Experiment .

01

Objective:

To Draw Layout of Manufacturing Processes Lab and investigate different

types and importance of Layout.

Theory:

Layout and its types

Layout refers to the arrangement of physical facilities such as machinery, equipment, furniture
etc. within the facility building in such a manner so as to have quickest flow of material at the
lowest cost and with the least wastage of time.

Importance

Layout is an important decision as it represents long-term commitment. An ideal layout should

provide the optimum relationship among output, floor area and manufacturing process. It
facilitates the production process, minimizes material handling, time and cost, and allows
flexibility of operations, easy production flow, makes economic use of the building, promotes
effective utilization of manpower, and provides for employee’s convenience safety, comfort at
work, maximum exposure to natural light and ventilation. It is also important because it affects
the flow of material and processes, labor efficiency, supervision and control, use of space and
expansion possibilities etc.

Essentials

An efficient layout is one that can be instrumental in achieving the following objectives;
Proper and efficient utilization of available floor space
 To ensure that work proceeds from one point to another point without any delay e.g. in
Manufacturing facilities.
 Provide enough production capacity
 Reduce material handling cost
 Reduce hazards to personnel
 Utilize labor efficiently
 Increase employee morale
 Reduce accidents
 Provide for volume and product flexibility
 Provide ease of supervision and control
  Provide for employee safety and health

 Allow ease of maintenance

 Allow high machine or equipment utilization
 Improve productivity

Types of Layout

As discussed so for the factory layout facilitates the arrangement of machines, equipment and
other physical facilities in a planned manner within the factory premises. An entrepreneur or
production engineer must possess an expertise to lay down a proper layout for new or existing
plants. It differs from plant to plant, from location to location and from industry to industry. But
the basic principles governing factory layout are more or less same. As far as small business is
concerned, it requires a smaller area or space and can be located in any kind of building as long
as the space is available and it is convenient.

In case of manufacturing units, factory layout may be of four types:

 Product or line layout

 Process or functional layout
 Fixed position or location layout
 Combined or line layout

Product or line Layout

Under this, machines and equipment are arranged in one line depending upon the sequence of
operation required for the product. The materials move from one workstation to another
sequentially without any backtracking or deviation. Under this, machines are grouped in one
sequence. Therefore materials are fed into the first machine and finished goods travel
automatically from machine to machine, the output of one machine becoming input of the next,
e.g. in a paper mill, bamboos are fed into the machine at one end and paper comes out at the
other end. The raw material moves very fast from one workstation to other station with a
minimum work in progress storage and material handling. The grouping of machines should be
done keeping in mind the following general principles:

a) All the machine tools or other items of equipment must be placed at the point demanded
by sequence of operations.
b) There should not be any points where one line crosses another line.
c) Materials may be fed where they are required for assembly but not necessarily at one
point.
d) All the operations including assembly, testing packing must be included in the line.
Process Layout

In this type of layout machines of similar type are arranged together at one place. E.g. Machines
performing drilling operations are arranged in the drilling department, machines performing
casting operations be grouped in the casting department. Therefore the machines are installed in
the plants, which follow the process layout. Hence, such layouts typically have drilling
department, milling department welding department, heating department and painting
department etc. The process or functional layout is followed from historical period. It evolved
from the handicraft method of production. The work has to be allocated to each department in
such a way that no machines are chosen to do as many different job as possible i.e. the emphasis
is on general purpose machines. The grouping of machines according to the process has to be
done keeping in mind the following principles:

a) The distance between departments should be as short as possible for avoiding long
distance movement of materials
b) The departments should be in sequence of operations
c) The arrangement should be convenient for inspection and supervision.

Fixed Position or Location Layout

In this type of layout, the major product being produced is fixed at one location. Equipment labor
and components are moved to that location. All facilities are brought and arranged around one
work center. This type of layout is not relevant for small scale entrepreneur or producers.

Combined layout

Certain manufacturing units may require all three processes namely intermittent process the
continuous process and the representative process combined process. In most of industries, only
a product layout or process layout process or fixed location layout does not exist. Thus, in
manufacturing concerns where several products are produced in repeated numbers with no
likelihood of continuous production, combined layout is followed. Generally a combination of
the product and process layout or other combination are found, in practice, e.g. for industries
involving the fabrication of parts and assembly, fabrication tends to employ the process layout,
while the assembly areas often employ the product layout. In soap, manufacturing, plant, the
machinery manufacturing soap is arranged on the product line principle, but ancillary services
such as heating, the manufacturing of glycerin, the power house, the water treatment plant etc.
are arranged on a functional basis.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LAYOUT

While deciding his factory or unit or establishment or store, a small-scale businessman or

Production Engineer should keep the following factors in mind:

 Factory building: The nature and size of the building determines the floor space available
for layout. While designing the special requirements, e.g. air conditioning, dust control, humidity
control etc. must be kept in mind.
 Nature of product: Product layout is suitable for uniform products whereas process layout
is more appropriate for custom-made products.

 Production process: In assembly line industries, product layout is better. In job order or
intermittent manufacturing on the other hand, process layout is desirable.
 Type of machinery: General purpose machines are often arranged as per process layout
while special purpose machines are arranged according to product layout.
 Repairs and maintenance: Machines should be so arranged that adequate space is
available between them for movement of equipment and people required for repairing the
machines.

 Human needs: Adequate arrangement should be made for cloakroom, washroom, lockers,
drinking water, toilets and other employee facilities, proper provision should be made for
disposal of effluents, if any.
 Plant environment: Heat, light, noise, ventilation and other aspects should be duly
considered, e.g. paint shops and plating section should be located be in another hall so that
dangerous fumes can be removed through proper ventilation etc. Adequate safety arrangement
should also be made.

Thus, the layout should be conducive to health and safety of employees. It should ensure free and
efficient flow of men and materials. Future expansion and diversification may also be considered
while planning the factory layout.

Dynamics of Plant Layout

Plant layout is a dynamic rather than a static concept meaning thereby if once done it is not
permanent in nature rather improvement or revision in the existing plant layout must be made by
keeping a track with development of new machines or equipment, improvements in
manufacturing process, changes in materials handling devices etc. But any revision in layout
must be made only when the savings resulting from revision exceed the costs involved in such
revision. Revision in plant layout may become necessary on account of the following reasons:

 Increase in the output of the existing product

 Introduction of a new product and diversification
 Technological advancements in machinery, material, processes, product design, fuel etc.
 Deficiencies in the layout unnoticed by the layout engineer in the beginning.
 Experiment No.02

Objective

To demonstrate the Universal Milling Machine (AJUM 300) and its different
parts with functions.

Introduction

Milling is a process of removing metal by feeding the work against a rotating multipoint cutter.
The machine tool intended for this purpose is known as milling machine. Milling machine is
used for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal
threads, and helical surfaces of various cross-sections. The surface obtained by this machine tool
is superior in quality and more accurate and precise.

Types of Milling Machine

Most of the milling machine are constructed of column and knee structure and they are classified
into two main types namely Horizontal Milling Machine and Vertical Milling Machine. The
name Horizontal or Vertical is given to the machine by virtue of its spindle axis. Horizontal
machines can be further classified into Plain Horizontal and Universal Milling Machine. The
main difference between the two is that the table of a Universal Milling Machine
Can be set at an angle for helical milling while the table of a Plain Horizontal Milling Machine is
not.

2.1. Horizontal Milling Machine

Figure Below shows the main features of a Plain Horizontal Milling Machine.

Their functions are:-

a. Column

The column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gear box, the clutches, the shafts, the pumps,
and the shifting mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at a
selected speed.

b. Knee

The knee mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an up or
down motion along the Z axis.

c. Saddle
The saddle consists of two sideways, one on the top and one at the bottom located at 90º to each
other, for providing motions in the X or Y axes by means of lead screws.

d. Table

The table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X axis. On top of the table
are some T-slots for the mounting of work piece or clamping fixtures.

e. Arbor

The arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread end of an arbor
is of left hand helix.

f. Base

The base of the milling machine, along with the column, are the major structural components.
They hold, align, and support the rest of the machine.

g. Spindle

The spindle holds the tool and provides the actual tool rotation.

h. Spindle Reverse Lever

The position of this lever determines the spindle direction. The three positions of the handle are;
In, Middle, and Out. The middle position is the neutral position. Never move the spindle reverse
lever when the spindle is turning.
i. Spindle Speed Selection Lever

The spindle speed selection lever is used to change the spindle R.P.M. setting. This type of
machine has a geared head so the spindle speed can only be changed when the spindle is stopped.

j. Spindle Clutch Lever

The spindle clutch lever engages the spindle clutch to the motor. By manipulating the spindle
clutch lever the operator can start and stop the spindle.

k. Feed Rate Selection Lever

The feed rate selection lever is used to change the feed rate setting. The feed rate settings are
expressed in inches per minute.

l. Motor Start and Stop Buttons-

The motor start and stop buttons control the

power to the main motor for the machine

2.2. Vertical Milling Machine

Figure 3 shows a vertical milling machine

which is of similar construction to a horizontal
milling machine except that the spindle is
mounted in the vertical position.

