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TABLE OF CONTENT
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Class 1
1. The area under the velocity-time curve and time axis gives the displacement of the
object for given interval of time.
2. If a body falls freely, the distance covered by it in each subsequent second starting from
first second will be in the ration 1:3:5:7, etc.
3. If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity u, it takes u/g second to reach
maximum height and u/g second to return, if air resistance is negligible.
4. If air resistance acting on a body is considered, the time taken by the body is considered,
same height.
la s
the time taken by the body to reach maximum height is less than the time to fall back the
s
5. For particle having zero initial velocity if sa t a where a > 2 then particle's acceleration
increases with time.
C
6. For a particle having zero initial velocity if sa t a , where a < 0 then particle's acceleration
decreases with time.
7. Kinematic equations :
v = u + at ;
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
1 2
s = ut + at
2
Application only when particles move with constant acceleration is variable use calculus
approach.
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Class 2
MOTION IN A PLANE
2. For a given initial velocity, to get the same horizontal range, there are two angles of
projection α and 90o – α.
3. The equation to the parabola traced by a body projected horizontally form the top of a
tower of height y, with a velocity u is y = gx2/2u2, where x is the horizontal distance
covered by it from the foot of the tower.
la s s
4. At any instant if v is the velocity of projectile making angle β with the horizontal, then
C
vx = v cos b = u cos q vy = v sin b = u sinq - gt
gx 2
5. Equation of trajectory is y = x tan q - which is parabola.
2u 2 cos2 q
7. Maximum height is equal to n times the range when the projectile is launched at an angle
q = tan -1 (4 n)
8. In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration are constant only in magnitude.
Their directions change.
r ur
urcircular motion, the kinetic energy of the body is a constant. W = 0, a ¹ 0, p ¹
9. In a uniform
constant, L = constant
4p 2
ar = 4p 2 n 2 r = r (Applicable in uniform circular motion)
T2 uur ur r
n = frequency of rotation, T = time period of rotation. ar = w ´ v
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Class 3
LAWS OF MOTION
ur r ur uur
1. Newton's second law : F = ma, = F = dp / dt
ur ur uur uur t 2
2. Impulse: D p = F D t, p2 - p1 = Fdt
ò
ur uuur t1
3. Newton's third law : F 12 = -F21
5. Circle motion with variable speed. For complete circles, the string must be taut in the
highest position,u 2 ³ 5 gl where l is the length of string.
s s
Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string becomes slack, i.e. when T =0,
range of values of u for which the string does go slack is
la
C
2 gl < u < 5 gl
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Class 4
1. If a light body and a heavy body have equal kinetic energy, then heavy body
had greater momentum.
3. If a body moves with constant power, its velocity (v) is related to distance
travelled (x) by the formula va x3 /2
4. Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact surfaces is always
negative. It depends on relative displacement between constant surfaces
5.
wFK = - Fk ( Srel )
la s s
åW
C
6. = - å D U ; åW
conservative ÞTotal work due to all kinds of conservative forces.
conservative
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Class 5
s
2
3. The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined by the formula I = å mi .ri
energy of rotation is K = 1 Iw 2
2
la s
where ri is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from the axis. The kinetic
C
5. For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rw is the velocity of translation (i.e., of the centre of
mass), R is the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energies of translation
and rotation: K = 1 mv 2 + 1 Iw 2
2 2
6. A rigid body is mechanical equilibrium if
(a)It is in translational equilibrium i.e., the total external force on it is zero : å Fi = 0
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Class 6
GRAVITATION
1. Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler's second law. However, it is not
special to the inverse square law of gravitation. It holds for any central force.
g(d) =
GM E æ
2 ç1 -
d ö
R E è RE ø
æ
÷ = g (0) ç1 -
d ö
è RE ø
÷
la s s
C
3. The gravitational potential energy V = - Gm1 m2 + cons tan t
r
2GM E
4. The escape speed form the surface of the Earth is Ve = = 2 gRE
RE
-1
and has a value of 11.2 km s
6. GM s æ 1 + e ö GM s æ 1 + e ö
Vmax = ç ÷ ;Vmin = ç ÷
a è 1- e ø a è 1- e ø
7. Whenever force responsible for orbital motion obeys inverse square law, then
only square of time period is directly
2 3
proportional to cube of average distance
2 3 T a
between planet and sun. T aa ; 1 = 1
T22 a32
Applicable only when both planets revolve around same mass. Length of semi major
axis is the average distance between sun and planet during its complete orbital
motion.
n 2 1- n
8. If F a r then T a (r)
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Class 7
1. If S is the stress and Y is Younger's modulus, the energy density of the wire E is
equal to S2/2Y.
la s s
1. Pascal's law : A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
C
2. Bernoulli's principle states that as we move along a 2streamline, the sum of the
pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (pv /2) and the potential energy per
unit volume (pgy) remains a constant. P + rv 2 / 2 + r gy = cons tan t
3. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in
the plane of interface between the liquid and bounding surface.
