ABSTRACT

A photovoltaic cell comprising, a cathode layer, an electron donating layer, and

an electron accepting anode structure comprising a collection region including
one or a plurality of secondary collection regions attached to the collection
region. The secondary collection regions of the anode preferably are in the
shape of dispersed rod shaped branches extending within a continuous phase of
the electron donating layer. The collection region is preferably located at a
central point with respect to the secondary collection regions, to thereby
provide a photovoltaic cell structure with improved charge collection and
efficiency of operation

1
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Energy policies have pushed for different technologies to decrease
pollutant emissions and reduce global climate change. Photovoltaic technology
(PV), which utilizes sunlight to generate energy, is an attractive alternate energy
source because it is renewable, harmless, and domestically secure.
Because PV technology‟s basic component is the PV cell which produces less
than three watts on average, cells must be bundled in series/parallel
configurations known as PV modules or solar cells to achieve high powered
tasks.
PV arrays produce power only when illuminated, and it is therefore standard to
employ a large energy storage mechanism, most commonly a series of
rechargeable batteries. To prevent harmful battery overcharge and over
discharge conditions and to drive AC loads, a charge controller and an AC to
DC converter must be implemented.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Nowadays, humans are facing the energy depletion crisis. Non-renewable
resources are less and less, and most of the energy is accompanied by pollution.
With the deterioration of the living environment and the growing of the demand
of the energy, humans must find and use some new energy, such like wind,
tidal, solar and so on. And the most popular new energy is solar power.
There are many ways to use solar power, and this thesis is about how to use
solar power to produce electricity. This thesis will introduce the principle of
solar photovoltaic, the composition and operation of the solar photovoltaic
system, the maintenance of solar photovoltaic system and the background of the
use of solar power in the world.
1.1.1 NEW ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
New energy technology is one of the five areas of the world economic
development with the most decisive force in the 21st century. Solar energy is a

2
clean, efficient and everlasting new energy. In the new reality, governments will
use solar energy resources as a national sustaina-ble development strategy. The
photovoltaic power generation is safe and reliable, has no noise, no pollution, is
less constrained, has low failure rate, easy maintenance, etc. In the vast and cold
western part of China, under the conditions of the varied and scattered terrain, it
has many effects. In those areas, the Realistic conditions are relatively poor, and
the economy sit-uation is not good too. It can be facilitated to establish large-
scale solar photovoltaic power stations on those varied land, and can supply the
electrical energy to the people who live there for their daily lives.
Photovoltaic power generation is one of the main forms of solar energy
utilization. Solar cell in-dustry has formed a certain scale. The research work in
laboratory of new solar cells has flour-ished already in the whole world. In
recent years, China has gotten a rapid development of so-lar photovoltaic
generation industry. The account of silicon solar cells reached 27% of the world
in 2007, the productivity was the number one in the world.
The technology of solar photocoltaic is developing rapidly. The efficiency of
solar cells gets higher and higher. The efficiency of monocrystalline silicon
solar cells has reached 24.7% in 2007, but in 1950s, the efficiency was just 6%.
That is a huge progress, and the efficiency of business solar cells has reached
16-22%. The polysilicon business solar cells‟ efficiency has reached 15-18%.
While in the continuous development of crystaline silicon, amorphous silicon,
CdTe, CuInGaSe and other thin-film solar cell technology has had rapid
development also, and has a certain proportion. (Siyu Wang 2012.04.22.)
The distribution area of energy of the world is also needed to know. As seen in
the Figure 1, there are some colors in the picture. The red areas have enough
solar energy resource, but in those light color areas, solar energy is not good for
solar photovoltaic.
The value of radiant power emitted into space by the sun is 3.8*1023 kW1, and
only one of 2 billion kilo-watt of that energy can reach the atmosphere of the

3
Earth. Meanwhile, the 30% of the power which reached the atmosphere would
be reflected, and 23% would be absorbed by atmosphere. Only 47% can reach
the surface of the Earth, the power is 8.0*1013 kW. It means that the power
from the sun in 1 second is equivalent to burn five million tons of coal.
The consumption of the energy by total global human annual is just about 40
minutes of sun light power exposure to the Earth's surface.
The best areas of solar radiation intensity and duration of sunshine in the world
include North Africa, Middle East, Mexico and the southwestern United States,
southern Europe, Australia, South Africa, South America, East and West Coast
and western regions of China and so on. (Siyu Wang 2012)
1.2 AIM & OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this paper are:
 The primary objective is to optimize PV cells and energy storage and to
increase overall system efficiency.
 To provide momentum for the nexus for future solar generation facilities
in the County facilities and buildings.
 The education of the general public in regards to the benefits of
environmentally friendly electricity generation and the County‟s efforts to
encourage sustainable living practices.
 Successful photovoltaic electricity generation technologies to capture
solar energy in a useful form of electrical energy.
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The United States uses approximately 30 trillion KWh of energy each

year, and with energy requirement growing every year, it is imperative to
develop energy harvesting technologies from renewable energy sources for a
sustainable future. Solar Cell is abundant on earth but efficient and economical
energy harvesting technology needs to be developed. Thin film crystalline
silicon (c-Si) based photovoltaic (PV) cells occupy about 90% of the solar

4
energy market, followed by thin film semiconductors of cadmium
telluride/copper indium selenide and alternative photovoltaic technologies. Thin
film PV cells has high solar to electric conversion efficiency (up to 25%), but
they are very expensive to manufacture and cost per kW of energy is much
higher than other forms of electrical energy. Alternative solar energy
technologies such as dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC) are attracting researchers
and entrepreneurs due to their easy processing, efficiency (up to 11%) and lower
cost per kW compared to the traditional PVs.

