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Cutler-Hammer
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
WELCOME Welcome to Module 16, which is about the basics of motors and motor control.
An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
There are two main groups of electrical motors: DC and AC motors. This module will
discuss both types of motors, and how to control them.
Like the other modules in this series, this one presents small, manageable sections
of new material followed by a series of questions about that material. Study the
material carefully then answer the questions without referring back to what you’ve
just read. You are the best judge of how well you grasp the material. Review the
material as often as you think necessary. The most important thing is establishing a
solid foundation to build on as you move from topic to topic and module to module.
Viewing the You may view definitions of glossary items by clicking on terms and words that are
Glossary underlined and italicized in the text. You may also browse the Glossary by clicking
on the Glossary bookmark in the left-hand margin.
1
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
• Motor Theory 4
• Magnetic Fields 4
• Current Flow 4
• Induced Motion 5
• Commutator 8
• DC Motors 9
• Simple DC Motor 9
• Practical DC Motor 10
• Electromagnets 11
• Motor Components 12
• Reversing a DC Motor 12
• DC Motor Types 13
• Review 1 14
• AC Motors 15
• What Makes an AC Motor Different From a DC Motor? 15
• Single-Phase 15
• Three-Phase 16
• The Squirrel Cage Induction Motor 17
• Induction Principle 17
• Applying the Induction Principle to the AC Motor 17
• Three-Phase Motor 19
• Construction of Three-Phase Motors 21
• Wye and Delta 21
• Dual Voltage 22
• Review 2 23
2
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
3
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
MOTOR To understand motor theory, we need to cover the underlying principles of magnetic
THEORY fields, current flow, and induced motion.
NOTE: There are two theories regarding the flow of current. Electron Flow Theory
states that current flows from negative to positive. Conventional Flow
Theory states that current flows from positive to negative.
This module uses Electron Flow Theory. For more information on these
theories, see Module 2, Fundamentals of Electricity.
Magnetic Fields Between the poles of a magnet, there exists a magnetic field. The direction of
the magnetic field is called magnetic flux. Magnetic flux moves from the north pole
to the south pole, as shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2. LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX FLOW FROM NORTH POLE TO SOUTH POLE
Current Flow Now, let’s consider a wire (conductor) with an electric current flowing through it. A
magnetic field surrounds the wire, as shown in Figure 3.
⊕ = CURRENT
FLOWING INTO
THE PAGE
FIGURE 3. LEFT HAND FLUX RULE: LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX SURROUND A CONDUCTOR
Imagine grasping the wire with your left hand, making sure your thumb points in the
direction of the current flow. Your fingers will curl around the wire in the direction of
the magnetic flux.
In Figure 3, the current is flowing into the page, so the lines of flux rotate
counterclockwise around the wire.
4
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Induced Motion When this current-carrying conductor is placed between the poles of a magnet,
both magnetic fields distort. In Figure 4, the conductor will tend to move upward,
since the current is flowing into the page.
The force exerted upward depends on the strength of the magnetic field between
the poles of the magnet, and the strength of the current through the conductor.
A simple method for determining the direction of motion is the right hand motor rule.
In Figure 4, the index finger points in the direction of the magnetic flux (N to S), the
middle finger points in the direction of current flow through the conductor, and the
thumb points in the direction of the conductor movement.
DIRECTION OF
MAGNETIC
FLUX DIRECTION OF
CONDUCTOR
MOVEMENT
DIRECTION
OF CURRENT
FLOW
TO
ELECTRICAL
DC SOURCE
+ -
FIGURE 4. RIGHT HAND RULE: WIRE IS MOVED UPWARD
This means that if you know the direction the current is flowing, and the
orientation the poles, you can determine which way the conductor will move
through the magnetic field.
Applying the right hand motor rule to Figure 4, the conductor will move upward
through the magnetic field. If the current through the conductor were to be reversed,
the conductor would move downward.
Note that the conductor current is at a right angle to the magnetic field. This is
required to bring about motion, since no force is felt by a conductor if the current
and the field direction are parallel.
5
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Induced Motion Now, suppose we change the single conductor into a simple coil or loop of wire.
(continued) This coil is called an armature, and is shown in Figure 5.
DIRECTION OF
ROTATION
B
ARMATURE
COMMUTATOR
FIGURE 5. ARMATURE ROTATING
Both sections of the armature AB and CD have a force exerted on them. Why does
the coil want to move in a counterclockwise motion?