4. Stokes' law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with
velocity v through a fluid of viscosity is η, F = 6ph av
5. The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point. The surface tension is zero at
critical temperature.
6. If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical drops, the work done in the
process is 21/34(n1)RSp-.
7.Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in parallel. The rate of flow of liquid is
Q. If they1/4are replaced by single capillary tube of radius R for the same rate of flow,
then R=2 r.
8.If radius of a drop is doubled its terminal velocity increases to four times.
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Class 8
la s s
3. Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to unequal temperatures of its
C
parts.
Wien's displacement law states that lmT = cons tan t where lm is the wavelength
corresponding to maximum energy. The constant is known as Wien's constant.5.
5. Newton's Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
excess temperature of the body over the surroundings: dQ = - k (T2 - T1 )
dt
where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the temperature of
the body.
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Class 9
THERMODYNAMICS
1. The first law of thermodynamics is the general law of conservation of energy applied
to any system in which energy transfer form or to the surroundings (through heat and
work) is taken into account. It states that DQ = DU + D W, where is the heat supplied to
the system, DQ is the work done by the system and DW is the change in internal
energy of the system.
If Q > 0 heat is added to the system, if Q < 0heat is removed to the system, if W > 0 work
is done by the system, if W < 0 work is done on the system quantity.
2. In isothermal quasi-static process, heat is absorbed or given out by the system even
through at every stage the gas has same temperature as that of the surrounding
la s
reservoir. This is possible because of the infinitesimal difference in temperature
s
In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 to V2 at temperature T the
C
heat absorbed (Q) equals the work done (W) by the gas, each given by
Q = W = nRT .In æ V2 ö
ç ÷
è V1 ø
Cp
3. In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas PV = g
cons tan t , where g =
Cv
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is
nR(T1 - T2 )
W=
g -1
4. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
T1
h = 1-
T2
No engine operating between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of
the Carnot engine.
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Class 10
KINETIC THEORY
1 2
1. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation P = nmv
3
2
where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and v is the
mean of squared speed. Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic
interpretation of temperature.
1 2 3 2 3k BT
nmv = k BT , vrms = (v )1/ 2 =
2 2 m
2. The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy for each degree of freedom in
thermal equilibrium is 1/2(kBT).
la s s 2
3. The translational kinetic energy E = 3 k B NT . This leads to a relation PV = E .
3
C
g RT vs g
4. Speed of sound in a gas vs = M , v = 3 i .e, vs » vrms
rms
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Class 11
OSCILLATIONS
1. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as functions of time are given by,
v(t ) = - w A sin(w + f ) (velocity),
s
2. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a Hooke's law restoring force
given by F = -k x exhibits simple harmonic motion with
w=
k
(angular frequency),T = 2p m (period)
la s
C
m k
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
3. A body of mass M is suspended form a spring whose force constant is K and mass is
m. The time period of this system will be (M + m / 3)
2p
k
4. Time period for conical pendulum T = 2p æç l cosq ö÷ where θ is angle between string &
vertical. è g ø
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Class 12
WAVES
2. The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is set by the properties of the string.
The speed on a string with tension T and linear mass density μ is v = T .
m
3. Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can travel through solids, liquids,
or gases. The speed v of sound wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density ρ is
B.
v=
s
r Y
s
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar (stretched wire) is v =
r
v = gP/ r
la
For gases, since B = g P (Adiabatic bulk modulus of elasticity), the speed of sound is
C
4. The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions produces
standings waves. For a string with fixed ends, the standing wave is given by
y ( x, t ) = [2a sin kx]cos w t .
Standing waves are characterized by fixed locations of zero displacement called nodes
and fixed locations of maximum displacements called antinodes. The separation
between two consecutive nodes or antinodes is l / 2
A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates with frequencies given by
1 v .
f =
2 2L
The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode or the first
harmonic. The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2 and so on.
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open (such as air columns) vibrates
with frequencies given by
æ 1ö v
f = çn + ÷ , n = 0,1, 2, 3,......
è 2 ø 2L
The set of frequencies represented by the above relations are the normal modes of
oscillation of such a system. The lowest frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental
mode or the first harmonic.