1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Solar energy generally refers to solar radiation energy. The main form of
use of solar energy has photothermal conversion of solar energy, photovoltaic
and photochemical conversion. Broadly, solar power is the resources of many
energy, for example, the wind power, chemical energy, potential energy of
water and other are all converted by the solar power. Some main methods of
using solar power are such as solar cells, photoelectric conversion by the energy
contained in sunlight into electricity; solar water heaters, the use of solar heat
for heating wa-ter, and the use of hot water generation. Solar energy is quite
clean, no pollution and the rate of using is high, and no shortage of this
statement, which determines all the advantages of its irreplaceable role in the
turnover of energy.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The concept of solar cells based on nature‟s fractal patterns represents a
significant advance on traditional solar cell designs. For the first time, solar
cells will directly exploit the efficient light-collection properties of trees by
incorporating fractal branches within the device‟s architecture. By adopting
self-assembly fabrication processes, the electrodes and the photoactive material
will form interlocking fractal patterns. This „natural‟ architecture will establish
an optimal balance of providing a large surface area of the photoactive material

5
(to maximize the collection of light) and also providing a large interface with
the electrodes (allowing an efficient collection of the electricity from the
photoactive material). Simulations will be employed to optimize the scaling
properties of the fractal braches in order to maximize these two geometric
properties and thus the device‟s performance
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The merchandise covered by this order is crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells,
and modules, laminates, and panels, consisting of crystalline silicon
photovoltaic cells, whether or not partially or fully assembled into other
products, including, but not limited to, modules, laminates, panels and building
integrated materials.
This order covers crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells of thickness equal to or
greater than 20 micrometers, having a p/n junction formed by any means,
whether or not the cell has undergone other processing, including, but not
limited to, cleaning, etching, coating, and/or addition of materials (including,
but not limited to, metallization and conductor patterns) to collect and forward
the electricity that is generated by the cell.
Merchandise under consideration may be described at the time of importation as
parts for final finished products that are assembled after importation, including,
but not limited to, modules, laminates, panels, building-integrated modules,
building-integrated panels, or other finished goods kits. Such parts that
otherwise meet the definition of merchandise under consideration are included
in the scope of this order.
Excluded from the scope of this order are thin film photovoltaic products
produced from amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), or copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS).
Also excluded from the scope of this order are crystalline silicon photovoltaic
cells, not exceeding 10,000mm2 in surface area, that are permanently integrated
into a consumer good whose function is other than power generation and that

6
consumes the electricity generated by the integrated crystalline silicon
photovoltaic cell. Where more than one cell is permanently integrated into a
consumer good, the surface area for purposes of this exclusion shall be the total
combined surface area of all cells that are integrated into the consumer good.
1.7 BRIEF HISTORY
A photovoltaic cell comprising a cathode layer, an electron donating layer, an
electron accepting anode structure comprising a central collection region
including one or a plurality of secondary collection regions attached to said
collection region. An additional electron donating layer may be included to
thereby provide an electron donating layer on both sides of the electron
accepting anode structure.
1.8 LIMITATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

The major limitation of silicon photovoltaic (PV) cells is that they are
made from a material that is rarely found in nature in the pure, elemental form
needed. While there is no shortage of silicon in the form of silicon dioxide
(beach sand), it takes tremendous amounts of energy to get rid of the oxygen
attached to it. Typically, manufacturers melt silicon dioxide at 1500–2000
degrees Celsius in an electrode arc furnace. The energy needed to run such
furnaces sets a fundamental lower limit on the production cost of silicon PV
cells and also adds to the emissions of greenhouse gases from their
manufacture.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL
The smallest semiconductor element within a PV module to perform the
immediate conversion of light into electrical energy (direct current voltage and
current). Also called a solar cell.

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SOLAR ARRAY
A solar array is a collection of solar panels wired together to create the desired
energy output. The typical residential solar array consists of 20–25 solar panels
to cover 100% of its energy consumption.
PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)
The term photovoltaic (PV) comes from two root words: “photo” (light) and
“voltaic” (voltage).
In physics, “photovoltaic” refers to anything that produces electricity when
exposed to light or other radiant energy.
INVERTER
A device that converts direct current electricity to alternating current either for
stand-alone systems or to supply power to an electricity grid.
THIN-FILM SOLAR
PV solar technology constructed with very thin layers of PV material to create
lightweight, often flexible sheets of solar energy-producing modules.
KILOWATT (KW)
A standard unit of electrical power equal to 1000 watts, or to the energy
consumption at a rate of 1000 joules per second.
KILOWATT-HOUR (KWH)
1,000 thousand watts acting over a period of 1 hour. The kWh is a unit of
energy. 1 kWh=3600 kJ.
N-Type
Negative semiconductor material in which there are more electrons than holes;
current is carried through it by the flow of electrons.
P/N
A semiconductor photovoltaic device structure in which the junction is formed
between a p-type layer and an n-type layer.