Recall that the magnetic flux rotates around the conductors. Armature sections AB
and CD have the current flowing in opposite directions. This means the magnetic
flux flows around them in opposite directions, as shown in Figure 6.
AB CD
⊕ = CURRENT
FLOWING INTO
THE PAGE
¤ = CURRENT
FLOWING OUT
OF THE PAGE
6
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Induced Motion When the magnetic field of the magnets are put in the picture, the two magnetic
(continued) fields distort. A turning force, or torque, acts on the coil. The lines of force act like
stretched rubber bands that tend to contract. The result is that the armature rotates
in a counterclockwise direction.
⊕ = CURRENT
FLOWING INTO CD
THE PAGE
¤ = CURRENT AB
FLOWING OUT
OF THE PAGE
The interaction between the two magnetic fields causes a bending of the lines of
force. Where the lines straighten out, they cause the armature to rotate. The left
conductor (AB) is forced downward, and the right conductor (CD) is forced upward,
causing a counterclockwise rotation.
7
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Commutator As we mentioned earlier, when the armature is positioned so that the loop sides are
at right angles to the magnetic field, a turning force is exerted. But what happens
when the coil rotates 180°°?
A problem arises here. The magnetic field in the conductor is now opposite that of
the field, and this will tend to push the armature back the way it came, stopping the
rotating motion.
To solve this problem, some method must be employed to reverse the current in the
armature every one-half rotation so that the magnetic fields will work together to
maintain a positive rotation.
A device called a commutator performs this task. Two stationary brushes, one
supplied with positive DC current, the other with negative DC current, supply current
to the two rotating commutator segments.
As the armature and commutator rotate together, the commutator reverses the
direction of the current through the armature. In this way, magnetic fields are
always running in the direction needed to contribute to a continuing turning effort.
ARMATURE ROTATION
+ +
- -
TO DC TO DC
POWER POWER
BRUSH
CURRENT
FLOW COMMUTATOR
POSITION “A” - TORQUE POSITION “B” - NEUTRAL
+ +
- -
TO DC TO DC
POWER POWER
Now we are getting somewhere. With the armature continuously rotating through
the magnetic field, mechanical energy is created from electrical energy.
8
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
DC MOTORS What we have just described is a DC motor. Direct current is fed to the commutator.
Simple DC Motor The commutator is connected to the armature in such a way that the current
direction (called polarity) is switched every half-turn of the armature. This allows the
armature to continue turning in the magnetic field, creating mechanical energy from
electrical energy.
However, this simple DC motor has a few shortcomings. Each time the armature is
parallel to the magnetic field (called a neutral position), no torque is produced.
(Refer back to Figure 8.)
Recall that when the armature is positioned so that the loop sides are at right
angles to the magnetic field, torque is exerted. But, as the armature turns in a circle,
there are two points at which it is parallel to the magnetic field – at ¼ and ¾ of a
turn – and no torque is generated. (Refer back to Figure 8.)
The change in the amount of torque is shown graphically in Figure 9. The speed of
the motor varies because of the changes in torque. Most devices require a motor
to turn at a uniform speed, so the simple DC motor just described would not be
suitable.
MAX ----- TORQUE
- - - SPEED
MIN
0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1
REVOLUTIONS
Another problem with a simple DC motor is that it does not start easily. This is
particularly true if the armature is in or near a neutral position. The armature must
be moved out of the neutral position to start the motor.
9
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Practical DC In a practical DC motor, the armature is never in a neutral position, and the
Motor torque is always at its maximum. This is accomplished by using an armature with
more than one loop. A four loop armature is shown in Figure 10. As you can see,
each loop of the armature is connected to a pair of commutator segments.
BRUSH
COMMUTATOR
(FOUR SEGMENTS)
+ TO DC
LOOPS
SOURCE
-
BRUSH
When current flows through the brushes, all four loops act together, producing full
torque at all times. There is no neutral armature position where torque is absent.
Also, notice that the brushes are larger than the gaps between the commutator
segments. This means that contact with the commutator is maintained at every
instant of rotation of the armature.
A DC motor of this type has uniform torque, both for running and for starting. It is
a definite improvement over the simple DC motor.
IN THE WORKPLACE
This is a common cordless drill
that might be used by a building
maintenance person. It is run on
a battery and uses a DC motor.
