0 g/cc for water). As a result, Φ D of a formation containing gas is higher
than that of a formation containing water in an equal volume of pore space.
Comparing Fig. 1.2.21 with Fig. 1.2.22 reveals that incorrect lithology assumptions and
the presence of gas can result in similar neutron-density crossover. Notice that in the
case of gas, Φ N and Φ D curves display mirror-image responses, whereas an incorrect
lithology assumption generally results in two curves that follow the same trend (one
increasing with the other, and vice versa). Recognition of these curve shapes provides a
basis for distinguishing formations that contain gas from those logged with incorrect
matrix assumptions. Again, the P e curve is also useful for helping confirm lithology.
Acoustic Porosity (Φ S ) Estimates

The velocity of a compressional-acoustic wave through a formation is a function of three
variables: its velocity through the rock’s matrix, the amount of pore space present, and
its velocity through the fluid occupying the pore space. If lithology and fluid type are
known, then a measure of compressional-acoustic velocity can be used to calculate
porosity. As was the case with density porosity, lithology and fluid type are rarely known
beforehand and require assumptions.
Rather than presenting velocity information, acoustic logs present delta-t (∆t). Delta-t, or
interval transit time, is simply a reciprocal of velocity, and its absolute value is much
smaller and easier to deal with than values of velocity.
Acoustic porosity (Φ S , or “sonic” porosity) that appears on a log is calculated using the
following linear equation:
(Eq. 1.2.18)
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As was the case with the density porosity equation (Eq. 1.2.16), Eq. 1.2.18 requires
input assumptions for matrix delta-t (∆t ma ) and fluid delta-t (∆t fl ) that depend upon client
requirements. Therefore, acoustic porosity (Φ S ) will only be accurate when those
assumptions are met. We must know lithology of a formation to place any confidence in
our Φ S estimate.
The assumption for matrix delta-t (∆t ma ) is based upon the lithology of formations we
expect to encounter. Much like density porosity, this matrix assumption can be for any
lithology, but we must remember that Φ S is the most accurate when that assumption is
met. Commonly assumed values for matrix delta-t include the following:
 Sandstone (quartz)—55.5 µsec/ft

 Limestone (calcite)—47.6 µsec/ft
 Dolomite—43.5 µsec/ft
Just like density porosity, many clients request that Φ S be calculated assuming a
limestone matrix even when their formations of interest are sandstone. Once again, this
is because limestone is the “industry standard” lithology. The clients are aware of the
inaccuracies involved in their assumptions.
The assumption for fluid delta-t (∆t fl ) uses the same logic as was used for calculating
density porosity. In a permeable formation, it is reasonable to assume that pores within
the acoustic tool’s depth of investigation are mostly filled with invaded borehole fluid.
Therefore, fluid delta-t depends upon the type of drilling fluid used. Commonly assumed
values for fluid delta-t include the following:
 Fresh water-based mud—189 msec/ft

 Saltwater-based mud—185 msec/ft
 Oil-based mud—205 msec/ft
5
 Air-drilled borehole—(see footnote )
Because the measured value of a formation’s delta-t is dependent upon both matrix
properties and fluid properties, it is impossible to use acoustic porosity (Φ S ) by itself as
an indicator of porosity or lithology. A change in lithology can easily be mistaken as a
change in porosity, and vice versa. Fig. 1.2.23 illustrates an acoustic log where porosity
is calculated assuming a limestone matrix. Without the benefit of a neutron-density log, it
is impossible to accurately identify lithology over this logged interval.
5
In an air-drilled borehole, it is always assumed that the fluid that fills pores of the flushed zone (i.e., close to the borehole)
is water, regardless of mud type.
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Fig. 1.2.23—Acoustic log showing porosity calculated assuming a limestone

matrix. Without a neutron-density log, it is impossible to accurately identify
lithology (sand and dolomite are both present) using only the porosity and delta-t
curves.
When used together with neutron-density logs, acoustic porosity (Φ S ) can provide an
indicator of a formation’s permeability. Neutron and density porosities provide estimates
of a formation’s total porosity. Acoustic porosity, because it is sensitive to the framework
of the formation rather than its chemical composition, provides an estimate of effective
porosity. When a formation’s acoustic porosity equals its cross-plot porosity, it is
reasonable to assume that all pore space is effective and permeable.
Summarizing Porosity Logs

By now you may very well be entirely confused, or at least suspicious, of log values of
porosity, how they are calculated, and how we can determine such things as lithology
and estimate total or effective porosity. If so, then don’t lose hope! It is very difficult to
explain in text how these logs are used to obtain the answers we require of them.
Practice makes perfect—the more logs you are exposed to, the more proficient you will
become in their interpretation.
For now, several points should be remembered when dealing with porosity logs and will
serve as a basis for using them effectively. These points include:
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1. Lithology must be assumed for calculating a log value of porosity. If this matrix
assumption is incorrect for the formation of interest, then the value of porosity will be
incorrect.
2. When calculating a log value of porosity, the fluid type occupying pores is assumed
to be water (generally). If this fluid assumption is incorrect for the formation of
interest, then the value of porosity will be incorrect.
3. If porosity curves overlay within a formation, then it is highly probable that the
formation matches the matrix and fluid assumptions. The P e curve is extremely
helpful in answering this question.
4. Look at some logs—practice makes perfect!
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Appendix A
Chemical Properties of Hydrocarbons
As previously stated, hydrocarbons are formed from the alteration of sediment and
organic materials. They are the simplest organic compounds, consisting of only carbon
and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are classified according to the ratio of carbon and
hydrogen, their molecular structure, and their molecular weight. Hydrocarbons have
been divided into various series, differing in chemical properties and relationships. The
four series that comprise most of the naturally occurring petroleums are the normal
paraffin (or alkane), the isoparaffin (or branched-chain paraffin), the naphthene (or
cycloparaffin), and the aromatic (or benzene) series. A fifth group is the NSO
compounds, which are hydrocarbon compounds that sometimes contain substantial
amounts of nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, and
other minor elements.
The Paraffin Series

The paraffin series consists of compounds
in which each carbon atom is completely
saturated with respect to hydrogen.
Structures include simple straight chains
(alkanes) of carbon atoms and branched
chains (isoparaffin or isoalkanes). The Fig. A.A.1—Straight-Chain Paraffin Molecular
Structure.
paraffin hydrocarbons, sometimes called
the methane series, are chemically
inactive. Methane is the simplest of all the
hydrocarbons and is also the most stable.
Members of the paraffin series are
generally the most abundant
hydrocarbons present in both gaseous
and liquid petroleums.
Fig. A.A.2—Branched-Chain Paraffin Molecular
Structure.
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The Naphthene (Cycloparaffin)
Series
These saturated compounds have a cyclic
arrangement (closed-ring) of the carbon atoms with
only single valences connecting the carbon atoms.
The Aromatic (Benzene) Series

These hydrocarbons, so named because many of
its members have a strong or aromatic odor, are a Fig. A.A.3—Cycloparaffin Molecular Structure.
group of unsaturated hydrocarbons with a cyclic
structure. Benzene, a colorless, volatile liquid, is the parent and most common member
of the series found in petroleums. They include several important biomarker compounds
that allow oils and source rocks to be correlated. Biomarkers are compounds found in
crude oils and source rock extracts that can be unmistakably traced back to living
organisms.
Fig. A.A.4—Aromatic Molecular Structure.
NSO Compounds
These compounds are known as heterocompounds and are subdivided into the resins
and asphaltenes. They form by combining the organic carbon and hydrogen with other
elements, predominantly nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and oxygen (O) in complex molecules.
Nearly all crude oils contain small quantities of nitrogen. Nothing is known of the nature
of the nitrogen compounds in undistilled crude oil, but the nitrogen compounds in the
distillates are frequently of the general type known as pyridines (C 5 H 5 N) and quinolines
(C 9 H 7 N). Because nitrogen is a common, inert constituent of natural gas, it may be that
the nitrogen content of the crude oil is contained in the dissolved gases. Nitrogen is an
unwanted component of both crude oil and natural gas.
Sulfur occurs, to some extent, in practically all crude oils and in each of the fractions that
make up the oil. It may be present in one of the following forms: free sulfur, hydrogen
sulfide (H 2 S), or organic sulfur compounds. The presence of sulfur and sulfur
compounds in gasoline causes corrosion, bad odor, and poor explosion. Before the
development of modern cracking processes by refineries, the presence of sulfur made
petroleum less desirable and, consequently, worth less per barrel. Since sulfur can now
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be removed from oil, this price differential has been largely eliminated, and sulfur-
bearing crude oils are nearly equal to non-sulfur crudes.
Oxygen is found in crude oil and occurs in the following various forms: free oxygen,
phenols (C 6 H 5 OH), fatty acids and their derivatives, and naphthenic acids.
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Professional

Chapter 2
Cased-Hole Basics
Revision (A)
(August 2008)
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144 12/29/2008
Preface
This WPS Training manual provides information on cased-hole services, cased-hole

cables, cased-hole depth and tension, and cased-hole weak points for the Cased-Hole
Associate Field Professional. Study the manual to develop a through understanding of
the tool before operating or servicing it for the first time. Observe all notes, cautions, and
warnings to minimize the risk of personal injury or damage to the equipment.
Section 1 Introduction to Cased-Hole Services – Overview of company history and

WPS cased-hole services.
Section 2 Cased-Hole Cables – Introduction to properties and characteristics of electric

wireline.
Section 3 Cased-Hole Depth and Tension – Overview of cased-hole depth and tension
systems and processes.
Section 4 Cased-Hole Weak Points – Cased-hole weak-point selection, construction

and determination of safe-pull values.
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Section 1
Introduction to Cased-Hole Services
The Legend of Halliburton

Erle P. Halliburton was born on a farm near Henning,
Tennessee on September 22, 1892. At age 12, his father
passed away, and at age 14, Erle left home to find work to
support his family. When he left, he vowed not return until he
had a million dollars. From age 14 to 18, he held no less than
12 different jobs. Erle began working in a railroad commissary
and even spent six months as merchant seaman. In 1910, at
age 18, Erle joined the United States Navy where he trained in
engineering and hydraulics and operated the Navy’s first motor
barge.
Erle Halliburton honorably discharged from the Navy in 1915 and began working in Los
Angeles, California as the Superintendent for Water Distribution for the Dominguez
Irrigation Company, which at the time, was the largest pressure irrigation project in the
world. In that year, he also married his wife and eventual business partner, Vida Taber.
In 1918, Erle Halliburton was introduced to the oilfield when he went to work for Perkins
Oil Well Cementing Company as a truck driver. Perkins had invented and patented a
method of cementing oil wells that would grow increasingly important as the oil business
developed. Erle Halliburton’s dedication and hard work quickly got him promoted to
cementer. While working at Perkins, Erle Halliburton was constantly seeking new ways
to improve the cementing process and equipment. His drive to improve the process often
came in conflict with the owner of Perkins, and he was eventually fired. But, that did not
stop Mr. Halliburton.
Erle Halliburton moved to Wichita Falls, Texas in 1919 where, with a borrowed wagon,
team of horses, and a pump, he formed the New Method Oil Well Cementing Company
and went into business for himself. At that time, a major boom was occurring. The oil
was so close to surface and so easy to recover that the oil companies were making
money with little to no effort, so little concern was given to conserving oil or controlling
the wells. The process of cementing was, in most cases, considered useless and often
times considered to be damaging to the well. Work was very slow for the New Method
Oil Well Cementing Company. Shortly after his arrival in Wichita Falls, he packed up and
moved to the fields in Wilson, Oklahoma to find business.
12/29/2008 147
It was in Wilson, OK in January of 1920
that Erle Halliburton got his first big break.
Bill Skelley, owner of Skelley Oil Company
had a gushing oil well in the Hewitt Field
near Wilson, OK, and all other methods
for getting it under control had failed. Erle
P. Halliburton, hovering on the edge of
bankruptcy promised Mr. Skelley that hat
he could get the well under control, and if
he could not do so, he would not charge
him for his services. Mr. Skelley, with
nothing tolose, agreed to allow Mr.
Halliburton to attempt to gain control of
the gushing well. Taking advantage of his
new cementing process, Erle successfully
gained control of the well and heads
began turning in his direction.
Erle P.Halliburton (far left in dark suit) working to get

Bill Skelley’s (center foreground) well under control.
Courtesy John Jennings
From that point forward, the business grew dramatically. By the end of 1920, Erle
Halliburton and the New Method Oil Well Cementing Company had worked on over 500
wells in the fields surrounding Wilson, OK. As work began to slow down in the Wilson
area, Erle looked to the horizon and saw that work was growing around Duncan, OK
only 50 miles away. Consequently, in March of 1921, he packed up his family and the
company and moved to Duncan.
While in Duncan, OK, Erle bought five Army surplus trucks and began working the fields
surrounding Duncan, Oklahoma as well as fields in Texas and Arkansas. By 1923, the
New Method Oil Well Cementing Company had acquired a fleet of 20 cementing trucks.
As the business grew, Erle constantly searched for new ways to improve the oil well
cementing process. In early 1922, he invented what he called the Jet Mixer, which later
became known as the Halliburton Cement Mixer. This mixer revolutionized the
cementing process in that it had the capability of mixing up to 1,000 sacks of cement in
just a few minutes. The mixer was a drastic improvement over the hand mixing method.
Other inventions also included the Halliburton Measuring Line, which was implemented
to determine how far the cement traveled down into the well.
Innovation and improvement were early trademarks of Halliburton’s business, and they
remain so to this day.
In a landmark move in 1924, Erle P. Halliburton solidified his company’s status by

convincing seven large oil companies to join with him in forming a corporation. On July
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1, 1924, Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company (HOWCO) was formed in partnership
with Magnolia (Later Mobil), Texas Company (Later Texaco), Gulf (Later Chevron),
Humble (Later Exxon), Sun, Pure (Later Unocal) and Atlantic (Later ARCO) oil
companies. On that day, Erle P. Halliburton began with a simple mission statement: “We
intend to build up and maintain a complete organization. We will cover all phases of the
oil-well cementing service. We will maintain an aggressive and sustained program of
research. We shall give uniform quality and service. We’ll get there somehow,
regardless of location.” Those words formed the backbone of a company that forged a
path to industry leadership through good times and bad and still stand today to guide this
company.
From that day forward, HOWCO played a pivotal role in developing many oilfield
technologies and not just in cementing. In 1926, Erle Halliburton secured the patent
rights to the original Drill Stem Tester from John Simmons, and with the help of his chief
engineer, A.D. Stoddard, modified it to work in oil wells. In 1930, HOWCO established a
chemical laboratory that would later become the premier chemical research and
development laboratory for the industry. In 1933, chief chemist, Hayden Roberts, began
research on a process to acid treat limestone and carbonate formations to enlarge the
pore spaces to enable greater flow. The service, known as acidization, first became
available by HOWCO in 1934.
1934 was also the year when Halliburton first began offering Electrical Well Logging
Services. This service included the location of hydrocarbons by lowering a tool
suspended on electric line in the well and in order to measure the resistance of the
formation.
Throughout the 1930’s and 40’s, Halliburton continued to grow and expand its services.
During World War II, HOWCO provided key machining and engineering processes to
support the war effort and received no monetary compensation or government funding
for it. Erle Halliburton even gave his personal yacht, the Vida, to the US Navy to use as a
floating weather monitoring station. Erle Halliburton’s philosophy was that he took no
federal assistance building his company up from the mud, so why should he take federal
money now?
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In 1949, Halliburton completed its
first commercial fracturing job using
surplus napalm, gasoline, crude oil
and just 150 lb of sand. This was the
first in a long series of successful
ventures into what would become a
major cornerstone of the HOWCO
business portfolio.
In 1957, HOWCO purchased Welex

Company. Welex was the company
that first pioneered the use of
shaped-charge explosives for oil-
well perforating. Technology
adapted from US Military bazooka
designs was successfully used to
penetrate the casing and cement in
an oil well and create a
communication path between the
formation and the wellbore. This Frac job in 1952. Courtesy John Jennings.
technology replaced the use of bullet guns.
Tragically, 1957 was also the year that Erle P. Halliburton passed away. At the time of
his death, HOWCO was valued at 190 million dollars and had over 10,000 employees in
203 locations and 15 countries. With his passing, he left a legacy of success and proved
that hard work and determination is an integral part to achievement.
HOWCO changed its name to Halliburton Company in 1960 to reflect more accurately
the nature of a company that started as a one-wagon cementing crew and grew to
encompass almost every phase of oil-well development and production.
In 1962, in a move that stunned the world, two giants became one with Halliburton’s
purchase of the engineering and construction conglomerate Brown & Root. The two
companies shared many similarities in the fact that they both were started by energetic
and hard working men who were dedicated to providing the best product possible to their
clients. History recounts that the aging Brown brothers were looking to sell Brown & Root
to a corporation that reflected their business practices, philosophy, and history—an
enterprise grown by work-roughened hands that knew how to make money. George
Herman later reflected that: “We began to look around to see a service company that we
thought had the same concepts of operation and treatment of employees and of free
enterprise that we had, and I approached the officers of Halliburton.”
In 1989, Halliburton purchased Gearhardt Industries and merged it with Welex to create
Halliburton Logging Services. This acquisition brought two innovative and successful
companies together under one umbrella to create the backbone of what is now the
Wireline and Perforating Services PSL.
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Wireline Perforating Job—1956 Courtesy John Jennings
From 1960 to present day, Halliburton has prospered and endured through periods of
growth and expansion as well as times of hardship, all the while maintaining a reputation
and position as an oilfield service industry leader. From the acquisition of the
construction and engineering giant, Brown & Root, in 1962, to the sands of Kuwait where
Halliburton put over three hundred burning oil wells back under control in 1991 following
the first Gulf War, to the creation of an eastern hemisphere headquarters in Dubai,
United Arab Emirates in 2006, Halliburton has continued to grow its business portfolio.
Today, Halliburton is comprised of two divisions with twelve product service lines that
provide over 160 oilfield services. Halliburton has over 24,000 employees in 400
locations operating in over 70 countries around the world. The spirit of Erle P. Halliburton
is continued today with Halliburton’s continued commitment to research and
development, employee care, and above all, customer satisfaction.
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Cased Hole Services

Presently, the Wireline and Perforating Services are comprised of three divisions:
Wireline, Slickline, and Tubing Conveyed Perforating. The Wireline group is further
broken down into two divisions: Open Hole and Cased Hole. The Cased-Hole services
group performs six different main categories of services:
5. Cement Evaluation/Pipe Inspection

6. Cased-Hole Formation Evaluation
7. Perforating
8. Mechanical Services
9. Pipe Recovery
10. Production Logging
This section will briefly discuss each category and the tools used to perform them.
Cement Evaluation/Pipe Inspection
Cement Evaluation
Cement evaluation is one of the basic services provided by the Cased-Hole
Services Division, and it also comprises more than 15% of our business
market. The purpose of the cement evaluation is to determine the quality of
the cement behind the casing.
The cement bond log provides two basic answers to the client. The first
being the quality of the cement bond to the casing, and the second being
the quality of cement bond to the formation. By knowing the answers, we
can determine how much of the annular space between the casing and
formation is filled with cement.
In order to effectively produce hydrocarbons from a given reservoir while at

the same time preserving the integrity of the formations above and below
it, casing is lowered into the open hole, and cement is pumped down the Fig. 2.1.1—Example of
casing through the bottom and up along the outside of the casing to fill Hydraulic Isolation.
the annulus between the casing and the formation.
The cement serves as a hydraulic barrier between the geological zones and makes it
possible to target only the zones that have oil or gas.
The cement evaluation is extremely important in most cases because the client needs to
know that no other path of flow exists for the oil or gas produced from a given zone. This
can prove especially harmful if the zone of interest is not hydraulically isolated from a
water bearing zone that may be the source of a local aquifer.
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The cement bond log is performed with acoustic-bond tools.
The tools produce a sonic pulse, which impinges upon the
casing and radiates outward into the surrounding cement and
formation. As the sonic wave returns, it is recorded at various
receivers located on the tool and then analyzed by surface
software.
The cement bond log began with a basic dual receiver tool,
which contained one transmitter and two receivers located at 3
and 5 ft, respectively, from the transmitter. As advances in
technology continued, the sectored-bond tool was created,
which led to the radial bond tool. The radial bond tool has a
segmented receiver that is divided into equal sections. This
segmented receiver allows for a better picture of the cement to
casing bond to be obtained.
Fig. 2.1.2—Dual Receiver
CBL Tool.
Currently, Halliburton employs both dual receiver and radial bond tools manufactured by
Sondex, Inc., Computer Sonics Services, Probe Technologies, and Tekco.
Pipe Inspection
In older wells, or wells with suspected casing problems, a pipe inspection may be
performed to determine the condition of the casing or whether or not the integrity of the
casing has been breached. This service may be
performed with several types of tools:
1. Ultrasonic Acoustic Tool

2. Multiple-Arm Caliper
3. Magnetic Thickness Gauge Tool
Fig. 2.1.3—Computer generated 3-D Model of

Pipe Inspection Results.
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Currently, Halliburton uses the CAST-V or CAST-F (Circumferential Acoustic Scanning

Tool) to perform the majority of our casing inspection jobs. This tool uses a rotating
ultrasonic transducer that produces high-frequency sound pulses at a high rate. The tool
then records the resulting waveform and forms an image of the internal surface of the
casing. It also provides casing thickness. This tool may also be used to determine the
casing-to-cement bond; however, due to the short wavelength and high frequency of the
sound pulses, information about the formation-to-cement bond is not reliable.
Another tool that is used to perform casing inspection is the multi-arm caliper tool. This
tool uses a set of 12 to 60 highly-sensitive arms (fingers) that extrude from the tool. As
the tool is pulled up hole, the caliper arms respond to irregularities in the casing surface.
Also used is a magnetic thickness-gauge tool that contains powerful magnets to create a
strong magnetic field around the tool. As the tool is pulled up hole, the magnetic field
responds to any minute changes in the steel thickness, which correspond to areas of
reduced thickness caused by damage or corrosion.
Regardless of the tool used, the data is usually processed by a form of three-
dimensional modeling software to give the client a picture of the internal surface of the
casing.
In the case of the CAST tool, limited cement evaluation may also be performed, and a
log of the cement-to-casing bond can also be provided in addition to casing thickness
and surface conditions.
Cased-Hole Formation Evaluation

Many forms of formation evaluation behind casing are available today. The information
provided by cased-hole formation evaluation ranges from simple, natural gamma ray and
hydrogen-index measurements to complex data collection that can be used in modeling
processes, which will provide the same data as a standard open hole log series. Cased-
hole formation-evaluation tools are used for correlation purposes. Sometimes, clients will
perform cased-hole formation evaluation if the hole conditions do not warrant risking an
open-hole tool suite or if the client already has all of the detailed information for that
region and does not want to incur the expense of an open-hole log series. The market
for cased-hole formation evaluation is expanding rapidly. Currently, cased-hole formation
evaluation comprises 17% of the cased-hole business market in Halliburton.
Two types of cased-hole radioactive formation evaluation tools are in use today:
chemical-neutron sourced tools and pulsed-neutron tools.
Chemical Source Tools

Several models and types of chemical source tools exist in the Halliburton inventory. All
of the tools use a 2-micro Currie Americium-Beryllium chemical-neutron source and a
Helium-3 neutron detector. The two most common tool models used by Halliburton are:
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1. Hostile Gamma Neutron Tool (HGNT)
2. Compensated Neutron Tool
Both of these tools function in the same manner as the open-hole neutron tool by
emitting neutrons from the source and then recording the amount of neutrons that return
to the detector after traveling through the casing, cement, and formation. In doing so, the
tool is capable of taking rudimentary hydrogen-index measurements for the purpose of
differentiating between water and hydrocarbons. This tool can also be used for
perforating correlation purposes in the event the gamma ray curve response is
ineffective.
Pulsed-Neutron Tools
All pulsed-neutron tools contain a powerful neutron emitter called a pulsed-neutron
generator. The pulsed-neutron generator uses high voltages to bombard a tritium target
with deuterium ions to produce large quantities of high energy neutrons. The PNG is a
powerful radioactive source when activated, and caution should always be used when
operating this tool. The high-energy
neutrons are radiated out into the
formation and collide with the atoms of
the elements inside the formation,
causing the atoms to emit gamma rays.
The gamma rays are then recorded and
measured at one of two gamma ray
detectors also located on the tool.
Pulsed-neutron logging is an advanced

logging service and is used primarily for
locating bypassed oil reserves in an
existing well. Although, in recent years,
pulsed-neutron logging has begun to
replace open-hole logging in many areas
due to the large amount of data already
possessed by the client who only has a
need to locate the hydrocarbon reservoirs
in the given well for the purposes of
perforating and completion. Fig. 2.1.4—Example of Pulsed-Neutron Log.
The pulsed-neutron tool may also be used in conjunction with a production logging suite
in order to measure quantities of oil, gas, and water in a wellbore as well as to define
flow rates.
Two main types of pulsed-neutron tools are currently used by Halliburton:
1. Thermal Multigate Decay Lithology (TMDL) tool