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THIN FILM
A layer of semiconductor material, such as copper indium diselenide or gallium
arsenide, a few microns or less in thickness, used to make photovoltaic cells.
THIN FILM PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
A photovoltaic module constructed with sequential layers of thin film
semiconductor materials.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The Sun conveys solar energy to Earth consistently, freely and for
unlimited time. The benefit of solar energy includes sustainability, renewability
and environmental friendly. In addition, solar energy can be converted into
other forms of energy. As examples, it is used to provide electrical energy for
small items such as calculators and watches, and heat energy for homes and
industries. However, solar energy is an intermittent source as it is unavailable
on a cloudy or rainy day. Therefore, many systems are designed with either
some kind of energy storage feature, or a backup source of energy, such as the
electric grid.

2.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGIES

Basically, there are four technologies involved in solar energy: passive

solar, solar heating, solar thermal electric, and solar photovoltaic (PV). Passive
solar uses solar energy in the form of heat and light, especially for buildings.
Solar heating uses a solar collector that concentrates heat in either water pipes
or an air handling system, which then distributes the hot air or water through the
building. These two technologies are used in small-scale applications. On the
other hand, solar thermal electric is used in large-scale applications, such as to
heat a fluid for the production of high pressure and high temperature steam. The
steam is then converted into mechanical energy in a turbine and into electricity
from a conventional generator coupled to the turbine. In general, this technology
has the same concept as solar heating. PV is an environmental-friendly
technology currently available because it uses chemicals to convert light to
electricity. This process is called the PV effect. The term photovoltaic was a

10
combination of the Greek word phos means light, and volt in honour of the
inventor of the electric battery, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827).

In 1839, a French 6 physicist, Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel discovered the

photovoltaic process. Then, in 1883 the American inventor, Charles Fritts built
the first solar cell, using selenium with a thin film of gold as the semiconductor.

The PV effect was discovered in 1954 when scientists at Bell Telephone

discovered that silicon created an electric charge when exposed to sunlight.
Previously, solar cells were used to power space satellites and smaller items.
Nowadays, solar PV technology is used to power homes, businesses, and large
power stations. PV technology continued to advance over recent decades. It
leads to the development of photovoltaic systems connected to networks. This
has prompted an industry whose main objective is to supply modules for large
photovoltaic farms to generate electricity. The increased conversion
performance, such as proportion of sunlight that the cell transforms into electric
energy, is fundamental in making this energy source more cost-efficient and
competitive.

2.2.1 PV System
Advanced research on materials for PV has led to a better understanding
on effective capture of photons at reactive site and transfer of the excitation
energy. Basically, light harvesting is very important in photosynthesis.
Understanding the concept(s) involved in this natural process provides an
excellent platform for understanding how photoexcitation can be directed and
improved using assemblies of light-absorbing molecules. The light energy is
captured by complexes or molecules that subsequently funnel it to reaction
centres on 10-100 ps timescale. More specifically, light harvesting relies on the
process of electronic energy transfer, which is stored momentarily
(nanoseconds) by molecules in excited state-within networks of light-absorbing

11
molecules (chromophore) to a target chromophore or trap. This timescale
constrains the size of the chromophore arrays attached to the reactive site, or
how far excitation energy can travel (excitation diffusion length).
Many researchers have developed a dye-based molecule that mimics the light
harvesting complex found in plants. The system is designed to absorb all
wavelengths of light, which could allow for small powerful solar cells that work
well in low light and indoors. The major limitation of materials in current use is
the need for high light intensity levels. The photochemical reactions caused by
high energy photons degrade the device. This phenomenon is called photon
annihilation, whereby all excess photons being harvested is lost as heat. Plants
avoid this problem by having light harvesting or antenna complexes

The complexes contain an array of proteins and pigment molecules, including

chlorophyll. These absorb photons and then direct their energy towards a
reaction centre to produce chemical energy. In addition, these allow plants to
make nutrient in dim light conditions, and also protecting themselves from
photon annihilation by storing the energy in their pigments. Many researchers
have been attempting to mimic this natural antenna system in PV cells by
applying photosensitive dyes. However, the necessary molecules were difficult
to produce and stabilise due to their complexity.

Figure 2.1: Synthetic antenna allows energy from photons to be shuttled to the
reaction centre without any destructive annihilation

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A beam of sunlight contains photons of different energy (which is related to the
different wavelengths of the solar spectrum). When these photons strike a PV
cell, theymay be reflected, passed through, or absorbed into the cell. However,
only the absorbed photons with energy greater than the bandgap energy can
generate electricity. When photons are absorbed, their energy is transferred to
the electrons of the PV material. These energetic electrons are able to „free‟
themselves and become part of a current in an electrical circuit (Figure 2.2)

Figure 2.2 Electron mobility in a PV cell

However, the electrical properties of an insulated cell will not allow it to

produce sufficient energy to make a standard voltage electric device work (12,
24 or 48 volts). Hence, PV cells are connected electrically in series and/or
parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. In order
to increase power output, many PV cells are connected to form modules, which
are further assembled into larger units called arrays (Figure 2.3). Photovoltaic
modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective
laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic
panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit,
consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.