10
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Electromagnets In the previous drawings, we have shown the armature rotating between a pair of
magnetic poles. Practical DC motors do not use permanent magnets; they use
electromagnets instead.
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FLOW
• By adjusting the amount of current flowing through the wire, the strength of the
electromagnet can be controlled.
• By changing the direction of current flow, the poles of the electromagnetic can
be reversed. In the diagram above, switching the leads on the battery terminals
would change the direction current flow.
(Connecting the leads to an AC source would switch the direction of current flow
automatically. We will consider AC later in this module.)
11
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Motor We have already discussed three of the four major components that make up a DC
Components motor: the armature, the brushes, and the commutator. The fourth is the field coils
(also called field poles or stationary windings).
SHAFT
FIELD POLES
COMMUTATOR
WINDINGS
FAN
Note that many turns (or windings) are used to make up the field poles. The larger
the poles, the stronger the field.
The larger the number of coils used in a DC motor, the smoother the motor will
run. However, the number of field coils used must always be even. Each set of coils
consists of a North and a South pole.
Reversing a The direction of rotation of a DC motor may be reversed using one of these
DC Motor methods:
The industrial standard is to reverse the current through the armature. This is
accomplished by reversing the armature connections only.
12
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
DC Motor Types There are basically three DC motor types: The series motor, the shunt motor, and
the compound motor. Internally and externally they are practically the same. The
difference between them is the way the field coil and armature coil circuits are
wired.
The series motor (Figure 13) has the field coil wired in series with the armature.
It is also called a universal motor because it can be used in DC or AC applications.
It has a high starting torque and a variable speed characteristic. The motor can start
heavy loads, but the speed will increase as the load is decreased.
SERIES FIELD
S2 S1 A2 A1
ARMA- ARM
TURE
S2 A1 A2 S1
DC
VOLTAGE
The shunt motor (Figure 14) has the armature and field circuits wired in
parallel, giving essentially constant field strength and motor speed.
SHUNT FIELD
F2 F1
ARMA- A2 A1
TURE ARM
F2 F1
A2 A1
DC
VOLTAGE
The compound motor (Figure 15) combines the characteristics of both the
series and the shunt motors. A compound motor has high starting torque and
fairly good speed torque characteristics at rated load. Since complicated circuits are
needed to control the compound motors, this wiring arrangement is usually only
used on large bi-directional motors.
SHUNT FIELD
SERIES FIELD F2 F1
ARMA- S2 S1 A2 A1
TURE A
F2 S2 A1 A2 S1 F1
DC
VOLTAGE
13
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
REVIEW 1 Answer the following questions without referring to the material just presented.
Begin the next section when you are confident that you understand what you’ve
already read.
1. The right hand rule is illustrated here. What does each finger indicate?
Thumb _____________________
Index ______________________
Middle _____________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
MIN
0 __ __ __ __
REVOLUTIONS
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
14
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
AC MOTORS While there are only three general types of DC motors, there are many different AC
motor types. This is because each type is confined to a narrow band of operating
characteristics. These characteristics include torque, speed, and electrical service
(single-phase or polyphase). These operating characteristics are used to determine
a given motor’s suitability for a given application.
What Makes an In a DC motor, electrical power is conducted directly to the armature through
AC Motor brushes and a commutator. An AC motor does not need a commutator to
Different From a reverse the polarity of the current, as AC changes polarity “naturally.”
DC Motor?
Also, where the DC motor works by changing the polarity of the current running
through the armature (the rotating part of the motor), the AC motor works by
changing the polarity of the current running through the stator (the stationary part of
the motor).
The many types of AC motor may be split into two main groups: single-phase and
polyphase.
Single-Phase A single-phase power system has one coil in the generator. Therefore, one
alternating voltage is generated. The voltage curve of a single-phase AC generator
is shown in Figure 16.
We will not go into detail here regarding how each single-phase motor type
functions.
15
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
A three-phase power system has three coils in the generator. Therefore, three
separate and distinct voltages will be generated. The voltage curve is shown in
Figure 17.
16
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
THE Before we discuss the squirrel cage motor further, let’s consider the term induction.
SQUIRREL Induction refers to electrically charging a conductor by putting it near a
charged body.
CAGE
INDUCTION The principle of the induction motor was first discovered by Arago in 1824. He
MOTOR observed that if a non-magnetic metal disk and a compass are pivoted with their
axes parallel, so that one (or both) of the compass poles are located near the edge
Induction of the disk, spinning the disk will cause the compass needle to rotate. The direction
Principle of the induced rotation in the compass is always the same as that imparted to the
disk.