Its additional features are:-

a. Milling head

The milling head consisting the spindle, the

motor, and the feed control unit is mounted on
a swivel base such that it can be set at any
angle to the table.
b. Ram

The ram on which the milling head is attached can be positioned forward and backward along the
sideways on the top of the column.

3. Size of a milling machine

The size of a milling machine is specified as follows

 The size of the table (length and width)

 The maximum lengths of longitudinal, cross and vertical travel of the table.
 Number of spindle speeds, number of feeds
 Spindle nose taper
 Power required
 Net weight of the machine
 The floor space required
 Type of the machine

4. Milling Operation - Peripheral milling

The machining is performed by the cutting edges on the periphery of the milling cutter.

It is classified under two headings

 Up milling
 Down milling
Up milling

In this method, the workpiece mounted on the table is fed against the direction of rotation of the
milling cutter. The cutting force is minimum during the beginning of the cut and maximum at the
end of cut. The thickness of chip is more at the end of the cut. As the cutting force is directed
upwards, it tends to lift the workpiece from the fixtures. A difficulty is felt in pouring coolant on
the cutting edge. Due to these reasons the quality of the surface obtained by this method is wavy.
This processes being safer is commonly used and sometimes called conventional milling.

Down milling

The workpiece mounted on the table is moved in the same direction as that of the rotation of the
milling cutter. The cutting force is maximum at the beginning and minimum at the end of cut.
The chip thickness is more at the beginning of the cut. The workpiece is not disturbed because of
the bite of the cutter on the work. The coolant directly reaches to the cutting point. So the quality
of surface finish obtained is high. Because of the backlash error between the feed screw of the
table and the nut, vibration is setup on the workpiece.

Work holding devices

For effective machining operations, the workpieces need to be properly and securely held on the
machine table. The following are the usual methods of holding work on the table:
 Plain vice
 Swivel vice
 Universal Vise
 V- Block
 Clamps, T bolts
 Angle Plate

5.7 Cutter holding devices

Depending on the design of the cutter, there are several methods of supporting milling cutters on
the machine spindle.

1) Arbor 2) Collet

3) Adapter 4) Screwed on cutters

5.7.1 Arbor

Milling cutters with central holes are mounted and keyed on a shaft called arbour. There are three
different types of arbour namely Pilot end arbour, ‘A’ type arbour and stub arbour.
5.7.2 Collet

It is a form of sleeve bushing used to

hold arbors or cutters having a
smaller shank than the spindle taper.
Collets are connected to the spindle
by a draw bolt and the rotary motion
is transmitted to the cutters. Fig. 5.10
shows a collet.

5.7.3 Adapters

Milling cutters having shanks are

generally mounted on adapters. The outside taper of the adapter conforms to the taper hole of the
spindle. The shank of the cutter fits into the taper hole of the adapter. An adapter is shown in Fig.
5.11

5.7.4 Screwed Arbor

The small cutters having threaded holes at the center are held by screwed arbors. It has a
threaded nose at one end and a taper shank at the other end. The shank of the arbor is mounted on
the spindle.

5.8 Standard milling cutters

There are different types of milling cutters used in a milling machine. A suitable milling cutter is
selected according to the need. They are

 Plain milling cutter

 Side milling cutter
 Metal slitting saw
 Angle milling cutter
 End milling cutter
 ‘T’ – Slot milling cutter
 Fly cutter
 Formed cutter
5.9 Milling machine operations

The following operations are performed using suitable milling cutters.

1. Plain milling 9. Flute milling

2. Face milling 10. Keyway milling
Drilling &
3. Side milling 11. reaming
4. Straddle milling 12. Boring
5. Angular milling 13. Gear cutting
6. Gang milling 14. Thread milling
7. Form milling 15. Cam milling
8. End milling
The most common milling operations include:

 Face milling
 Plain milling
 Angular milling
 Form milling

Face Milling

Face milling refers to milling operations in which the cutting tool’s axis of rotation is
perpendicular to the surface of the workpiece. The process employs face milling cutters which
have teeth both on the periphery and tool face, with the peripheral teeth primarily being used for
cutting and the face teeth being used for finishing applications. Generally, face milling is used to
create flat surfaces and contours on the finished piece and is capable of producing higher quality
finishes than other milling processes. Both horizontal and vertical milling machines support this
process.

Types of face milling include end milling and side milling, which use end milling
cutters and side milling cutters, respectively.

Plain Milling

Plain milling, also known as surface or slab milling, refers to milling operations in which the
cutting tool’s axis of rotation is parallel to the surface of the workpiece. The process
employs plain milling cutters which have teeth on the periphery that perform the cutting
operation. Depending on the specifications of the milling application, such as the depth of the cut
and the size of the workpiece, both narrow and wide cutters are used. Narrow cutters allow for
deeper cuts, while wider cutters are used for cutting larger surface areas. If a plain milling
application requires the removal of a large amount of material from the workpiece, the operator
first employs a coarse-toothed cutter, slow cutting speeds, and fast feed rates to produce the
custom-designed part’s approximate geometry. Then, the operator introduces a finer toothed
cutter, faster cutting speeds, and slower feed rates to produce the details of the finished part.

Angular Milling

Angular milling, also known as angle milling, refers to milling operations in which the cutting
tool’s axis of rotation is at an angle relative to the surface of the workpiece. The process employs
single-angle milling cutters—angled based on the particular design being machined—to produce
angular features, such as chamfers, serrations, and grooves. One common application of angular
milling is the production of dovetails, which employs 45°, 50°, 55°, or 60° dovetail cutters based
on the design of the dovetail.

Form Milling

Form milling refers to milling operations involving irregular surfaces, contours, and outlines,
such as parts with curved and flat surfaces, or completely curved surfaces. The process employs
formed milling cutters or fly cutters specialized for the particular application, such as convex,
concave, and corner rounding cutters. Some of the common applications of form milling include
producing hemispherical and semi-circular cavities, beads, and contours, as well as intricate
designs and complex parts with a single machine setup.

Other Milling Machine Operations

Besides the aforementioned operations, milling machines can be used to accomplish other
specialized milling and machining operations. Examples of the other types of milling machine
operations available include:

Straddle milling: Straddle milling refers to milling operations in which the machine tool
machines two or more parallel workpiece surfaces with a single cut. This process employs two
cutters on the same machine arbor, arranged such that the cutters are at either side of the
workpiece and can mill both sides at the same time.

Gang milling: Gang milling refers to milling operations which employ two or more cutters—
typically of varying size, shape, or width—on the same machine arbor. Each cutter can perform
the same cutting operation, or a different one, simultaneously, which produces more intricate
designs and complex parts in shorter production times.

Profile milling: Profile milling refers to milling operations in which the machine tool creates a
cut path along a vertical or angled surface on the workpiece. This process employs profile
milling equipment and cutting tools which can be either parallel or perpendicular to the
workpiece’s surface.

Gear cutting: Gear cutting is a milling operation which employs involute gear cutters to produce
gear teeth. These cutters, a type of formed milling cutters, are available in various shapes and
pitch sizes depending on the number of teeth necessary for the particular gear design. A
specialized lathe cutter bit can also be employed by this process to produce gear teeth.

Other machining processes: Since milling machines support the use of other machine tools
besides milling tools, they can be used for machining processes other than milling, such as
drilling, boring, reaming, and tapping.

5.10 Milling machine attachments

The milling machine attachments are intended for the purpose of developing the range of
operations, versatility, production capacity and accuracy of machining process. The different
milling machine attachments are:

 Vertical milling attachment

 Universal milling attachment
 High speed milling attachment
 Slotting attachment
 Rotary table attachment
 Indexing head attachment

5.11 Indexing head

Indexing is the method of dividing the periphery of a piece of work into any number of equal
parts. The attachment used for performing indexing is known as indexing head. The indexing
operation can be adapted for cutting gears, ratchet wheels, keyways, fluted drills, taps and
reamers. The indexing head serves as an attachment for holding and indexing the work in doing
the above tasks. There are three different types of indexing heads namely:

5) Plain or simple dividing head

6) Universal dividing head

7) Optical dividing head.