2. Reservoir Monitoring Tool (RMT)
The TMDL is the older of the two tools and has recently been replaced by the RMT.
Although, both tools function in the same manner, the RMT has updated electronics and
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a more robust pulsed-neutron generator. The newest model, the RMT-E (Elite), is also
equipped with the latest ultra-link telemetry modules, which allow it to be run in
combination with other ultra-link tools. Ultra-link telemetry is proprietary to Sondex, Inc.
Natural Gamma-Ray Tools

The basic cased-hole natural gamma-ray tool is used to measure naturally occurring
gamma rays emitted from the formation rock. These gamma rays are also recorded by a
standard open-hole suite. Using the natural gamma rays, we have a common curve
between open- and cased-hole logs that can be used to correlate the two together. This
is required mostly because perforation intervals are typically chosen from the open-hole
log; however, correlation for perforating commonly uses casing collars.
When the open-log is performed, casing does not exist in the well; hence, a collar log is
not created. Therefore, when the cased-hole log is run for perforation correlation
purposes, a means must be obtained to ensure that the cased-hole log is on depth with
the open-hole log so that the perforations can be made on depth.
All natural gamma ray tools use a scintillation gamma ray detector. The simplest form of
this detector counts the amount of gamma rays that strike the detector. More advanced
forms of the scintillation detector will also record the energy level of the gamma ray for
lithology identification.
Mechanical Services
Cased-hole mechanical services consist of all mechanical services with the exception of
perforating. Mechanical services include dump bailing, setting plugs and packers, junk
baskets, and gauge ring services.
The bulk of our mechanical services involve the setting of a plug or packer in a well
using an explosive two-stage mechanical setting tool or an electrically-powered down-
hole power unit (DPU). When the customer needs to seal off a portion of the wellbore,
either permanently or temporarily, they may opt to set a bridge plug or packer. There are
several types of, and manufacturers of, plugs and packers, and they differ in design,
composition, and function. Generally speaking, the composition, either cast iron or
composite, is tied to the length of time it is required to stay in place. Another driving
factor for the design of the plug or packer is what purpose it will serve.
Plugs
A plug is a mechanical device that is designed to be forcibly set inside the casing and
seal off the wellbore to prevent flow completely above and below it or, in some cases,
allow flow in one direction. Plugs are built out of either cast iron or a composite-
fiberglass material and, in most cases, are designed to be drilled out after a certain
amount of time or once the process that required it to be set is complete.
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Plugs are divided into two basic categories:
1. Bridge Plug
2. Flow-Through (Frac) Plug
The Bridge plug is designed to seal off the wellbore and prevent flow in
both directions, up and down. The bridge may be a permanent fixture in
the case of a “plug and abandon,” where the well itself is never intended
to produce hydrocarbons again and will be permanently closed. In the
case of a “plug and abandon,” it is likely that a significant amount of
cement will be dumped on top of the bridge plug to help seal it in place.
Additionally, this type of permanent plug is generally made from cast iron.
If the plug is meant to be removed or only stay in place for a limited
period of time, the client will typically select a plug that is made
from a composite-fiberglass material. Fig. 2.1.5—Composite
Bridge Plug.
The flow-through, or frac, plug is designed to seal off the wellbore and
prevent downward flow of fluids past the plug. This type of plug is
generally used during production enhancement (frac) jobs when multiple
zones will be treated. Thus, this type of plug is often called a “frac” plug.
The frac is usually fitted with a one-way internal check valve or uses a
hardened ceramic ball that fits in a recess at the top of the plug, which
prevents the downward flow of fluid. When the pressure from above is
lifted, the valve opens, or the ball moves aside and will allow the operator
to flow the well from bottom to top. A “frac” plug is generally not meant to
stay in the well for long periods of time and is most often drilled out when
the completion phase of the well is finished.
Packers
There are many types of packers in use today, each having a
specific purpose. They are generally segregated into two types: Fig. 2.1.6—Composite Flow
Through (Frac) Plug.
1. Permanent
2. Retrievable
In most cases, a packer is used to centralize and hold production tubing of various sizes
for the purpose of producing hydrocarbons. A permanent packer may be used when the
client does not predict that the production tubing will have to be removed. However, a
retrievable packer may be used if the client believes that they will change out tubing or
perform additional work to the casing portion of the well at a later date.
Setting Tools
There are three models of setting tools in use by Halliburton today.
158 12/29/2008
1. GO Shorty Setting Tool

2. Baker E-4 Wireline Pressure Setting Tool (WPST)
3. Downhole Powered Unit (DPU)
The GO Shorty and Baker E-4 setting tools are both explosively-initiated and gas-
operated, two-stage setting tools. They rely on gas pressure provided by a slow burning
power charge to produce the mechanical force that drives the pistons and applies
pressure to the plug or packer to actuate its mechanisms.
The down-hole powered unit (DPU) is completely powered by electricity and requires no
explosives of any kind. The DPU uses an electric motor to provide the mechanical force
that is applied to the plug or packer.
Perforating
Perforating occupies approximately 42% of the cased-hole business
market. This is due, in large part, to the surge in oilfield new-well
exploration and completion activity around the globe. The simple purpose
of perforating is to create an effective communication path between the
wellbore and the virgin formation after the casing has been cemented in
place. This service is provided with many different types of perforating
systems, both on wireline and via tubing.
Perforating systems are generally classified into two groups:
1. Hollow-Steel Carrier Guns

2. Capsule Guns (JRC Deepstar®)
Hollow Steel Carrier guns come in three forms:
1. Port-Plug Gun
Fig. 2.1.7—Hollow Steel Carrier
2. Scalloped Gun Gun.
3. Slick-Wall Gun
All HSC guns share the common characteristic of having an external steel carrier, which
carries the charges and elements of the explosive train assembly.
Capsule guns, which are also called “strip” or “exposed-gun” systems, are a simpler form
of conveyance that mounts the charges and the elements of the explosive-train
assembly to a small, expendable metal strip. In this fashion, the explosive elements are
exposed directly to the wellbore.
Each gun system has distinct advantages and disadvantages and is selected based on
completion, environmental, or wellbore conditions.
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Stim Gun/Sleeve
In addition to standard perforating guns, a stim gun, or sleeve, may be run with the
perforating guns or run separately. The stim gun, or sleeve, is composed of a quantity of
Ammonium Perchlorate (solid rocket fuel). When detonated, it creates a momentary
over-balanced condition in the wellbore with additional high pressure added to the
perforating tunnel. This over-pressure aids in the creation of the tunnel and also serves
to create near-wellbore fracturing of the existing pores. A stim gun, or sleeve, is run
when the client wants to help the formation naturally produce hydrocarbons as a
precursor to hydraulic fracturing.
Pipe Recovery
Pipe recovery is the process of freeing drillpipe that has become stuck in the well. When
drillpipe becomes lodged in the well for any reason, drilling cannot continue, and,
generally, circulation of drilling fluids is lost. Therefore, it is necessary to run a free-
point tool into the well to determine where the drillpipe is stuck. Once the free point
is located, then a “backoff” or “string shot” is lowered into the well, and while torque
is being held on the drill pipe, the string shot is detonated to help jar the collar free
and unscrew the free section of drillpipe. A “string shot” is a length of metal rod that
is wrapped in detonating cord and provides a mechanical concussion when
detonated.
If the drill pipe does not come free with the string shot, then a severing job may be
performed. The drill pipe may be severed using three types of casing cutters:
1. Explosive-Jet Cutter
2. Chemical Cutter
3. Radial-Cutting Torch
All three tools are designed to cut the drillpipe in a radial, uniform line so that it can
be freed and brought to surface.The disadvantage of using the jet cutter is that it
leaves a jagged edge that must be milled down before any attempt is made to fish
the down-hole portion of the drillpipe. The chemical cutter, although it makes a
“clean” cut, is hazardous because it uses Bromium Tri-Fluoride, which is extremely
dangerous to humans. The newest technology is the radial-cutting torch and is
manufactured by MCR Oil Tools, Inc. The radial cutting torch does not use
explosives or toxic chemicals of any kind and makes a clean cut that is ready for
fishing. The radial cutting torch uses Thermite, which burns at a temperature in
excess of 4,000°F.
Fig. 2.1.8—Explosive Jet

Cutter.
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Production Logging
Once drilling and completion operations are finished, the well enters into the production
phase. As the well progresses, operators need to be able to evaluate the performance of
the well and each zone from which it is producing. Halliburton offers a wide range of
production logging services that can help the client:
1. Maximize reservoir performance

2. Three-phase flow identification (Gas-Oil-Water)
3. Monitor production and injection rates
4. Identify problem areas inside the well
There are a wide range of tools in the production logging array. These tools range from
simple flow meters to complex gas-oil contact tools that can differentiate between gas
and oil inside the wellbore. In addition, production logging tools may be run in
conjunction with pulsed-neutron tools for a complete analysis of hydrocarbon production
inside and outside the casing.
The accurate monitoring of production/injection rates has substantial economic benefits

and can help the customer maximize their return on investment.
Fig. 2.1.9—Example Production Log.
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162 12/29/2008
Section 2
Cased-Hole Cables
In electric line logging, one of the most vital pieces of equipment used on any job is the
Wireline. It provides the back bone for all of our operations. This electro-mechanical
cable allows us to lower tools into the well, provides a path for electrical power and
communication between the tools and surface system, and provides a way to accurately
measure the depth at any given point in the well.
Even though this cable is so vital to our operations, it can be one of the least-cared-for
pieces of equipment in Halliburton Wireline. This under-appreciation for the cable is most
likely due to a lack of understanding and/or recognition of the problems that can occur
from inadequate maintenance and misuse. This chapter will help reduce some of the
problems faced in the field by explaining the various electro-mechanical properties,
safety considerations, preventive maintenance procedures, and strength calculations
associated with cased-hole cables.
Cable Properties
Wireline cable must possess certain key electro-mechanical properties that make it
suitable for use in Wireline logging applications. These key features separate it from
conventional braided cables and, therefore, require more attention. The features that
make Wireline cable desirable for use in logging applications are:
1. Mechanical Strength
2. Electrical Continuity
3. Temperature Rating
4. Ability to resist corrosion
5. No Joints
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Mechanical Strength
The first property, mechanical strength, is vital to our operations, as the Wireline cable
must be flexible, yet capable, of supporting heavy tool strings without breaking.
Conventional braided cable is constructed of a single-helix coil. A single-helix coil is
capable of supporting heavy loads depending on the size and type of the material it is
constructed from. As the weight is applied to the coil, the cable will lengthen, and radial
forces will compress the core. In addition, the cable and the device attached to it will
rotate to relieve the stress burden on the cable. All of these properties would be suitable
for our use if we did not rely on the core of the cable containing one or more insulated
conductors used as a medium for transmitting electrical signals.
If a single-helix coil were to be used for Wireline logging applications, then as the weight
is applied and radial force is exerted on the core, the Wireline conductor would get
crushed and, subsequently, hinder the transmission of electrical signals.
Fig. 2.2.1—Single-Helix Coil.
To overcome the problem of excess force being placed on the core, a cable was
constructed that took advantage of two helix coils wrapped counter to each other with a
single or multiple conductor surrounded in an insulating material core. The double helix
design provided torque relief for the radial forces as weight was applied to the cable,
which alleviated the crushing force placed on the core. It should be noted that this
design does not remove all of the crushing force, and all cables, if stretched past the
limits, will damage the conductor core.
On Wireline cables, both the inner and outer wires are referred to as armors. The inner
and outer armors are constructed with high-tensile steel or an improved alloy for special
lines. Based on the cable construction parameters, breaking strengths may be the same
or different and may, or may not, equal in number. The cable armors are placed one
inside the other and are wrapped in opposite directions to provide counter-torque
capability. This means that as weight is applied to the line and the outer armors begin to
compress, the inner armors will begin to decompress or vice-versa depending on the
direction of travel.
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Fig. 2.2.2—Double-Helix Coil.
Electrical Continuity
The second property, electrical continuity, is also vital to our operations. In Wireline
applications, it is necessary to have a medium through which power and tool signals can
be transmitted efficiently with as little loss of signal as possible. Wireline cable is typically
separated into two categories: 1) monocable—having only one conductor at the cable
core, and 2) heptacable—having seven conductors at the cable core. Both cables
require the core to be constructed of a metal that has a relatively low resistance to
electricity and also maintains integrity at high temperatures. Generally, Wireline cable
conductors are constructed from copper. Copper has a low electrical impedance
property and is also semi-reliable at hotter temperatures.
For the transmission of any signal, a transmission path and a return path must be
provided to complete the electrical circuit necessary for electron flow. Detailed
information regarding tool power and telemetry will be covered later in Chapter 3. For the
purposes of this chapter, the basics of how that circuit is formed will be discussed. In
heptacable (7-conductor) lines, the cable lines are usually separated into three pairs of
conductors and one ground. In this method, signals and tool power can be transmitted
and returned along the pairs with the one conductor serving as a ground. For monocable
lines with only one conductor, the return path for signals is the cable armor.
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In both lines, it is necessary to evaluate electrical continuity and insulation periodically to
ensure electrical integrity. Normally, these tests are performed at each cable reheading
and should be performed prior to each job.
Based on conductor size, each cable will have a constant resistance expressed in ohms
per thousand feet (Ω/kft). The logging engineer can obtain these values from the cable
manufacturer’s documentation regarding physical properties. This value can be as low
as 2 Ω/kft and as high as 5 Ω/kft. Continuity should be checked with a suitable or
approved volt-ohm meter by measuring the resistance from end to end of the cable. The
total resistance measured should be the sum of the amount of cable in kft multiplied by
the resistance of the cable per kft.
In addition to continuity, the insulation material must be checked to verify that it is

properly isolating the conductor from the cable armors. Insulation checks should be
performed using a suitable mega-ohm meter measured from one end of the cable. (The
cable slips should be disconnected prior to performing this check to protect the
electronic components inside the logging unit instrument cab.) The minimum electrical
isolation should be 500 MΩ at 1,000 V applied.
Temperature Rating
Temperature affects our work and tools in various ways. Because the nature of our work
is subsurface and our tools are required to operate in temperatures ranging from 100–
400°F, the cable that supports our tools must also be able to withstand those
temperatures.
Temperature affects the Wireline cable in two ways: 1) mechanically and 2) electrically.
Whereas the armors are composed of metal, exposing the armors to heat can cause the
metal to lose its rigidity. Therefore, the metal that is used to construct the cable armors
must be able to withstand high temperatures without losing its strength.
Heat will also degrade the performance of the cable conductor. Although copper is an
excellent metal for conducting electricity, it does have one negative attribute. As the core
temperature of the copper conductor increases, its resistance to electrical conductance
increases. Therefore, consideration must be given to the insulating material surrounding
the copper conductor to ensure its resistance to heat and its ability to electrically isolate
the conductor.
Various materials are used to construct the insulating material ranging from
Polypropylene to TefZel. The insulation material will change with the temperature rating
of the cable. Additional elements may also be added to the cable, such as a jacket that
surrounds the core material, which will add in temperature resistance, electrical isolation,
and also increase resistance to exposure to wellbore fluids.
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Anti-Corrosion Properties
In addition to having to have mechanical strength, electrical continuity, and resistance to
heat, the cable must also have an ability to resist corrosion. Our cable is routinely
exposed to a wide variety of fluids and gases inside the wellbore. The fluids include
hydrocarbons, water, mud, and other elements, which by themselves or through their
byproducts, will cause corrosion of metal. Some of the wells may contain specifically
corrosive acidic elements, such as Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2 S).
To combat this hostile environment, the cable armors are constructed of metal alloys or
special metals, such as nickel, to help prevent corrosion. The prevention of corrosion will
increase the life of the cable and help it to maintain its mechanical strength in hostile
environments.
No Joints (Seamless)
Part of the strength of the cable is derived from its continuous strands of armor that form
a single length. In this way, weight is equally distributed throughout the cable as the load
on it increases. Although, some of our applications require that the cable contain no
joints, other applications will tolerate joints or splices made in the line, provided that
there is not an excess.
Cased-hole applications generally require no joints or splices in the cable. Due to the
use of pressure control equipment, a splice would make it impossible or improbable that
the line would be able to pass through the hydraulic grease tool (grease head), which
has limited tolerances built into it for the line to pass through.
Open-hole logging operations will tolerate some splices being in the line provided that
the line maintains its original mechanical strength.
The end result of these requirements is a cable constructed of five major components:
1. Outer Armor
2. Inner Armor
3. Conductor
4. Insulation
5. Jacket
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Fig. 2.2.3—Main Components of a Cable.
Heptacables (7-conductor) will also contain one additional component of a filler material.
The filler material serves to fill the void spaced created when the seven conductors are
spun together.
Fig. 2.2.4—Cross-Sectional View of the Major Components of Heptacable.
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Cable Care and Operational Considerations

This section of the chapter will discuss basic cable care, recommended practices,
operational considerations and special situations. The section will be generic in terms of
specific cable types due to the variance in cable manufacturers and cables that are
currently being used in Halliburton WPS. The following guidelines apply to all
electromechanical cables.
Installation
It is essential that a logging cable be set on a winch using the proper spooling profile.
The proper spooling profile is the profile that will match the tensions expected during
logging as closely as possible.
In instances where cables have been installed at significantly lower tensions than those
experienced in the borehole, the cable in the lower layers under low tension have been
"crushed". By "crushed," we mean that at certain spots in the cable, the two dimensions
of the cable measured at 90° with respect to each other are significantly different (i.e.,
the cable is no longer round, but egg shaped). The most likely spot to experience cable
crushing is where the cable "crosses over" the winding in the layer below. In the winding
below, the crossover direction is opposite the direction in the layer being installed. At the
"break or crossover", the cable contacts the cable underneath at only one point. That
single point of contact is directly beneath the cable. The pressure at this single point is
twice as high as the pressure on the cable around the rest of the circumference of the
winding, since at all other locations, the cable is supported in 2 adjacent windings as it
sits in the valley between those two windings.
A logging engineer should be alerted to the following two situations in order to prevent
the logging cable from being crushed.
Tension During Installation

During cable installation, it is very important to build up cable tension as quickly as
possible so that the cable in the lower layers will have the highest tension possible. The
higher the cable tension, the more resistant the cable is to being crushed. This is
because the armor wires act as a barrier or fence between the core and the outside
world. If a fence is pulled tight, it deflects less under any outside force. Less deflection of
the fence means less deflection of the armor wires into the core.
During installation of heptacable (7-conducter cable), the line is kept at a constant

tension of 1,000 lb. This serves two purposes. First, heptacable is magnetically marked
every 100 ft to help correct for line stretch. In order to place the marks correctly on the
cable, a constant tension of 1,000 lb must be maintained. Second, the mathematical
12/29/2008 169
equation used by Halliburton to perform cable stretch calculation is structured to assume
a constant spooling tension of 1,000 lb.
Cased-hole cables, however, are not magnetically marked. Therefore, the tension of the
line, while being spooled onto the drum, should conform to the manufacturer’s
recommendations for that particular line size and type.
Logging Operations Concerns
Slack Cable
In situations where a tool reaches TD or encounters an obstruction or a bridge in the
hole and additional cable is paid out, the tension at the surface will fall off. When the
cable is put back on the drum, the slack cable goes on first at a lower tension. When the
slack is picked up, the tension will become greater at the moment that the slack cable is
totally removed and the tool weight is added to the load that the cable must support.
This slack section of cable that has gone on the winch at low tension is "soft". Low
tension in the armor wires allow the cable to be compressed under the weight of the
higher tension layers, which will be installed over this low-tension section. This is where
cable crush is very likely to occur. If the cable tension falls below installation tension
during a job, the cable should be returned to the shop immediately following the job to
re-establish the proper tension profile. Many times, problems associated with crushed
cable will not show up immediately; however, they can be prevented by re-establishing
the proper tension spooling profile.
Shock Loading
When a cable is pulled at high tensions momentarily, but repeatedly, to work a tool free,
the cable experiences tension "jolts" or "impacts". Such tension impacts are more likely
to cause problems than a slowly-increasing tension or a steady pull. Cable impacts are
somewhat similar to taking a hammer and beating on the cable at the point it goes onto
the winch. These impacts are felt by all the layers below the point where the cable is
entering the winch. The likelihood of cable damage due to crushing exists in sections
spooled at lower-than-normal spooling tension under the force of these impacts.
Basic Cable Care