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Figure 2.3 Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays

2.2.2 Development of PV Cell

The requirements for an ideal PV materials are:
(1) band gap between 1.1 and 1.7 eV;
(2) direct band structure;
(3) readily available and non-toxics;
(4) easy and reproducible deposition technique, suitable for large area
production;
(5) good photovoltaic conversion efficiency; and
(6) long-term stability.
At present, over 90% of PV cells are made of silicon. Silicon is best suited to
enhancing the efficiency of the modules as it is a semiconductor metaloid
(combined properties of metals and insulators). High purity silicon is the raw
material from which PV cells are produced (and the price of cells is affected by
high purity silicon feedstock availability and prices and reclaimable silicon
availability and prices). There are different types of cells, such as
monocrystalline silicon (Mono c-Si), polycrystalline silicon (Multi c-Si), and
thin film (non-crystalline) (Figure 2.4)

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Figure 2.4 Type of silicon cells: (a) monocrystalline, (b) polycrystalline, (c) thin
film

A thin-film solar cell (TFSC), also called a thin-film photovoltaic cell (TFPV),
is a second generation solar cell. It is made by depositing one or more thin
layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass,
plastic or metal. This type of solar cells are commercially used in a number of
technologies, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous and other thin-film silicon (a-Si, TF-Si).
Thin film cells are approximately half the manufactured cost of crystalline
silicon cells, but are lessefficient than crystalline silicon cells. Thin film panels
are also very flexible and can be incorporated into/onto building materials .

A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin

layer of phosphorus-doped (n-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron-
doped (p-type) silicon. These n-type and p-type semiconducting materials act as
insulators at low temperatures and as conductors when exposed to heat or light
energy. An electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these
two materials are in contact, called the p-n junction. When sunlight strikes the
surface of a PV cell, this electrical field provides the momentum and direction
to light-stimulated electrons, resulting in a flow of current when the PV cell is
connected to an electrical load.

15
Figure 2.5 Diagram of a p-type and n-type of PV cell

Under an open circuit, a typical silicon PV cell produces about 0.5 - 0.6 V DC,
where there is no load. The current and power end product of a PV cell depends
on its efficiency and size (surface area). It is also proportional to the intensity of
sunshine striking the surface of the cell. For instance, a typical commercial PV
cell with a surface area of 160 cm2 will produce about 2 watts peak power
under peak sunlight conditions. Nevertheless, if the sunlight intensity were 40%
of the peak value, this cell would produce about 0.8 watts.

The significant part to design a better PV cell is a steady supply of photons at an

appropriate wavelength. For example, Anthony Harriman and Raymond Ziessel
have developed a new synthetic light-harvesting array using difluoro-
boradiazaindacenes (F-Bodipy), better known by the commercial name of
BODIPY. A new molecule of Bodipy dye has been prepared by replacing the
fluorine substituent present in the more conventional chromophore with aryl
substituents, such as pyrene. These molecules were expected to prevent photon
loss and avoid the formation of highly energetic states that would degrade a
device. In addition, these molecules are intended to collect all wavelengths,

16
quickly convert UV light into far-red light, avoiding reactive intermediates and
channel the photons to the solar cell.

2.2.3 Bandgap Energy

The bandgap of a semiconductor is the minimum energy required to excite an
electron in its bound state into a free state where it can participate in conduction.
The band structure of a semiconductor gives the energy of the electrons on the
y-axis, and is called a "band diagram" (Figure 2.7). The lower energy level of a
semiconductor is called the "valence band" (Ev), while the energy level at
which an electron can be considered free is called the "conduction band" (Ec).
The band gap (Eg) is the gap in energy between the valence band and
conduction band.

Figure 2.7 Semiconductor band

Once the electron becomes excited into the conduction band, it is free to move
about the semiconductor and participate in conduction. However, the excitation
of an electron to the conduction band will also allow an additional conduction
process to take place. As it leaves behind an empty space for an electron. An
electron from a neighbouring atom can move into this empty space. When this
electron moves, it leaves behind another space. The continual movement of the
space for an electron, called a "hole", can be illustrated as the movement of a
positively charged particle through the crystal structure. Consequently, the

17
excitation of an electron into the conduction band results in not only an electron
in the conduction band but also a hole in the valenceband. Thus, both the
electron and hole can participate in conduction and are called "carriers".
In general, a material with a bandgap of less than about 3 eV is regarded as a
semiconductor. A material with a bandgap of greater than 3 eV will commonly
be regarded as an insulator. A number of ceramics such as silicon carbide (SiC),
titanium dioxide (TiO2), barium titanate (BaTiO3) and zinc oxide (ZnO) have
bandgaps around 3 eV. Such ceramics are often referred to as wide-band-gap
semiconductors.

Figure 2.9 HOMO and LUMO gap

There are two bandgap semiconductors, such as direct bandgap and indirect
bandgap. In a direct band gap semiconductor, the top of the valence band and
the bottom of the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum
(Figure 2.8). In contrast, for an indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum
energy of the valence band occurs at a different value of momentum to the
minimum in the conduction band energy. The difference between the two is
important in optical devices.

2.3 DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL

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A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) is a third generation PV cell that shows great
promise because of its low-cost and simplicity. DSSC converts visible light into
electrical energy. This class of advanced PV cell is similar to artificial
photosynthesis by the way it mimics nature in absorbing light energy.
DSSC is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode
and an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. The modern version of a dye
solar cell, also known as the Grätzel cell, was originally co-invented in 1988 by
Brian O'Regan and Michael Grätzel. This work led to the development of the
first high efficiency DSSC in 1991. Michael Grätzel was awarded the 2010
Millennium Technology Prize for this invention.
DSSC is a disruptive technology that can be used to produce electricity in a
wide range of light conditions, enabling the user to convert both artificial and
natural light into energy to power a broad range of electronic devices. The
advantages of DSSC are low-light performance, optimised performance, higher
temperature performance, low energy manufacturing process, ecological
friendly, variety of substrates and versatile product integration (highly flexible,
durable and lightweight). The efficiency of DSSC has continued to increase in
the last 20 years, with a confirmed record of 14.1% .