8) The construction of a
universal dividing head as shown
in Fig. 5.29
Working principle of dividing head

When the crank is rotated with help of a handle through the required number of holes in the
index plate, the work is rotated to required amount. This is possible because of the worm and
worm wheel mechanism. A gear train is arranged between the main spindle and the driven shaft
when indexing is done by differential indexing method. The work is rotated as usual when the
handle is rotated. At the same time, the index plate is also made to rotate a small amount through
the gear train. When indexing is by this differential indexing method, the index plate is released
from the lock pin.

5.12 Indexing methods

There are several methods of indexing and they are

 Direct or rapid indexing

 Plain or simple indexing
 Compound indexing
 Differential indexing
 Angular indexing

Basics about Metal Cutting Parameters

Conventional metal-cutting processes involve metal reduction by single point, multiple point, or
abrasive tools. The word "conventional" is used to distinguish these traditional machining
processes from nontraditional or unconventional machining processes which are more involved
with chemical, electrical, or thermal energy. Conventional metal-cutting is the outwardly simple
process of removing metal on a work piece in order to get a desired shape by relative movement
of the work piece and tool, either by rotating the workpiece (as in a lathe) or by rotating the tool
(as in a drilling machine). But behind this simple process lie numerous parameters that play their
roles, from a small to a big way, in deciding many things in the act of metal-cutting, including
the speed of doing the job, the quality and accuracy of the finish, the life of the tool, the cost of
production, and so on.
Some parameters involved in the metal-cutting process are in fact closely related with some other
parameters in the metal-cutting process; playing with one will have an influencing effect on
another. Thus, even after several years of experience, process planning engineers may find
difficulty in confidently declaring themselves as experts in metal-cutting!
In this series of articles, we shall first list the major conventional metal-cutting parameters and
learn a few basic things about them. In subsequent articles, we shall delve deeper into how they
contribute their roles in relation with others in the conventional metal removal process.
1) Material machinability:
The machinability of a material decides how easy or difficult it is to cut. The material’s hardness
is one factor that has a strong influence on the machinability. Though a general statement like "a
soft material is easier to cut than a harder material" is true to a large extent, it is not as simple as
that. The ductility of a material also plays a huge role.
2) Cutting Tool Material:
In metal-cutting, High Speed steel and Carbide are two major tool materials widely used.
Ceramic tools and CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) are the other tool materials used for machining
very tough and hard materials. A tool’s hardness, strength, wear resistance, and thermal stability
are the characteristics that decide how fast the tool can cut efficiently on a job.
3) Cutting speed and spindle speed:
Cutting speed is the relative speed at which the tool passes through the work material and
removes metal. It is normally expressed in meters per minute (or feet per inch in British units). It
has to do with the speed of rotation of the workpiece or the tool, as the case may be. The higher
the cutting speed, the better the productivity. For every work material and tool material combo,
there is always an ideal cutting speed available, and the tool manufacturers generally give the
guidelines for it.
Spindle speed: Spindle speed is expressed in RPM (revolutions per minute). It is derived based
on the cutting speed and the work diameter cut (in case of turning/ boring) or tool diameter (in
case of drilling/ milling etc). If V is the cutting speed and D is the diameter of cutting, then
Spindle speed N = V /(Pi x D)
4) Depth of cut:
It indicates how much the tool digs into the component (in mm) to remove material in the current
pass.
5) Feed rate:
The relative speed at which the tool is linearly traversed over the workpiece to remove the
material. In case of rotating tools with multiple cutting teeth (like a milling cutter), the feed rate
is first reckoned in terms of “feed per tooth," expressed in millimeters (mm/tooth). At the next
stage, it is “feed per revolution" (mm/rev).
In case of lathe operations, it is feed per revolution that states how much a tool advances in one
revolution of workpiece. In case of milling, feed per revolution is nothing but feed per tooth
multiplied by the number of teeth in the cutter.
To actually calculate the time taken for cutting a job, it is “feed per minute" (in mm/min) that is
useful. Feed per minute is nothing but feed per revolution multiplied by RPM of the spindle.
6) Tool geometry:
For the tool to effectively dig into the component to remove material most efficiently without
rubbing, the cutting tool tip is normally ground to different angles (known as rake angle,
clearance angles, relief angle, approach angle, etc). The role played by these angles in a tool
geometry is a vast subject in itself.
7) Coolant:
To take away the heat produced in cutting and also to act as a lubricant in cutting to reduce tool
wear, coolants are used in metal-cutting. Coolants can range from cutting oils, water-soluble oils,
oil-water spray, and so on.
8) Machine/ Spindle Power:
In the metal-cutting machine, adequate power should be available to provide the drives to the
spindles and also to provide feed movement to the tool to remove the material. The power
required for cutting is based on the metal removal rate – the rate of metal removed in a given
time, generally expressed in cubic centimeters per minute, which depends on work material, tool
material, the cutting speed, depth of cut, and feed rate.
9) Rigidity of machine:
The rigidity of the machine is based on the design and construction of the machine, the age and
extent of usage of the machine, the types of bearings used, the type of construction of slide ways,
and the type of drive provided to the slides. All play a role in the machining of components and
getting the desired accuracy, finish, and speed of production.
Thus, in getting a component finished out of a metal-cutting machine at the best possible time
within the desired levels of accuracy, tolerances, and surface finish, some or all the above
parameters play their roles. As already mentioned in the beginning, each of the parameters can
create a positive or negative impact on other parameters, and adjustments and compromises are
to be made to arrive at the best metal-cutting solution for a given job.

Self-Assessment:
What is the difference with respect to operation between milling and lathe machines?

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Name the main parts of the Ajum 300.

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 Experiment No. 03
Objective

To cut a Mild Steel square of size 50mm x 50mm x 25mm from a square bar
using Ajax power hacksaw.

Machine Specifications:

Quantity Value
Cutting capacity at 90 degrees (mm) 200 DIA
Cutting capacity at 90 degrees (axb) (mm) 190 x 200
Cutting capacity at 45 degrees (mm) 80
Blade size (mm) 350 x 32 x 1.6
Speed and Motors
Main motor HP 1 Hp (0.75kW)
Cutting speed, Strokes per min 110, 140
Infinitely
Feed range
Variable
Weight and Dimensions
Overall height (mm) 790
1200 x 650x
Size (mm)
760
Over View of Metal Cutting Processes
There are many types of metal and each requires different metal cutting techniques. Because of
this, there are a variety of methods available to cut metal materials. The method you choose for
your project will depend on the type of metal being used, the level of precision that is required
and the intended use of the fabricated part and project.

Hand Tools for Cutting Metal Manually:

For smaller cutting jobs, hand tools, including hand shears and hacksaws may be used for cutting
metal into the desired shape. This cutting method is best suited for projects using more pliable
metals, such as thinner-gauge aluminum. Using hand tools to cut metal is not recommended if
the metal must be cut into extremely small pieces because the force needed to cut the metal may
simply break it, instead of cutting it as intended. Chisels can also be used to remove excess metal
and to make a shape more precise. Depending upon the job, you may opt to use a cold chisel,
with a sharpened edge or a hot chisel, which is heated before being hammered through metal.

Using Machinery to Cut Metal

For larger projects or those that use thicker or more robust metals, manual cutting is not always
practical. There are numerous machine-based cutting methods to choose from, based on your
metal cutting needs.
Grinder – For projects that require the finished part to be extremely smooth, a grinding machine
may be your tool of choice. Using a rotating blade or wheel made of an abrasive material; a
grinder uses friction to wear down the surface of the metal until it is smooth, similar to sanding
wood.
Lathe – Using a sharpened cutting tool against a rapidly spinning piece of material, a lathe will
cut a piece of metal to its desired shape. This machine is very common in the machining industry
because it allows for a higher degree of precision.
Punch – This machine uses an extreme amount of pressure to force sharpened blades into or
through metal to cut it into the shape desired. The amount of pressure generated by a machine
punch is far greater than any human worker could produce, thus this cutting method is suitable
for metals that are more robust. Some machine punches are capable of up to 1,000 hits per
minute, making this cutting method very productive.
Water jet – Using water or water mixed with an abrasive compound, this machine directs an
intense and concentrated stream into metal and cuts it. This method is best suited for metals that
may be sensitive to extreme heat or temperature changes because it does not use heat in the
process.
Flame and plasma – This process is similar to a water jet, but instead a flammable gas is
pumped through a torch to create an intense hot flame. The flame then cuts the metal by burning
and melting it. Flame torches, such as oxyacetylene torches are very efficient for cutting. Plasma
cutters are known for their high degree of precision because they burn much hotter
Power Hacksaw - A power hacksaw (or electric hacksaw) is a type of hacksaw that is powered
either by its own electric motor or connected to a stationary engine. Most power hacksaws are
stationary machines but some portable models do exist; the latter (with frames) have been
displaced to some extent by reciprocating saws such as the Sawzall, which accept blades with
hacksaw teeth. Stationary models usually have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return
stroke and some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from overheating.