To ensure a lengthy service life and to prevent operational failures, the following steps
should be taken to care for the cable.
1. Proper Installation: Set up for the proper Fleet Angle, watch the spooling crew, do
not get in too big of a hurry, keep checking the tension, and inspect the cable.
2. Proper Reheading: Rehead often using the correct parts. Calculate the correct
number of strands to use or the proper tension link/cable. Inspect the cable head
before and after each job (should be every run in hostile environments).
3. Spot the truck properly: Again, remember the Fleet Angle. The truck should be
further away from the rig than the derrick is high for safety. Spot so the cable will not
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be rubbing or binding on any part of the rig, safety rails, catwalk ladder, or other
equipment between the unit and the bottom sheave. The farther the unit is away from
the bottom sheave, the easier it will be to spool and prevent excess strain on other
components, such as the measuring head and the spooling arm.
Fig. 2.2.5—Fleet Angle for Spooling.
4. Rigging up and down: Use care and common sense when rigging up and down. Be
especially watchful where the cable lays. Watch for anything that may kink or mash
it. Have preplanned and defined hand signals or other modes of communication
when picking up and laying down tools. Park a vehicle between the catwalk and the
truck to prevent from driving into the cable. When picking up tools, pull all of the
"slack" cable through the bottom sheave toward the truck.
5. Proper Break-In Period: The break-in period for new line is the first 25 to 30 runs in
the well. It takes this many runs to "season" the cable. Be aware! Nearly every truck
or skid has in the field probably has some new line on it! It may be only the bottom 3
or 4 wraps on some units, but it has not been seasoned. Also, remember that when
you cut off a large amount of cable (1,000 ft or more) or go on an unusually deep
well, you may be running unseasoned cable. During the break-in period run the cable
slowly, and always maintain at least 50% of your weight going in the well. When
coming out of the well, keep line speed under 300 ft/min to avoid causing excessive
reverse torque forces on the cable. These forces can result in loose armor. Watch for
any cable deformities or spooling problems during the break-in period and report
them immediately.
6. Use correct diameter sheaves: This means rig-up sheaves. Too small of a sheave
causes extreme bending stress on the cable. This can cause loose or "ropey" armor.
Large-diameter sheaves are even more critical in deeper (below 15,000 ft) wells. The
minimum sheave diameter is recommended by the cable manufacturer. It will be
different for each cable diameter. As the cable diameter increases, the sheave
diameter also increases. The sheave wheel diameter will be approximately 60 times
greater than the cable diameter. Always check the sheave wheel and frame for
physical damage. Grease and check bearings regularly.
7. Correct sheave groove: The sheave groove is even more important than the
sheave diameter. The correct groove should cradle at least 120° of the cable
diameter. Sheave grooves that are too small will pinch the cable, which results in
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excessive wear and may cause jerky cable movement. If the sheave groove is too
large, it results in flattening of the cable, possibly causing the armor to deform, and
may damage the insulator and/or conductor. Improper sheave grooves may also
cause loose or "ropey" armor. Inspect all sheave grooves after every job to be sure
they are clean and do not have any kinks, cuts, or burrs.
8. Regular sheave maintenance: Inspect all sheaves at least monthly for wear,
damage, and cleanliness. Stand sheave on end and spin to check the bearings. Be
sure that the sheave groove is clean and is not cut, burred, or worn. Check all
screws and bolts to be sure they are tight. Check the sheave wheel and frame for
physical damage. Grease and check the bearings at least monthly and repaint the
wheels as necessary. Check all tie-down cables of chains and fastening hardware.
9. Measuring Head/Horsehead: Check and grease all bearings. Make sure idler and
tension wheels are in good condition and are clean. Check the height adjustment
after starting in the well and correct, if necessary, to reduce the strain on the cable.
10. Keep tension on cable: The cable is designed and constructed to operate under
tension at all times and should never be run in the well so fast that it is put into
compression. As speed increases going into the well, a point will be reached where
the tool will begin "floating". Further speed increase results in the cable trying to push
the tool down the well, thus causing the cable to be compressed. When this
happens, the armor wires go slack, and large gaps may appear between the wires.
The insulator and conductor are very susceptible to damage, and this is also when
"mud lumps" may form in the armor.
11. Proper spooling: If the cable is installed properly, it should practically spool itself
when the truck is spotted properly. If the cable is allowed to miss "corners," make
gaps, stack up and cross over, it can lead to armor and/or conductor damage.
Ensuring the corners and obtaining a perfect spool job is important.
12. Do not over-run the cable: This may sound like step #10. However, this is a much
worse condition. By "over-running" the cable, we are referring to slack cable in the
well. It may lay beside the tool head or down alongside the tool, loop around itself, tie
itself in knots, etc. Cable speed must be controlled to avert these problems. We have
total control of cable speed, so it is really a matter of exercising good judgment and
responsibility. Be aware of what excessive cable speeds can do to your cable.
13. Conscientious spudding: We often have to spud our tools to try to get down the
well, but common sense is necessary. We always worry about the logging tool taking
a beating, and rightly so, but do you think about the beating that is being given to the
cable and the cable head? Each time you spud a tool, you are putting extra strain
and shock forces on the cable and cable head. Electric leakage in the cable and/or
the cable head is often caused by excessive spudding.
14. Watching for cable problems: While running the reel, one of your responsibilities is
to inspect the cable as it is spooled out and in. Watch for loose armor, high strands,
broken strands, ropey cable, and discoloration of the cable (by H 2 S or acid). You
should always find out what kind of environment the cable will be run in. The well
may contain KCl (salt water). KCl is corrosive to our cable, but the corrosion will be
slow, and we can reduce its action and effects by wiping and lubricating the cable as
it comes out of the well.
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15. Hostile environment: Some wells contain Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2 S). Care must be
exercised in handling the cable and tools that are retrieved from the well. H 2 S is a
very potent acid and reacts very quickly on metal. Check the cable and cable head
on every run. Other corrosive materials, including Carbolic Acid, may also be in the
well. Carbolic Acid is formed when water mixes with Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ). CO 2 is
introduced into the well in different ways, the most prominent being during hydraulic
fracturing. Ensure that you know the well conditions before arriving on location, and
be sure to select the correct Wireline for performing operations.
Caution: H 2 S and CO 2 : Both of these gases, Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2 S) and Carbon Dioxide
(CO 2 ), are dangerous and require special equipment and training prior to
working on a well where either of them are present. Again, it is important to
know what environment your cable will be run in; be sure to take the necessary
action to protect it. Special cables are available, and inhibitors can be injected
on the cable to aid in slowing the corrosive action.
16. Proper use of Hydraulic Pack-Off Heads: This consists mainly of communication.
If the pack-off head needs to be packed down, be sure that good communication is
set up (visual and auditory) between the reel operator and the hydraulic pump
operator. Too much pressure on the packing rubbers will strip down the cable armor
and may break one or more wire strands, causing a "birdcage." It is possible to exert
so much pressure on the cable that it will be pulled apart. Always be sure to have the
correct size rubbers and top and bottom brass.
17. Proper use of grease heads: The same care should be taken with regard to head-
pressure control as with correct size rubbers and brass, as was just discussed in
Hydraulic Pack-Off Head use. Additionally, there should always be a minimal amount
of grease pressure applied to lubricate the tubes and reduce line wear.
Caution: For both standard and grease head pack-off equipment, slow down by reducing
line speed.
18. Regularly Check for leakage: In this case, “regularly” means after every job and
any time electrical problems are suspected in the cable. This check tells us if there
may be a breech in the conductor insulation. Before hooking up a meter to check for
leakage, make sure both the cable head end and the reel end of the cable are open.
If the cable shows leakage, double check both ends of the cable. Make sure that any
moisture, dirt, or grease on your hands is not adding to the reading. Strip the cable
head "rope socket" down and recheck before cutting off the cable head.
19. Regularly check and record resistance: Each month, during the Truck PM II, the
cable total resistance should be measured and recorded in the cable record book.
This measurement is a check of the conductor total resistance from the cable-head
end to the reel end.
20. Proper Cable Lubrication: The cable must be lubricated. By lubricating the cable,
we reduce wear, inhibit corrosion, protect the outer armor, and increase the life of the
cable (total number of service runs). The single most important maintenance step in
preserving cable life is proper cable lubrication. There are four specific times that the
cable needs to be lubricated:
21. If it will not to be used for at least a week or longer (stacked trucks and
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skids).
22. At least every five runs or more, and more often under harsh conditions.
23. Any time the cable looks dry.
24. The last run out of the well.
After every job, be sure to check the cable oiler and refill the supply tank.
Seasoning New Cable

It is essential that a new cable be operated properly during the first runs in the well.
During seasoning, a cable is much more susceptible to damage due to improper
operation than later in its life. Proper seasoning is the first step to ensure the longest
possible cable life.
When the cable is first put into use at the wellsite, it undergoes changes in length,
diameter, and torque condition. The goal is for the cable to become properly
"normalized" for the typical well conditions in which it operates. The changes in length,
diameter, and torque are interrelated and are primarily a function of the cable's operating
tension.
The cable is in a low-tension condition (several hundred pounds only) during the
manufacturing process. The cable experiences high tension when it is first installed on
the logging unit drum. The installation-tension profile is chosen to be appropriate for the
maximum tensions at which the cable will operate. As a cable is subjected to high
tensions, it becomes smaller in diameter due to compression of the core from the radial
forces exerted by the armor package. Any void space present in the core will be
eliminated as the cable "pulls down" or becomes smaller in diameter. The cable also
gets longer during the seasoning process, gaining its permanent stretch. The amount of
permanent stretch and the degree of length stability is primarily related to cable tension
and borehole temperature. The permanent stretch of a cable will be larger as operating
tension and downhole temperature increases. The permanent stretch is primarily related
to the rotation or "unwinding" of the cable and the compression of the core as opposed
to the stretching of the individual armor wires.
In addition to the changes in length and OD, and most important to proper seasoning,
are the changes the cable undergoes in its torque condition. Because cables are
installed with the ends fixed (not free to rotate), they will undergo much of the permanent
rotation in the first few runs in the well when the down-hole end is free. For example,
consider a new 15/32-in. OD, seven-conductor cable that is 25,000 ft long. If the full
length is placed in a perfectly vertical, 25,000-ft deep air-filled well for the first trip where
it is allowed to hang under its own weight and be completely free to rotate, the free end
will rotate 600 to 700 times. After this permanent rotation is established, it will rotate only
when the tension changes. A cable that is not allowed to rotate freely can develop
serious problems, including loose outer armor and tight inner armor, loss of tensile
strength, development of high wires and birdcages, and damage to the plastic insulation.
Also, a cable with loose outer armor and tight inner armor does not stretch predictably.
An important aspect of the rotation factor is the dynamic condition of the two armor
layers. During seasoning, the layers are not "seated" against each other—both layers of
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armor and each individual wire can and will move independently. As the cable becomes
normalized with respect to tension and torque, the armor wires stretch only a small
amount, the helical layers unwind and lengthen, and the OD decreases. As the cable is
operated and accumulates runs in the well, solid particles from the wellbore fluids and
corrosion accumulate between the wires and armor layers, and the individual wires
become seated against each other.
In old cables, the armor layers can become securely fixed to the point of acting like a
single solid "tube" of steel instead of individual wires.
A new cable's condition and limitations are important to recognize when working with
wellhead pressure and pressure control equipment. Pressure-control equipment seals
only around the outside diameter of a cable. It is possible to lose the seal when the
pressurized wellbore fluids pass up between the armor layers. As a new cable
accumulates runs in the well, the voids between the armor layers become filled with the
solid particles present in the borehole and grease from the injection head. Therefore, an
older cable does not usually experience problems associated with pressure bypass.
Note: Camesa applies Superseal between the armor layers of all monocables during
manufacturing. This compound reduces or eliminates the movement of fluids
between the armor layers in new cables.
The improper use of pressure control equipment can easily damage a new cable during
the seasoning process. The grease injection head, hydraulic packoff, pressure-type
wireline-fluid applicator, and any similar device can cause forced rotation and "milking"
of the outer armor strands.
The closer the fit of the grease-head flow tubes to the cable, the greater the wellhead
pressure, and the greater the compression from the rubber element in the hydraulic
packoff, the greater the tendency for forced rotation and milking of armor wires. The
effect will be to "straighten out” the lay angle of the outer strands. It is important to never
use new pack-off rubbers with a new cable. Because the rubber elements always fit
snugly when new, even without applying pressure from the pack-off pump, they can
"milk" and concentrate looseness up and down the cable length. The hydraulic packoff is
designed to seal around a cable that is not moving. The hydraulic packoff should never
be used while moving downhole since loose armor can be "milked" and concentrated at
the high-tension portion of the cable. Much of the cable's tensile strength can be lost
because tension is no longer equally distributed between inner and outer armor wires. It
is preferable to not use the packoff while moving uphole, and if is used, it should only
wipe the line lightly. Tension increase when the packoff is applied while moving uphole
should not be more than 50 or 100 Ib. The packoff should then be monitored on the way
out of the well and reduced as much as possible.
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Recommended Practices During Cable Seasoning
 Plan for the appropriate jobs for the seasoning runs of a cable.
 If possible, season the cable in a test well. The ideal test well exceeds typical
working depths, is vertical, has no well-head pressure, and contains fluid,
preferably water.
 The seasoning process should be used anytime an unused portion of the length
is run in the well. The most important run is the first.
 Use the seasoning process until the permanent stretch and permanent rotation
are complete and until the armor layers become fixed or "locked" together.
 Maintain cable tension according to the 80/120 rule. Operate at such a speed
that, at all depths, down-hole tensions are at least 80% of static tension, and up-
hole tensions are no more than 120% of static tension. Remember, think tension,
and speed controls tension.
 Do not exceed a tension of 50% of the cable's fixed-ends break strength.
 Use of a larger weight at the cablehead is advantageous. Running tools that
weigh up to 10% of the break strength of the cable is acceptable.
 If possible, avoid jobs requiring use of the grease head or hydraulic packoff. If
they must be used, use the largest flow-tube ID possible while still maintaining a
pressure seal. Use worn rubber elements in the packoff. Do not use the packoff
while going downhole, and use absolute minimum force while coming out of the
well. It is preferable to not use over-the-line fluid applicators for applying
corrosion inhibitors, such as the tube type with rubber seals at each end.
 Operate such that the cable rotates freely. Give the cable time to rotate.
Reversing direction for a short distance aids rotation. "Yo-yo" the cable to bottom
in the first trips by running down 1,000 ft, then back up 100 ft, down 1,000 ft,
back up 100 ft, etc., all the way to bottom. Avoid deviated wells if possible. Avoid
the use of caliper-type instruments that prevent rotation if possible. Use of swivel
joints between the cable and logging tool is recommended.
 Do not attempt to perform azimuth direction type surveys on the first few runs
because of the large amount of rotation the end of the cable will experience. The
dipmeter log is one example.
 If the new cable or tool becomes stuck while working with pressure control
equipment, do not "work" the cable or make repeated pulls at high tension to
unseat the cable or tool. Doing so can concentrate loose outer armor above the
packoff, which causes the cable to lose strength. Outer armor looseness can
accumulate at the end of the short section of cable, which stretches as the cable
cycles through the grease head and across the sheave(s).
 In a cased-hole environment, the CCL can sometimes be used to monitor
rotation. Stop the hoist and monitor the CCL signal while increasing its sensitivity.
A changing signal can indicate tool rotation. Remain stopped for a minute or two
until the CCL signal stabilizes. This will help assure that the cable has "spun out”
and come to torque equilibrium while going in and out of the well.
 If severe logging conditions are encountered or a possible cable problem is
observed during seasoning, have the cable inspected at a qualified service
center immediately after the job.
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Identifying Cable Damage
Compression Gap
When an electromechanical cable is designed, the size of the armor wires, their lay
length, and the lay angle are all calculated to provide maximum strength and wear
characteristics coupled with minimum torque.
The armor coverage is also a product of the above calculations and is designed to be as
high as possible and generally, depending on the type of cable, to be of the order of
97—99%. If the coverage were up to 100%, the cable would be so stiff that it would not
bend (around a sheave wheel for example) without damage to itself, so the armor must
have some gap in order for the cable to be flexible.
In a perfect cable, the compression gap will be equally spaced all around the periphery
of the cable so that between each armor wire and its neighbor, there is an equal gap.
However, during manufacturing, it is difficult, if not impossible, to ensure that the gaps
are all equally spaced around the circumference of the cable, and it often happens that
most of the gap lies between two particular armor wires. Practically, this is of no
consequence, and in usage, the gap will often even itself up between all the armor wires
as the cable beds in.
On a brand new cable, the compression gap is often more obvious than on an older
cable due to the fact that the anticorrosive grease put into the cable as they were being
manufactured shows up as a distinct, dark line between the bright galvanized armor
wires.
From this explanation, it should be understood that an apparent gap between cable
armors is not necessarily detrimental. When the gap is detected, the logging engineer
should stop and examine the area to ensure that the gap is not caused by any apparent
damage. If in doubt, the logging engineer should report the suspect area to the
immediate supervisor.
Cable Kinks
Any time the tension on a cable is suddenly released, it is possible that kinks could form
in the cable conductor. This class of kinks is often referred to as z-kinks. The soft copper
strands, which make up all conductors, are elastic over a narrow range. If the cable is
pulled so that it stretches over 0.1%, the copper can be stretched permanently so that it
is longer than the original length.
The permanent elongation of the copper presents a problem when the tension on the
cable is suddenly removed. Under such a condition, the elastic steel armor relaxes and
may even overshoot going into compression. The weaker, more pliable copper and
plastic core is forced to follow the steel. When the tension on the cable is removed
gradually, the cable has time to rotate out allowing some of the elongation to be
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absorbed. However, if there is no rotation, the extra length of copper has nowhere to go.
Under certain conditions, the copper can double back on itself. This "doubling back" is
often in the shape of the letter "z," thus the name "z-kink." Alternately, the lengthened
copper strands, instead of folding back on the conductor, may form a spike extending
perpendicular to the conductor.
A z-kink is detrimental only to the extent that the distance between the conductor, and
the armor can be significantly less than normal. This increases the likelihood of an
electrical short developing at the z-kink. Such shorts are more apt to show up when the
line is put under higher tensions, causing the-core to decrease in diameter slightly,
and/or when the cables run over a sheave.
Corrosion and Wear Indicators

This is one of the most often asked questions from electric wireline operations. To
accurately determine the answer, the mechanical evaluation should include factors, such
as the wires brittleness, wear, corrosion and physical damage. If any of these factors
show a problem existing in the tested sample, then the cable length should be cut back
until the sample shows an acceptable result from testing.
Armor Wire Brittleness

 As a rule of thumb, the user should be able to perform a "wrap" test by bending a
wire around a rod twice its own diameter 5 times without the wire cracking or
breaking. More specifically, wire brittleness is more critical at the point where the
cable is terminated at the cable head. Cased-hole termination of the wires
normally involves bending them around a small radius before trimming. The wires
should be able to bend around this radius without cracking or breaking.
 Another common location that can be affected by wire brittleness is the top of the
cablehead where the wireline enters the head. A "gooseneck," or other device
designed to provide support of the wireline around the recommended bend
radius at the cable head, should always be utilized when lifting the tool string. A
visual inspection of this area of the wireline after every run is recommended,
particularly if the wireline has been tested and considered to be brittle.
Abrasive wear:
 Physical wear on the outer wires due to abrasion of the cable against the
wellbore, formations, or casing. Uniform wear around the outside of the cable is
less suspect than wear on one side of the cable in a particular section. Individual
wires with less than 90% of the original diameter will exhibit only 80% of the
original break strength.
 In the case of localized wear, a careful observation of the entire length of wireline
would be necessary. Polished sections in a used wireline would indicate localized
wear on high wires or larger diameters; this interval should be inspected more
carefully.
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Corrosive Wear
 Corrosives or chemical attack can cause localized pitting in the wires. The "wrap"
test can again be utilized as a ductility indicator for the individual wires.
 General corrosion can occur in a cable that is exposed to a corrosive fluid during
the last run in the well and then not run for a period of time. The critical time
frame is dependent upon several factors (i.e., type of corrosives, amount of
lubrication in the wireline, etc.).
 This type of exposure can also cause severe localized corrosion on the outer
wraps of wireline at the lowest point on the drum. Corrosion is usually most
pronounced on the inner armor wires. When inspecting for this type of corrosion,
the inner and outer wires would need to be tested for brittleness every 6 in. for an
interval equal to the circumference of the drum on the outer surface of the
wireline. If brittleness is detected in any of these individual tests, then this
procedure should continue until all unacceptable brittleness is removed.
Miscellaneous Damage
 Physical operational damage, such as kinks, nicks, or flat spots, should be
removed from the operating cable if a service repair center cannot restore the
wireline to its original condition.
An evaluation should be performed on the usefulness of the wireline, which considers all
of the above factors. Evaluation of a wireline’s previous operating or handling history,
brittleness, corrosion, or uneven/excessive wear is critical to performing a successful
job.
Location of an Electrical Leak

There are a number of techniques that can be used to locate a short or leak in an EN
cable. Depending upon the test equipment available and options available to remedy the
problem, the individual who is performing the task can decide which technique would
best suite their needs.
The following technique can be used on either single or multi-conductor EM cables to

locate and eliminate electrical leakage from an electrical conductor to armor.
Finding the exact location of the electrical leakage is a two-step process. First, the
location of the problem is approximately located using a battery and a digital voltmeter. If
the goal of fault location is only to remove the fault, then the cable may be spooled to the
approximate location, the line cut, and step one can be repeated to eliminate the fault. If
the fault itself must be examined, then a second step is necessary. In this second step,
the cable is spooled to the approximate fault location as determined in step one. Then, a
centering voltmeter and a battery are used to find the exact location of the electrical
leakage.
The following technique can be used to locate the electrical leakage point to within +100
ft or closer depending on how accurately the length of the line is known. The equipment
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needed is a digital voltmeter, preferably with at least 4-digit accuracy and a battery. The
length of the line, L, must be known.
Connect the positive terminal of the battery to one end of the conductor, which has
electrical leakage to armor. Connect the negative terminal of the battery to the other end
of the conductor, which has leakage to armor. Measure the voltage from the positive
terminal of the battery to the negative terminal of the battery with the cable connected;
call this voltage "V 3 ." Measure the voltage from the positive terminal of the battery to the
armor; call this voltage "V 1 ."
The distance, F, from the end of the file cable, which is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery to the point of electrical leakage is:
F = (L X V 1 ) / V 3 (Eq. 2.2.1)
A digital voltmeter is needed for this type test because the input impedance of this type
of voltmeter is on the order of 10 MΩ. If an electrical leakage is causing problems, its
resistance is usually less than 10 MΩ.
In some situations, it is only necessary to remove the electrical leak. If this is the case,
the line can be cut at the location, which is determined by the above technique. Each of
the two sections of the line can be tested to see which one still has electrical leakage
problems. The line can be tested again by using the above technique to locate the
leakage. The point of leakage will be very close to the end of the section having the
leakage. Short sections can be removed from that section until the point of leakage is
removed.
Reversing the Line

Often, an operator will want to reverse a line end for end so that the unused portion on
the drum can be used as the outer end of the cable. This practice is not recommended
for the following reasons:
1. A "reversed" cable can be very difficult to spool.
The reason for the spooling difficulty lies in inserting the smaller diameter section of the
cable on the drum first. This creates a bed layer with too many grooves for the unused
larger diameter cable. The unused larger diameter section just does not fit into the
grooves that are too close together to accommodate it.
The used section of the cable is typically 0.001–0.003 in. smaller in diameter than the
unused section of cable. The actual diameter difference depends on the cable type, the
severity of the usage, and the number of previous cable trips into the hole.
2. The cable weak point is no longer guaranteed to be at the cable head.
The used section of the cable may have wires that are weakened by abrasive wear
and/or by corrosion of borehole fluids. Reversing the cable is likely to put this weakened
section of cable near or at the highest field-operational tension point of the cable. This
cable experiences its highest tension at the top sheave in the derrick above the
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borehole. It is not a good idea to place weakened line at this location during logging
operations.
3. Corrosion rate of the used portion is accelerated when the unused portion is not
flexed during normal logging operation.
The winch bed layer should never come off the drum during normal operating conditions.
If the section of cable that has been in a borehole is wound on the bed layer of the
winch, then that section will have accumulated borehole fluids between the inner and
outer armor layers. The corrosion rate of these fluids on the armor plow steel is
dramatically increased if there is no movement between the inner and outer armor
layers.
Experience indicates that used cables, which are stored on shipping reels corrode at
much faster rates than cables that are used to log day after day. It is believed that since
there is no movement between the inner and outer armor wires during storage that
corrosion occurs continuously. Sometimes after several months, such stored cables will
exhibit periodic (of drum circumference period) cable bulges. Inspection of these bulges
shows extreme rust buildup.
4. Overlap of previous tension-rotation profile with new tension-rotation profile.
If a cable is reversed, the virgin section, being used for the first time, will acquire a
tension-rotation profile. If the logging depth is such that the previously-acquired profiles
and the new profiles overlap, there is a high likelihood that the profiles will be different.
At the intersection of the differing tension-rotation profiles, expect to experience bird
caging, loose armor, and/or high wires.
Any or all of the above effects can be expected when a logging line is "reversed."
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182 12/29/2008
Section 3
Cased-Hole Depth and Tension
Depth is the single most important measurement taken by a Wireline logging unit. While
being the easiest to acquire, it is often times the most prone to human error. Its
importance stems from the fact that depth is associated with every down-hole logging
operation performed. For this reason, it must be accurate and consistently repeatable.
The depth measurement systems are vital pieces of equipment and must be maintained
on a regular basis. The Field Professional is responsible for ensuring the logging unit’s
depth and tension measurement system are functioning properly and accurately prior to
each job. In addition, the Field Professional is required to follow all the depth control
processes outlined in the Halliburton Management System.
Depth Systems
Currently, Halliburton WPS employs two depth measurement systems. Both systems
use different types of display panels and measuring heads.
5. Stand-alone Depth Display Panel (SDDP) w/Kerr Measuring Head

6. Benchmark (Kerr Measurement Systems)
a. Cased Hole (AM3K)
b. Open Hole (AM5K)
Currently, WPS is in the process of phasing out the SDDP’s and replacing them with
Benchmark panels and measuring heads. However, because both systems are still in
use today, they will be discussed in this chapter.
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Fig. 2.3.1—Overview of Logging Unit Depth/Tension System.
Stand-Alone Depth Display Panel (SDDP-A/B)

The SDDP system is a 386-based processor depth interface panel that was deployed in
older model open-hole logging systems. The SDDP processes depth signals from a Kerr
measuring head, which has two tangentially-mounted measuring wheels. Tension
signals are processed from an externally mountable load cell, which is designed to be
placed on the upper sheave wheel but may be placed on the lower sheave wheel if
necessary.
When installed, the SDDP communicates with the CHIP/Warrior logging system via a
GPIB to USB interface, which is directly connected to the USB hub on the back of the
CHIP panel. This mode allows for bi-directional communication between the CHIP and
the SDDP. Therefore, depth and tension information can be updated or changed from
either the SDDP or the Warrior Software.
Fig. 2.3.2—SDDP-A/B Depth Panel. Fig. 2.3.3—Wayne Kerr Measuring

Head (Old Style).
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Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) Measurement System

The Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) depth and tension measuring systems are currently
deployed in two models of display panels and two models of measuring head. Although,
they are typically segregated by Cased Hole and Open Hole, they are not exclusively
used for those type services. The smaller measuring head cannot be used for larger
seven-conductor line.
AM5K Measuring System

The AM5K measuring head has two tangentially-mounted measuring wheels, which
drive two individual 1,200-pulse optical encoders. The unit also includes an independent
magnetic encoder for back-up depth indication. The measuring head can accommodate
line sizes from .190 in. to .484 in. in diameter. Maximum depth resolution for the AM5K
without magnetic marks is +/- 10 ft in 10,000 ft.
Fig. 2.3.4—Wayne-Kerr (Benchmark) AM5K

Measuring Head.
The AM5K also includes a magnetic-mark detecting unit, which comes optional upon
request.
The AM5K also has a built-in tension load cell, which removes the need for an external
load cell. The load cell has a maximum test rating of 16,000 lb.
Note: Per OEB 2007-097, the tension wheel and guide wheels must be replaced after .010
in. of wear has occurred. Failing to replace these wheels can lead to errors in
tension measurement as large as 1,500 lb per 5,000 lb of tension.
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Fig. 2.3.5—Diagram Illustrating Points Outlined in OEB.
The AM5K can be driven by the cased-hole or open-hole display panels or directly by
the logging system.
AM3K Measuring System

The AM3K measuring head is a lightweight compact measuring head with only one
measuring wheel that drives a 1,200-pulse optical encoder. A pressure wheel mounted
on top maintains correct pressure on the Wireline for accurate depth measurement. The
AM3K can accommodate line sizes from .1 in. to .375 in. in diameter without wheel
replacement. The AM3K also has an
independent magnetic encoder for
back-up depth display.
The AM3K measuring head is not

equipped to except a magnetic-mark
detecting unit and is, therefore, usually
deployed on units that are designated
for cased-hole use only.
As with the AM5K, the AM3K also has

an electronic strain axle mounted
through the middle for tension
measurement. The maximum tested
tension rating is 10,000 lb.
Fig. 2.3.6—Wayne-Kerr (Benchmark) AM3K
Measuring Head.
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AMS4A044 Hoistman’s Touch-Screen Panel

The AMS4A044 touch-screen panel
is currently being deployed in all
WPS Open-Hole Logging units to
replace the SDDP-A/B depth
systems. This panel allows the
operator to set parameters and
make adjustments to the depth and
tension data as necessary.
The AMS4A044 uses an Intel-

based, high-speed processor and
runs the Windows XP platform.
Fig. 2.3.7—Wayne Kerr (Benchmark) AMS4A044
The depth interface can be Hoistman’s Touch-Screen Depth Panel.
operated via the color touch
screen or the supplied USB mouse and keyboard.
This panel is designed to be used in conjunction with the AM5K measuring. For cased-
hole applications, this panel does not communicate with the CHIP panel via a USB bus.
In the current configuration, the AMS4A044 slaves any data received from the
depth/tension units directly to the CHIP panel, and the CHIP performs a separate
counting. The operator needs to take special care when using this system, as any
changes made in either the Warrior Software or at the AMS4A044 will not update both
systems. Any depth or tension changes that need to be made must be made in both
systems and verified; this includes tension calibrations.
AMS4A040/AMS4A041 Winch Operators Panel

The AMS4A040/AMS4A041 is a more simplistic version of the touch screen panel
designed for use in units designated for cased-hole applications only. This panel allows
for only minimal input from the user, defining basic parameters for the acquisition of
depth and tension information.
Currently, this panel is being deployed in cased-hole designated units to replace older
line-load modules and comprobe
depth tension panels.
Similar to the touch-screen panel,

this panel will also not allow bi-
directional communication between it
and the CHIP. Therefore, any
changes in either system must be
followed by a change and verification
in the opposite to ensure uniformity
Fig. 2.3.8—Wayne-Kerr (Benchmark) AMS4A040/041 Winch
in measurement. Operators Panel.
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Signal Processing
Depth and tension signals can be processed through two means in the current
configurations available in WPS. The pulses and data may be driven by a depth-tension
front-end panel, such as the SDDP or Wayne Kerr panels, and the front-end panels will
then relay “slave” information to the CHIP for processing and measurement by the
Warrior Software. The CHIP panel is also capable of directly driving the optical encoders
and tension-load cell without assistance. The standard configuration of a cased-hole unit
includes optical encoders and tension load cell, which are driven by a depth display front
end (SDDP/KMS), and optical pulses or tension voltages, which are sent on a slave feed
to the CHIP.
Two methods of slave feeding exist today and are differentiated between the two
systems currently in service.
When the SDDP is being used, the SDDP outputs the depth and tension information it
receives from the load cell and depth encoders via an IEE 432 connection bus on the
side of the panel. This cable is, in turn, connected to a GPIB to USB converter, which
changes the IEE 432 connection to a USB output that is connected directly to the CHIP
panel USB Hub. When connected in this fashion, bi-directional communication is
maintained, and changes in either system will be reflected in both. The chart below
outlines the signal path for depth and tension signals when configured with an SDDP.
There are currently three models of GPIB-to-USB converters in service today: A, B, and
HS (High Speed). It is important to note that in order for the SDDP to communicate with
the CHIP and the Warrior software, the proper National Instruments software for the
model being used must be installed. Two software versions are in use: one version for
the A and B model converters and one version for the HS model. Both versions of
software are available from the Halliburton Technical Software orders website.
188 12/29/2008
Fig. 2.3.9—Depth/Tension Signal Processing with SDDP-A/B.
When either of the Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) depth-display panels is being used, the
pulses and voltages from the optical encoders and the load cell are relayed to the CHIP
along a slave feed in their raw format. The CHIP processes the raw signals and passes
them to the Warrior Software for measurement. The illustration below depicts a system
configured for use with a Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) display panel.
When using the Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) depth panels configured in this manner, it is
important for the user to understand that bi-directional communication does not exist
between the depth panel and the CHIP. Therefore, any changes that need to me made
for depth or tension should be made on the depth panel and then verified in the logging
software. If changes are then made, they will be reflected in the logging software.
However, if a change is made in the logging software, it will not be communicated to the
depth panel, and no change will occur.
12/29/2008 189
Fig. 2.3.10—Depth/Tension Signal Processing with Benchmark Depth Panels.
Depth Control Basics

Depth control is perhaps the easiest measurement to acquire. Yet, it is the single most
important measurement provided, as it is associated with the every down-hole logging
operation (measurement) performed. For this reason, it must be accurate and
consistently repeatable.
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Measurement Principle
The most obvious method for depth control is the measurement of spooled-out cable.
This is achieved by either single- or dual-measuring wheel systems. The measuring
wheels are mounted tangentially and are held in constant contact with the cable. The
axle of the measuring wheel is connected to an optical encoder and mechanical
odometer. The mechanical odometer serves as a backup. As the cable is spooled in and
out, the measuring wheel revolves, and the optical encoder outputs a fixed number of
pulses per one revolution of the measuring wheel.
If the circumference of each wheel is known, then the depth can be updated by the
surface system simply by counting the number of pulses. For example, if the 2-ft
circumference wheel gives out 600 pulses per revolution, then with each pulse, the
depth increment would be:
2 X 12 in. = 24 in. for 600 pulses, so one pulse would be 24/600 = 0.04 in.
Obviously, this system is not sufficient for accurate depth control without some form of
external reference to verify the depth reading. It is at this point that the separation
between cased-hole and open-hole depth control can be made.
In the case of cased hole, apart from the accurate depths, we need to tie in our depths
with the reference logs, which could include logs with open-hole gamma ray or simple
cased-hole cement-bond logs or, in some cases, down-hole references, such as a short
collar, a 7-in. liner top, or packers and tubing shoes in the case where jobs are run
through tubing.
Open-hole depth control cannot rely on the down-hole reference, as that will most often
be the first run in the hole. Even though a casing shoe can be used as a down-hole
reference, it is usually thousands of feet apart from the T.D. Therefore, in the case of
open hole, a separate external reference, provided by the magnetic marks, is required.
The wireline cable is marked at a constant tension and at a fixed interval. In an open-
hole situation, the magnetic marks become the primary reference, and the encoder
pulses are used to interpolate in between the two magnetic marks. However, as the
distances between the marks on the cable vary depending upon the tension, it can be
seen that an accurate tension measurement is also desirable. By utilizing magnetic
marks and cable tension, the stretch in the wireline cable can be calculated, and the
correct tool depth can be determined.
To understand the cased-hole depth system correctly, we first need to have an

understanding of the different parts of the depth-measurement system and their
principles of operation, which include:
 Cable and Cable Properties

 Line Tension
 Encoders
 Measuring Wheels
 Depth Panels
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 Measuring Heads Systems
Cable Properties
Cable stretch is the predominant cable property that affects depth measurement. From
the previous chapter, we learned that Wireline undergoes two types of stretch: elastic
and permanent. Although permanent stretch cannot be accounted for, elastic stretch
must be corrected for in order to attain correct depth measurements.
Elastic stretch may be accounted for mathematically provided that we have an accurate
tension reading and we know the effective tool weight in mud. The stretch value that is
obtained from the calculation or from the graph needs to be added to the depth-counter
raw value, as the stretch correction is always added. The formula below is used to
calculate the stretch correction necessary for each log performed under the given
conditions. If any of the variables change (i.e., effective tool weight, mud weight, etc.),
then the calculation must be performed again.
True Depth Mode:
Stretch  1 K 1LT  ETW  2# (Eq. 2.3.1)

2
Where:
Stretch in ft
K1 the cable stretch coefficient, ft/kft/klb
L the length of cable in the well in kft
T the cable tension measured at surface in klb
E TW the effective tool string weight (in fluid) in klb
K2 the drillpipe stretch coefficient, (this value is 4.63 x 10-8 ft/ft2 Firmware)
Tension information is obtained from a load cell. The load cell may be incorporated into
the depth measurement system or may be externally mounted to one of the Wireline
sheave wheels.
A load cell is a weight-measurement device, which outputs the combined weight of the
tool and the logging cable. Ideally, it makes sense to put it in between the top sheave
wheel and whatever device is used to mechanically suspend it. It may also be mounted
in between the bottom sheave wheel and its stand or the tie-down chain when
necessary. If the load cell is mounted in a place other than above the top sheave, then a
new calibration-tension value must be derived in order for correct tension measurements
to be taken.
A load cell is comprised of a sturdy external housing with two holes in each end for
affixing mechanical hardware for mounting. Inside the load cell are four strain gauges
192 12/29/2008
that are electrically connected to form a Wheatstone-bridge circuit. For a given input
(excitation) voltage, the output is proportional to the load placed on the strain gauges.
The depth panel, or CHIP panel, provides the power to the circuit and then receives the
proportional response from the load cell as tension is applied to the Wheatstone bridge.
The logging software, via calibration, then interprets the change in voltage and converts
the voltage to engineering units (lb/kg).
The correct tension value is important for the following two reasons:
7. To know exactly how much tension is applied on the cable head or on the cable,
depending on the situation.
8. To be able to compensate for the elastic stretch, which is only possible if the correct
tension value is known.
Caution: The load cell must be calibrated at the beginning of each job to ensure
accurate measurements.
As previously discussed, there are two types of tension measurement devices currently
deployed with WPS logging units: external load cell and Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr)
measuring head with integrated load cell.
Measuring Head with Built-in Load Cell

The external cable-tension measuring system consists of a load cell built in the
measuring head and a panel that provides power to the load cell and drives its
information. The panel sends digital signals to the logging system. Some cased-hole
systems have the ability to drive the external load cell by themselves.
This type of a tension measurement is done using an electronic device that employs a
measuring wheel to create an angle in the wireline cable. The wheel is connected to an
elongation-type sensor in order to sense the line tension. The tension-panel calibration
value changes with the wireline cable size because of the angle that the line forms with
the measuring wheel.
Fig. 2.3.11—Cable Routing through a Measuring Head with a Built-in Load Cell.
12/29/2008 193
Table 2.3.1—Calibration Values per
Line Size
Cable Size Calibration Value
7/16–0.484 in. 3,250
3/8 in. 4,171
5/16 in. 4,656
9/32 in. 4,808
7/32 in. 6,187
Note: If you are using the measuring head with the built-in load cell, then it is only
necessary to enter the calibration value according to the size of the cable and
calibrate the tension for “Zero” and that particular value, as shown in the above
table. We do not have to do the following exercise.
External Cable-Tension Measuring System

The external cable-tension measuring system consists of a load cell and a panel that
provides power to the load cell also drives its information. The panel may have a digital
or analog output to transmit the information to the logging system. Some cased-hole
systems have the ability to drive the external load cell by themselves.
Load Cell Calibration

During the calibration of the load cell, a reference voltage is generated, which simulates
a physical load of 6,500 lb on the load cell. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.12. Because the
line itself would only encounter 3,250 lb when the load cell had 6,500 lb of tension on it,
we regulate our calibration to reflect half of the total tension, as seen by the load cell.
194 12/29/2008
Fig. 2.3.12—Load-Cell Principle of Operation.
The surface system can have more than one type of panels, but the basis behind the
calibration process remains the same for all of them. To ensure the accuracy of the
tension measurement, the calibration procedure must be performed. Deploy the load cell
as shown in Fig. 2.3.12. The load cell calibration is a simple two-step calibration: 1) zero
and 2) full scale.
12/29/2008 195
Fig. 2.3.13—Illustration of Fleeting Angle.
Verify that the connectors are clean and dry. Rig up the top sheave wheel with the load
cell connected to it, as shown in Fig. 2.3.13. The position of the load cell will affect the
value that we need to use for the tension calibration. The value will change with the
fleeting angle, θ. When the load cell is connected to the top sheave wheel, the fleeting
angle is zero. For some special jobs or due to special circumstances, if we connect the
load cell to the bottom sheave wheel for instance, jobs like Free Point / Back Off, where
the driller will need the blocks to pull on the pipe to give stretch or in any other case
when the up and down cables are not parallel to each other (the fleeting angle between
them is no longer zero), then a correction needs to be applied to the calibration value for
the tension reading to be accurate.
196 12/29/2008
Fig. 2.3.14—Load Cell Mounted on Lower Sheave Wheel.
The full-scale calibration value that is typically used if the load cell is on the top sheave
wheel is 3,250. If the load cell is connected with the bottom sheave wheel as shown in
Fig. 2.3.14, then the calibration value will be calculated by Eq. 2.3.2 as follows:
(Eq. 2.3.2)
For the load cell at the bottom sheave wheel, the fleeting angle will be 90°, and, hence,
the calibration value will be 4,596 lb rather than 3,250 lb. Therefore, if we connect the
load cell on a bottom sheave wheel, then the calibration values will be 0 and 4,596 lb.
12/29/2008 197
Table 2.3.2 shows the values for the full-scale tension calibration with the respective
fleeting angle.
Table 2.3.2—Calibration Value per

Major Fleeting Angle Change
Angle Full-Scale Calibration
Value
0° 3,250 lb
90° 4,596 lb
115° 6,049 lb
120° 6,500 lb
Transportation, Handling, and Storage

Handle the load cell with care, as the electrical connections can be deformed or broken.
Avoid any external mechanical shocks, as the strain gauge may be damaged.
Positioning the load cell on the bottom sheave wheel will increase the chance of
mechanical shock.
Do not crush or pinch the load-cell cables, and set up barricades or warning signs to
prevent the damage from the traffic. Keep all connections dry and capped when not in
use.
Note: After the job is finished, try to spool back the line-tension cable as soon as
possible avoid damage to it during rig down.
Check all connectors and connections and make sure there is no water/moisture in
them. Make sure that the line-tension cable spool and the cable are not cut anywhere
and the line itself is having no leakage.
Secure the load cell properly when not in use in the logging unit or in the truck. Make
sure that the storage area for the load cell is dry and there is no moisture or water
dripping on it or on the connections.
After the job is over, the line-tension cable should be spooled neatly on to the supply
reels, and ensure that all the connections are capped so that no moisture or water can
enter the connections, strain gauge, or amplifier.
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Depth-Measurement Encoders
Optical Encoder
Currently, the depth-measuring systems in WPS may have either a 300-pulse/ft or 600-
pulse/ft optical encoder. The Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) systems all come standard with a
1,200-pulse/rev, 600-pulse/ft optical encoder. As the phase out of the older systems
occur and are replaced with Benchmark systems, there will only be 1,200-pulse
encoders on WPS logging units. However, for the time being, each engineer must
inspect the system and verify the type of encoder prior to the job. This is important as
the system parameters, both in Warrior software and the depth panel, must have the
correct pulses selected.
The output of each optical encoder is fed into the surface system for processing. The
direction is obtained from the difference in phases between the quadrature pulses
present on channels A and B; the line direction (Up/Down) is obtained after processing is
completed.
Fig. 2.3.15—Optical Encoder Channels for Direction Determination.
12/29/2008 199
Back-up Encoders
There are three different types of back-up depth measurement systems currently in use
in WPS that use mechanical, electrical, or magnetic encoders. Most of the old straight-
line measuring heads have a mechanical odometer, which is used as a back-up
measurement. This odometer is equipped with a gear set that matches the wheel
diameter, so the odometer will display a depth change equivalent to the wheel
circumference in one revolution. Most of these have been replaced in the new systems
by 12-V electrical back-up encoders. The Benchmark (Wayne-Kerr) measuring head
uses a magnetic back-up encoder to provide secondary-depth measurements to a
separate depth display.
Measuring Wheels
Measuring wheels are the wheels made up of special quality steel. The surface of the
wheels is hardened by an induction-hardening process in order to have minimum wear
and tear. The measuring wheels used by all Halliburton measuring systems are 2-ft
circumference wheels. The formula for the circumference of the wheel is
Circumference = π x d (Eq. 2.3.3)
Where:
d = diameter of the wheel
Fig. 2.3.16—Illustration of Cable Wheel Movement to Determine Distance (Circumference

of Wheel = Rotation Equals Straight-Line Distance).
200 12/29/2008
For a 2-ft circumference measuring wheel, the diameter of the wheel should be:
2 X 12 in. = 24 in. = π x D
D= 24 in./3.1412
D= 7.639 in.
Refer to the CALCULATION section for more examples on the depth control and
corrections.
Straight-Line Depth Measurement System

All measuring heads currently in service are known as straight-line measuring heads.
This means that the Wireline is spooled off of the drum through the measuring head in a
straight line. Aside from the minimal pressure applied to the line to keep it in contact with
the measuring wheels, no other pressure is applied. This is referred to as tangential
contact. Refer to Fig. 2.3.17. Whether the measuring head is configured with two
measuring wheels or one measuring wheel with a pressure wheel, the Wireline is
passed through the measuring head in a straight line with no deforming curvature to the
line. Older-style measuring heads, known as radius-style heads, would pass the line
through the measuring head over the top of a large center wheel, deforming the line at
the point of contact. This makes the depth measurement extremely sensitive to cable
diameter. As a result, the radius-measurement system was replaced by the straight-line
system.
This system of measurement is fairly straight forward because it is assumed that the
amount of line spooled from the drum is equivalent to the amount of movement in ft that
the tool’s string traversed in the well. Given a known circumference of the measuring
wheel of 2 ft, we can equate the revolutions of the wheel to the distance traveled via the
optical encoders. Therefore, a full rotation of 2 ft will equal 1,200 pulses; thus, every time
the system receives 1,200 pulses, it will advance the depth counter 2 ft. This is the
easiest way to view the measurement system. In reality, as was discussed previously,
because each optical encoder outputs 1,200 pulses/rev and 600 pulses/ft, we can easily
divide the circumference by the number of pulses and derive a resolution of .02 ft/pulse.
Thus, every wheel movement of .02 ft will generate an optical pulse that is received by
the system in which the system, in turn, advances the depth by .02 ft.
12/29/2008 201
Fig. 2.3.17—Wheel Movement Along Cable to Measure Length of Line Spooled Out.
There are other factors affecting depth measurement that will cause error in
measurement and require correction. So far, we have discussed the effects of cable
stretch, and now we will examine the effects of wheel diameter. Wheel diameter is
extremely important. As the depth-measuring system is set for a parameter of 2 ft of
travel, which is equivalent to 1200 pulses output from the optical encoder, any change in
the diameter of the measuring wheel will cause the ratio of pulses to feet to change.
Most measuring wheels will wear over time and with continuous use. This wear is
usually seen in the form of a groove through the center of the wheel. This groove is a
byproduct of the constant frictional contact with the wheel, which is necessary for the
correct operation of the system. This has the effect of reducing the wheel circumference.
Therefore, the wheel will traverse a shorter distance in a single rotation while the optical
encoder still outputs 1,200 pulses, indicating a full 2-ft rotation. As a result, the tool will
be shallower than the depth displayed. For example; the depth display may show a
depth of 10,000 ft, but due to an incremental reduction in circumference, the tool will
actually be at a depth of 9,990 ft.
The reverse is true if the measuring wheel circumference is increased. Given the
adverse nature of the environment that we operate in, it is possible that buildup of snow,
ice, and mud may occur on the wheels. This buildup will cause an increase in the wheel
diameter. Therefore, in a single rotation, the Wireline will traverse a greater distance
than is indicated by the system because the optical encoders still output 1,200 pulses
per revolution. As a result, the tool will be deeper than the depth displayed. For example;
the depth display may indicate a depth of 10,000 ft, but the tool will actually be at a
depth of 10,010 ft.
The relationship of pulses-to-ft traveled may be derived mathematically using the

following series of equations:
202 12/29/2008
Revolutions = Odometer Reading/2
Circumference = Actual (Tool) Depth/Revolutions
Diameter = Circumference/π
Example
Assume that a 2-ft measuring system indicates a tool depth of 990 ft, but the actual tool
depth is 1,000 ft.
Revolutions = 990/2 = 495
Circumference = 1,000 ft/495 = 2.02 ft
Diameter = 2.02 ft/π = .64 ft
In converting to inches (in.), multiply by a factor of 12, which will give a wheel diameter
of 7.68 in.
In the example above, the wheel diameter/circumference was increased; therefore, the
depth display indicated a tool depth shallower than the actual position.
Cased-Hole Depth Control Procedures

Unlike open-hole logging, cased-hole logging may or may not be in a position to be the
first logging run in a particular well. Therefore, procedures have been designed to
account for the first or second run in the hole. These procedures must be followed to
ensure accurate depth measurements in a customer’s well.
Aside from the type of run being performed in a customer’s well, we must also take into
account any equipment that may be used to perform the job, such as pressure-control
equipment. The use of pressure-control equipment may alter or prevent compliance with
these procedures. If such a situation occurs, it is the responsibility of the field engineer to
discuss the issues with his or her manager and the client prior to commencement of the
job.
12/29/2008 203
First Run Procedures
If the cased-hole log being run is the first logging to run in the customer’s well and the
log will be used as the primary depth reference for the well, then the following
procedures should be performed to ensure depth accuracy.
9. Perform rig-up operations as necessary and prepare to enter the well.