2.3.1 The Concept of Sensitisation

A DSSC functions because of the interactions between the anode and cathode of
the cell, and TiO2 nanoparticles, which are coated with a light-sensitive dye and
surrounded by an electrolyte. The anode is transparent, like glass, so that
sunlight can be absorbed by the inner parts of the solar cell. Between the anode
and the cathode is a mesh TiO2nanoparticles that act like a roadway for the
electrons (electricity) coursing through the cell. The TiO2 nanoparticles are
coated with a light-absorbing dye that convert photons (light) into electricity .
In a DSSC, the electrons need to be flowing from one end of the cell to the other
(from the cathode to the anode). The electrons (electricity) travel through the

19
electrolyte (I-) and the TiO2 nanoparticles to create an electric current. TiO2
nanoparticles are transparent and normally used as conductors because of their
unique ability to be „welded‟ together and form one huge network for the
electrons to travel through (Figure 2.21)

Figure 2.21 DSSC system

The electrons originate from the dye molecules coating the TiO2 nanoparticles
when they are hit by light (photons). Different colour dyes can absorb different
wavelengths of light, which in turn carry different amounts of energy. The dye
molecule enters an excited state, and emits an electron. The emitted electron
travels through the TiO2 nanoparticles until it reaches the anode, or is lost to I-
because of defects in the TiO2 nanoparticles.
After emitting one of its electrons, a dye molecule will start to decompose
unless it receives another electron to replace the one it lost. In this state, the dye
moleculecannot emit any more electrons. This is the reason the dye-coated TiO2
molecules are immersed in I- solution (I- ion is able to replace the electrons lost
by the dye molecules). When this occurs, I- ion is oxidized to I3-, which will

20
float around until it comes in contact with the cathode. Each I3- ion received
two electrons from the cathode, which reduces it back to three I- ions.
The dyes used in early experimental cells (circa 1995) were sensitive only in the
high-frequency end of the solar spectrum (UV and blue). The most efficient
DSSC demonstrated to date were all based on ruthenium dyes developed by the
Grätzel group, such as N3, N719 and „black dyes‟ (Figure 2.22).
Suyoung Hwang et al. reported that the electrochemical bandgap of N3 and
N719 were 2.4 eV and 2.6 eV, respectively.
The "black dye”, notably "triscarboxy-ruthenium terpyridine" [Ru(4,4',4"-
(COOH)3-terpy)(NCS)3], was a newer versions introduced (circa 1999). It had
a much wider frequency response and was efficient right into the low-frequency
range of red and IR light. The wide spectral response results in the dye having a
deep brown-black colour. The dyes have an excellent chance of converting a
photon into an electron, originally around 80% but improving to almost perfect
conversion in more recent dyes, the overall efficiency was about 90%, with the
"lost" 10% being largely accounted for by the optical losses from the top
electrode.

21
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
With the progress of science, the first thing that has to be known is the
principle of solar photovoltaic power generation. Then the humans can use solar
power.

Figure 3.1. Solar power (Devarajan Srinivasan 2015)

3.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
Photovoltaic power generation is a technology by using photovoltaic
effect of the interface of semiconductor and changing light energy directly into
electrical energy. Solar cells are the most important key element of this
technology. After a series of solar cells encapsulated protection, it could form a
large area solar cell module, coupled with the power controller and other com-
ponents to form a photovoltaic system device.
If light shines on the solar cells and is absorbed by the interface of
semiconductor, the photon which is with enough energy can stimulate electron
from the covalent between P-type and N-type silicon to produce electron–hole.
Before the complex of electron and electron-hole which is near the interface
layer of semiconductor, it will be separated from each other by the electric field
of the space charge. The electron will move into the N region which is with
positive elec-tricity, and the electron-hole will move into the region which is
with negatively electricity. With the charge separation of the interface layer of
22
semiconductor, it will produce a voltage be-tween P region and N region. For
crystalline silicon solar cells, a typical value of open-circuit voltage is 0.5 ~
0.6V. The more electron-hole produced at the interface of semiconductor, the
electric current will be larger. The more solar energy absorbed by the interface
of semiconduc-tor and the bigger of the area of solar cells, the electric current
will be larger when the system work. (Ned Haluzan on 2012)

Figure 3.2: Solar cells absorb photons. (Ned Haluzan on 2012)

3.2 PRINCIPLE
Solar energy is a type of radiated energy. It can be changed into electrical
energy by using energy converters. The converter is a solar cell. It will produce
new electron-hole pairs when light shines on the P-N knot of the semiconductor,
under the function of electric field in the P-N knot, the electron-hole will flow
to P zone from N zone, and the electrons flow to N zone from P zone, and
produce electric current after connected to the circuit.
There are two types of solar photovoltaic, types light-heat-electricity and direct
light-electricity type. (Kineavy 2014)