Power hacksaws are not as

commonly used in the metalworking
industries as they once were. Band
saws and cold saws have mostly
replaced them. Power hacksaws have
electric motors that power the blade
through a pulley system. Some have
ratchet systems. The pulley system
shown below shows how rotary
power is transferred from the motor
and changed to reciprocating motion,
allow the blade to cut through the
material. Most power hacksaws have
two pulley wheels. If the belt is
placed on the smaller pulley wheel
the speed of cut will be fast.
Changing the belt so that it runs
round the larger pulley wheel will
reduce the speed. There is an
emergency switch on every power
hacksaw to allow the operator to turn
the machine off quickly by using his
foot to step on the switch. The foot switch is normally positioned at the front or side of the
machine. Power hacksaws are used to cut large sizes (sections) of metals such as steel. Cutting
diameters of more than 10/15mm is very hard work with a normal hand held hacksaw. Therefore
power hacksaws have been developed to carry out the difficult and time consuming work.

Blades

Standard hacksaw blade lengths are 10 to 12 in (250 to 300 mm). Blades can be as small as 6 in
(150 mm). Powered hacksaws may use large blades in a range of sizes, or small machines may
use the same hand blades.

The pitch of the teeth can be from 14 to 24 teeth per inch (TPI) for a hand blade, with as few as 3
TPI for a large power hacksaw blade. The blade chosen is based on the thickness of the material
being cut, with a minimum of three teeth in the material. As hacksaw teeth are so small, they
are set in a "wave" set. As for other saws they are set from side to side to provide a clearance
when sawing, but the set of a hacksaw changes gradually from tooth to tooth in a smooth curve,
rather than alternate teeth set left and right.

Working Procedure Steps:

 See the drawing given for the workpiece to be cut out of the square bar of mild steel.
 Make sure that the size you want to cut in within the range of this machine. In general the
number of teeth per inch (TPI) range from 14 to 24. The more teeth per inch - the smoother the
cut.

 Be aware of the heavy ‘arm’ moves backwards and forwards, cutting on the backwards
stroke.

 Take your square bar of size 50mm and measure the size to be cut using the attachment
having scale and comparator. The metal to be cut is held in a machine vice which is an integral
part of the base. Turning the handle tightens or loosens the vice. The vice is very powerful and
locks the metal in position.

 When cutting is taking place, the metal and especially the blade heats up quickly. Coolant
should be fed onto the blade, cooling it down and lubricating it as it cuts through the metal.

 Without the use of coolant the blade will over heat and break/snap. This can be dangerous
as the blade can break with powerful force, shattering. When the metal is placed and fixed in the
vice, the blade is lowered onto its top surface.

 There ram is run with help of hydraulic pressure which can be increases or decreases
using the knob set on the top of this machine showing L and H as low and high pressure. Depth
of cut can be increased using this setup.

 Blades of power hacksaws are graded according to the material they are made from and
the number of teeth per inch. Top quality blades are manufactured from High Speed Steel.
Although there are cheaper alternatives such as carbon steel blades.

Safety Precautions:

Sawing machines have some special safety precautions that must be observed. These are in
addition to those safety precautions described in Chapter 1. Here are some safety precautions that
must be followed:

 Keep hands away from the saw blade of the hacksawing machine or band sawing
machine when in operation.

 Ensure the power supply is disconnected prior to removal or installation of saw blades.

 Use a miter guide attachment, work-holding jaw device, or a wooden block for pushing
metal workpieces into the blade of the band saw wherever possible. Keep fingers well clear of
the blade at all times.

 When removing and installing band saw blades, handle the blades carefully. A large
springy blade can be dangerous if the operator does not exercise caution.
 Experiment .04

Objective:

To perform end milling process on mild steel work piece using shell end mill
cutter.

Theory:

AJUM 300. Universal Milling machine

Physical Parameters Value

Working surface (mm) 1300 x 300
T-Slots, number and size 3 x 16mm
T-Slots centres (mm) 70
Swivel movement +/- 45deg
Longitudinal range (mm) 950
Cross range (mm) 320
Vertical range (mm) 470
Distance from centre 0 – 470
of spindle to table (mm)
Weight on table (kg) 400
Spindle
Spindle taper 40 ISO
Number of speeds 12
Speed range (rpm) 46 – 1700
Feeds
Number of feeds 12
Longitudinal (mm/min) 13 – 621
Cross (mm/min) 13 – 621
Vertical (mm/min) 7 – 316
Rapids longitudinal (mm/min) 2500
Rapid cross (mm/min) 2500
Rapid vertical (mm/min) 1250
Motors
Spindle drive motor 3.7 kw
Feed motor 2.2 Kw
Coolant motor 0.1 Kw
Weight and Dimensions
Floor space (mm) 2005 x 1800

Net weight (kg) 2650

Gross weight (kg) 2850
Safety Precautions for using a milling machine

Milling machines require special safety precautions while being used.

 Do not make contact with the revolving cutter.

 Place a wooden pad or suitable cover over the table surface to protect it from possible
damage.
 Use the buddy system when moving heavy attachments.
 Do not attempt to tighten arbor nuts using machine power.
 When installing or removing milling cutters, always hold them with a rag to prevent
cutting your hands.
 While setting up work, install the cutter last to avoid being cut.
 Never adjust the workpiece or work mounting devices when the machine is operating.
 Chips should be removed from the workpiece with an appropriate rake and a brush.

End Mill:

End mills (middle row in image) are those tools

which have cutting teeth at one end, as well as on
the sides. The words end mill are generally used to
refer to flat bottomed cutters, but also include
rounded cutters (referred to as ball nosed) and
radius cutters (referred to as bull nose, or torus).
They are usually made from high speed steel or
cemented carbide, and have one or more flutes.
Shell end mill

A shell end mill is any of various milling cutters (typically a

face mill or end mill) whose construction takes a modular
form, with the shank (arbor) made separately from the body of
the cutter, which is called a "shell" and attaches to the
shank/arbor via any of several standardized joining methods.

Chip Formation

Although there are many different types of milling cutter, understanding chip formation is
fundamental to the use of any of them. As the milling cutter rotates, the material to be cut is fed
into it, and each tooth of the cutter cuts away a small chip of material. Achieving the correct size
of chip is of critical importance. The size of this chip depends on several variables.

Cutting speed (Vc)

This is the speed at which each tooth cuts through the material as the tool spins. This is measured
either in metres per minute in metric countries, or surface feet per minute (SFM) in America.
Typical values for cutting speed are 10m/min to 60m/min for some steels, and 100m/min and
600m/min for aluminum. This should not be confused with the feed rate. This value is also
known as "tangential velocity."

Spindle speed (S) S=Vc( 1000)/πD

This is the rotation speed of the tool, and is measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). Typical
values are from hundreds of rpm, up to tens of thousands of rpm. Looking at the formula for the
spindle speed, S, it can be seen that larger tools require lower spindle speeds, while small tools
may be able to go at high speeds. Diameter of the cutter (D) in mm, Vc is the Cutting speed in
meter per minutes.

Feed per tooth (Fz)

This is the distance the material is fed into the cutter as each tooth rotates. This value is the size
of the deepest cut the tooth will make.

Feed rate (F) F=z. S. Fz

This is the speed at which the material is fed into the cutter. Typical values are from 20mm/min
to 5000mm/min. The formula for the feed rate, F shows that increasing S or z gives a higher feed
rate. Therefore, machinists may choose a tool with the highest number of.
Depth of cut

This is how deep the tool is under the surface of the material being cut (not shown on the
diagram). This will be the height of the chip produced. Typically, the depth of cut will be less
than or equal to the diameter of the cutting tool.

The machinist needs three values: S, F and Depth when deciding how to cut a new material with
a new tool. However, he will probably be given values of Vc and Fz from the tool manufacturer. S
and F can be calculated from them:

Selection of the milling cutter:

Selecting a milling cutter is not a simple task. There are many variables, opinions and lore to
consider, but essentially the machinist is trying to choose a tool which will cut the material to the
required specification for the least cost. The cost of the job is a combination of the price of the
tool, the time taken by the milling machine, and the time taken by the machinist. Often, for jobs
of a large number of parts, and days of machining time, the cost of the tool is lowest of the three
costs.