10. Zero the logging tools.
11. Perform RULS (Rig-Up Length Surface) measurement.
12. Perform RULB (Rig-Up Length Bottom) measurement.
13. Log out.
14. Compare Zero and RULS vs. RULB measurements to ensure no change in surface
equipment has occurred and the depth measurement system is recording accurately.
Zeroing the Logging Tool String

Typically, the tool-zero reference for a logging string is the bottom of the tool. This may
vary with type of service or tool string; however, unless otherwise specified, tool zero
should be declared in the Warrior software as the bottom of the string.
In most cases, the depth reference for the well is usually the rig floor, or the Kelly
Bushing. The rig floor, or Kelly Bushing, usually exists some distance above the actual
ground level or sea floor. However, in order for our measurements to match the client’s
measurements, both sets of measurements must begin at the same point.
The conditions for taking this measurement may vary with the presence or absence of
the drilling rig-in, cased-hole operations, but the point of measurement does not change.
Zeroing the logging tool requires placing the tool at the customer’s reference point and
zeroing our depth system, or placing our tool zero at a known distance and calculating
the difference between the location of our tool versus the location that the client began
his measurements.
The depth-reference point can be obtained from the drilling report, casing report, or any
other logs that may have been run on the well if the cased-hole logging run being
performed is not the first run.
Example
If a drilling rig is present, the logging engineer lowers the tool down until the bottom of
the tool is resting lightly on the Kelly Bushing or drill floor. The engineer will then engage
the drum brake and set his depth systems to read zero. From that point, the logging
engineer may enter the well and begin logging.
If a drilling rig is not present, the logging engineer obtains the distance, or height, of the
drill floor or Kelly Bushing from one of the aforementioned sources and then lowers the
tool until it rests gently on the ground. The difference between ground level and the
204 12/29/2008
drilling-reference point can then be calculated, and this calculated value is set as the
depth. This is due to the fact that when the tool zero is touching the ground, it is already
below the surface, according to the driller’s measurements. For example, if the height of
the ground level is 700 ft and the height of the Kelly Bushing is 718 ft, then the difference
in distance is 18 ft. Therefore, if the logging tool zero is touching the ground level, and
the Kelly Bushing is the drilling-depth reference point, then the engineer would enter a
depth of 18 ft into the depth systems.
Rig-Up Length at Surface (RULS)

The presence of Wireline-pressure control equipment will prevent this measurement
from being taken as is. It requires the line to be flagged, and any material placed on the
Wireline may not pass easily through the flow tubes in a hydraulic grease tool. However,
if the log is being performed without pressure equipment, then this step should be
performed to help ensure that no mechanical movement of equipment (e.g., travelling
blocks, logging unit, etc.) has occurred during the log.
To perform this step, the tool must be introduced into the well at a sufficient depth where
the combined tool and line weight have removed any slack in the line from the spooling
head to the lower sheave. When the tool has been introduced to that depth, the logging
engineer stops the winch and engages the brake. The line is then marked/flagged at the
measuring, head and the engineer records the depth indicated on the depth display.
With an operator assisting him at the well head or drill floor, the logging engineer
continues to log down, watching for the line flag. When the flag reaches the drill floor, the
operator will signal the logging engineer to stop the winch and engage the brake. At this
time, the flag is removed from the line, and the logging engineer records the depth
indicated on the depth display.
The logging engineer then subtracts the first depth from the second depth and obtains
the value of the total rig-up line spooled out from the drum to the drill floor or wellhead.
Example
A flag is placed on the line at 700 ft. The flag is removed from the line at the well head,
which is at 1,000 ft. Therefore, 1,000 ft – 700 ft = 300 ft of total rig-up line.
Rig-Up Line at Bottom of Well (RULB)

When the tool is nearing the bottom (TD) of the well, the engineer stops the winch and
engages the brake. The engineer should perform this step at a depth above the TD of
the well of at least a distance greater than the sum of the first rig-up line measurement.
The line is again flagged at the measuring head, and the logging engineer records the
depth indicated on the depth display.
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The engineer then resumes logging down and stops the winch when the line flag once
again reaches the drill floor. The logging engineer then performs the same calculation as
RULS. The RULS should be equal to RULB within +/- 1 ft. If the distance is greater than
1 ft, then the logging engineer must investigate the cause, as this may indicate possible
movement of the travelling blocks, logging unit, etc. If the difference is less than 1 ft, it is
most likely due to slack in the line being taken up by the increased line weight at TD.
This tolerance is acceptable.
Example
TD = 11,000 ft
The engineer stops the winch at 10,000 ft and flags the line at the measuring head. He
then resumes logging down and stops the winch when the flag reaches the drill floor at
10,300.5 ft.
Therefore, 10,300.5 ft – 10,000 = 300.5 ft total rig-up line.
RULB: 300.5 ft
RULS: 300.0 ft
Difference: .5 ft (Difference within 1-ft tolerance)
Logging-Up Procedures
Once at TD, the logging engineer corrects the depth for line stretch and begins logging
up. No further depth corrections should be made.
Final Check
Once the logging service has been performed, the logging engineer then returns the tool
to surface and rechecks the zero by placing the tool zero at the same reference point as
the initial zero. The depth indicated on the depth-display panel should be equal to the
stretch correction plus the initial zero.
If the tool zero does not repeat within +/- 1 ft of the initial zero, then the logging engineer
should inspect the depth-measurement system and investigate the cause of the
difference. This difference could possibly indicate a problem with the depth-measuring
system and may require further investigation.
Subsequent Runs/Trips
If the logging engineer is making a second run into the client’s well on the same day
after performing a first run (Primary Depth Reference) log or the logging engineer is
making a run into a client’s well in a subsequent trip to the well, then the following
procedures should be adhered to.
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15. The logging engineer meets with the customer to determine the appropriate
correlation log to be used for the specific job. If perforating, the logging engineer
should verify that the specified log is the log that the perforation intervals were
chosen from.
16. Once the correlation log has been determined, the logging engineer rigs up the
equipment and tools in accordance with Halliburton and NWA processes.
17. Zero the tool appropriately and introduce the tool into the well. If performing an
evaluation log, then the logging engineer should review the correlation log and
identify a minimum of a 200-ft section of the log close to the TD of the well that
contains a distinct pattern (Gamma Ray/Neutron/CCL) to correlate to.
18. When at the chosen depth, the logging engineer should log a minimum of 200 ft
across a distinct pattern of sensor curve response to ensure positive correlation. It is
important to remember that the distinct pattern should not repeat anywhere else in
the vertical axis of the well. If it does, then it will be necessary for the logging
engineer to include both distinct patterns in their log in order to prove depth
accuracy.
19. Once the minimum 200-ft correlation strip has been logged, the engineer must stop
the winch, engage the brake, and print out the log section.
20. The correlation-log section should be compared with the customer’s correlation log
using a light table to determine an appropriate depth correction.
21. When the depth correction has been determined, the logging engineer will make the
necessary changes in the depth systems to reflect the depth change.
22. The correlation interval must be logged again in real time to ensure that the depth
adjustment made was correct. If any further corrections need to be made, then the
pass must be logged again until no further adjustments are necessary.
23. Once a proper correlation pass has been made, then the logging engineer is safe to
proceed down and tag the TD of the well and begin logging up. Once the log is
commenced, no further depth corrections should be made. Run the log to the full
length of the interval requested and DO NOT make any adjustments.
a. If the log is being run for the purposes of performing an explosive service, then
the logging engineer must log at least one casing collar below the interval before
initiating the explosive device.
b. After initiating the explosive device, the logging engineer must record a minimum
of 200 ft of valid sensor data from all sensors above the top-most interval.
24. At the end of the logging service or explosive run, the engineer returns to the
surface.
25. Once on surface, the engineer rechecks the tool zero, which should equal the depth
correction plus the initial tool zero value.
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Total Depth Logger/Bottom Log Interval
Given the vertical displacement of the logging sensors in the tool string and the distance
from the tool zero, several key factors must be defined on the log for our customer to
fully understand the measurements we are providing. The proper annotation of these
points is critical to log performance and must first be understood by the logging
engineer.
Total Depth (TD)

The first piece of information that a client has concerning the depth of the well is the total
depth, as reported by the driller. Driller’s depth is measured by the total number of joints
of drillpipe placed in the well. This measurement may or may not include pipe stretch
and is a close approximation to the actual total depth of the well. This depth should not
be confused with the casing depth. The production casing string often times includes
additional elements that may subtract from the TD, and the cased-hole engineer needs
to be aware of the differences between the two.
Plug-Back Total Depth (PBTD)

PBTD is often confused with total depth of the well. As explained above, the TD of the
well is gathered from the total joints of drillpipe used to drill the well. However, when the
cased-hole engineer is operating in the well, he is usually in production casing, which is
not the same. There are two factors that will cause a difference between TD and PBTD.
First, the casing in the well may not have been run all the way to the bottom of the
physical hole; therefore, the bottom of the casing will be shallower than the actual
reported TD by the driller. The second factor is the cement plug. After the well is cased,
it is then cemented. The cementing process requires the use of two plugs, which at the
end of the process, will remain at the bottom of the well. These plugs will also subtract
from the TD reported by the driller. For this fact alone, the cased-hole engineer must be
especially careful when approaching the TD of the well to ensure that they do not
prematurely tag these elements and possibly damage them or the tool string. When the
engineer does tag the bottom of the cased well, he should report this as the Plug-Back
Total Depth (PBTD), not TD.
This may also occur if remedial work was required on the well and a portion of the well
had to be blocked off with a bridge plug. In this case, the TD reported by the driller and
the Plug PBTD may be significantly different.
Total-Depth Logger
In some cases, PBTD and total depth logger (TDL) may be the same. TDL is simply the
deepest point in the well that the logging tools reached for a particular trip in the well.
The most common mistake that logging engineers make in calculating TDL is not
including any tool length that may exist below the tool zero. This measurement is
typically obtained from the log by observing the point where the tension curve increases
and then levels off to a constant value (see Fig. 2.3.18). However, because the Warrior
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Software indicates tension pick up at tool zero, the tension pickup will not accurately
reflect TDL if there are any portions of the tool that extend below the tool zero.
Bottom-Log Interval
Given the vertical separation of the tool sensors throughout the tool string, it is also
necessary to indicate to the client the point at which the collecting of valid sensor data
begun. This is due to the distance from the first sensor to the bottom of the tool, or tool
zero. When the log has begun, there will be curves represented on the log that do not
reflect valid data from the sensor. Therefore, we must indicate to the client the absolute
depth where taking valid measurements begins. Often times, this is the portion of the log
where the bottom-most sensor begins transmitting valid data. To mark the log correctly,
the logging engineer must take the TDL value and subtract the distance from the bottom
of the tool to the bottom-most sensor in the logging tool string. This point will be the
bottom-log interval, which represents the beginning of usable data for the client.
Fig. 2.3.18—Relative Position of the Tool (Measured Depth) vs Physical Position of the
Logging Sensor.
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Calculation Examples
Example #1
A 2-ft/rev system is found to be measuring 1 ft/kft error due to wheel and cable wear. To
calculate the amount of correction needed for this example:
A. How many feet per revolution is the wheel actually showing?
This shows that the wheel is moving the odometer 2.002 ft for every 2 ft of cable that is
actually spooled in or out.
B. To determine the total error in diameter, we use the equation: D = C/π
D = 1.998 ft/ 3.1416 = 0.6363 ft
Next, convert the calculated diameter in feet (0.6363) to inches.
0.6363 ft X 12 in. = 7.635 in.
Now, subtract the calculated diameter from the system "absolute" diameter.
7.639 in. – 7.635 in. = .004-in. error in total diameter
These calculations have proven mathematically that .004-in. error in total diameter will
equal a 1-ft/kft odometer reading (and log recording) error when using a 2-ft/rev system.
Example #2
A 2-ft/rev system measures 4 ft/kft deep. In this case, the tool zero is at 996 ft, but the
odometer after 500 revolutions reads 1,000 ft. Calculate the system’s "absolute"
diameter.
26. 996 ft/500 rev = 1.992 ft/rev

27. 1.992 ft/3.1416 = 0.63407 ft in diameter
28. 0.63407 ft X 12 in. = 7.609 in.
29. 7.639 in. (absolute diameter) – 7.609 in. = .0.03 in.
The diameter is 7.609 in. instead of 7.639 in.
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Example #3
In a free-pipe/back-off job, what should be the full-scale tension calibration value and
why?
In a free-point/back-off job, or any job where there is a need for non-conventional rigup,
the top-sheave wheel will be put on the derrick (not with the elevators).
30. It is difficult to determine fleet angle.

31. It may not be practical because the driller is required to move the elevator up and
down with a free-point/back-off job so that the stretch readings can be taken.
Due to both of the reasons mentioned above, it is more logical for the load cell to go on
the bottom-sheave wheel where the fleeting angle will be almost 90°. Hence, the full-
scale calibration value will be:
Calibration value (full-scale) = 3,250/[cos (90°/2)] = 4,596 lb
Example #4
Due to conditions beyond our control, the load cell must be placed on the lower-sheave
wheel during rigup. Our best approximation of the lower-sheave fleet angle is 130°, with
the logging unit spotted 25 m from the well head. Given these conditions, what is the
correct tension-calibration value for the full-scale tension calibration?
Calibration value (full-scale) = 3,250/[cos (130°/2)] = 7,690 lb
Example #5
What will be the effect on the depth reading if you there is a groove in the measuring
wheel? Assume that there is no slippage.
The depth read by the depth counter will be more than the actual tool depth.
Example #6
On a 600-pulse/rev system with 2-ft circumference measuring wheels, what will happen
if the engineer inputs 1,200 pulse/rev while configuring the depth system at a well depth
of 10,000 ft?
On a system with 600 pulse/rev, if you enter 1,200 pulse/rev as an input while
configuring the depth panel, then the tool will be at 10,000 ft; however, the depth counter
will display 5,000 ft.
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Example #7
Calculate the stretch factor in True Depth Mode with the following conditions:
 The line in use = 7/16 in.

 The stretch coefficient = 0.8 ft/kft/klb
 Effective Tool Weight = 1,000 lb
 Depth = 10,000 ft
 Surface tension = 4,000 lb
The True Depth Mode Stretch in ft = 0.5 X 0.8 X 10 (4 + 1 -2) = 12 ft
Wheel Diameter Error

For a 2-ft/kft system: (7.639 in. absolute diameter)
Diameter Change Measurement Error
 .0039 in., .5 ft/kft

 .0078 in., 1.0 ft/kft
 .0117 in., 1.5 ft/kft
 .0156 in., 2.0 ft/kft
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Section 4
Cased-Hole Weak Points
The nature of Wireline work requires the use of a weak link constructed between the
cable and the tool string that is being deployed in a well. This is designed to allow for the
capability of separating from the tool string in the event it becomes stuck in the well. The
dynamics of how the weak leak is constructed and how the strengths of each weak link
are calculated are very important for a Wireline field professional to understand.
There are two types of weak links used in Halliburton WPS today. The first is a solid
weak link, which is used in the open-hole DITS cable head. The second is the cased-
hole weak link, which is constructed from the individual armors of the cable. This chapter
will discuss the construction and calculation of the strength of a cased-hole weak link.
The fact that a cased-hole weak link is constructed from the cable armors makes the
construction and calculation of the weak point very dynamic. Factors, such as age,
condition of the cable, method of construction, and design characteristics play a large
role in the strength and performance of the weak link. Some of these factors can be
accounted for while others cannot. To address these issues, Halliburton has recently
begun a deployment program to obtain a cased-hole cable head pull testing unit in each
WPS location. This unit will give cased-hole AFPs the ability to test the weak points they
construct with their cable to determine the actual strength of the weak link.
Construction
To understand how strength is calculated, construction must first be discussed. The
cased-hole weak link is constructed as part of the cable head. The cable head serves as
a housing to protect the weak link and also serves as the electrical and mechanical
connection point between the cable and tool string.
Step 1: Preparing the Cable

The first step is to slide the stinger over the end of the cable and out of the way.
Caution: The fishing neck must be on the cable before proceeding with the rehead
procedures.
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Fig. 2.4.1—Sliding the Stinger on the Cable.
Step 2: Securing the Cable

Wrap the cable with tape about 2 ft from the end of the cable. This prevents the cable
from slipping when it is put in the cable clamp and secured in a vise.
Fig. 2.4.2—Use Tape to Protect the Wireline When being Secured in the Vise.
Next, place the cable between the two halves of the cable clamp, and secure the clamp
lightly in a vise.
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Fig. 2.4.3—Cable Secured in Vise.
Step 3: Wrapping the Cable

Using nylon seizing cord, wrap the cable 18 in. from the end. Tie the cord securely, and
trim off the excess. The cord is used to prevent the brass core from slipping during the
rehead process.
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Fig. 2.4.4—Wrapping the Cable with Nylon Seizing Cord.
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Step 4: Installing the Brass Core

Slip the brass core over the end of the cable, and seat it firmly against the nylon cord.
Make sure the brass cord is installed with the flat side down.
Fig. 2.4.5—Installing the Brass Core.
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Step 5: Building the Weak Point Assembly
The single-conductor cable head uses the strands of armor from the cable to make the
weak point assembly. The table in Fig. 2.4.6 is used to determine the number of outer
and inner strands of armor required for the weak-point assembly.
Note: Always refer to the most up-to-date charts from the cable manufacturer to obtain
the correct values to be used in weak point calculations.
Fig. 2.4.6—Camesa Cable Specifications.
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Note: For this manual, we are reheading a 5/16-in. cable with weak point tension strength
of 3,250 lb. We are using 7 strands of outer armor and 2 strands of inner armor to
build the rope socket.
Use a pair of pliers to unravel the first strand of outer armor.
Fig. 2.4.7—Unraveling the Outer Armor.
Bend the strand around the rounded part of the brass cone while holding the cone with
the other hand.
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Fig. 2.4.8—Bending the Armor around the Cone.
Next, pass the strand of armor through the nearest hole in the bottom of the brass cone.
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Fig. 2.4.9—Passing the Strand through the Cone.
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Pull the strand tight with a pair of pliers (Fig. 2.4.10). Then, bend the strand out from the
brass cone at a right angle to keep the strand tight around the cone (Fig. 2.4.11).
Fig. 2.4.10—Pulling the Strand Tight. Fig. 2.4.11—Bending the Strand.
Use a set of wire cutters and cut off the strand of armor even with the edge of the brass
cone.
Fig. 2.4.12—Cutting the Strand of Armor.
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Repeat the process with the six remaining strands of outer armor, leaving space
between each strand around the cone (Figs. 2.4.13 and 2.4.14).
Fig. 2.4.13—Tightening Last Strand of Outer Armor.
Fig. 2.4.14—Outer Armor Strands around Cone.
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Clip the remaining strands of outer armor off directly above the cone (Fig. 2.4.15). Do
NOT bend them over the curve of the cone.
Fig. 2.4.15—Removing the Remaining Strands of Outer Armor.
Next, take two strands of the inner armor and bend them over the top of the cone. Then,
feed them through the corresponding empty hole in the base of the cone (Fig. 2.4.16).
Pull the strands tight and bend them at a right angle from the bottom of the cone. Cut
them off flush with the base of the cone.
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Fig. 2.4.16—Inner Armor.
Step 6: Removing the Inner Armor

Take a length of nylon seizing cord and wrap it around the remaining strands of inner
armor about ½ in. above the cone (Fig. 2.4.17).
Fig. 2.4.17—Wrapping the Inner Armor.
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Bend each of the remaining strands of inner armor down sharply over the nylon cord,
and cut the armor, leaving ¼ in. pointing down (Fig. 2.4.18). Do NOT leave any sharp
edges pointing upward (Fig. 2.4.19).
Fig. 2.4.18—Cutting the Inner Armor. Fig. 2.4.19—Inner Armor Removed.
Step 7: Sliding the Stinger over the Cone

Take the cable out of the vise and slide the stinger up over the cone (Fig. 2.4.20).
Fig. 2.4.20—Sliding the Cone into the Stinger.
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Step 8: Installing the Cone Retainer

Slide the brass cone retainer over the insulated conductor wire with the beveled side
down until it rests on the cone (Fig. 2.4.21).
Fig. 2.4.21—Installing the Cone Retainer.
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Step 9: Installing the Cable Head Sleeve
Hold the stinger in one hand and thread the cable-head sleeve over the insulated
conductor wire. Screw it into the stinger until it is hand tight (Fig. 2.4.22).
Note: The fishing neck and cable head sleeve are left hand threads.
Fig. 2.4.22—Installing the Cable Head Sleeve.
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Step 10: Cutting the Insulated Conductor Wire

Secure the cable head back in the vise. Measure and cut the insulated conductor wire,
leaving 4 in. of conductor wire sticking out of the end of the cable-head sleeve (Fig.
2.4.23).
Fig. 2.4.23—Cutting the Conductor Wire.
Trim 1 in. of insulation from the end of the conductor wire, exposing the wire (Fig.
2.4.24).
Fig. 2.4.24—Insulation Removed.
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Step 11: Threading the Boot
Thread the boot over the end of the conductor wire, small end first, and slide it down to
the cable-head sleeve (Fig. 2.4.25).
Fig. 2.4.25—Boot Installed.
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Step 12: Connecting the Conductor Wire

Thread the exposed portion of the conductor wire through the hole in the brass terminal
nut of the contact subassembly (Fig. 2.4.26).
Fig. 2.4.26—Threading the Conductor Wire.
Twist the wire around the terminal to secure it to the contact subassembly (Fig. 2.4.27).
Fig. 2.4.27—Securing the Conductor Wire.
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Slide the boot over the end of the terminal nut of the contact subassembly, and seal the
large end of the boot with nylon seizing cord (Fig. 2.4.28).
Fig. 2.4.28—Boot Installed.
Step 13: Final Assembly of the Cable Head

Unscrew the cable-head sleeve from the stinger until one thread holds them together.
Then, screw the contact subassembly into the cable head sleeve one full turn. Clamp the
contact subassembly in the vise. While holding the stinger in one hand, screw the cable-
head sleeve into the contact subassembly. This tightens the cable-head sleeve to the
stinger and contact subassembly (Fig. 2.4.29).
Fig. 2.4.29—Assembling the Cable Head.
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Using an 18-in. pipe wrench, tighten the cable head sleeve onto the contact
subassembly (Fig. 2.4.30). Do NOT over-tighten the sleeve, or damage could occur to
the thread’s contact subassembly.
Fig. 2.4.30—Tightening the Sleeve to the Contact Subassembly.
Remove the contact subassembly from the vise and secure the stinger in the vise. Use
the pipe wrench to tighten the cable-head sleeve into the stinger (Fig. 2.4.31).
Remember, this is a left-handed thread.
Fig. 2.4.31—Tightening the Cable Head Sleeve to the Stinger.
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Step 14: Greasing the Cable Head
To grease the cable head, first remove the set screw from the cable-head sleeve using
an Allen wrench (Fig. 2.4.32).
Fig. 2.4.32—Removing the Cable-Head Sleeve Set Screw.
Install a grease fitting into the cable-head sleeve, and use a grease gun to fill the cable
head with silicon grease (Figs. 2.4.33 and 2.4.34).
Fig. 2.4.33—Grease Fitting Installed.
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Fig. 2.4.34—Filling the Cable Head with Grease.
Remove the grease fitting and re-install the set screw.
Summary
This section covered the procedure to rehead the 1-7/16 single-conductor cable head.
Follow all of the steps as presented to ensure the cable head is ready for use upon
completion of the rehead.
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Weak Point Calculations
Conventional thinking would lead us to believe that the cased-hole weak point, being
constructed of the individual armor strands, would have the strength of the sum total of
individual armor strengths used in constructing the weak point. For the most part, this
statement is true with some exceptions, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
When designing a job, cable-head and weak-point construction are part of the
preparations that are performed prior to the job. Each job and well must be considered
individually, and the weak-point strength should be evaluated to determine if the strength
is sufficient to perform the job. Although the practice of establishing a one-size-fits-all
standard weak point for an NWA is used, it is not recommended.
Determining Maximum Weak-Point Value

For the purposes of this document, the following information will be used for all
calculations:
Camesa 1N22PZ 7/32-in. Monocable

18 Outer / 12 Inner
Strength per Armor: 204 lb
Armor Diameter: 0.031 in.
Breaking Strength: 5,200 lb
Weight in Air: 96 lb/kft
Weight in Water: 82 lb/kft
Well Depth: 10,000 ft

Well-Bore Fluid (Fresh Water): 9.0 ppg
Tool Weight: 300 lb
The maximum weak-point value is the value that the weak point cannot exceed in the
well for which it will be used. This value is determined to prevent the wireline from being
exposed to tensions in excess of 50% of its rated breaking strength. Exposing the cable
to tension greater than 50% of its breaking strength could result in permanent damage.
The following equation is used:
Weak Point ≤ 50% Cable Breaking Strength—Cable Weight in Mud at Maximum Depth
In order to perform this calculation, we must first determine the cable weight in mud per
1,000 ft. This is accomplished by using the following formula:
W CM = W CA – [(W CA – W CW ) x W M /8.33] (Eq. 2.4.1)
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Where:
W CM = Weight of Cable in Mud

W CA = Weight of Cable in Air
W CW = Weight of Cable in Water
W M = Weight of Mud (Bore-Hole Fluid)
Using the information above:
W CM = 96 lb/kft – [(96 lb/kft – 82 /kft) X 9.0 ppg/8.33 ppg]
W CM = 96 lb/kft – [ 14 lb/kft X 9.0 ppg/8.33 ppg]
W CM = 96 lb/kft – [126/8.33]
W CM = 96 lb/kft – 15.12
W CM = 80.88 lb/kft
The next step is to calculate the maximum weak-point value. Using the formula and the
example information, the maximum weak point value can be determined.
Weak Point ≤ 2,600 lb – (10 kft X 80.88 lb/kft)
Where:
 2,600 lb is 50% of the cable breaking strength