23
Figure 3.3: PV cell. (F. Kineavy 2014)
3.3 COMPOSITION OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
After learning the principles of solar photovoltaic power generation,
scientists have designed a solar photovoltaic component, and according to their
respective functions, these established to generate electricity.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar photovoltaic system can use the solar cell module to produce the
electrical energy by so-lar power directly. Solar cell is a device which can
achieve the transform of P-V by the electron-ic characteristic of semiconductor
materials, in the majority of the off-grid areas, the device can be easily
implemented as a user-powered lighting of life. It can be also with the regional
power grid to achieve complementarity in some developed
countries.(Bhubaneswari Parida, S. Iniyan and Ranko Goic 2011.04.)
4.2 SETTING CONDITIONS
The factors for designing solar photovoltaic system are as follows:
 Need to consider the use of solar photovoltaic systems places and solar
radiation condi-tions;
 Need to consider how much load power should be carried by the solar
photovoltaic system;
 For the output voltage of the system, the use of a DC or AC power should
be considered;
 The number of hours per day the systems need to work;
 If there is no sunlight in rainy weather, how many days should the system
supply continu-ously;
 It should be considered whether the case of the load is purely resistive,
capacitive or in-ductive, starting current size. (Gray Davis, Governor
2001.06)
4.3 COMPOSITION OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
PV2 system is composed of square solar cells, a battery, a charge
controller, an inverter, an AC Power Distribution Cabinet, an automatic solar
tracking system, an automatic dust removal sys-tem, solar modules and other
equipment.

25
4.3.1 SOLAR CELL
Solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors which are called P-type and
N-type silicon. Because of adding atoms, the P-type silicon loses one electron.
The N-type silicon is made by adding atoms so that it gets one more electron.
A solar cell is made by a P-type silicon layer and the N-type silicon layer. There
are too many electrons in N-type layer, and in P-type layer, there are too many
electron-holes. Near the junction of those two layers, the electron moves into
the electron-hole from N-type layer, this creates a depletion zone so that the
electrons fill the holes.

Figure 4.1: N and P type layers.

Solar cell is a device which can catch the sun light and transform it to electrical
energy directly. The size of a solar cell is about a size of a palm of an adult. The
shape is an octagon, and the color is blue-black. Solar cells are built with the
solar batteries together very often. The large units are solar modules. The case
of many solar cells are built together which are called a solar panel. (Chris
Woodford on 2016)

26
Figure 4:2 Solar cells panel. (Chris Woodford on 2016)
4.3.2 SOLAR BATTERY
For some problems, such as unstable grid energy, over-charging or discharging
and irregular full recharging, is for the solar battery important to meet those
demands. And for nowadays, lead-acid batteries are the main batteries which are
used in solar photovoltaic system.
Lead-acid batteries: these solar batteries are mainly used in the car, but it is a
good choice for solar photovoltaic system. It is a starting battery; it can produce
a short burst of high power to start the engine of the system. There are also
some deep-cycle batteries. Lead-acid batteries are used very widely, but all of
lead-acid batteries are used for starting or prociding deep cycle power. There is
an obviously difference, that is how much power it deliveres and how long it
needs to deliver. (Kathie Zipp 2015).

4.3.3 BATTERY PACK

The main function of a solar battery pack is to store solar energy by the
square under the light and be ready to supply the electricity energy to the load at
anytime.

27
Here are the basic requirements for solar power batteries:
 Low self-discharge rate;
 Long service life;
 Deep discharge capacity should be strong;
 High charging efficiency;
 Low-maintenance rate or maintenance is free;
 Wild range of operating temperature;
 Low price.
For currently, the most battery packs used with solar photovoltaic system
together are lead-acid batteries and nickel-cadmium batteries. Generally, it is
used in stationary or industrial sealed lead-acid batteries, more than 200Ah lead-
acid batteries are used more, and the rated voltage of each battery is 2VDC3.
Generally, it is used small sealed maintenance-free lead-acid battery if the need
is less than 200Ah lead-acid battery, and the rated voltage is 12VDC for each
battery. (Zachary Shahan 2015)

Figure 4.3: Battery packs. (Neutron Battery 2016)

28
4.3.4 CHARGE CONTROLLER
The charge controller can prevent battery over-charge and over-discharge
automatically. Due to the cycle times of charge, discharge and the depth of
discharging is the main factor to de-termine the usage of battery life. Therefore,
a charge controller is an essential equipment.

Figure 4.4: Charge controller

The charge controller can be used to supply power for DC device which is with
solar panels. The charge controller can supply a regulated DC output and store
the excess energy in a bat-15 / 35
tery, and it can also prevent over or under charging by monitoring the battery
voltage.
4.3.5 INVERTER
The device can transform direct current into alternating current. Since solar cells
and batteries are DC power supplyer so that an inverter is necessary when it is
an AC4 load. According to op-erating mode, the inverter can be divided into
stand-alone inverters and grid inverters. As a stand-alone inverter, it is used in
an independently operated solar power generation system for supplying a
separate load. Grid inverters are used in network operation solar power
generation systems. The inverter can be divided into square wave inverter and
sine wave inverter accord-ing to the type of output waveform. The circuit of
square wave inverter is simple, cost of pro-duction is low, but the harmonic

29
component is large. It is generally used for the system which is a few hundred
watts or less and low requirements on the harmonic. However, the cost of si-ne
wave inverter is high, but it can be applied to a variety of loads. The inverter
can be con-nected with a charging output controller to drive AC loads.
Here are some protection functions of an inverter:
1. Overload protection;
2. Short circuit protection;
3. Reversal protection;
4. Undervoltage protection;
5. Overvoltage protection;
6. Overheating protection.
4.4 TYPES OF SOLAR PANEL
As the most important part of solar PV system, solar cell matrix is in a big role
for transforming light into electricity. According to the raw materials, it can be
divided into three types, single crystal silicon solar cells, polycrystalline silicon
solar cells, and amorphous silicon solar cells. In the solar PV systems of China,
single crystal and polycrystalline maximum battery are the main types currently.
From the above analysis, the development of crystalline silicon is closely
related to photovoltaic industry and manufacturing industries. The development
of photovoltaic in-dustry will directly promote the development of crystalline
silicon production industry. (Yang Mingjing 2016)
4.4.1 MONOCRYSTALLINE SILICON (SINGLE SILICON)
The efficience of the solar panel depends on the content of silicon. The more
silicon included, the efficience will be higer. So the single silicon solar panel is
the most popular panel. The same amount sunlights irradiate on the single
silicon solar panels, the panel will absorb much more energy than other types of
panel, the more electricity will be produced.

