Section 3: Neuroscience and Behaviour

1. Describe the way in which neurons communicate with each other.

Neurons communicate with each other via electrical events called ‘action potentials’ and
chemical neurotransmitters. At the junction between two neurons (synapse), an action
potential causes neuron A to release a chemical neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter
can either help (excite) or hinder (inhibit) neuron B from firing its own action potential.
In an intact brain, the balance of hundreds of excitatory and inhibitory inputs to a neuron
determines whether an action potential will result.
Neurons differ, but all are variations on the same theme. Each consists of a cell body and
its branching fibers. The often-bushy dendrite fibers receive and integrate information,
conducting it toward the cell body (Stuart & Spruston, 2015). From there, the cell’s
single lengthy axon fiber passes the message through its terminal branches to other
neurons or to muscles or glands. Dendrites listen. Axons speak.

Figure 1 Darrel Warren – Slide Player https://slideplayer.com/slide/5904809/

2. Which neurotransmitters regulate which aspects of behaviour?

Fig 2. Myers/DeWall, Psychology, 12e

3. Explain the function of the peripheral nervous system, autonomic nervous system and
endocrine system.

The peripheral nervous system is made up of thick bundles of axons, called nerves,
carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses
in the periphery of the body (i.e., everything outside the CNS). The PNS has two major
subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system is associated with activities traditionally thought of as

conscious or voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to
and from the CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons. Motor
neurons, carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles, are efferent fibers (efferent
 means “moving away from”). Sensory neurons, carrying sensory information to the CNS,
are afferent fibers (afferent means “moving toward”). Each nerve is basically a two-way
superhighway, containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent.

The autonomic nervous system controls our internal organs and glands and is generally
considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into
the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic nervous system is
involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities; the parasympathetic nervous
system is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. The two
systems have complementary functions, operating in tandem to maintain the body’s
homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such
as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels. (Lumen)

The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances
known as hormones. Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that
must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters,
which are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors, hormones are secreted
into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain
receptors for them. Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are localized, the effects of
hormones are widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer
lasting. (Lumen)

4. Distinguish between afferent and efferent nerves and genotype and phenotype

Afferent and efferent neurons connect the central nervous system (CNS) to produce a
signal transmission pathway, which coordinates functions in the body. Afferent neurons
are also known as sensory neurons, and efferent neurons are also known as motor
neurons. The main difference between afferent and efferent is that afferent refers to the
neurons carrying signals from sensory perceptions towards the CNS while efferent refers
to the neurons carrying signals from the CNS to the effector organs. (PEDIAA, 2017)

The phenotype is the physical appearance of an organism, while the Genotype is the
genetic composition of an organism. Phenotype are observable and are the expression of
the genes of an individual. So even the organism with the same species may differ, with a
minute difference in their genotype. This is the main difference between the two. (Bio
Differences, 2018)

5. Describe the three major regions of the human’s brain and their functions.

The three major regions of the human’s brain

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The
forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic
system). The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of
the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to
together as the brainstem.

The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated
with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into
four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal
lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex:

Frontal lobes the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead;
involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and
judgments.

Parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at

the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and
body position.

Occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at

the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual
fields.

Temporal lobes the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears;
includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the
opposite ear. (Myers/DeWall, Psychology, 12e)

Fig. 3 Google Images

The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has
two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated
with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found
buried within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old.
This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. Here is a
visual representation of this system, from a midsagittal view of the human brain:

Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible
for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists
say that this is the "simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as
reptiles (who appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem.
6. What did split brain research reveal about the hemispheres of the brain?

Scientific study on the split-brain phenomenon really began during the early 1960s when
doctors performed the first corpus callosotomy. This is a surgical procedure that severs
part or all of the corpus callosum and can result in partial or complete disconnection
between the two brain hemispheres. This initial surgery was performed to control grand
mal seizures and was considered a great success. However, when the corpus callosum is
severed, our two brain hemispheres can no longer communicate with one another as they
do in a normal brain. This lack of communicative ability led scientists to investigate how
tasks were divided within the brain hemispheres. (Study.com, Corsini, Chp 11).

7. How do hormones differ from neurotransmitters?

Hormones and neurotransmitters are different chemical messengers, the former produced
by the endocrine glands and the latter by the nervous system.

Hormones are usually secreted from the endocrine system and released into the
bloodstream, but they act on distant target cells. Some hormones, like melatonin and
cortisol, are actually produced in the brain, released in the blood, and affect other parts of
the body.
 On the other hand, neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic nerve terminal in
the brain. They move across the synaptic cleft, a small space between two adjacent
neurons, and move to the next neuron (known as a postsynaptic neuron). There they bind
to specific receptors, causing changes in the electrical properties of target cells, which
can cause various postsynaptic effects. Neurotransmitters work locally, and their actions
are very fast.