 Material: High speed steel (HSS) cutters are the least-expensive and shortest-lived
cutters. Cobalt-bearing high speed steels generally can be run 10% faster than regular high speed
steel. Cemented carbide tools are more expensive than steel, but last longer, and can be run much
faster, so prove more economical in the long run. HSS tools are perfectly adequate for many
applications. The progression from regular HSS to cobalt HSS to carbide could be viewed as
very good, even better, and the best. Using high speed spindles may preclude use of HSS
entirely.

 Diameter: Larger tools can remove material faster than small ones, therefore the largest
possible cutter that will fit in the job is usually chosen. When milling an internal contour, or
concave external contours, the diameter is limited by the size of internal curves. The radius of the
cutter must be less than or equal to the radius of the smallest arc.
 Flutes: More flutes allows a higher feed rate, because there is less material removed per
flute. But because the core diameter increases, there is less room for swarf, so a balance must be
chosen.

 Coating: Coatings, such as titanium nitride, also increase initial cost but reduce wear and
increase tool life. TiAlN coating reduces sticking of aluminum to the tool, reducing and
sometimes eliminating need for lubrication.

 Helix angle: High helix angles are typically best for soft metals, and low helix angles for
hard or tough metals.

Procedure
Machine: Universal Milling machines AJUM 300

Tools: Vernier Caliper, steel rule, plain vice, steel ruler, high-speed end mill,

Material: Metal block Mild Steel (approximately 50x50x25mm)

Operations:

1. Secure the
workpiece in the
table of the milling
machine using the
vice.
2. Clean milling
machine vise
thoroughly.
3. Place parallels
under the
workpiece to raise
the surface to be
milled above the
level of the vise
jaws.
4. After the
workpiece is in
place, tighten the
vise securely, then
tap the workpiece
lightly with a dead
blow hammer to
seat it. Do not
tighten the vise
again because this
would alter the
position of the
workpiece and tightness of the parallels.

Procedure Steps:

1. Check the diameter (d) of the cutter with a

Vernier calipers in mm.

2. Calculate RPM for cutting speed using the

formula given here. Use the metric units instead
of imperial.

3. Use the table 5 and table 6 given the user manual of machine to find the correct value of
cutting speed depending upon the material of workpiece and cutting tool.
 4. Set the spindle is found out in the previous step using the speed range selection lever and
speed selection lever given on the side of Column.

Table 1. Hand wheel scales with respect to table movement in three dimensions.

Calculate feed rate (in m/min) after taking feed per tooth from the same table from which you
took cutting speed.

1. Feed rate = feed per tooth x no. of cutter teeth x RPM

2. Set the feed rate manually using longitudinal, cross and vertical feed adjustment hand
wheels given on the sides of the machine respectively. The table.1 given below gives the
details of the measurement of the hand wheels.

3. Depth of cut must be decided not more than 2 mm using the data of material of cutter and
workpiece, lubricant used and cutter teeth. Set the depth of cut on the machine using feed
adjustment levers given below the table at front side of the machine

Note: Power feed: speed is displayed on the digital readout. Adjust with the dial while moving
away from your part. If power feed is not available, use handles for manual feed.

Rotation Displacement (one Scale collar (one rev)

Direction(clockwise) div)
Longitudinal Feed Right Hand 0.02mm 5mm

Cross Feed Forward( go far from 0.02mm 5mm

operator)
Vertical Feed Upward 0.01mm 1.2mm

Table 2. Table for Carbide Tool

Serial No. Material Cutting Feed per Feed rate Spindle Speed
Speed(m/min) tooth (mm/ min) (RPM)
(mm)
1 Malleable

2 Cast Steel

3 Mild Steel
130 BHN
 4 Aluminum

5 Brass

6 Bronze

Table 3. Table for High Speed Steel Tool

Serial No. Material Cutting Feed per Feed rate Spindle Speed
Speed(m/min) tooth (mm/ min) (RPM)
(mm)
1 Malleable

2 Cast Steel

3 Mild Steel
130 BHN
4 Aluminum

5 Brass

6 Bronze

End Milling process:

1. Before starting the machine, be sure the cutting tool is clear of the work piece. If not,
lower the work piece by lowering the knee.
2. Move the table with the x and y axis handles to position the work piece under the cutter.
3. Lower the cutting tool or raise the table until it touches the top surface of the work piece
gently.
4. Set the micrometer dial on the knee to zero.
5. Lower the table by a suitable distance to keep the tool and workpiece apart, by turning
the knee hand wheel counter clockwise.
6. Move the table longitudinally so that the cutter is clear of the work piece at either end.
7. Turn the machine on.
8. Touch the corners of the work piece to set the origin of the work piece (the lab instructor
will demonstrate the procedure). Consider the diameter of the edge finder and offset the
zero point accordingly.
9. Using the Shell end milling cutter on the horizontal axis spindle cut the side of the work
piece in accordance with the values found out from the data and formulae. Always try to
keep the feed and speed as accurate as possible by making the best compromise among
time, speed and feed.
10. When one turn is complete repeat the process to get the full side milling complete as
needed.

Self-Assessment:

 The Shell end milling cutter has______________ no. of inserts on it.

 The inserts are made of _______________Material.
 The work piece is made of _________________Material.
 The feed we used to cut the material is ___________ m / Min.
 The spindle speed is kept ___________ RPM using variable speed selector levers.
 The table can mover in ________________ different directions.

 What is the rage of RMP on this universal milling machine?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 What is the range of feeds on the machine?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 What is the difference between up milling and down milling processes?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 What is the power requirement for the machine to work properly?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 Which of the following needs harder tool to work on and why? Mild Steel, Aluminum.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment .05

Objective:

To make slots on mild steel work piece using slitting saw/side and face milling
cutter.

Theory:

High Speed Steel slitting saws are used to machine a slot into material, using a milling machine
or CNC machine center. Slitting saws are round disc cutter with many teeth, to evenly distribute
the cutting force & load giving a higher feed rate than a slot drill or end mill. Mostly slitting
saws are run on an arbor with a 1” bore.

Appropriate safety equipment.

 Always wear safety goggles because the chips can be dangerous for eyes.
 Always use the correct saw for each application.
 Keep saws sharpened. A dull saw will not cut clean and tool may be broken.
 Support saw blade by using maximum diameter side collars.
 Side collars should be free of any
dirt or foreign material when assembling.
 Always be certain arbor nut is
tightened correctly.
 Larger arbor holes provide more
rigidity and least amount of deflection.
 Use proper speeds and feeds for
material being machined.
 Workpiece being cut must be
rigidly held and positioned correctly.
 Resharpen saws regularly to obtain
consistent chip removal and uniform
cutting results.
 Never stop the saw and restart
during the course of a cut.

Performance:

Machine: Universal
Milling machines AJUM 300

Tools: Vernier
Calipers 12 inch, steel ruler,
Slitting saw cutter (4’’
diameter), Machine vise.

Material: Metal block Mild

Steel (approximately 50mm x
50mm x 25mm)

Side and face milling

process:
1. Before starting the
machine, be sure the
cutting tool is clear of
the work piece. If not,
lower the work piece
by lowering the knee.
2. Move the table with
the x and y axis
handles to position the
work piece under the
cutter.
 3. Lower the cutting tool or raise the table until it touches the top surface of the work piece
gently.
4. Set the micrometer dial on the knee to zero.
5. Lower the table by a suitable distance to keep the tool and workpiece apart, by turning
the knee hand wheel counter clockwise.
6. Move the table longitudinally so that the cutter is clear of the work piece at either end.
7. Turn the machine on.
8. Touch the corners of the work piece to set the origin of the work piece (the lab instructor
will demonstrate the procedure).

Rotation Displacement (one Scale collar (one rev)

Direction(clockwise) div)
Longitudinal Feed Right Hand 0.02mm 5mm

Cross Feed Forward( go far from 0.02mm 5mm

operator)
Vertical Feed Upward 0.01mm 1.2mm
9. Using the side and face milling cutter on the horizontal axis spindle cut the groove or slot
of the work piece in accordance with the values found out from the data and formulae.
Always try to keep the feed and speed as accurate as possible by making the best
compromise among time, speed and feed.
10. When one turn is complete repeat the process to get the full side milling complete as
needed.
Table 3. Hand wheel scales with respect to table movement in three dimensions.

Procedure Steps:

Because of their small cross section metal slitting saw blades are tender milling tools:

1. A too high speed of rotation leads to a premature dulling (wear) and so to a degeneration
of the surface quality of the work pieces. So calculate the proper spindle speed using
recommended charts for workpiece(50 x 50 x 25mm)

2. Find out the diameter d of the slitting saw using the Vernier calipers in mm.

3. Mount the slitting saw on the arbor using proper method under the supervision of lab
assistant. The loosing and tightening of the bolts and nuts must be carried out with much care.