You can prove it to yourself if you like. Mount a simple copper or aluminum disk and
a large compass on a vertical stem, so that each may be rotated on its own bearing,
independently of the other. Spin the disk, and watch the compass needle. There is
no more effective way to demonstrate the principle of induction.
The conductor, called the rotor, “follows” the rotating magnetic field by beginning to
rotate, just like the compass needle described above.
17
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Applying the The induction motor uses a rotor of a special design. It resembles a cage used for
Induction exercising squirrels. This is why it is called a squirrel cage rotor.
Principle to the
AC Motor The rotor consists of circular end rings joined together with metal bars. Note
(Continued) that the metal bars are placed directly opposite each other and provide a complete
circuit within the rotor, regardless of the rotor's position. Rotors normally have
several bars, but only a few are shown here for clarity.
Squirrel cage motors are usually chosen over other types of motors because
of their simplicity, ruggedness and reliability. Because of these features,
squirrel-cage motors have practically become the accepted standard for AC, all-
purpose, constant speed motor applications. Without a doubt, the squirrel-cage
motor is the workhorse of the industry.
The squirrel cage induction motor has certain advantages over the DC motor.
• There are only two points of mechanical wear on the squirrel cage motor: the
two bearings.
18
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Three-Phase An induction motor depends upon an electrically rotating magnetic field, not a
Motor mechanically rotating one. (A mechanically rotating field would work, but an
electrically rotating magnetic field has significant advantages.) How is an electrically
rotating field obtained? It all starts with the phase displacement of a three-phase
power system.
PHASE C
PHASE B
PHASE A
FIGURE 20. THREE PAIRS OF FIELD COILS ON THE STATOR, SET 120°° APART
The three currents start at different times. Phase B starts 120° later than phase A
and phase C starts 120° later than phase B. This is shown on the sine wave graph
in Figure 21, which indicates the way the magnetic field will point at various times in
the cycle.
PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C
FIGURE 21. MAGNETIC FIELD ROTATION PROVIDING TORQUE TO TURN THE MOTOR
Introducing these different phase currents into three field coils 120° apart on the
stator produces a rotating magnetic field, and the magnetic poles are in constant
rotation.
19
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Three-Phase The magnetic poles chase each other, simultaneously inducing electric currents in
Motor the rotor (generally, bars of copper imbedded in a laminated iron core). The induced
(Continued) currents set up their own magnetic fields, in opposition to the magnetic field that
caused the currents. The resulting attractions and repulsions provide the torque to
turn the motor, and keep it turning.
If each magnetic pole were to "light up" whenever it was energized, the effect would
appear as though the lights were "running" around the stator, much as the lights on
some electric signs simulate a running border.
Let’s walk through one revolution of the motor to see how it works.
First, the A poles of the stator are magnetized by phase A. Then, the B poles are
magnetized by phase B. The rotor turns, due to the induced current. Then, the C
poles are magnetized by phase C. The rotor turns, due to the induced current. The
rotor has completed one-half turn at this point.
Now, the A poles of the stator are magnetized again, but the current flow is in the
opposite direction. This causes the magnetic field to continue to rotate, and the
rotor follows. Then, the B poles are magnetized by phase B. The rotor turns, due to
the induced current. Then, the C poles are magnetized by phase C. The rotor turns,
due to the induced current.
The rotor has completed one full revolution at this point, and the process repeats
itself.
20
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Construction of The three-phase motor is probably the simplest and most rugged of all electric
Three-Phase motors. To get a perspective on how important the three-phase motor is, all you
Motors need to know is that this motor is used in nine out of ten industrial applications.
Wye and Delta All three-phase motors are wired so that the phases are connected in either a Wye
(Y) or Delta (∆) configuration.
In a Wye (Y) configuration (Figure 24), one end of each of the three-phases is
connected to the other phases internally. The remaining end of each phase is
then brought out externally and connected to the power line. The external leads are
labeled T1, T2 and T3, and are connected to the three-phase power lines labeled
L1, L2 and L3, respectively.