Both hormones and neurotransmitters influence our thoughts and motivations, as well as
our ability to learn and concentrate. However, neurotransmitters’ actions are short-lived
while hormones act for longer periods of time. Furthermore, neurotransmitters can affect
both voluntary actions (eating, bathing, walking) and involuntary actions (breathing,
blinking). Hormones in the endocrine system always work involuntarily. (BioChemists,
2018)

8. What are some aspects of behaviour that are regulated by hormones?

In terms of their behaviour, one can think of humans and other animals conceptually as
comprised of three interacting components: (1) input systems (sensory systems), (2)
integrators (the central nervous system), and (3) output systems, or effectors (e.g.,
muscles). Hormones do not cause behavioural changes. Rather, hormones influence these
three systems so that specific stimuli are more likely to elicit certain responses in the
appropriate behavioural or social context. In other words, hormones change the
probability that a particular behaviour will be emitted in the appropriate situation. This is
a critical distinction that can affect how we think of hormone-behaviour relationships.

Oestrogen
Oestrogen has myriad effects on the brain and body. Those relevant to social
psychologists include pathology (depression, borderline personality disorder), verbal
memory, motivation for sex, and emotional jealousy. The brain has estrogenic receptors,
and estrogenic has the direct effect of raising the levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
This is important because serotonin is important to understanding depression, and
perhaps schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder as well. Oestrogen
supplementation has been shown to alter the symptom expression of these disorders,
whose courses and prevalence rates are different for males and females. As for cognition,
several types of research suggest that estrogenic may increase performance on tasks that
can be related to verbal skills or verbal memory and may decrease performance on certain
tests of spatial skills.

Testosterone
Although it has been widely believed that testosterone promotes aggression, this is only
partially true. The best research suggests that testosterone is more related to a desire for
social dominance and power, rather than aggression per se (although desire for power
may lead to aggression at times). Other research suggests that testosterone increases sex
drive. As for cognition, several types of research support that testosterone has some effect
on the expression of spatial skills, both organizational and circulating levels. Most
research on circulating levels suggests that the low male range is optimal for enhancing
spatial skills.

Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Oxytocin acts directly on both the nucleus accumbent and amygdala and increases after
sex, promoting a feeling of bonding. Oxytocin has also been found to increase positive
feelings about other people. Vasopressin levels and receptors within the brain for this
hormone are higher in species in which males and females form monogamous
relationships and who provide care for their young. Both of these hormones seem to
promote affiliation needs in humans. These hormones increase when a person falls in
love. Animal research suggests that these hormones are actually causing affiliative
behaviour and social bonding since experimentally altering these levels of these
hormones leads to major changes in pair bonding and parenting behaviours. Many social
psychologists think of these as being attachment hormones, and oxytocin is sometimes
called the mothering hormone.

Reciprocal Effects
It is important to realize that hormone-behaviour effects are not one-way. This means that
hormone levels affect behaviour, but behaviour also affects hormone levels. The best
example of this might be the relationship with testosterone and competitive behaviour.
Raising testosterone levels seems to make animals more competitive, and with enough of
a boost, this translates into an increase in fighting behaviour. But, it is also true that being
in a competition has the effect of changing testosterone levels. It has been shown that
even competition by proxy, such as watching your favourite sport team win or watching a
movie character win an important battle, leading to an increase in power will cause a rise
in circulating testosterone levels. Thus, when psychologists find that circulating levels of
hormones are related to a behaviour of interest, they consider that the direction of cause
and effect may go both ways, and conclusions about whether the hormone is causing a
difference in behaviour are tentative without converging evidence in the form of
experimental designs. (Geary, D. C. (1998))
Bibliography

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https://biodifferences.com/difference-between-phenotype-and-genotype.html

Corsini, D. (2013-2019). Split Brain: Definition, Research & Experiment. Retrieved from Study.com:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/split-brain-definition-research-experiments.html

D.C, G. (1998). Hormones and Behavior. Retrieved from Psychology, American Psychological Association:
https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/control/hormones-and-behavior/

Lanka. (2017, July 10). Difference Between Afferent and Efferent. Retrieved from PEDIAA:
https://pediaa.com/difference-between-afferent-and-efferent/

Lumen. (n.d.). Lumen Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/the-endocrine-system/

Warren, D. (2016). Slideplayer. Retrieved from Slideplayer: https://slideplayer.com/slide/5904809/