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Class 13
5. Beats arise when two waves having slightly different frequencies, f1 and f2 and
comparable amplitudes, are superposed. The beat frequency is f beat = f1 - f 2
6. The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source S
and the observe O moves relative to the medium. For sound the observed frequency f is
given in terms of the source frequency f0 by æ v ± v0 ö
f = f0 ç ÷
è v ± vs ø
Here v is the speed of sound through the medium, v0 is the velocity of observer relative to
the medium, and vs is the source velocity relative to the medium. In using this formula,
s
velocities in the direction OS should be treated should be treated as positive and those
opposite to it should be taken to be negative.
la s
7. Doppler effect formula in light : d l = v where dl is change in wavelength of a spectral
line l c
C
of original wave length l and v, the speed of the source and c is the speed of light.
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Class 14
ELECTROSTATICS
ur k (q1 q2 ) $
1. Coulomb's Law: F 21= force q2 due to q1 = r 21 where 21r$ is a unit vector in the
r212
1
direction from q1 to q2 and k = 4pe is the constant of proportionality.
0
2. Electric field due to a point charge q has a magnitude | q | /4pe 0 r 2 it is radially outwards from
q, if q is positive, and radially inwards if q is negative. Like Coulomb force, electric field
also satisfies upper position principle.
3. An electric dipole is a pair of equal andur opposite charges q and –q separated by some
distance 2a. Its dipole moment vector p has magnitude 2qa and is in the direction of the
dipole axis form –q to q.
la
C
1 -p
E= @ , for r >>a
4pe 0 ( a2 + r 2 )3/ 2 4pe 0 r 3
ur ur
ur 2 pr 2p
E= @ , for r >>a
4pe 0 (r 2 - a 2 )2 24pe 0 r 3
The 1/r3 dependence of dipole electric fields should be noted in contrasturto the 1/r2
dependence of electricr field due to
r aurpoint
ur charge. In a uniform electric field E , a dipole
experiences a torque t given by t = p ´ E but experiences zero net force.
ur ur
4. The flux Df of electric field E passing through a small area element DS is given by
ur ur
Df = E .D S
5. Gauss's law : The flux of electric field passing through any closed surface S is1 / e 0 times
the total charge enclosed by S.
ur
The law is especially useful in determining electric field E , when the source distribution
has simple symmetry :
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Class 15
ur l
(a). Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge density l : E = 2pe n$
0
where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire and n$ is the radial unit
vector in the plane normal to the wire passing through the point.
ur
(b). Infinity thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density E = s $n
2e 0
ur ur
(c). Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density E = s r$ (r ³ R); E = 0(r < R )
4pe 0 r 2
r
6. Potential : V (r ) = 1 Q
4pe 0 r
For a charge configuration q1, q2, ………, qn with position vectors r1, r2, …. ,rn the potential
at a point P is given by the superposition principle
is the distance between q1 and P , and so on. V= ç
la s s
1 æ q1 q2
+ + .....
4pe 0 è r1 p
+
qn ö , where r1p
r2 p
÷
rn p ø
vector rr due to a point dipole of dipole
C
7. The electrostatic
ur potential at a point with position
ur $
moment p placed at the origin is 1 p .r .
V (r ) =
4pe 0 r 2
8. An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential has a constant value. For a
point charge, concentric sphere
ur centered at a location of the charge are equipotential
surfaces. The electric
ur field E at a point is perpendicular to the equipotential surface
through the point. E is in the direction of the steepest decrease of potential.
9. Potential energy stored in a system of charges is the work done (by an external
agency) in assembling the charges at their locations. Potential energy of two charges
q1, q2 at r distance is given by , 1 q1 q2 , where r is distance between q1 and q2.
U=
4pe 0 r
10. Capacitance is defined C = Q/V, where Q is the charge on positive plate and V is the
potential difference between plates. C is determined purely geometrically, by the
shapes, sizes
-1
and relative positions of the two plates. The unit of capacitance is farad:,
1F = 1 C V . For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the plates), A,
where A is the area of each plate and d the separation between them. C = e0
d
11. The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with charge Q and voltage V is
1 1 2 1 Q2
U = QV = CV =
2 2 2 C
12. For capacitors in the series combination, the total capacitance C is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
C C1 C2 C3
In the parallel combination, the total capacitance C is given by C = C1 + C2 + C3 + …..
where C1, C2, C3 …… are individual capacitances.
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Class 16
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. Current density
r j gives the amount of charge flowing per second per unit area normal
to the flow, j = nqv d
ur
2. EquationE = r j another statement of Ohm's law, i.e., a conducting material obeys
Ohm's law when the resistivity of the material does not depend n the magnitude and
direction of applied electric field.
s
= + + .......... +
s
R R1 R2 Rn
.
la
Where R1 + R2+….+Rn are individual resistance.