30
But with so many advantages, the disadvantage is the price. The single silicon
solar panels are very expensive.

Figure 4.5: Single silicon soalr panel

4.4.2 POLYSRYSTALLINE SILICON (MULTI-SILICON)
Polycrystalline solar panel is made of polycrystalline silicon solar cells, and
array of PV modules of different power are arranged in different ways to meet
the electricity demand of different appliances.
Crystalline silicon solar cell film and thin film solar cells are the main market
mainstream, both of which have advantages and disadvantages. For the
crystalline silicon solar cell film, the pro-duce cost is lower, but the
consumption is very high. The photoelectric conversion efficiency is too high.
For the thin film solar cells, most of them are used outdoor power generation.
The cost of the equipment is high, but the efficiency of power generation is
higher.
Figure

31
Figure 4.6: Multi-silicon solar panel
4.4.3 AMORPHOUS SILICON SOLAR PANEL
Amorphous silicon solar cells are the new thin-film solar cells, appeared in
1976. The produc-tion method is quite different with monocrystalline and
polycrystalline silicon solar cell. The process is greatly simplified. The
consumption of silicon is decreased too much, and the con-sumption of
electricity is lower. Its main advantage is in low light conditions where it can
also generate electricity. The main problem is the presence of amorphous silicon
solar cell conver-sion efficiency is low. The international advanced level is
about 10%, and it is not stable enough. With time, the conversion efficiency is
attenuated.

Figure 4.7: Amorphous silicon solar cells

There are new type of amorphous silicon solar cells, the flexible solar cells, a
thin film solar cell. They are technologically advanced, with high performance,
low cost, and wide range of uses.

32
It can be applied to solar backpacks, solar convertible, solar flashlights, so-lar
car, solar sailing and even solar-powered aircraft. An important application area
is flexible solar BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaic). It can be integrated in
the window or roof, wall or inside the wall.

Figure 4.8. The flexible solar cells

4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
Solar photovoltaic power generation system can be divided into independent
photovoltaic sys-tems, grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems
and distributed PV systems:
1). Independent photovoltaic power generation systems, are also known as off-
grid PV sys-tems. It mainly consists of solar modules, controller, battery. If it
needs to supply an AC load, it also need to configure AC inverter. An
independent PV power plant include the power supply system of the village in
remote areas, household solar power systems, com-munications signal power,
cathodic protection, solar lights and other PV systems. （Ivalls 2016.04.09.）

33
Figure 4.9: Off-Grid PV system (Ivalls 2016）
According to the characteristics of the load, independent photovoltaic systems
can be divided into DC system, AC system and AC-DC hybrid systems and
other types. The main difference is whether the system is with an inverter. In
general, the composition consists of solar cell matrix, controller, battery, DC /
AC inverter and some other off-grid solar photovoltaic systems. (Ivalls 2016）
2). A Grid-connected PV system is that is directly connected to the public grid
after the DC current is generated by solar modules and then through grid an
inverter transforms if into alternating current mains in line with the electricity
grid requirements.
It can be divided two types of grid-connected PV systems according to whether
they have a battery. The grid-connnected PV system with battery is schedulable
so that it can be incorpo-rated into or out of the grid as required. It also can be
as a backup power when the grid has some problems. However, the grid-
connected PV system without battery can not be a backup power and
unschedulable. （Anil Kumar 2016）

34
Figure 4.10: Grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems. (Anil
Kumar 2016）
3). Distributed photovoltaic systems are often built near the position of the users
or near the PV plants to achieve some special needs of users.
The basic components of distributed PV systems include photovoltaic modules,
photovoltaic ar-ray bracket, DC combiner box, DC power distribution cabinet,
grid-connected inverter, AC pow-er distribution cabinets and other equipments.
There are also power system monitoring and controlling devices and
environmental monitoring devices. When the system is under the radia-tion of
sun light, the solar cell module array of photovoltaic systems will transform the
solar power to electrical energy, and then send the energy into DC power
distribution cabinet by DC combiner box, then reverse into AC power by the
inverter and supply the load of the system,the excess or shortage of electricity
through the grid connection to be adjusted. （Anil Kumar 2016.04.11.）
According to the function and the operation requirements, the configurations of
the compo-nents and the ways of the connection that are between equipments
and the other power sources and electrical loads, the solar PV system can be
divided into two main systems, grid-connected or utility-interactive systems and
stand-alone systems.
The most important component in grid-connected PV system is the inverter, or
power condi-tioning unit (PCU). The DC power produced by the PV array can
be transformed into AC power by the PCU, the voltage and power quality are in

35
the light of the requirements of the utility grid, and can stop supplying power to
the grid automatically when the grid is not energized. (University of Central
Florida 2016）

Figure 4.11: Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system

Grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems can be divided into two
types of cen-tralized large-scale photovoltaic networked systems and distributed
network of small photovol-taic systems. In the large-scale photovoltaic power
plant, the power can be delivered to the electricity grid directly. The investment
of this system will be quite huge and have a long period to built it.
Stand-alone PV systems are designed to supply DC or AC power electrical
loads generally.