4. Checking the completeness and functioning of the milling machine, of the clamping
means and auxiliaries to be applied, oil-level check and lubrication of the milling machine to be
carried out according to the lubrication schedule's cycle.

5. Chucking and fixing of the clamping means.

6. Setting-up and clamping in or on the work piece (work piece support, length feed stop).
7. Fixing the coolant system when processing work pieces made of steel.
8. Installing of the milling protective system.

9. Clamping in the cutter arbor and clamping on the metal slitting saw blade. Do not forget
the feather key in one of the arbor rings!

10. Positioning of the milling machine table into the appropriate processing position to the
milling tool (X-Y-Z-direction) using the table adjustment hand wheels.

11. Make a groove of 1mm first and then go for 1mm again in the second cut.

While cutting keep noted the difference between climb milling and conventional milling. Use the
backlash eliminator if needed.

12. Cutting in (a small groove in the workpiece) at the rotating metal slitting saw blade. Table
feedback and make a dimensional inspection of the workpiece in the fastened condition. If
necessary, correct with manual adjustment of the head.

13. Continuation of cutting by milling using a strong jet of cooling water directed on the
place of the cutting by milling.

14. Clamping out, deburring and cleaning of the workpiece, linear measure control and
control of the angularity and surface finish.

15. If necessary, make corrections on the localization of the workpiece or the clamping
means, and on the linear or space measures to the reference face.
16. Ending up with the technique of cutting by milling you should clean the milling machine,
all tools used, auxiliaries and the whole workplace. The used metal slitting saw blades are sent
on to be sharpened again (sharpen).

Self-Assessment
 The slitting saw is made of _______________Material.
 The diameter and thickness of the slitting saw is ______________.
 The work piece is made of _________________Material.
 The feed we used to cut the material is ___________ m / Min.
 The spindle speed is kept ___________ RPM using variable speed selector levers.
 The table can move in ________________ different directions.
 What is the PPE’s necessary to work on universal milling machine?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 What is the range of feeds on the machine?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 What is the effect of diameter of cutter on the cutting of material using slitting saw?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

 What is plain milling?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment No. 06
Objective

To drill 6mm and 8mm diameter holes to the given MS workpiece using
manual feed on
manual drill
machine.
Work material: MS workpiece of dimensions 50 x 50 x 25mm
Tools and equipment’s required: Drilling machine, Drill bit, scriber, steel rule, dot punch, Ball
peen hammer, Anvil, Drilling machine vice, Drill chuck

List of operations: Marking, Punching, Drilling

Working principle

The Drill Press

A Drill Press (DP) is a practical tool which ensures that drilled holes are aligned precisely with
the exact depth and width you want. Modern drill presses are electrically run, stationary or fixed
drills which are attached to a very stable base and then bolted a workbench or floor. Drill presses
are also referred to as pedestal drills, pillar drills, floor drills or bench drills. Full standing drill
presses are usually equipped with flat areas called tables upon which the users place and then
secure the objects being drilled. The DP can be vertically adjusted thus allowing the drilling of
materials with varying thickness. Some types of presses have tables which can be tilted to allow
angled drilling. A drill press is usually intended for precise work.

Parts of drill presses

Every DP is unique. However, there are essential parts for any type of DP. These includes: the
table, the chuck, the spindle, chuck keys, a motor, a drill head and belts. A lot of motors that are
used by a DP are run by induction. Additional rotation accessories and bits are used in the chucks
to allow the drill presses to perform other types of jobs besides drilling. These jobs include
sanding, honing and polishing.

Using the drill presses

Bits in drill presses are usually changed in a manner which is similar to the way it is done with
the hand drills by using keyed chucks to either loosen, remove or replace the bits. Speed is
normally belt adjusted in selected types of drill presses while on others, the speed is changed by
variable-speed motors. The sizes are determined by throat distances multiplied by a factor of
two. Throat distance refers to the actual space that object occupies when it is drilled. If the drill is
noted as being a sixteen-inch DP, then its throat distance is eight inches.
Drilling a Hole
A center drill is always used when drilling a hole. A center drill usually has very short flutes and
a thick shaft. This makes it very stiff and would not work as the hole gets started. In case it does
not cut as easily as drill bits, then cutting fluids are used.
The hole can now be drilled. In case it is too large, it is a good idea to drill smaller pilot holes
before drilling the final hole. This makes the drilled hole to be rounder, more accurately
positioned and bits will last for a longer time. In case the hole becomes deeper than it is wide one
should use a coolant and occasionally back off so as to clear the chips. The drill spindle speed is
reduced when stepping up in drill size. In case one is drilling a through hole, they have to make
sure that the bits do not drill the tables after doing your work. In order to set desired depth of the
hole, a depth stop which is found on the quill is normally used.

Deburring a Hole
Normally, the top edges of the hole shall be fairly clean while the bottom edges shall have
substantial burrs. In order to remove these burrs, deburring tools are inserted into the hole and
then run the tools about the edges of the hole using moderate pressure.

Reaming a Hole
A drilled hole shall be accurate to around two thousandths of an inch in its diameter. In case
greater precision is needed for interference fits or slip fits, a reamer should be used. The straight
flutes of the reamer cannot drill a hole. Therefore, one should drill a hole which is slightly
undersize so as to start. The reamer is then driven down with a constant, slow speed.

Tapping a Hole
A tap is used to cut threads into a hole. The tap has cutting edges which are used to straight flutes
and cut the threads so as to allow the chips to be expelled. Their ends are tapered slightly so as to
help the tap in getting started. Dies and taps are brittle and hard thus one should be careful while
working with them. The drilled hole has to have the correct size for the tap being used so as to
avoid breaking it inside.

Procedure:
1. Study the given
drawing of the work piece
profoundly to familiarize
yourself with the set of
instruction and process
sequence to follow
2. Prepare the work piece
for drilling that is to wipe out
any dirt, any burrs, oil and
grease.
3. The only way to get
the perfect hole is to mark it
perfectly.
4. Draw the dimensions
to the work piece by using the
scriber and steel rule.

5. Using a dot punch to

make a point on crosshair of
the hole i.e the point where
the center of the hole exists.
6. Decide on the basis of
material of drill bit, workpiece
and time available the feed,
speed of spindle and depth of
cut.
7. Use the auto feed and
manual feed both to drill the
workpiece.
8. Select the correct size of drill bit i.e 10mm diameter to drill the first hole.
9. Fix the drill spindle with and use the correct size drill bit prior to the drilling process.
10. Make sure that work piece is fixed rigidly on the drilling machine vice.
11. Place the drill bit to the punched point and check it
12. Switch on the drilling machine and drill the punched point carefully.
13. If the manual feed is to be given make sure to press the feed handle gently and smoothly
to get the proper pressure on the drill bit and cutting force to be properly distributed.
14. Use coolant oil while drilling the hole as to avoid any damage to workpiece and to the
drill bit while high temperatures are expected due to heat produced during the friction between
drill bit and workpiece.
15. Switch off the drilling machine after completing the work.
16. Take the drill out for this process and place it properly at the designated place.
17. Now repeat the process for 2nd hole to be drilled which is of 12mm diameter.
18. Clean the machine after working has be completed using cotton waste available at the lab
to ensure your care for your lab and machines.

Self-Assessment
How do you change the speed of a drill press?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
What you need to make sure of before starting the drilling operation?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment No. 07
Objective

To drill 10mm and 12mm diameter holes to the given MS workpiece using
manual and auto feed on high speed drill machine.

Quantity Value
Drilling capacity in mild steel (mm) 25
Spindle taper (morse taper) 3
Distance from spindle to column(mm) 250
Max distance from spindle to table(mm) 820
Max distance from spindle to base(mm) 1220
Size of Table(mm) 380 x 400
Max spindle traverse(mm) 120
No. of spindle speeds 8
Range of spindle speeds(Rpm) 65-3060

Main motor power(kW) 1

Main features include:

 Automatic drill ejector
 Adjustable depth gauge an automatic mechanical trip on feed

 Push button control for starting and reversing

 Built in low-voltage lighting

 Graduated tilting table through 180 degrees

 Hand wheel for fine feed adjustment

 CE mark(Conformity to the health safety and environment)

Work material: MS workpiece of dimensions 50 x 50 x 25mm

Tools and equipment’s required: Drilling machine, Drill bit, scriber, steel rule, dot punch, Ball
peen hammer, Anvil, Drilling machine vice, Drill chuck

List of operations: Marking, Punching, Drilling

Working principle

A drill press is preferable to a hand drill and a high speed drill machine is preferred even
over the conventional drill
press when the location and
orientation of the hole must
be controlled accurately. A
high speed pedestal drill
machine is composed of a
base that supports a column,
the column in turn supports a
table. Work can be supported
on the table with a vice or
hold down clamps or the table
can be swiveled out of the
way to allow tall work to be
supported directly on the
base. Height of the table can
be adjusted with a table lift
crank. The column also
supports a head containing a
motor. The motor turns the
spindle at a speed controlled
by a variable speed control
dial. The spindle holds a drill
chuck to hold the cutting tools
(drill bits, center drills,
deburring tools etc.)