4. Kirchhoff's Rules –
C
(a) Junction Rule : At any junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving it.
(b) Loop Rule : The algebraic sum of the changes in potential in any closed loop is
zero.
5. The Wheatstone is an arrangement of four resistances –R1, R2, R3, R4. The null-point
condition is given by R1 = R3 , Using which the value of one resistance can be
R2 R4
determined, knowing the other three resistances.
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Class 17
MAGNETISM
s
4p r3
s
To obtain the total field at P, we must integrate this vector expression over the entire
la
length of the conductor
ur m 0I
C
4. Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor B = (sin q1 + sin q2 ) , where
4p a
q1andq 2are the angles between the line joining the point to the ends of conductor and
perpendicular through the point to the conductor.
5. The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of radius R carrying a current I
at an axial distance x from the Centre is B = m0 IR 2 .
2( x 2 + R 2 )3/ 2
6. The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying a current I is : B = m0 NI , where
n is the number ofturns per unit length. For a toroid, m NI , where N is the total number
B= 0
of turns and r is the mean radius. 2p R
7. Ampere's Circuital Law: Let ur uuran open surface S be bounded by a loop C. Then the
Ampere's law states that Ñò B.dl = m0 I , where I refers to the current passing through S.
c
8. Force per unit length between 'two long parallel wires carrying currents I1, I2 and
separated by distance a in a free space or air F = m0 I1 I 2 Nm-1 .
2p a
The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction and repulsive currents are in
the opposite direction.
uur ur r uur ur
9. For current carrying coil M = NI A ; torque = t = M ´ B
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Class 18
uur
uur placed in an external magnetic field B0 . The magnetic intensity
10. Consider a material
uur B0
is defined as, H = .
m0
uur
The magnetization M ofurthe materialuur uur is its dipole moment per unit volume. The magnetic
field B in the material is, B = m0 ( H + M ) .
uur uur ur uur
11. for a linear material M = c m H. So that B = mH and c m is called the magnetic
susceptibility of the material. The three quantities, c m , the relative magnetic
permeability m, rand the magnetic permeability are related
m as follows:
m = m 0 mr ; mr = 1 + c m
la s s
C
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Class 19
2. Faraday's laws of induction imply that the emf induced in a coil of N turns is directly
related to the rate of change of flux through it e = - N df B
dt
3. Lenz's law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce
a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produces it. The negative
sign in the expression for Faraday's law indicates this fact
4. When a metal rod of length l is placed normal to a uniform magnetic field B and
s s
moved with a velocity v perpendicular to the field, the induced emf (called motional
emf) across its ends is e = Blv
la
C
5. When a current in a coil changes, it induces a back emf in all the same coil. The self-
induced emf is given by e = - L dI L is the self-inductance of the coil. It is a measure of
dt
the inertia of the coil against the change of current through it.
6. A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in nearby coil (coil l). This
relation is given by,
dI 2
e 1 = - M 12
dt , The quantity M12 is called mutual inductance of coil l with respect to
coil 2. M 12 = K L1 L2 .
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Class 20
ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. For an alternating current i = im sin cot passing through a resistor R, the average
power loss P (averaged over a cycle) due to joule heating is (l/2) i2mR. To express it
in the same form as the dc power (P = I2R), a special value of current is used. lt is
called root mean square (rms) current and is denoted by,
im
I= = 0.707im
2
The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by P = VI cos f . The term cosfis
called the power factor. When a value is given for ac voltage or current, it is ordinarily
the rms value.
la s s
2. An ac voltage v = v m sin wt applied to a pure inductor drives a current in the
i = im sin(w t - p / 2 ), where i = vm / X L. X L = w L is called inductive reactance. The current in
the inductor lags the voltage by p / 2 . The average power supplied to an inductor
C
over one complete cycle is zero. An v = v m sin wt ac applied to a capacitor drives a
current in the capacitor i = im sin(w t + p / 2) .
Vm 1
Here, im = ,XC = is called capacitive reactance.
XC wC
3. An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the phenomenon of resonance.
The circuit exhibits resonance, i.e.. The amplitude of the current is maximum at the
resonant frequency, w = 1 ( X = X ) . The quality factor Q defined byQ = w0 = 1
0 L C
LC LC w0 CR
is an indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value of Q indicating
sharper peak in the current.
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Class 21
RAY OPTICS
1. Reflection is governed by the equation Ði=Ðr and refraction by the Snell's law, sin
i/sin r = n, n is refractive index where the incident ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and
normal lie in the same plane.