 10 is the depth in kft
 80.88 lb/kft is the weight of the cable in mud per kft.
In the example:
Weak point ≤ 2,600 lb – 808.8 lb
Maximum Weak-Point Value ≤ 1791.2 lb
By using the process above, the weak point that is constructed must not have a strength
greater than 1791.2 lb.
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Weak-Point Construction Calculations
At this point, the number of armors to be used for the construction of the weak point
must be determined. There are considerations when determining the number and type of
armors to be used for constructing a monocable weak point.
The values that are published by the cable manufacturer are based on new cable
values. However, this will not always be the case, and the cable will be used to construct
many weak points throughout its service life. Therefore, a couple of key factors must be
considered when determining the designed strength of the weak point.
These factors are:
32. Age and condition of wireline

33. Consistency in construction of the weak point
34. Angle of the armor strands as they are bent over the brass cone
For this purpose, a 15% downgrade is applied to the published cable-armor strengths to
determine a value to be used for the calculation of weak point strengths.
To determine the number of armors to be used in the construction of the weak point, use
the following formula:
(Eq. 2.4.2)
Using the example information:
Number of Armors = 1791.2 lb/173.4 lb = 10.3
For safety purposes, round the number down to the lowest whole number.
The next step requires that the number of inner and outer armors to be used in the
construction of the weak point be determined. Depending on the cable, construction
there are design factors that must be taken into consideration. The primary driving factor
for this decision is the inner and outer armor diameter. Some cables are constructed with
equal amounts of inner and outer armors. This construction style requires that the inner
armors have a smaller diameter and, thus, a lower strength. Therefore, all of the armors
used in the weak point will not contribute equally to the overall strength. For this
purpose, the following guideline has been established.
If:
35. The inner and outer armors are the same diameter, then the inner armors may be
used to calculate the weak-point strength.
36. The inner and outer armors are not the same diameter, then do not include the inner
armor strength in the weak-point strength calculation.
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Note: Regardless of inner and outer armor diameter, a minimum of two inner armors
should be used in the weak-point construction to maintain the counter torque
properties of the cable. Not including at least two armors prevents the cable from
releasing torque and may cause damage to the cable.
Using the data from the example, a total of 10 armors will be used. In the example, the
inner and outer armors are the same diameter, so the weak point could consist of 8
outer armors and 2 inner armors. Other configurations may also be used, such as 6/4 or
7/3; however, for purposes of symmetry and ease of construction, the number of outer
and inner armors are usually kept at an equal ratio.
Determining Weak-Point Strength

Once the weak point is constructed, determine the value of the weak point for
operational use.
(Eq. 2.4.3)
Using the example information:
Weak-Point Strength = 10 X (204 lb X .85)
Weak-Point Strength = 10 X (173.4)
Weak-Point Strength = 1,734 lb
From this point forward, all calculations while in the well will use this value. Be aware
that although we have applied a 15% reduction in strength, the weak point may still have
a value that is the sum total strength using new cable values. When considering the
amount of tension to apply to the weak point, this fact must be taken into account.
Maximum Safe Pull and Maximum Pull

During the run in the well, a value for the maximum amount of tension that may be
applied to the weak point if the tool becomes stuck must be determined. This value is
known as the Maximum Safe Pull. To determine Maximum Safe Pull, the following
formula is used:
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(Eq. 2.4.4)
Assuming that our tool is stuck at a depth of 5,000 ft, and using the example information,
the formula would be applied as:
MSP = (5 kft X 80.88 lb/kft) + 1734 lb X .66
MSP = 404.4 lb + 1134.4 lb
MSP = 1548.8 lb
In the event that the tool cannot be freed and the decision has been made to separate
the weak point, the value at which the weak point will break must be determined.
Note: Prior to pulling out of any weak point, a manager must be notified, and all safety
precautions on the well site must be taken to prevent injury to personnel.
To determine the pull-out value, simply remove the 66% reduction from the equation
above.
(Eq. 2.4.5)
Note: The value that was used to determine our MSP included a 15% downgrade in weak-
point strength. Keep in mind that when attempting to break the weak point, the
actual point where the weak point breaks could go as high as the full weak-point
value using the raw-armor strength.
To account for either scenario, the pull-out calculation should be performed using the
15% downgraded weak-point value and the full weak-point value. In doing this, we will
determine the minimum and maximum breaking point.
Using the example information we would apply the formula as:
(Eq. 2.4.6)
(Eq. 2.4.7)
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Example:
Minimum Pull Out
MinPO = (5 kft X 80.88 lb/kft) + 1,734 lb
MinPO = 404.4 lb + 1,734 lb
MinPO = 2,138.4 lb
Maximum Pull Out
MaxPO = (5 kft X 80.88 lb/kft) + 2,040 lb
MaxPO = 404.4 lb + 2,040 lb
MaxPO = 2,444.4 lb
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242 12/29/2008

Professional

Chapter 3
Telemetry, LOGIQ, Filters, and Delays
Revision (A)
(August 2008)
12/29/2008 243
All information contained in this publication is confidential and proprietary
property of Halliburton Company. Any reproduction or use of these
instructions, drawings, or photographs without the express written
permission of an officer of Halliburton Company is forbidden.

This document was created in support of the Halliburton Wireline and

Perforating Associate Field Professional development program delivered at
the Halliburton Training Center. For more information contact:

244 12/29/2008
Preface
This WPS Training manual provides information on telemetry, filters, LOGIQ-CH, and
delays for the Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional. Study the manual to develop a
through understanding of the tool before operating or servicing it for the first time.
Observe all notes, cautions, and warnings to minimize the risk of personal injury or
damage to the equipment.
Section 1 Telemetry –Overview of Wireline telemetry forms and processing within the
LOGIQ-CH system.
Section 2 Filters – Overview of electronic and software filters.
Section 3 LOGIQ-CH – Overview of the LOGIQ-CH system, processes, and hardware

configuration.
Section 4 Delays – Explanation of software delays and the process of declaration in the
Warrior logging software.
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Section 1
Telemetry
Basic Telemetry
Well logging is the measurement of the characteristics of different earth formations
traversed by a borehole, usually an oil or gas well, using one or more measurement
tools or instruments. The logging tools are typically stacked and attached to a logging
cable. The logging cable supports the tool string, supplies power to the tool or tools, and
provides a communication medium for the transmission of data between the tools and
the data acquisition equipment on the surface.
Telemetry is a technology that allows the remote measurement and reporting of

information of interest to the system designer or operator. To understand telemetry and
how we use it, it is necessary to understand the greater system to which it belongs. This
system as a whole is called a Data Logging System (DLS). A DLS is comprised of four
main components:
1. Measuring Output (Logging Tool)

2. Recording Output (Logging Unit)
3. Analysis of recorded data (DAS Hardware/Software)
4. Uploading/accessing recorded data (Telemetry)
Measuring Output
The first component of a Data Logging System is a series of sensors used to record data
measurements in a given environment. In the Wireline business, this is our logging tool.
Each tool is designed and built with a series of sensors designed to measure a specific
response or characteristic. The measurements are usually taken via direct contact with
the elements inside the well. Depending on the tool, measurement of the data is either
taken by the surface systems or inside the tool.
Recording Output
The second component of a Data Logging System is the recording output unit. This unit
is comprised of a hardware interface and serves to record the data output of the logging
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WPS Training Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional Vol. I
sensors. For cased-hole logging applications, this function is performed by the Rack-
Mounted Portable Computer (RMPC) for digital storage and the Printrex Thermal Printer
to generate paper logs. The RMPC is a principle component in the larger total system
called LOGIQ. The RMPC is the platform for the Warrior Logging Software and is the
interface between the Warrior Software and the CHIP.
Analysis of Recorded Data (DAS Software)

The third component of a Data Logging System is the data acquisition system. The data
acquisition system is normally electronics based and is made of hardware and software.
The hardware is made of sensors, cables, and electronic components, including memory
where information is stored. The software consists of the data acquisition logic and
analysis software.
Early surface acquisition systems required a separate surface module for each logging
sensor (see Fig. 3.1.1). As advances in technology were made, the size of the
components was reduced to the point that a single electronics unit containing printed
circuit boards was capable of performing the same data processing as the modules.
Fig. 3.1.1—Early Surface Acquisition vs. Current LOGIQ.
In the LOGIQ system, the CHIP panel performs the function of hardware interface. The
software component of the LOGIQ-CH system is the Warrior Logging Software, which is
located on the Rack-Mounted Portable Computer (RMPC). The Warrior Logging
Software performs measurement, analysis, and records the data in a format for long-
term storage.
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Uploading/Accessing Recorded Data
The fourth component of the Data Logging System, and the subject of this chapter, is
telemetry. The word telemetry is derived from the Greek roots tele, meaning remote, and
metron, meaning measure. Simply put, it is a format for transmitting data across a
medium.
Telemetry is comprised of two elements:
1. Telemetry
2. Telecommand
Telemetry is the communication of data from the sensor to the data acquisition system.
Systems that need instructions and data sent to them in order to operate require the
counterpart of telemetry, which is known as the telecommand.
In order for information to be sent effectively from one point to another, it must be
compiled into a pre-arranged format (which may follow a standard structure), modulated
onto a carrier wave that is then transmitted with adequate power to the remote system.
The remote systems will then demodulate the signal from the carrier, decode the
information, perform necessary measurement or analysis, and record the data or
execute the command contained within.
The complexity and nature of the format will differ with the amount of sensors combined
in a tool string. As the amount of sensors increases, the telemetry will change to a
format that is capable of handling larger amounts of data. Earliest forms of telemetry
used an analog carrier (sine) wave to transmit simple measurements, such as
temperature, to a remote monitor. Advances in processing technology slowly made it
possible to move the measurement functions from the surface into the tool. This
migration of processing reduced the size of the surface measurement systems, but it
also required more complex forms of telemetry.
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Wireline Telemetry Forms
Analog Telemetry
An analog or analogue signal is any time-continuous signal, where some time-varying
change in signal is a representation of some time-varying quantity. It differs from digital
signals in that small fluctuations are meaningful. Analog is often thought of in an
electrical context. Analog signals are typically expressed as a sinusoidal waveform.
Alteration of frequency, voltage, charge, or current will correspond to a change in the
value detected by any sensor. In all forms of analog telemetry, it is important to note that
the measurement of the wave form is performed by the surface acquisition system. The
sensor outputs a simple response encoded into an analog carrier wave that is sent up
the wireline and measured by the surface systems.
The purest form of analog telemetry that we use is the signal from an analog Casing-
Collar Locator. The CCL coil, surrounded by a magnetic field, generates a constant
voltage output. When the CCL passes through a collar, magnetic fields are disrupted or
placed out of balance by the change in metal thickness (density), and the output voltage
of the CCL coil changes. The change in voltage is recorded by the surface system as a
collar strike.
Fig. 3.1.2—Sinusoidal Waveform.
Another example of this type of telemetry is the basic tension load-cell signal. Although
the tension load cell signal is not transmitted through logging the Wireline, the signal and
process are the same. The load cell outputs a constant voltage to the measurement
system. As tension is applied to the load cell, the output voltage will change. The system
measures this change and converts the change in voltage to display the change in
pounds.
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The primary disadvantage of analog signaling is that any system has noise (i.e., random
variations). When the signal is transmitted over long distances, such as required in well
logging, these variations (noise) may become dominant and prevent the intended signal
variations from being detected. This ratio between line signal and line noise is called the
signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of signal strength to noise
strength in the waveform. The optimum condition is that the signal amplitude stays
higher than the noise amplitude, making it possible for the surface acquisition system to
identify the intended signal variations, which are the logging sensors data. If the signal-
to-noise ratio becomes too low, then the surface acquisition system will have difficulty
distinguishing the tool telemetry from the line noise and can result in distortion or the
loss of data. The data loss is often not recoverable because any amplification of the
signal will also amplify the noise. The sources of the noise can be diminished electrically
by good shielding and cabling, but the noise can never be fully eliminated.
The largest contributor to line noise is the increase in line resistance/impedance as cable
is spooled off the drum. In order to transmit any signal; telemetry, power, etc. through a
physical medium, there must be two lines to complete the circuit. In an open-hole,
seven-conductor line, there are multiple pairs of conductors available. However, with a
cased-hole, mono-cable line, the return path to ground is the cable armor. When the
cable is spooled on the drum, the resistance of the armor is very low because all of the
armors are making metal-to-metal contact. However, as line is spooled off of the drum,
the length of the line, in terms of the path electrical signals must follow, increases. As
line resistance increases, signal strength decreases, thus, compounding the effect of
any noise already on the line. In other words, as line length increases, the signal-to-
noise ratio decreases, causing distortion of the data.
Another contributing factor to increasing line resistance/impedance is heat. Most logging

cables use conductors constructed from copper. The resistance of copper increases as
its core temperature increases, which causes distortion of the power and telemetry
signal. The two principle causes of the heating are well-bore temperature and
electromigration. As the Wireline descends into the well, the natural increase in
temperature as depth increases will cause heating of the cable. In addition, another
process called electromigration will also cause an increase in the core temperature of
the conductor. Electromigration is the process of heating caused by the continual flow of
electrons through a medium. The longer the flow is maintained, the more heat will be
generated.
In most cases, the distortion of the telemetry signal is compensated for inside the
surface-acquisition-system gain and filter controls. (*Refer to Warrior Logging Software
documentation for adjusting signal gain and filter.*)
Bi-Polar Pulses
Bi-Polar Pulse Telemetry is another form of analog telemetry. This form of telemetry is
most common in counting tools, such as the natural gamma-ray tool or compensated-
neutron tool, where the only data that needs to be transmitted is a simple pulse to signal
a single count of a gamma ray or neutron by the detector. This telemetry still uses a
continuous-time waveform transmitted at a specific voltage and frequency; however,
when the detector counts a gamma ray or neutron, the tool generates a positive or
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negative pulse, which is imposed on the waveform. The pulse generated is at a higher
voltage than the waveform continuous voltage and, therefore, can be identified by the
system as a gamma or neutron count. The pulse is then counted by the system as one
gamma ray or neutron. For this reason, tools of this type are often called pulse tools or
pulse counters. In most tools, gamma-ray counts are sent uphole as negative pulses,
and neutron counts are sent as positive pulses.
Fig. 3.1.3—Bi-Polar Pulses.
(Warrior Logging Software will display a graphical representation of the Bi-Polar pulse signal in
the Pulse Monitor (PMON) window.)
Fig. 3.1.3 shows a typical Bi-Polar pulse from a gamma-ray/neutron tool. Notice the
imposed pulses on a carrier wave. This is typical and should be seen for normal
telemetry signals. However, it is important to adjust the signal strength to maximize the
size of the positive and negative pulses while, and at the same time, minimizing the
signature of the underlying carrier wave. This process is called adjusting the signal to
noise ratio. In addition, setting proper detection-threshold levels will also help the system
distinguish the pulse from the noise (see Fig. 3.1.4).
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Fig. 3.1.4—PMON with Detection Threshold.
Fig. 3.1.4 shows the positive and negative detection threshold set to indicate to the
surface acquisition system when a positive or negative pulse should be counted.
Threshold values are set according to signal height versus noise height (signal-to-noise
ratio). Standard practice is to set the thresholds at 20% and 80% of the total window-
height span and adjust according to signal strength.
Multiple Sensors/Acoustic Tools

The limiting factor of Bi-Polar pulses is that a maximum of two-pulse, counting-type tools
(sensors) could be used in any one tool string. As logging tools became more advanced,
it was possible to stack multiple tools in one string or multiple sensors in one tool.
However, because the telemetry form was still analog, the amount of data that could be
transmitted was limited mostly by time. Recall that an analog signal is the continuous
measurement of variations in amplitude, polarity frequency, or current over time. This
means that for any given frequency, there is a maximum amount of data that can be
encoded onto a carrier waver in a specific time period.
When a tool string with multiple sensors has reached full power, all of the sensors will
begin collecting and transmitting data at once. However, all of the data from the sensors
cannot be encoded onto a carrier wave at the same time. Therefore, the tool has a
master clock that controls the opening and closing of windows for each sensor data to
be encoded onto the carrier wave at different times in a predetermined order. This allows
even distribution of the data in a sequential manner so that it can be sent to the data
acquisition system in an orderly fashion and prevents sensor data from overlapping and
distorting each other. Once a complete set of tool sensor data (all sensors) has been
encoded onto the carrier wave, the process repeats at a predetermined interval; this is
known as a data cycle. In order for the surface acquisition system to properly receive,
decode, and process the sensor data, it must be synchronized with the tool. Inside the
analog tool, tied to the master clock, is a pulse generator. This pulse generator will
generate what is called the synchronization pulse (sync pulse). The purpose of the
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synchronization pulse is to signal to the surface system when a new data cycle begins.
In simpler terms, the synchronization pulse is a zero count or reset signal. Once the
surface acquisition system has been adjusted to recognize the sync pulse, it can then
begin counting in time with the tool. The analysis software is configured to receive the
data in the same order as the tool is sending and, therefore, associates it with the
correct sensor.
For cased-hole applications, the best example would be the cement bond tool. An
analog CBL tool, in most cases, combines a negative-pulse gamma-ray tool, a standard
analog CCL a 3-ft acoustic receiver, and a 5-ft acoustic receiver.
Fig. 3.1.5 depicts a typical analog signal as viewed on an oscilloscope.
Fig. 3.1.5—Data Cycle.
The type of pulse (positive/negative) that is sent at the beginning or end of a sequence
will depend on tool design. In addition, the placement of the synchronization pulse may
also change with tool design. For example, some cement bond tools will place
synchronization pulses at the beginning of the acoustic data from each receiver (i.e., 3 ft
or 5 ft) and then rely on timing to identify the remaining sections of data.
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Fig. 3.1.6—Warrior Pulse Monitor.
Digital Telemetry
As previously discussed, electrical pulses transmitted via wire are typically attenuated by
the resistance of the wire and changed by its capacitance or inductance. In addition,
temperature variations may also increase these effects. Because analog telemetry is a
time-continuous signal in which variations in frequency, amplitude, current, or polarity
represent changes in value, any distortion of the signal will degrade the overall quality of
the measurement.
The advent of the microprocessor made it possible to move the measurement processes
from the surface to the tool. All logging sensor data is analog in nature, and in order for it
to be processed by a computer-based system, it must be converted to digital. In a pure
analog logging tool, this conversion was performed at surface by the data acquisition
system, thus, the inherent problem with analog signal distortion. In a digital-logging tool,
the sensor sends its data to an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) circuit where the
analog data is converted to digital data. The ADC then sends the digital data to a
Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) usually located in the telemetry section or portion of the
logging tool. The RTU then combines all of the digitized sensor data into a digital-
telemetry format for transmission to the surface acquisition system. The exact
architecture of this format will change with tool design and is not relevant to basic
understanding of the forms of telemetry. It is important to note that the digitizing of data
served two purposes. The first purpose is that it greatly enhanced data quality, as the
sensor data was not subject to the distortion caused by the attenuation of the logging
cable. The second purpose is that the amount of data capable of being sent along the
Wireline was increased and, therefore, allowed for more measurements to be taken or
more tool sensors to be combined in a single tool string.
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Basic Digital Telemetry

A waveform that switches between two voltage levels representing the two states of a
Boolean value (0 and 1) is referred to as a digital signal, even though it is an analog
voltage waveform, since it is interpreted in terms of only two levels. Therefore, a digital
signal is a discrete-time sampled version of an analog waveform; the value of the datum
is noted at fixed intervals (for example, every microsecond) rather than continuously.
The two states of a wire are usually represented by some measurement of an electrical
property. Voltage is most common, but current is used in some systems. A threshold is
designed for each logic family. When below that threshold, the wire is "low;" when it is
above the threshold, the wire is "high." Digital circuits establish a "no man's area" or
"exclusion zone" that is wider than the tolerances of the components. The circuits avoid
that area in order to avoid indeterminate results.
It is standard to allow some tolerance in the voltage levels used. For example, 0 to 2 V
might represent logic 0, and 3 to 5 V may represent logic 1. A voltage of 2 to 3 V would
be invalid and would occur only in a fault condition or during a logic level transition, as
most circuits are not purely resistive and, therefore, cannot instantly change voltage
levels.
Fig. 3.1.7—Digital Signal Properties.
All digital data is combined of 1s and 0s, which is known as the binary numeral system
format.
How Binary Works

The decimal number system that people use everyday contains ten digits, 0 through 9.
Start counting in decimal: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Oops! There are no more digits left.
How do we continue counting with only ten digits? We add a second column of digits,
worth ten times the value of the first column. Start counting again: 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, 19, 20 (Note that the right column goes back to zero here.), 21, 22, 23,…, 94,
95, 96, 97, 98, 99, Oops! Once again, there are no more digits left. The only way to
continue counting is to add yet another column worth ten times as much as the one
before. Continue counting: 100, 101, 102,…, 997, 998, 999, 1000, 1001, 1002, you
should get the picture at this point.
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Another way to make this clear is to write decimal numbers in expanded notation. 365,
for example, is equal to 3×100 + 6×10 + 5×1. 1032 is equal to 1×1000 + 0×100 + 3×10 +
2×1. By writing numbers in this form, the value of each column becomes clear.
The binary number system works in the exact same way as the decimal system, except
that it contains only two digits, 0 and 1. Start counting in binary: 0, 1, Oops! There are no
more binary digits. In order to keep counting, we need to add a second column worth
twice the value of the column before. We continue counting again: 10, 11, Oops! It is
time to add another column again. Counting further: 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001,
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111.... Watch the pattern of 1s and 0s. You will see that
binary works the same way decimal does, but with fewer digits.
Binary uses two digits, so each column is worth twice the one before. This fact, coupled
with expanded notation, can be used convert between from binary to decimal. In the
binary system, the columns are worth 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, etc. To convert a
number from binary to decimal, simply write it in expanded notation. For example, the
binary number 101101 can be rewritten in expanded notation as 1×32 + 0×16 + 1×8 +
1×4 + 0×2 + 1×1. By simplifying this expression, you can see that the binary number
101101 is equal to the decimal number 45.
Now that we understand the basis of binary counting, we can continue further by
defining the structure of digital telemetry. Each digit in the binary system is called a bit.
The term bit is used to define to different characteristics. A digital circuit is defined by the
number of bits it can process or, in simple terms, how high it can count. For example, an
8-bit system can count to 256 (0–255). When defining the amount of data that a format
can transmit across a medium, it is referred to as bits per second (bps). Most systems in
use today are measured in kilo (thousands of) bits or mega (millions of) bits per second
(kbps or Mbps).
The basic unit of a digital system is a bit. A group of bits together form words. A group of
words may be assigned to a data block, which is dedicated to a tool sensor. A group of
data blocks will be put together to form a telemetry frame. An easy way to understand
this model is to apply it to conventional english grammar structure. Consider the bits as
letters of the alphabet. When grouped together, the letters will make a word that
represent a value or object. A group of words together would be a sentence, which can
be thought of as a data block. A sentence is used to communicate an idea or thought. A
group of sentences can be put together is a paragraph, which is likened to a frame. A
paragraph is used to communicate multiple ideas or thoughts in a single format.
Digital telemetry functions in the same manner. Sensor data is acquired by the sensor
and converted into a digital format (bits) by the ADC. The ADC outputs a word that is
equivalent to the analog value of the sensor measurement. Although not always
necessary, multiple words may be required for each sensor data. The words are placed
together in data blocks, and the data blocks are arranged in a format for transmission
called a frame. Each frame consists of a complete set of data from each logging tool or
sensor and is preceded by a Sync Word. Digital tools are not unlike analog tools in that
they also require a signal to align the surface-system timing with the tool-transmission
timing.
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Fig. 3.1.8—Basic Digital Telemetry Frame as it Might Apply to a Logging Tool.
The Warrior Logging Software generates a graphical representation of the digital packet
and displays it in the Telemetry Monitor window (Fig. 3.1.9). However, this is not the
same as the Pulse Monitor (PMON) window for analog tools. For a pure digital tool, the
threshold controls in the telemetry monitor window serve no purpose. The primary
purpose for the telemetry threshold window is to aid the user in adjusting the signal
strength.
Fig. 3.1.9—Warrior Telemetry Threshold Monitor.
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When running a tool that uses digital telemetry, the warrior software also allows the user
to monitor the amount of frames received and decode properly and also the mount of
bad frames the software received. This is shown as the frame count and the error count
and can be viewed from the DSP Monitor function in the warrior acquisition interface
(Fig. 3.1.10).
Fig. 3.1.10—Warrior DSP Monitor.
When using the TMDL or RMT, a separate monitoring and control window is loaded for
monitoring frame and error counts (Fig. 3.1.11). This window has an additional feature of
indicator lights that help the engineer monitor the frame-count-to-error-count ratio.
Fig. 3.1.11—Warrior TTTC Telemetry Monitor.
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For any digital tool, the logging engineer should record the error-count total at the
beginning of the logging run once synchronization has been achieved. This will help the
engineer monitor the amount of good frames received versus error frames.
Hybrid Telemetry
Over time, it was discovered that some sensor data, such as acoustic signals and CCL
signals, would degrade if encoded digitally. In addition, some manufacturers did not want
to invest the money into putting microprocessors in a tool for data that did not
necessarily need to be digitally encoded. This is the case for most of the newer cement
bond-logging tools. With the limited number of sensors in a CBL string (GR, CCL,
acoustic receivers), there was not a need to digitize all of the data from the tool in the
tool. This gave rise to what is called hybrid telemetry.
Hybrid telemetry is a mix between digital and analog telemetry. Using a newer CBL tool
as an example, the gamma ray and tool-status information would be digitally encoded
inside the tool while the CCL and acoustic waveforms will be sent to the surface-
acquisition system in an analog format. This combination of telemetry allowed for higher
data-transmission capacity while, at the same time, preserving the integrity of the signal
as much as possible. In addition, the lack of need for microprocessors in the tool to do
analog-to-digital conversion helped to hold tool cost and size down.
Fig. 3.1.12—Example of What the Structure of a Hybrid Signal Would Look Like.
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A hybrid telemetry frame will still begin with a Sync Word, and a period of time following
the Sync Word is reserved for the transmission of the analog acoustic data. This period
is followed by a short delay, and the rest of the tool data, digitally encoded, will follow
that. At the end of the frame, another Sync Word will be transmitted to identify the end of
transmission to the system. After the surface system receives the end of transmission
word, any tool commands will be sent.
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Section 2
Filters
Previously, this chapter discussed the Cased-Hole Interface Panel and the various forms
of telemetry. This section will explain the basics of filters.
Regardless of the sensor or the telemetry type, the signal/data received must be filtered
to determine an end value. Filters can be divided into two main categories: electronic
and software. They both perform separate functions, but the mathematical processes
behind their functions do not change.
Electronic Filters
Electronic filters are electronic circuits that are designed to either remove unwanted
signal components or enhance wanted components. Electronic filters have several
properties by which they can be classified:
1. Passive or Active
2. Analog or Digital
3. Linear or Non-Linear
In the previous section on telemetry, we discussed the problems encountered when