Cutting Speed
The Cutting Speed (C.S) of
drilling operation is measured in terms of the rate at which the outside or periphery of the tool
moves in relation to the work being drilled. The common unit and term for this velocity is
surface feet per minute (sfm) or surface meter per minute. Every tool manufacturer has a
recommended table of C.S values for their tools.
The C.S and Spindle Speed of the tool are related as shown in the following equation:
 p DN
C.S =
1000
 C.S is the recommended Cutting Speed for the tool being used (m)
 D is the diameter of the tool (mm)
 N is the Spindle Speed of the tool (RPM)
The optimum Spindle speed for a particular setup is affected by many factors, including the
following:
 Composition, hardness, and thermal conductivity (k) of material
 Depth of hole
 Efficiency of cutting fluid
 Stiffness and condition of drilling machine
 Stiffness of workpiece, fixture, and tooling (shorter is better)
 Quality of holes desired
  Life of tool before regrind or replacement

Feed of main Spindle

This is the feed of drill bit after taking into account the spindle speed and its units are then
converted from mm/rev to mm/min. its formula is given as following:

Vf = frN
  Vf is the feed of main spindle in mm/min
 N is the Spindle Speed of the tool (RPM)

Drilling time
This is the time Tc (minutes) taken by the drilling process to make n number of holes having
depth of hole h (mm) and N spindle speed in rpm and fr as the feed of main spindle (mm/min).

h.n
Tc =
N . fr
 h= hole depth in (mm)
 n= number of holes
 N= spindle speed in (rev/min)
 fr= feed per revolution(mm/rev)

Depth of cut
It is simply the distance the drill bit covers while going down into the workpiece. Is is only
dependent on the diameter of the drill bit. It is calculated as

D
Dc =
2
 Dc= depth of cut
 D= diameter of the hole

Material removal rate

Material removal rate as indicated by the term itself is the volume of material removed per unit
time by the drilling process. For a drill with a diameter D, the cross-sectional area of the drilled
hole is π D 2 /4. Feed fr and the rotational speed N where N = C.S /π D

MRR = A.N . fr
 MRR= Material Removal Rate (mm3/min)
 A= area of metal removed ( ¼ πD2)in mm2 where D is diameter of drill bit
 N= spindle speed in (rev/min)
 fr= feed per revolution(mm/rev)

Procedure:

1. Study the given drawing of the work piece profoundly to familiarize yourself with the set
of instruction and process sequence to follow
2. Prepare the work piece for drilling that is to wipe out any dirt, any burrs, oil and grease.
3. The only way to get the perfect hole is to mark it perfectly.
4. Draw the dimensions to the work piece by using the scriber and steel rule.
5. Using a dot punch to make a point on crosshair of the hole i.e. the point where the center
of the hole exists.
6. Decide on the basis of material of drill bit, workpiece and time available the feed, speed
of spindle and depth of cut.
7. Use the auto feed and manual feed both to drill the workpiece.
8. Select the correct size of drill bit i.e 10mm diameter to drill the first hole.
9. Fix the drill spindle with and use the correct size drill bit prior to the drilling process.
10. Make sure that work piece is fixed rigidly on the drilling machine vice.
11. Place the drill bit to the punched point and check it
12. Switch on the drilling machine and drill the punched point carefully.
13. If the manual feed is to be given make sure to press the feed handle gently and smoothly
to get the proper pressure on the drill bit and cutting force to be properly distributed.
14. Use coolant oil while drilling the hole as to avoid any damage to workpiece and to the
drill bit while high temperatures are expected due to heat produced during the friction
between drill bit and workpiece.
15. Switch off the drilling machine after completing the work.
16. Take the drill out for this process and place it properly at the designated place.
17. Now repeat the process for 2nd hole to be drilled which is of 12mm diameter.
18. Clean the machine after working has be completed using cotton waste available at the lab
to ensure your care for your lab and machines.
 Experiment No.08
Objective

Use the Lathe machine to perform turning process on non-cylindrical objects.

Apparatus
 Lathe Machine (Specification H.P. =0.75 H.P. Swing Diameter =455, Distance between
centers 1000mm.

Tools
Engineering Steel Rule 6”, Outside caliper, Vernier calipers, Flat smooth file, Single point
cutting tool, Knurling tool, Center drill, Drill chuck ½”, Spanner set, Parting off or necking tool,
Thread gauge, Threading tool, Parting tool, Lathe Dog carrier etc.

Materials
Mild steel bar (25 mm dia.)
List of Operations
Cutting, Facing, center drilling, Plain turning, Taper turning, Necking, Knurling,
Threading, chamfering, Filing Oiling.

Drawing
See diagram

Procedure:
1. Understand the job drawing thoroughly and plan the job.
2. Ensure that the workplace is safe and you are equipped with the proper personal
protective equipment.
3. Hold the work piece in the Lathe chuck keeping in mind the correct method of holding
the job as the job is not cylindrical and perform turning operation.
4. The drawing clearly says the dimensions of the diameter to be made on one side of the
rectangular piece.
5. See the recommended value of cutting speed in meter per minute from the table in user
manual and calculate the pertinent values of spindle speed and the depth of cut.
6. Practice to hold the job in between live and dead centers.
7. Perform plain turning for 5mm on the back side of the workpiece as shown in the
diagram.
8. Do the process in the optimum conditions of cuttings variables to best suit the working
environment and tools.
9. Now start threading by setting levers as per requirement.
10. After filing if required, take off the job from m/c and do oiling in the whole job for the
protection from the rust.

11. At the end do clean the machine and do housekeeping for next person to come in safe
working environment.

Precautions:
1. Don’t wear loose clothes while working on the machine.
2. Work piece should be held tightly between the live and dead centers.
3. Always clean machine before use.
4. Cutting tools should be held tightly in the tool holder.
5. Never let your clothes and hand come in contact with the revolving chuck, pulleys etc.
6. Do not touch the chips when machine is removing them
7. Do not give large feed to the cutting tool.
 Self-Assessment:
Define and explain the process of holding a work piece with types of chucks and holding
devices.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What are the important parameters to be calculated before starting work on lathe machine?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Define and explain different types of turning with figures.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What is the difference between live center and dead center?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment No.09
Objective

Use the Shaper machine to perform slotting process in auto feed on mild steel
workpiece.
Apparatus

Shaper Machine having quick return mechanism for converting rotary motion into to and
fro motion.
Tools
Engineering Steel Rule 6”, Outside caliper, Vernier calipers, Flat smooth file, Single point
cutting tool, Spanner set,

Materials
Mild steel workpiece of following dimensions
50 x 50 x 25mm
Operations
A shaper machine can be used to make grooves, slots, recesses and making flat surfaces.
Here we are using this machine to make slot on round flat portion of the workpiece.
Drawing
See diagram given above.

Procedure:
1. Understand the job drawing thoroughly and plan the job.
2. Ensure that the workplace is safe and you are equipped with the proper personal
protective equipment.
3. Hold the work piece in the Shaper vice keeping in mind the correct method of holding
the job as the job is not cylindrical and perform slotting operation.
4. The drawing clearly says the dimensions of the slot to be made on one side of the
rectangular piece.
5. See the recommended value of cutting speed in meter per minute from the table in user
manual and calculate the pertinent values of motor speed and the depth of cut.
6. The shaper machine has the capability to perform both manual and auto feed.
7. Perform slotting operation by the to and fro motion of single point cutting tool on the flat
surface of the workpiece. The width of the v groove should be set suitable for the
demonstration purpose
8. Do the process in the optimum conditions of cuttings variables to best suit the working
environment and tools.
9. After filing if required, take off the job from m/c and do oiling in the whole job for the
protection from the rust.
10. At the end do clean the machine and do housekeeping for next person to come in safe
working environment.

Precautions:
1. Don’t wear loose clothes while working on the machine.
2. Work piece should be held tightly between the live and dead centers.
3. Always clean machine before use.
4. Cutting tools should be held tightly in the tool holder.
5. Never let your clothes and hand come in contact with the revolving chuck, pulleys etc.
6. Do not touch the chips when machine is removing them
7. Do not give large feed to the cutting tool.