1 1 1
2. Mirror Equation: + = .
v u f
3. For a prism of the angle A, of refractive index n2 placed in a medium of refractive index n1,
n2 sin[( A + Dm ) / 2], where Dm is the angle minimum deviation. Dispersion is the
n21 = =
n1 sin( A / 2)
splitting of light into its constituent colours. The deviation is maximum for violet and
s
minimum for red. Dispersive power to is the ratio of angular dispersion( d v - d r )to the
s
mean deviation d w = d v - d r , where d v , d r ,, are deviation of violet and red respectively
la
d
and 6 the deviation of mean ray (usually yellow).
v
1 (n2 - n1 ) æ 1 1 ö
= ç - ÷
v v
C
4. For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1 to 2 of refractive index n1 and
n2 respectively) n2 = n1 = n2 - n1 . Thin lens formula 1 - 1 = 1 , Lens maker's formula:
v u f
f n1 è R1 R2 ø
The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m-1.
Chromatic aberration is the colorings of image produced by lenses. This can be avoided
by combining a convex and a concave lens of focal lengths f2and f2 and ispersive powers
w1 , w2 respectively satisfying the equation w1 w2 =0 or in terms of power w1 P1 + w 2 P = 0
+
f1 f2
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Class 22
WAVE OPTICS
1. Young's double slit of separation d gives equally spaced fringes of angular separation
l / d . The source, mid-point of the slits, and central bright fringe lie in a straight line.
An extended source will destroy the fringes if it subtends angle more than l / d at the
slits. The resultant intensity of two waves of intensity I0/4 of phase difference f at any
points is given by
2 éf ù
, where 0I is the maximum intensity.
I = I 0 cos ê ú
ë2 û
l
Condition for dark band: d = (2 n - 1) ,
2
Dl
For bright band: d = nl , Fringe width b =
s
d
la s
2. A thin film of thickness I and refractive index m appears dark by reflection when viewed at
an angle of refraction r if 2m t cos r = nl (n = 1,2,3, etc). The minimum thickness (n = 1) of a film
C
which appears dark by reflection at normal incidence (r= 0°) is 2m t = l . The minimum
thickness of a film, which appears bright under normal incidence of monochromatic light
of wavelength, l is 2mt = l
2
3. A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a central maximum. The
intensity falls to zero at angles of, ± l , ± l , etc. with successively weaker secondary
maxima in between a 2a
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Class 23
MODERN PHYSICS
la s s
Activity =
dN
N
= -l N
=
0.693
l
C
7. X- Rays: lmin = 12400 A°
V
Characteristics X- Rays: lka < l La
2
Moseley law: v = a (Z - b) maxima in between
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Class 24
SEMICONDUCTOR
2. The number of charge carriers can be changed by 'doping' of a suitable impurity in pure
semiconductors. Such, semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors. These
are of two types (n-type and p-type).
la s s
4. n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with pentavalent atoms
(donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with
C
trivalent atom (acceptors) like B,Al, In, etc.
5. p-n junction is the 'key' to all semiconductor devices. When such a junction is made, a
'depletion layer' is formed consisting of immobile ion-cores devoid of their electrons or
holes. This is responsible for a junction potential barrier
6. In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of the battery and p—side is
connected to the positive), the barrier is decreased while the barrier increases in
reverse bias.
7. Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting the ac voltage to one
direction).
8. Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse bias, after a certain voltage,
the current suddenly increases (breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode. This property has
been used to obtain voltage regulation.
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Class 25
æ DVCE ö
Output resistance, r0 = ç
s
÷
è DI C ø I B
la s
C
CE
10.The important digital circuits performing special logic operations are called logic
gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates.
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Class 26
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
1. Transmitter, transmission channel and receiver are three basic units of a communication
system. In the process of transmission of message/ information signal, noise gets
added to the signal anywhere between the information source and the receiving end.
2. Two important forms of communication system are: Analog and Digital. The information
to be transmitted is generally in continuous waveform for the former while for the latter it
has only discrete or quantized levels.
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4. In modulation, some characteristic of the carrier signal like amplitude, frequency or
phase varies in accordance with the modulating or message signal. Correspondingly,
they are called Amplitude Modulated (AM), Frequency Modulated (FM) or Phase
C
Modulated (PM) waves. In the process of modulation, new frequencies called
sidebands are generated on either side (higher and lower than the earner frequency) of
the carrier by an amount equal to the highest modulating frequency.
5. If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height hp then the range dT is given
by 2 RhT where R is the radius of the earth.
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