transmitting an analog signal across a medium due to signal distortion. These problems
led to the use of digital signal processing, which, in a sense, is a method of filtering to
remove unwanted variations in an analog signal while providing a more consistent data
output. There are several types and combinations of electronic filters that will be
discussed next. Filters are not segregated by type alone and may be a combination of
several functional characteristics.
Electronic filters can be segregated into two categories according to the components
that are in them: passive filters and active filters.
Passive electronic filters are circuits composed of the four principle electronic
components: resistors, inductors, capacitors, and transformers. More complex passive
circuits exist; however, for the purposes of this document, complex passive-filter circuits
will not be discussed. A passive filter is so named because it does not produce any
energy. It is simply a means of limiting any input signal to a desired output in voltage,
amperage, frequency, or polarity.
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Active electronic filters are distinguished by the use of one or more active components,
such as voltage amplifiers and buffer amplifiers. Active electronic filters also generally
require power to be supplied to the active components for them to work.
Electronic filters may also be separated by the type of filter that it is designed to apply:
Linear and Non-Linear.
Linear filters are the most common of electronic filters. Regardless of whether the filter is
electronic, electrical, or mechanical, the mathematical theory for linear filters is universal.
A linear filter is simply a means of limiting any input signal to a desired output in voltage,
amperage, or frequency. Some of the most common linear filters are low-band pass,
high-band pass, or band-stop filter. A low-band pass filter allows low-frequency signals
to pass through and blocks high-frequency signals. The inverse can be said for high-
band pass filters. The band-stop filter passes all frequency except for a specific range.
Passive or active-linear filters are used throughout the Cased-Hole Interface Panel to
provide functions, such as decoupling the line-power signal from the telemetry as seen
in the ANASW card. An example of an active linear filter is the operational-amplifier
board for the CCL circuit in the CSP 1/7. In this case, the filter is designed to boost the
relatively low-strength CCL signal to a discernable level.
Non-linear filters are signal-processing devices in which the output is not a linear
function of the input. Non-linear filters are used to locate and remove data that is
recognized as noise. They are so named because they look at each data point and
decide whether it is noise or a valid signal. An example of this type of circuit would be
the CBL02 card, and its function is to detect the sync pulse.
Having previously discussed the differences between analog and digital, the differences
between analog and digital filters are quite simply the components and the means of
filtering. An example of an analog filter would be the active linear filters on the CBL1D
card that filters the signal coming from a natural gamma-ray tool to remove the noise
from the bi-polar pulse signal.
In electronics, a digital filter is any electronic filter that works by performing digital
mathematical operations on an intermediate form of a signal. This is in contrast to older
analog filters, which work entirely in the analog realm and must rely on physical
networks of electronic components (such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, etc.) to
achieve the desired filtering effect. Digital filtering is performed by the Analog-to-Digital
Converter attached to the DSP Aux card, which processes the analog telemetry and
encodes it into a digital format so that the Warrior software can analyze it.
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Software Filters
In addition to filtering the signal from any tool, the data from the tool must also be
filtered to remove statistical variation. Statistical variation is the result of detector design
and is inherent to the nature of the tools we use due to the physical and geological
elements that are being measured. For example, a natural gamma-ray tool is designed
to count the amount of gamma rays that strike the crystal. Given that the amount of
gamma rays produced by any atomic element are not uniform in nature, the tool counts
are, therefore, not uniform over any given period of time.
The example below is a comparison between a non-filtered curve and a filtered curve.
The curve on the left is a standard gamma-ray curve plotted with no filter applied to the
data. The curve on the right is the same signal with a filter applied. Without filtering, raw
data plot erratic and hard-to-follow curves, making correlation and interpretation difficult.
Fig. 3.2.1—Non-filtered vs. Filtered Signal Curves.
For almost all logging tools, filters of different types and lengths are applied to the
recorded data to help remove variations and provide a more clean and consistent
response. Depending on the sensor and client request, the filter type and length will
change.
There are several types of filters that may be applied to a sensor. The Warrior Logging
Software for cased-hole applications allows for the choice between three types of filters:
1. Triangle
2. Gaussian
3. Square
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The type of filter refers to the mathematical algorithm used to calculate the values that
are given.
A triangle filter is a fractional-weighted average where each sample in the specified

range is given a total value of only a fraction of its actual value. These fractional values
are then added together to give the total value for the specified range.
For example: take the data acquired over a 1-ft interval and take five individual samples
inside the 1 ft. A triangle filter applied over a 1-ft interval that took five samples would
take 1/9 the value of the first sample, 2/9 the value of the second sample, 3/9 the value
of the third sample, 2/9 the value of the fourth sample, and 1/9 of the fifth sample, and
then add them together to achieve a total value for the 1-ft interval.
Fig. 3.2.2—Example of a Triangle Filter.
A Gaussian filter is also known as a weighted filter. In the Gaussian-filter process, values
closer to the center are given more weight in the final sum than values obtained further
from the center of the sample range. The filter works in the same manner as the triangle
filter in that it takes fractional values of the raw samples and combines them together to
form a single value. However, the only difference is that it first applies an additional
value, weights, to one or more aspects of the data set.
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Fig. 3.2.3—Gaussian Filter Curve.
A Square filter is a straight-forward average of all the curve values measured over a
given interval divided by the total number samples taken in that interval. For example:
Depth Curve Value

100.00 52
100.25 48
100.50 56
100.75 53
101.00 49
Total 258
258/5 = 51.6
Output at 101.00 = 51.6
A square filter is the easiest filter to apply because the data used is either in or out of the
samples’ range. In this method, data outside of the range is ignored.
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Fig. 3.2.4—Comparison of the Triangle Filter, Gaussian Filter, and Square Filter Curves.
In addition to the type of filter used, a range over which the filter is applied must also be
specified. This parameter is known as filter length. When a logging sensor is active, it is
sending a continuous stream of measurements. In order for the filter to work properly, a
range or window must be established for the software to define which values to use in
the filter algorithm. Typically, for the user, this value is in ft. Therefore, along with
establishing the type of filter to be used, the user must also establish a length.
Historically, filter length has been defined by the number of points of measurement it
takes in the given data range, usually referenced by the number of ¼-ft samples or
number of .1-m samples, if using metric units. For example if a filter length of 3 ft is
established, then the software will take 12 samples of the data over a 3-ft interval. This
would be the equivalent to a sample being taken every 3 in.
Fig. 3.2.5 depicts a gamma-ray curve over the same log interval with different filter
lengths applied. Notice how the curve loses definition as the filter length increases, and
when the filter length is decreased, the curve looks as if no filter has been applied. This
is very important to note, as filter length can greatly affect the log results.
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Fig. 3.2.5—Gamma-Ray Curve Over the Same Log Interval with Different Filter Lengths
Applied.
In Halliburton software, filter length is usually established as an odd number (e.g., 3,6,9,
etc.). Because our measurements must correspond to a depth in the well, establishing
an odd-number filter length allows for an exact midpoint in the data range to be a known
value.
The filter selection may be accessed through two menus: Edit Logging Tool Details (Fig.
3.2.6) or the AcquisitionEditFilters Menu (Fig. 3.2.7).
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Fig. 3.2.6—Edit Logging Tool Details.
Fig. 3.2.7—Edit Filters Menu.
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Section 3
LOGIQ-CH
In the previous sections, the four principle components of a Data Logging System were
discussed:
1. Measuring Output (Logging Tool)

2. Recording Output (Logging Unit)
3. Analysis Of Recorded Data (DAS Hardware/Software)
4. Uploading/Accessing Recorded Data (Telemetry)
This section will discuss the second and third components of the system: Recording
Output and Analysis of Recorded Data.
The LOGIQ-CH system is the principle surface-acquisition system used by Halliburton

today. The LOGIQ package is designed to fulfill both the recording output and the data
acquisition and analysis functions of a Data Logging System. The LOGIQ system will be
comprised of the basic components listed below. However, if the logging unit is
configured for open-hole logging as well, the LOGIQ unit will also include a DIMP, two
Sorenson DC power supplies, and as many as four Elgar AC power supplies. In this
chapter, the cased-hole configuration is discussed in all the examples.
1. Cased-Hole Interface Panel (CHIP)

2. Rack-Mounted Portable Computer (RMPC)
3. Cable-Shooting Panel (Mono-conductor/Multi-conductor)
4. Depth/Tension Front End (SDDP/Wayne-Kerr)
5. Printrex 840 DL/G Thermal Printer
6. 20-in. LCD Flat-Panel Monitor
In this chapter, we will discuss the design, function, and operation of each component in
the LOGIQ-CH system. This system is critical to job completion. Each component must
be functioning for any Wireline job to be performed.
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Fig. 3.3.1—Overview of LOGIQ-CH.
Cased-Hole Interface Panel (CHIP)

The Cased-Hole Interface Panel, manufactured by Scientific Data Systems, Inc., is the
heart of the LOGIQ-CH system. This panel is responsible for the acquisition of all signals
and data coming from the tools and the depth/tension systems and outputting them to
the Warrior Logging Software for interpretation and recording. The CHIP is capable of
interfacing with all of the tools used at Halliburton.
The CHIP is a single unit that contains seven individual cards located on a back plane,
which are used to process various types of data. It utilizes DSP-(Digital Signal
Processing) based technology for data handling. The CHIP contains the necessary
components to direct drive depth and tension encoders and is also capable of receiving
a slaved input from a depth/tension front-end system. It also contains an integral DC
power supply for down-hole tool power, which can be controlled manually or through
software. A seven-port USB hub located inside the CHIP is used to connect various
instruments and communicate with the Rack-Mounted Portable Computer (RMPC).
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Fig. 3.3.2—Face-Plate Assembly.
Front Panel
The front of the CHIP consists of:
1. LCD display Voltmeter and Ammeter for tool power display

2. Two potentiometers for positive and negative polarity tool power control
3. Manual switch for enabling tool power polarity or software controlled tool power
4. Toggle switch for manually enabling tool power
5. RCA Audio jack for connecting to noise tools
6. Front Panel USB connector to connect any to PC
7. Main Power switch
8. Indicator lights for tool power and line enable
It is important to note that the CHIP cannot interface with two computers simultaneously.
Therefore, if the front panel USB is used to connect to a computer, then the computer
connected to the back of the CHIP must be powered off or physically disconnected.
In the current configuration used by Halliburton, tool power must be controlled manually.
Software power controls have been disabled.
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Back Panel
The back of the CHIP Panel consists of:
1. Two connections for the Wireline cable

a. BNC Connection
b. UHF Connector
2. Encoder connections for Depth and Tension
3. Passive CCL Connection (BNC)
4. Five USB input connections
5. One USB output connection
6. Auxiliary BNC connection for slave tension feed
Fig. 3.3.3—Rear-Plate Assembly.
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Internal Components
Fig. 3.3.4—CHIP Internal Components Diagram.
Tool Power Supply

The CHIP panel contains an integrated 0-400 VDC power supply, which supplies power
to all logging tools. This power supply is controlled manually from the front of the panel
via a toggle switch and two potentiometers. It is important to note that although the
power supply is controlled manually from the front of the panel, power will not be sent to
the line until it has been enabled in the software controls.
The tool power supply consists of a regulator board (TpsDR3), four pass transistors, two
transformers, and the front-panel controls to set positive and negative voltage levels and
switch output polarity. If the front-panel switch is in the AUTO position, then the polarity
and voltage may be set under software control. A small 12-V transformer powers the
regulator, allowing it to float on the tool voltage. The main power comes from a 1:2 step-
up isolation transformer. The two transformers, together with the rectifier and smoothing
capacitor, are mounted on the rear chassis.
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USB 44
The USB44 board contains a 16-bit, 10-μs ADC with an analog multiplexer, HI506,
allowing 16 channels to be digitized. Three channels are dedicated to line tension, tool
voltage, and tool current. The rest are available for customer tool signals. The digitized
signals are sent to the PC by the USB controller.
There are two three-channel counters. The line speed and a 1-MHz clock are processed
by the IC1. Three channels are available for pulse tools.
The depth information comes from a quadrature encoder mounted on the measuring
head. Its outputs are pulses that come in on J1-10 and 11 and go to IC7, LS7084,
quadrature-clock converter. IC7 decodes the direction of cable movement, which goes to
IC1 as DIR and sends pulses, PPR, to the counter, U1, to monitor line speed.
The tension signal may be a 4-20 mA current loop, R14, 24.9 Ω installed, or a strain
gauge, 2 μF installed. The signal is amplified by U5 and digitized by U3 channel 6.
The USB controller, IC1, sends the depth, line speed, and direction and tension
information to the PC when the software requests it.
IC1, the USB controller, is connected to the USBHUB through J1-14 and 15. IC11 is a
noise suppressor for the serial line. IC5 contains the identity code for the board so that
the Warrior software can identify it and download the proper program into the memory
on IC1. The controller is constantly keeping track of the counters. The one MHz is used
as a time base to scale the counts. The analog channels are constantly monitored and
may be viewed on the MONITER DEVICES – DSP panel. The controller communicates
with the serial DACs on the Analog Switch Board over the I2C serial bus.
SDSDSP (Digital Signals Processor)

This card contains a Texas Instruments DSP, which does signal processing tasks to free
up PC resources. When a service is selected, software for it is downloaded to the DSP
external memory over the USB bus. Signal gain and filtering are controlled from here. In
addition, pulse, CBL, and telemetry signals are processed here.
The DSP routes control signals to the various cards inside the CHIP. Software
commands are sent to the DSP from the PC, and the DSP then routes controls and
commands to the various cards inside the CHIP.
DSP Aux
This board contains the signal-processing hardware for the DSP. The raw telemetry data
received from a logging tool is processed by the DSP Aux and then sent to the DSP for
conditioning and formatting. The DSP then passes the data to the PC over the USB bus.
The DSP Aux also controls the gain and filtering for the ADC (Analog-to-Digital
Converter), which is used to process analog signals, such as acoustic data. The DSP
Aux also contains the DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter), which controls gains and
filtering on the other boards.
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CBL1D
The CBL1D card conditions acoustic and analog pulse signals that are subsequently
input to the SDSDSP card for data acquisition. The input to the card is connected to the
line via the ANASW card. The card outputs three signal channels that are used for sonic-
pulse detection, analog-pulse detection, and two channels of sonic signal for amplitude
measurement, waveform recording, and travel-time measurement. The board has three
filter sections that are controlled by Warrior software with the USB I2C bus to allow the
greatest degree of flexibility for signal processing from different down-hole tools.
CBL02
The CBL02 board provides detection of positive and negative sync pulses. The CBL02
card receives several inputs and performs the functions of sync-pulse detection. It
receives acoustic-signal inputs from the CBL1D card as well as analog- and digital-
control signals from the DSP. The card outputs are positive and negative sync-detection
signals.
Analog-Switch Interface Board (ANASW)

The analog switch board decouples the tool power voltage from the line signal input and
routes it to the various interface boards. The primary outputs of the card are a series of
buffered signals that are connected to the other cards of the interface panel. In addition,
the card also includes an audio amplifier circuit that is used to amplify the line signal with
output to a loud speaker or headphones. This function is primarily used with audio
(noise) surveys, well-head pressure, and aux channel audio amplifier.
Applied Free-Point Card

This board drives a sine wave down the logging cable to an applied electronics or SIE-
style free-point tool. The response of the tool attenuates the signal. The amplitude of the
attenuated signal has a bias applied to it to set a zero reference. The change in the
amount of attenuation is then measured to create an output.
Because the drive of the board must be directly connected to line without the effects of
line termination or power-supply load, the panel passes the line through a relay on this
board to the rest of the panel circuitry or when engaged, connects the electronics on the
board directly to the line connection.
Note: This board is only actively used for a free-point service. When any other service is
being run, the tool signals are passed through this board directly to the ANASW
board.
Pre-Relays Board (Prelays)

This board controls the flow of tool power and tool signal through the interface panel.
The power-relays board connects the line input of the tool-interface panel to the rest of
the circuitry in the panel. Functions of the card include enabling line, controlling line
termination, selecting positive or negative power to be applied to the tool, and enabling
the downlink capabilities of the TELA card.
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CCL Board
This card provides filtering and amplification of the casing-collar signal when it appears
as a low-frequency signal imposed on the line or from an external source, such as a
shooting panel with CCL output.
Experience has shown that the CCL signal must be sampled at a rate of at least 20
samples per ft in order to obtain a detailed collar log. The sample-rate default value is
set in the services.ini file.
The CCL card input is connected to the line input via the ANASW card. In addition, there
is an auxiliary input, which is connected to a BNC connector at the rear of the CHIP. This
input is used for the input of a CCL signal while the perforating gun is being run and
allows a CCL to be run without the main line-enable relay being activated.
The output of the card is a filtered and amplified version of the input CCL signal, which is
connected to the ADC on the USB44 card in the interface panel.
TELA R6 Board
The TELA board processes telemetry signals. The down-hole communication comes
from the DSP, and it is amplified and sent directly to the cable.
Power Supply Auxiliary Board (PSXD)

This card receives I2C signals from the USB44 board that control the outputs of the two
octal bus drivers. The outputs of these drivers are used as control bits to engage various
relays and switches throughout the panel. The I2C signals also control the output of IC3,
which supplies software control for the tool power supply.
The card also contains the tool current-sense amplifier and the line-voltage divider. The
outputs from these components drive the front-panel meters and are also routed to the
DAC circuitry on the USB44 board.
There is additional circuitry to control the polarity and the source of control to the tool
power supply.
Audio Board
This board consists of a high-pass filter with 3-dB point around 100 Hz followed by a
low-pass filter with 3-dB point around 20 kHz. The noise board has four outputs.
Maximum signal input to the DSP is +2.5 V DC. With a board input of 20 Vp-p, the
range1 output is 5 Vp-p with gain of 0.25. Range2 is set with a 2-Vp-p input with gain of
2.5. Range3 is 200 mV with gain of 25, and range4 is 20 mV with gain of 250. The
software finds the largest signal that is not saturated and uses a Fourier transform to
extract the signals in each frequency range.
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USBHUB Board
The CHIP is designed to be operated with a laptop PC over a USB port. The panel has a
built-in seven-port hub. The USBHUB board is mounted in the back of the CHIP. It
contains one up-link port and seven down-link ports. The up-link port is connected to
both the front and the rear of the CHIP. Relay K1 disconnects the back port when the
front one is used. The 5 V supplied by the host USB cable energizes the relay. If the PC
does not supply this voltage, it will be necessary to use the back port.
One port inside the panel is dedicated to the Warrior Software dongle. Three ports are
used to connect internal devices, such as the USB44 board and the DSP board and are
not available externally. Three ports are available for external devices, such as the
Warrior Depth and Tension panel, and plotters, which may be operated with a USB to
serial cable.
The USBHUB is operated as a generic device because it requires no programming.

When the PC is plugged into the CHIP, there will be a momentary pause as the Warrior
software recognizes the internal devices and downloads the software necessary to
operate them.
Ultra-Link Module Board (ULLM)

The Ultra-Link Board, manufactured by Sondex, Inc., is an after-market installation board
that is used to communicate with tools that are equipped with Sondex Ultra-Link
technology. Ultra Link is a type of telemetry used to link multiple tool sets together in one
string.
Telemetry Processing
Data is routed and processed through the various cards inside the CHIP before it is sent
to PC for interpretation by the Warrior software program. This section will describe how
each type of telemetry signal is processed and the path that it follows through the CHIP
panel.
The depth and tension data is the most basic of all the telemetry received by the CHIP
panel. It is also the most important measurement that is taken in any logging service.
The CHIP panel has two ways in which it can acquire depth and tension data. The first
method is by directly driving the depth and tension devices. This means that the CHIP
panel is directly connected to the device and provides the necessary power to run the
encoders or load cell. The second method is most commonly referred to as a “Slave”
feed. In this configuration, a depth/tension front-end device, such as the Kerr
Measurement systems panel, or the SDDP drives the encoders and load cell and sends
a separate feed of pulses or voltages to the CHIP.
Current models of both Wayne-Kerr Depth Panels, open- and cased-hole, are configured
for a slave-pulse output to the CHIP panel. When using a KMS depth panel, the panel
drives the encoders directly and sends a separate feed of pulses to the CHIP panel. The
CHIP panel then counts the pulses as it would if it were driving the encoders directly. In
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this configuration, bi-directional (two-way) communication does not exist between the
CHIP and the depth panel. Both panels are counting the pulses from the encoder
separately. Therefore, the user must ensure that any depth changes that need to be
made are done from the depth panel and then verified in the Warrior software to ensure
that both systems are on depth with each other.
When using a unit equipped with the Stand-Alone Depth Display Panel (SDDP), the
SDDP drives the encoders and load cells and then sends a data feed via a USB
interface to the CHIP. In this configuration, bi-directional communication exists between
the SDDP and the CHIP. Therefore, any depth changes made in either system will be
reflected in both.
In either mode, the depth and tension data is received and processed by the USB44
Board inside the CHIP and then sent to the PC via the USB Hub (see Fig. 3.3.5).
Note: User needs to check to ensure that the correct version of the National Instruments
USB_GPIB driver software is installed and operating correctly when using an
SDDP.
In the current release of the software, the auto position has been disabled. Tool power
must be applied via the potentiometers located on the front of the panel. Each
potentiometer controls a single polarity.
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Fig. 3.3.5—Tension and Depth Signal Block Diagram.
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CCL (Non-SDDP Equipped Systems)

The simplest form of telemetry processed by the CHIP is the analog CCL signal. This
processing path is used when the CSP1 or CSP7 is placed in the CCL position and a
shooting CCL is used.
Note: This signal flow is not for SDDP-processed CCL signals.