Self-Assessment:
Define and explain the process of holding a work piece with types of vices or holding devices.
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What are the important parameters to be calculated before starting work on Shaper machine?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Define and explain different types of processes which can be performed on shaper machine.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What is the difference between single point and multipoint cutting tool? State Application.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Experiment No. 10
Objective
Prepare a V – Butt Joint using Arc Welding Process.

APPARATUS: Wire Brush, Grinding Machine, Protective Equipment, Welding Transformer,

Electrodes, Tong, Chipping Hammer

3
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Mild steel flat of 60 x45 x 10 mm – 2 No’s.

THEORY:

Definition: Electric arc welding is “a welding process where in coalescence is produced by

heating with an arc or arcs, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metals”. Electric arc welding is quite versatile and able to weld under many
conditions. High quality welds are produced. Metal is deposited rapidly and it is competitive cost
wise for many situations.
Electric arc welding is the most extensively used method of joining components of metallic
parts, the source of heat being an electric arc. An electric arc is a continuous stream of electrons
flowing through some sort of medium between two conductors of an electric circuit and
accompanied by intense heat generation and radiation.

An electric arc for welding is obtained in the following ways:

1. Between a consumable electrode (which also supplies filler metal) and the work piece.
2. Between a non-consumable electrode (carbon, graphite or tungsten etc.) and the work
piece.

Between two non-consumable electrodes.

The most common electric arc welding method is the one in which the arc is struck between an
electrode and the work. This is called as „Direct arc‟. The arc struck between two non-
consumable electrodes adjacent to the parts being welded is called as “Independent or Indirect
arc”. The metal is heated by the indirect action (by radiation) of the arc. Due to this, the thermal
efficiency of the method is poor. To strike an arc, the electrode is brought in contact with the
work at the point where the welding is to be started, after connecting the work to the welding
circuit. After a light contact, the electrode is immediately withdrawn to a distance of from 2 to 4
mm from the work. Only a comparatively low potential difference is required between the
electrode and the work to strike an arc. From 40 to 45 V is usually sufficient for D.C. and from
50 to 60 V for A.C. This voltage available at the output terminals of a welding set, before the arc
is struck, is known as open circuit voltage (OCV). The voltage falls after the arc is established
this is normally less than half the OCV. A stable arc can be maintained between a metal electrode
and the work metal with a voltage of 15 to 30 V while from 30 to 35V is needed to strike an arc
between non consumable electrode and the work.
The stable arc required for high quality welding can be achieved with an arc length equal to 0.6
to 0.8 of the electrode diameter. The arc length is defined as the distance between the end of the
electrode and the surface of the molten metal on the work. When the electrode first makes
contact with the job, a large short circuit current flows. When the electrode later is immediately
withdrawn, the current continues to flow in the form of spark across the air gap so formed. Due
to this, the air gap gets ionized, that is, splits into electrons and positive ions. The lighter
electrons flow from cathode to anode and the heavier positive ions flow from anode to cathode.
Thus, the air gap becomes conducting and current is able to flow across the gap in the form of an
arc.

When the lighter, high-velocity electrons strike the anode at great velocity, intense heat is
generated at the anode. Heat generated at the cathode is much less, because of the low velocity of
impinging positive ions. Thermal and luminous energy is not uniformly evolved in the welding
arc. About 43 percent of the total amount of heat is evolved on the anode and about 36 percent on
the cathode. The remaining 21 per cent is evolved by the arc.

The temperature of an electric arc depends upon the type of electrodes between which it is
struck. It is about 32000C on the cathode and about 39000C on the anode for carbon electrodes
and 24000C and 26000C respectively for metal electrodes. The temperature may reach 60000 to
70000C in the centre of the arc. Only from 60 to 70% of the heat is utilized an arc welding to
heat up and melt the metal. The remaining 30 to 40% is dissipated into the surroundings.

Welding Joint Design:

Since welding joins metals, design for welding is chiefly concerned with joints i.e. when to use a
joint, how to weld it, where to place it, what to do and what not to do. Selection and preparation
of weld joint is an important step in the fabrication of a weldment. Selection of correct joint
design is very essential if welded members are to perform within the load service, corrosive
atmosphere and safety requirements. Not only must the
Product have sufficient strength to perform well under the load conditions expected but it must
be pleasing in appearance also. Proper joint design is a vital part of a welding procedure because
it helps to:

 Control distortion
 Minimizes residual stresses
 Facilitates good workmanship
 Achieve proper weld strength
 Reduce welding costs and
 Result in greater reliability.

The weld joint design should be such that the welds can be tested non-destructively for necessary
quality control, especially if the welds are in pressurized or contaminates and inaccessible areas.
The consideration in joint includes safety, service, quality and cost.

Types of Welding Joints:

While designing for welding it appears both logical and fundamental to first consider the various
forms of weld joints. A joint indicates the position where two or more members of a structure
meet and are to be joined by welding.

Classification:

 Butt Joint
 Edge Joint
 Tee Joint
 Corner Joint
 Lap Joint

Selection of Welding Joint:

The selection of a suitable joint for a particular type of weldment depends upon the following
factors:

 Base plate thickness

 Geometry of structure
 Magnitude of loading
 Type of loading, i.e. tension, shear, impact, bending etc.
 Rate of loading (sudden or gradually applied).
The load or stress applied on a weldment may be static or dynamic. A static load places the least
strain on a weld. The most severe load is stress under dynamic or changing conditions.

 Cost of joint preparation

 Number of passes
 Electrode consumption
 Chances and magnitude of distortion
 Ease of welding

PROCEDURE:
1. The edge of the given material is prepared to the required V-shape using grinding machine.
2. The machine is set to the required current (75 amps).
3. Place the two work pieces on the table with required position as shown in figure.
4. The work pieces are kept in the required position and tack welding is performed on the work
pieces.
5. First run of welding is done to fill the gap and penetration of the weldment by holding the
0
electrode at about 70 and moving the electrode to another end uniformly.
6. Second run of welding is done with proper weaving and uniform movement.
7. The scale formed is chipped with chipping hammer.
8. Filing is done to remove any spatter around the weld.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. Always use a shield while welding.
2. Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
3. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
4. Care is taken to avoid arc blow, which will cause serious defect in the weldment.
5. Inflammable and combustible materials are removed from the vicinity of welding operations.
 Experiment No.11

Objective
Prepare a Lap Joint using Arc Welding Process.

APPARATUS: Wire Brush, Grinding Machine, Protective Equipment, Welding Transformer,

Electrodes, Tong, Chipping Hammer

3
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Mild steel flat of 50 x45 x 10 mm – 2 No’s.

THEORY:

Definition: Electric arc welding is “a welding process where in coalescence is produced by

heating with an arc or arcs, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metals”. Electric arc welding is quite versatile and able to weld under many
conditions. High quality welds are produced. Metal is deposited rapidly and it is competitive cost
wise for many situations.

Electric arc welding is the most extensively used method of joining components of metallic
parts, the source of heat being an electric arc. An electric arc is a continuous stream of electrons
flowing through some sort of medium between two conductors of an electric circuit and
accompanied by intense heat generation and radiation.

Types of Welding Joints:

While designing for welding it appears both logical and fundamental to first consider the various
forms of weld joints. A joint indicates the position where two or more members of a structure
meet and are to be joined by welding.

Classification:

 Butt Joint
 Edge Joint
 Tee Joint
 Corner Joint
 Lap Joint
Lap Joints:

Single fillet and double fillet joints

(shown in fig) are used on all
thicknesses; double fillet joint is better
as compared to single fillet when the
joint is subjected to severe loading.
Single fillet joints are not recommended
on plates under bending, fatigue or
impact loading conditions.

Plug weld (shown in fig) may be made

without or with a hole in the upper
member. This joint is used where
bottom or second plate is not easily
accessible for fillet welding. Plug weld
can

be employed to impart added strength to

the structure.

PROCEDURE:

1. The edges of the given material is

prepared using wire brush and finish the same
grinding machine to remove the rust and scales
presented on the edges.
2. The machine is set to the required
current (75 amps).
3. Place the two work pieces on the table
with required position as shown in figure.
4. The work pieces are kept in the required
position and tack welding is performed on the
work pieces.
5. First run of welding is done to fill the
gap and penetration of the weldment by holding
0
the electrode at about 70 and moving the
electrode to another end uniformly.
6. Second run of welding is done with proper weaving and uniform movement.
7. The scale formed is chipped with chipping hammer.
8. Filing is done to remove any spatter around the weld.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. Always use a shield while welding.
2. Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
3. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
4. Care is taken to avoid arc blow, which will cause serious defect in the weldment.
5. Inflammable and combustible materials are removed from the vicinity of welding
operations.