Figure 4.12: Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system

Grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems can be divided into two
types of cen-tralized large-scale photovoltaic networked systems and distributed
36
network of small photovol-taic systems. In the large-scale photovoltaic power
plant, the power can be delivered to the electricity grid directly. The investment
of this system will be quite huge and have a long period to built it.
Stand-alone PV systems are designed to supply DC or AC power electrical
loads generally.

Figure 4.13: Stand-alone PV system

4.6 THE MAINTENANCE OF THE COMPONENTS
In the sand larger areas, periodically wiping system components to ensure the
system can work properly. Wipe the surface of the components with sofe cloth,
do not use those hard and rough cloth. And check inspect the various
components and wiring regularly, take preventive measures. Make the notes
after checking the system detailly. Do the replace or repair for those
components according to the actual situation. (Zhao Yu 2012)

37
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY
This chapter deals with the fundamentals of solar cells. A solar cell is a
key device that converts light energy into electrical energy in a photovoltaic
energy conversion. In most cases, semiconductor is used for solar cell material.
The energy conversion consists of absorption of light (photon) energy
producing electron–hole pairs in a semiconductor and charge carrier separation.
The p–n junction is commonly used for solar cell. The lack of a consistent
analytical basis for different solar cell materials, configurations and
manufacturing processes has led to a tendency to optimistically estimate the
potential of any individual approach and to force this estimate to conform to
previously established target values. The consistent analytical technique
presented here permits the quantitative comparison of all options, using
identical criteria.
There are more than thirty-two solar cell configurations based on fourteen
materials systems under active investigation. The potential of each of these
systems can be evaluated quantitatively using the same bases. This evaluation
considers the solar cell performance based on first principles using the materials
parameters. The most promising designs are then evaluated for cost, based on
standard cost estimating techniques and using demonstrated manufacturing
processes. The results from this detailed analysis are shown for the three
primary crystalline silicon approaches: ingots, ribbons and epitaxy, and for two
thin film approaches: amorphous silicon and CdS-based heterojunctions.
The important role of p–n junction is the charge separation of light-
induced electrons and holes. A p–n junction is used for charge carrier separation
in most cases. This chapter begins with the basic semiconductor physics that is
necessary to understand the operation of p–n junction solar cell, and then
describes the basic principles of p–n junction solar cell. The concepts of solar

38
cell using nanocrystalline materials are also explained. Because the solar cells
based on nanocrystalline materials are complicated as compared to the
conventional p–n junction solar cell, the fundamental phenomena are reviewed
in the chapter.
5.2 CONCLUSION
PV cells are a proven environmentally benign power source whose attractive
characteristics will continue to further photovoltaic research.
Because current PV systems are still highly inefficient and uncommon, they are
not yet cost competitive with fossil fuel- based generators and are only
regularly used where there is no nearby power source.
Photovoltaic advancements in the fields of thin film and nanocrystalline
materials will continue to flourish and soon increase PV efficiency to over 50%.
Efficiency increases, PV technology will attract a greater number of people,
resulting in reduced cost. Because the sun delivers ten thousand times more
energy than people currently consume, photovoltaic improvements will one day
replace environmentally unfriendly power plants with a proven and clean
energy source
The reason why countries in the world pay attention to photovoltaic power
generation are mainly the technological development of the predictability, cost-
competitive applications, and control of environmental issues. In the past 30
years of development of solar photovoltaic, the photovoltaic industry has
accumulated a wealth of experience. It is already a mature industry. Many
scientists believe that perhaps one day some new energy technologies may arise,
and solar power is the most promising technology. Therefore, the development
of photovoltaic technology is not an expedient measure, not a whim, but a low-
carbon development, the inevi-table choice. All the countries „photovoltaic
industry should work together to strengthen re-search and development,
accelerate technological progress, eliminate trade barriers, and ex-pand PV
application market.

39
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
The specific recommendations of this report are to investigate options to:
 Modify State based and Solar Mission tariffs to recognise time-of-
generation benefits and incentivise energy storage.
 Modify State based and Solar Mission guidelines to allow CSP tariffs to
be earned proportionate to solar contribution as part of a solar-hybrid
system.
 When the current phase 1 process is complete, review Solar Mission
timelines for financing, construction and commissioning based on
experience.
 Continue and expand facilitated Solar Parks for large-scale CSP projects.
 Establish one or more 'Demonstration Solar Parks' for small-scale,
commercial demonstration systems and support these with a higher tariff.
 Establish further projects to improve on DNI data availability, by both
adding ground based data gathering and also to reverse analyse, correlate
and re-calibrate all existing forms of historical data. Make all such data
freely available and easily accessible.
 Establish and / or review targeted schemes for CSP related industrial,
research and policy secondments / traineeships / fellowships around the
world.
 Maintain or even strengthen the guideline of 'at least 1 MW e
demonstrated for at least 12 months' for future phases of the Solar
Mission.
 Provide more resources to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE) to facilitate improved information flows for industry and other
stakeholders, e.g. upgrade and redesign the website and include factsheet
summaries, case studies and updates on key activities.

40
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