The CCL signal enters the CHIP through the passive CCL input connection, which is
connected directly to the CCL board. The CCL board applies any software filter and gain
to the signal and sends it to the USB44 board where it is sent across the USB bus to the
PC (see Fig. 3.3.6).
In this configuration, the user should be aware that any gain applied in the Warrior-
software controls will not have any affect on the strength of the signal being received.
For this reason, gain should be adjusted at the CSP before attempting to adjust software
gain.
Fig. 3.3.6—CCL Signal Block Diagram for Non-SDDP Equipped Systems.
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With an SDDP-equipped system, the signal path for the CCL signal is altered because
the CCL signal is routed through the SDDP before being passed on to the CHIP.
Note: The SDDP digitizes the CCL signal before sending it to the CHIP.
The user will need to adjust scales appropriately for collars to be displayed properly on a
log. The user needs to be cautious when applying software gains to the CCL signal
when configured in this manner. Gain and filtering is applied at the CSP and also at the
SDDP before the signal reaches the CHIP. For this reason, the user needs to check the
gain settings on the CSP and the SDDP before attempting to apply any software gain in
the Warrior software (see Fig. 3.3.7).
Additionally, the correct version of the National Instruments software driver for the USB-
GPIB device must be installed for any information to be received by the CHIP.
Fig. 3.3.7—CCL Signal Block Diagram SDDP Equipped Systems.
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When the CCL signal is received as part of a logging-tool telemetry frame, the signal
follows the same path as the entire frame and is separated at the ANASW Board and
sent to the CCL Board.
When the CSP is in the log position, the active channel is connected on the back of the
CSP and all tool telemetry is routed to the active-line connection on the back of the
CHIP. The first card the signal comes in contact with is the Pre-Relays (Prelays) board
where line power and telemetry flow is controlled. The Prelays board passes the signal
through the Applied Free-Point Board and then to the Analog Switch Interface Board
(ANASW), where tool power is decoupled from the telemetry signal. At this point, the
CCL signal is sent to the CCL board for processing. The CCL board passes the CCL
signal to the USB44 board, and the signal is then sent across the USB bus to the PC
(see Fig. 3.3.8).
Fig. 3.3.8—CCL Signal Block Diagram, CSP in “LOG” Position.
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Bi-Polar Telemetry (Gamma-Ray Neutron)

The next form of telemetry that is received and processed by the CHIP is Bi-Polar, more
commonly referred to as analog telemetry. This type of telemetry is most commonly
used by tools, such as the Gamma Perforator and the Hostile-Gamma Neutron Tool. It is
known as Bi-Polar telemetry because it sends data in the form of positive and negative
pulses in a sinusoidal (analog) wave.
The telemetry signal enters the CHIP from the active (Log Mode) channel and first
enters the Prelays board. The Prelays board routes the telemetry through the Free-Point
board and to the ANASW board where tool power is decoupled from the signal. The
ANASW board routes the signal to the CBL1D and CBL02 boards, where sync-pulse
detection, gains, and filters are applied. The data is then passed to the AuxDSP board
for processing and then passed to the DSP where it is sent to the USB Hub. The USB
hub routes the data along the USB bus to the PC (see Fig. 3.3.9).
Fig. 3.3.9—Bi-Polar Telemetry Block Diagram.
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Cement Bond Log Telemetry

Telemetry from a cement-bond tool is processed in the same manner as all other types
of active telemetry. The signal from the tool will enter the CHIP on the active channel via
the UHF or BNC connection, which is connected to the Prelays board. The Prelays
board will pass the signal through the Applied Free-Point board to the ANASW board,
where tool power is decoupled from the signal. The ANASW will then route the signal to
the appropriate board for processing. Primarily, the signal will be sent to the CBL1D
card, where it is divided into three parts: Sync, Sonic, and Aux. The CBL1D card will
apply gains as directed by the software and then route the Sync signal to the CBL02
card for sync-pulse detection. The remaining portions Sonic and Aux will be processed
in by the CBL1D card. Aux channel is for processing gamma-ray and neutron-pulse
signals. Aux gain will be applied to the signal, and it will then be routed to the Aux DSP
for processing. The CBL1D card identifies the 3-ft and 5-ft, and radial sonic data applies
the specified gains and routes the data to the Aux DSP for processing. The Aux DSP will
then route the data to the DSP, and the DSP will send the data to the RMPC via the
USB hub (see Fig. 3.3.10).
Fig. 3.3.10—Cement Bond Log Telemetry Block Diagram.
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MUXB2 (Uplink)
The Manchester (MUXB) telemetry format is a form of digital telemetry. (Telemetry will
be discussed later in this chapter). This type of telemetry is used in services, such as
Pulsed-Neutron Logging. The signal enters the CHIP via the UHF or BNC line
connection and is processed through the Prelays board, where it is passed through the
Applied Free-Point board to the ANASW board. The ANASW board routes the data to
the CBL1D, where gains and filters are applied. The signal is then sent to the AuxDSP
for decoding and processing. The AuxDSP sends the data to the DSP, where it is then
sent to the PC via the USB bus (see Fig. 3.3.11).
Fig. 3.3.11—MUXB2 Uplink Block Diagram.
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MUXB2 (Downlink)
Downlink commands are sent to the tool string from the DSP to the Tela board. The Tela
Board conditions and formats the commands and relays, then directly to the cable via
the Prelays board (see Fig. 3.3.12).
Fig. 3.3.12—MUXB2 Downlink Block Diagram.
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Ruggedized Rack-Mounted Portable Computer

(RMPC)
The RMPC is the platform for the Warrior Logging Software system. The RMPC
performs all standard computing functions, interfaces with the Printrex Thermal Plotter,
and is used for the temporary storage of the logging data.
The RMPC is designed to fit a standard 19-in. electronics rack and occupies a 2-unit
height. It comes with either an Intel or AMD processor and 1 GB of RAM. Features
include:
1. Custom mounting brackets for all internal components. Custom brackets are
designed to absorb the vibrations incurred during transport.
2. 2 X 60-GB SATA mirrored hard drives
3. Standard DVD/CD rewritable drive
4. 400-W Power Supply
5. 1 GB of DDR2 533-MHz System Memory (2 X 512-MB Modules)
6. 4-Port USB Hub
7. PS2 Mouse and Keyboard Connections
8. 1 X 10/100/1000 Ethernet Card mounted on motherboard
9. 1 X 10/100/1000 PCI Ethernet Card
10. Intel PCI Express Dual Head Graphics Display Adapter
11. Positive pressure cooling system
Printrex 840 DL/G

The printrex thermal plotter is the standard output printing device installed in all logging
units. It is a thermal-printing unit designed to use 8.75-ft X 6.25-in. Thermal Fanfold
Paper. Thermal roll scratch log paper can also be used with the optional roller-support
bar. Two calibrations are required for this plotter to function correctly. The first calibration
is for the first page-detection sensor. Refer to the OEB for calibration instructions. The
second calibration must be performed in the Warrior Logging Software.
The plotter can be installed in two configurations. Most cased-hole logging units directly
connect to the plotter via a standard LPT printer cable from the RMPC. A print server
may also be used to interface with the plotter. In this configuration, the plotter is set up in
the Windows software as a network printer connected across the print server. The print
server communicates with the RMPC via the private Ethernet controller along a CAT5
(RJ45) cable. The print server enables a unit to have multiple plotters installed.
12/29/2008 289
Flat Panel Monitor

All logging units are equipped with a minimum of one 20-in. LCD display for user
interface and graphic display. Care should be taken so as to not to expose the monitor’s
to physical pressure on the front of the screen, as contact could damage the liquid
crystals. The RMPC is capable of supporting two monitors in either the clone mode or
split-screen display modes.
Cable Shooting Panel (CSP)

The Cable Shooting Panel (CSP) is the primary interface between the cable
conductor(s) and the surface-acquisition systems. This panel serves several functions:
1. Provides various levels of communication control

2. Supplies necessary power to fire-explosive devices
3. Provides a safety barrier when using explosive devices
In this chapter, we will discuss the construction guidelines, design, function, operation,
and basic PM-1 of the Cable Shooting Panel. The Cable Shooting Panel is a critical
piece of equipment that must be maintained and fully functional for each job. Wireline
operations should not be performed with a faulty CSP.
Design and Features

In response to several explosive incidents within the industry, the American Petroleum
Institute published Recommended Practice 67: Recommended Practice for Oilfield
Explosives Safety. This document outlined basic operational and equipment design
tenants that should be followed when using explosives in the oilfield. Section 5 of API
RP 67 outlines specific guidelines for the function and design of a Cable Shooting Panel
(CSP).
Currently, Halliburton uses the CSP 1 (Fig. 3.3.13) and 7 (Fig. 3.3.14) and the Probe
Tools, WSP 1 (Fig. 3.3.15) and 7 (Fig. 3.3.16). All four panels conform to the guidelines
established in RP 67.
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Although each panel may vary in control position and type, each panel will be equipped
with the following:
1. Cable Safety Switch (CSS)

2. Variac
3. Power Switch
4. At least one spring-loaded switch (Trigger)
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter
7. CCL Gain Control
8. CCL Meter
9. Shooting Polarity Selector
Fig. 3.3.13—CSP 1.
Fig. 3.3.14—CSP 7.
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Fig. 3.3.15—Probe WSP 1.
Fig. 3.3.16—Probe WSP 7.
292 12/29/2008
Safe Mode
API RP 67 Section 5 states that a Cable Shooting Panel should have several design
features to enable the safe use of explosives in the oilfield. RP 67 refers to the CSP as
the Cable Safety Circuit. These features are:
1. The CSP should be maintained inside the electric Wireline unit.

2. When in safe mode, the cable circuit shall open all cable connectors from the electric
Wireline unit circuits, and all conductors shall be shunted to armor through a nominal
resistance of 5,000 Ω. This resistance shall be provided by a minimum of two similar
resistors in parallel with the net resistance being 5,000 Ω. See Fig. 3.3.17.
3. The SAFE mode shall be assured with a lockout feature.
4. Electrical continuity shall exist from the cable safety circuit to the cable conductor,
and the wiring providing this continuity shall have mechanical protection.
Fig. 3.3.17—CSS in SAFE Position.
12/29/2008 293
Shoot Mode
When the Cable Shooting Panel Safety Switch (CSS) is in the shoot mode, the cable
conductors are connected directly to the shooting circuit inside the CSP. This circuit is
what provides the electrical power for firing an explosive device. While in this position,
the line connection to the CCL is shunted to ground, and the connection to the surface-
acquisition systems is open. This protects the CCL Filter/Amplifier circuit and the
surface-acquisition systems from the high voltages required to fire an explosive device.
See Fig. 3.3.18.
API RP 67 Section 5 states that the firing system shall incorporate the following features
to protect oil-field personnel from accidental detonation of an explosive device while on
surface. See Fig. 3.3.19. These features are:
1. At least three deliberate actions shall be required to fire the explosive device.
2. At least one action shall require the use of two hands.
3. At least one action shall involve a spring-loaded switch.
Fig. 3.3.18—CSS in SHOOT Position.
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Fig. 3.3.19—CSP 1.
Using Fig. 3.3.19 for reference, shooting power would be applied by:
1. Placing the CSS in the SHOOT position

2. Enabling the power switch
3. Selecting the appropriate polarity
4. Lifting spring loaded switch covers
5. Depressing both spring-loaded switches simultaneously and maintaining constant
upward pressure.
6. Applying power by adjusting the Variac slowly.
Shooting Circuit
The CSP provides power to an explosive device via the shooting circuit located inside
the CSP. Via the shooting circuit, the CSP is capable of providing up to 690 V DC of
power. The following section will explain how this power is generated.
A standard logging unit is equipped with a 123-V AC generator that is used to provide
power to the various electronic components in the instrument cab. However, this
presents a problem for applying power to an explosive device. The first problem being
that we do not use AC voltage to fire any explosive device. The second being that the
generator does not provide sufficient power in most cases to fire an explosive initiator
attached to Wireline. Therefore, the voltage supplied by the AC generator must be
amplified and converted to DC power for use with explosive devices. This process is
performed by the CSP Shooting Circuit in the following manner. See Fig. 3.3.20.
All logging units today route power from the AC generator to a standard 115-V AC wall
socket. Therefore, the maximum amount of AC power that the CSP has to draw from is
115 V AC . This power is made available when the power switch on the CSP is enabled.
The variac controls are scaled from 0 to 100%. This means that the variac will allow the
user to apply to the shooting circuit a range of 1 to 100% of the available power.
When the user depresses the first trigger (Left), it will open the pathway to the
transformer located outside of the CSP. The transformer multiplies the power output by a
ratio of 1:4. This means that for every volt sent to the transformer, it will output 4 V.
12/29/2008 295
The CSP voltmeter measures the AC voltage output of the transformer. A common
mistake that most users make is viewing the voltage reading on the CSP voltmeter as
being the DC voltage that is received at the end of tool string. This is not the case. The
CSP voltmeter exists in line after the transformer and before the rectifier. Therefore, it
only responds to the AC voltage output of the transformer.
When the user depresses the second trigger (Right), the circuit pathway is open to the
full-wave rectifier. The rectifier converts the AC-power output from the transformer to
DC. The DC voltage from the rectifier is then routed through a filter-capacitor circuit and
out of the CSP.
To calculate the amount of DC voltage that we can receive at the cable head from the
CSP, multiply the AC-voltage value observed on the CSP voltmeter by a factor of 1.41. It
is important for the EUIC to understand the power-application functions of the CSP in
order to properly check the CSP and also ensure that it can provide the appropriate
amount of power needed to initiate any explosive device.
The CSP ammeter responds to any load placed on the shooting circuit from the output
side of the panel. Thus, the ammeter responds to the resistance of all elements that are
connected to the CSP. This begins with the Wireline and includes any equipment
attached to the cable head and an explosive initiator. Therefore, when we calculate
expected current values, they will be based on DC-voltage values. This is important for
the user to understand because any current value observed on the CSP ammeter will be
the result of resistance provided by elements outside of the panel, and the user should
know the expected values that elements will produce if they are fully functional and
operating correctly. This will enable the user to detect any voltage leakage or equipment
failures during the explosive-check fire procedure.
296 12/29/2008
Fig. 3.3.20—CSP Shooting Circuit Block Diagram.
Log Mode
When the CSP is placed in the “LOG” position, then the circuit pathway from the cable to
the surface acquisition system is connected. See Fig. 3.3.21.
Fig. 3.3.21—CSP Log Mode Block Diagram.
12/29/2008 297
This circuit pathway consists of two output connections. The first output is commonly
referred to as the active channel because this pathway allows for bi-directional
communication between the surface-acquisition system (CHIP/DIMP) and the cable. The
second pathway is the CCL output, which is simply a passive connection to the CHIP
panel that allows for the reception of an analog CCL signal. It is important to note that
the CCL-signal circuit includes an amplifier and filter. This allows the user to directly
adjust the amplification (Gain) of the CCL signal received from the cable. Therefore, gain
adjustments for a poor CCL signal should be made here before attempting to adjust any
software gains.
CCL Mode
When the CSP is placed in the “CCL” position, the pathway from the cable to the passive
CCL output is connected (see Fig. 3.3.22). It is important to note that the active-channel
connection to the surface-acquisition system is not connected when in CCL Mode. This
mode is used for the detection of a CCL signal coming from a perforating CCL (Passive
CCL) only.
Fig. 3.3.22—CSP CCL Mode Block Diagram.
298 12/29/2008
Multi-Conductor Shooting Panel

The seven-conductor or multi-conductor shooting panel has all of the same features and
functions of a mono-cable shooting panel plus added features for specific open-hole
explosive devices.
The added features include conductor selection for firing and CCL signal, line monitor
and select for explosive coring, and variable frequency voltage selection for using the
releasable Wireline cable head.
Note: All the safety-feature requirements of API RP 67 exist in the CSP7/WSP7 for each
conductor.
When in “SAFE” mode, all conductor connections to the surface-acquisition systems are
opened, and all conductors are shunted to ground through individual sets of 10-kΩ
resistors in parallel. When in “SHOOT” mode, each conductor can be connected to the
shooting circuit via the line-select switch.
12/29/2008 299
300 12/29/2008
Section 4
Delays
To effectively evaluate an oil- or gas-bearing reservoir, it is necessary to take multiple

measurements from several sensors. It is also beneficial for our client to be able to place
as many instruments as possible in a single tool string. The previous section on
telemetry forms stated that the primary limiting factor for multiple-sensor tool strings was
the telemetry. In addition to that factor, the electronics packages required to run those
sensors, design, weight and size of the sensor also make it impractical to place all of the
sensors at the same physical location on the logging tool. Therefore, our entire logging
tool strings are composed of multiple-logging sensors stacked on top of each other to
form a single vertical string. This configuration of sensors presents the problem of
placing all of the sensor data on depth with each other to ensure that the data acquired
by each sensor corresponds to the same formation or well-bore characteristic in regard
to physical position in the well.
Given the physical position of the sensor in relation to the physics of the wellbore, a
means had to be developed to accomplish depth matching of the sensors. Therefore,
processes were created in the logging software to adjust the data being received in
relation to time in order to place all of the data on depth. This process is known as
sensor “Delay” or “Offset”. When the tools are combined in the software, a tool-string
zero point is defined, and then distances are established for each sensor from the tool
zero point. The software can then delay the incoming data and align it accordingly in
relation to time and distance. The example below depicts the results if the sensor data
was not delayed. Notice the offset curves in the log.
12/29/2008 301
Fig. 3.4.1—Incorrect Delays.
With the sensor data properly delayed by the software, all of the data would align
correctly and match the well-bore characteristic being measured. Fig. 3.4.2 depicts a log
with properly delayed tool sensors.
302 12/29/2008
Fig. 3.4.2—Correct Delays.
It is important for the logging engineer to ensure that the offsets are properly declared in
the logging software and to cross check the log results with what is declared in the
logging software. Improperly-declared offsets will result in poor log-quality output. In the
case of perforating, incorrectly-declared offsets or tool zero will result in off-depth
perforating.
12/29/2008 303
Software Offsets (Delays)

The warrior software calculates the offsets to be used on a per tool basis. This means
that each tool has an offset established for the sensors that it contains. Sensor offsets
are always defined in distance to the sensor from the bottom of the tool. As each tool is
added into the tool string in the software, Warrior calculates a new total-offset distance
from the tool zero declared in the service setup.
To ensure proper offset establishment, each tool must be checked in the

WarriorUtilitiesTools Editor menu. The first tab labeled “Model” is where the correct
overall tool dimensions should be entered. Overall tool length is extremely critical. The
tool length should be cross-checked with manufacturer’s specifications and also physical
dimensions measured by the logging engineer. In some cases, the manufacturer’s tool
diagrams will not include bottom-nose assemblies or other jewelry added to the bottom
of the tool.
Fig. 3.4.3—Establish Correct Tool Length in Tools Editor Menu.
304 12/29/2008
The next tab, “Software,” allows the user to define the offset distance from the bottom of
the individual tool to the sensor. The offset value should be declared according to the
manufacturer’s specifications. Because the logging engineer cannot see the exact center
of the sensor through the tool housing, the manufacturer provides these distances in the
tool diagram located in the FOM for the tool. This distance should be verified by the
logging engineer by physically measuring the distance.
Fig. 3.4.4—Establish Correct Offset in the Tools Editor Menu Software Tab.
Once each tool has been checked in the tools editor, the logging engineer should then
combine the tools as necessary in the Warrior Tool String Editor, which loads when the
user declares a service to be used.
As each tool is added, the software calculates a new combined offset. Fig. 3.4.5 shows
a Cement Bond Log tool sonic sonde only. Notice the offsets for the acoustic receivers
are 3 ft and 4 ft, respectively. Fig. 3.4.6 depicts the same CBL tool with the GR/CCL
section added. Notice that the software took into account a new tool being added to the
bottom of the string and adjusted the sensor offsets accordingly.
12/29/2008 305
Fig. 3.4.5—Cement Bond Log Tool Sonic Sonde Only.
306 12/29/2008
Fig. 3.4.6—CBL Tool with the GR/CCL.
The Warrior software calculates offsets based on the distance that the sensor is spaced
away from the declared tool-zero point. Tool zero is established in the Warrior service
file. To check the declared tool zero, go to WarriorUtilitiesEdit Logging Services
menu. Select the service, and the tool zero will be declared in the upper right-hand
portion of the menu window.
12/29/2008 307
Fig. 3.4.7—Declare the Zero Point for the Tools String in the Services Editor Menu.
Proper declaration of offsets is essential to performing a correct log. Sensor offsets

should be checked and verified both in the software and on the logging tool prior to each
logging service performed.
308 12/29/2008

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WIRELINE AND PERFORATING

Cased Hole Associate Field Professional

© Copyright 2008 Halliburton Company

All Rights Reserved.

Halliburton Energy Services Training Center

Cased-Hole Associate Field Professional Course Manual Vol. I

Cement Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 153

Example #1 ............................................................................................................................................ 210

Bi-Polar Telemetry (Gamma-Ray Neutron) ...................................................................................... 285

Cased-Hole Associate Field

Course Manual Volume I

Reference No. WPS-TD-20002

© Copyright 2008 Halliburton Company

All Rights Reserved.

This document was created in support of the Halliburton Wireline and

Halliburton Energy Services Training Center

Section 1 Basic Petroleum Geology—This section provides an overview of geological

Section 2 Open-Hole Interpretation for Cased-Hole Field Professionals—This

Appendix A Chemical Properties of Hydrocarbons—Discussion of the four

Basic Petroleum Geology

 Define Geology and how it applies to the petroleum industry.

Fig. 1.1.1—Collision of Material Fig. 1.1.2—Compression of Material.

Fig. 1.1.3—Disintegration of Radioactive Elements.

Fig. 1.1.4—Cross-Sectional View of the Earth Showing its Internal Structure.

There are two types of weathering:

• Physical—occurs when solid rock is fragmented by physical processes that do

• Chemical—occurs when minerals in a rock are chemically altered or dissolved.

Fig. 1.1.5—Cross-Sectional View of Weathering and Erosion.

Weathering and erosion are closely interrelated geological processes. As a rock

Three Basic Rock Types

Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical

Fig. 1.1.6—The Rock Cycle.

1. The Carbon-14 technique for organic materials.

Basic Age-Dating Principles

Fig. 1.1.8—Correlation of Strata.

By combining faunal succession and stratigraphic sequences, geologists can correlate

Fig. 1.1.9—Geologic Time Scale.

Distribution of Oil and Gas Fields Based on

Table 1.1.1—Distribution of Discovered Oil and Gas

Geologic Age % of Fields

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical or Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

Carbonates are sediments formed by a mineral compound characterized by a

Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation

Note: Organically-rich, black-colored shales deposited in a quiet marine, oxygen-

Basic Hydrocarbon Chemistry

Five Major Types of Hydrocarbons of Interest to

Kerogen is of no commercial significance except where it is so abundant (greater than

Fig. 1.1.10—Shale Rock Composition.

Fig. 1.1.11—Thermal Maturity Indicators.

Fig. 1.1.12—Hydrocarbon Formation as a Function of the Burial of the Source

Sandstone reservoirs are generally created by the accumulation of large amounts of

Carbonate reservoirs are created in marine, sedimentary environments with little or no

Fig. 1.1.13—Cross-Section of Fig. 1.1.14—Cross-Section of

Abundance Of Sedimentary Formations

Graph 1.1.2—Abundance of Sedimentary Formations.

Production from Sedimentary Reservoirs

Graph 1.1.3—Production from Sedimentary Reservoirs.

Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir

Shallow reservoir—Created by the folding of relatively thick, moderately compacted

Deep reservoir—Typically created by severe faulting. The hydrocarbons would be less

Area and Thickness

volume of void space

Fig. 1.1.16—Porous Sandstone.

Primary Porosity—Amount of pore space present in the sediment at the time of

Secondary Porosity—Post-depositional porosity. Such porosity results from