L1 L2 L3
INTERNAL
PHASE CONNECTION
C OF ONE END OF
EACH PHASE
T3
T2 PHASE
PHASE
B
A
T1
MOTOR STARTER
21
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
L1 L2 L3
PHASE
A
PHASE
T3 B
T2
PHASE
T1 C
MOTOR STARTER
In either case, for the motor to operate properly, the three-phase line supplying
power to the motor must have the same voltage and frequency ratings as the
motor.
Dual Voltage Many three-phase motors are made so that they can be connected to either of two
voltages. The purpose in making motors for two voltages is to enable the same
motor to be used with two different power line voltages. Usually, the dual
voltage rating of industrial motors is 230/460V. However, the nameplate must
always be checked for proper voltage ratings.
When the electrician has the choice of deciding which voltage to use, the
higher voltage is preferred. The motor will use the same amount of power, giving
the same HP output for either high or low voltage, but as the voltage is doubled
(230 to 460), the current will be cut in half. With half the current, wire size can be
reduced and savings can be realized on installation.
22
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
REVIEW 2 Answer the following questions without referring to the material just presented.
Begin the next section when you are confident that you understand what you’ve
already read.
___________________________
___________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_
L __ L __ L __
PHASE
___
PHASE
T3 ___
T2
PHASE
T1 ___
MOTOR STARTER
23
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
In choosing the speed control method for an application, there are three main
factors to consider:
• Application type
• Motor type
Loads and application types are as varied as the types of motors available.
However there are two fundamental motor types: AC and DC. Each type has its
own ability to control different loads at different speeds.
In order to select the correct motor type for a given application, it is necessary
to understand the load requirements first. To understand these requirements,
you need to be familiar with the concepts of force, work, torque, power and
horsepower, and how they relate to speed.
Force, Work Work is done when a force overcomes a resistance. Work is measured with the
and Torque formula:
If you carry a 10-pound bag of groceries 50 feet, 500 foot-pounds (ft-lb.) of work is
done.
In the case of an electric motor, force is not exerted in a line, but in a circle, about a
cylindrical shaft. As you recall, turning force is called torque.
If you apply 100 pounds of force to a motor shaft at a radial distance of 5 feet, 500
foot-pounds (ft-lb.) of torque is applied to the shaft.
FORCE
RADIAL
DISTANCE
24
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Power and Power takes into consideration how fast work is accomplished. Power is the
Horsepower rate of doing work. The formula to determine power is:
Power = Work/Time
If the 10-pound bag of groceries was connected to a very small motor, it might take
the motor several minutes to move the load 50 feet. If a larger motor was used, it
might move the load in only a few seconds.
The reason for this difference is the amount of work that can be delivered in a given
amount of time. Obviously, a larger motor should be able to deliver more work in a
given time than one that is considerably smaller. It is this difference that determines
the power rating of the motor.
Motors are rated in horsepower (HP). One horsepower is equal to 33,000 ft-lbs.
per minute. (Electrical power can also be measured in watts. One horsepower is
equal to 746 watts of electrical power.) Let’s figure horsepower for a motor to move
those groceries. Recall that:
If you carry a 10-pound bag of groceries 50 feet, 500 foot-pounds of work is done. If
you connect the bag to a motor that can move it 50 feet in 15 seconds, what is the
horsepower of the motor?
Power = Work/Time
And since 33,000 ft-lb. per min equals 1 HP, (2000 / 33,000) the motor has about
0.06 horsepower.
25
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Putting it All Torque, horsepower, and speed are all interrelated when turning a load.
Together Horsepower is proportional to torque and speed. The following formula ties them
all together:
HP = (T x N)/5252
Where:
HP = the horsepower provided by the motor
T= the torque of the motor in foot-pounds
N= the synchronous speed of the motor in rpm
This means that if either speed or torque remains constant while the other
increases, horsepower increases. Conversely, if either torque or speed decreases
while the other remains constant, horsepower will decrease.
Below is a chart that shows the relationship of horsepower, torque and speed.
SPEED
é
INCREASES
TORQUE
HORSEPOWER
INCREASES
é
CONSTANT
SPEED
ê
DECREASES
TORQUE
HORSEPOWER
DECREASES
ê
CONSTANT
SPEED
CONSTANT HORSEPOWER
é
TORQUE
INCREASES
é INCREASES
SPEED
CONSTANT HORSEPOWER
ê
TORQUE
DECREASES
ê DECREASES
SPEED
INCREASES
é HORSEPOWER
TORQUE
DECREASES
ê REMAINS CONSTANT
SPEED
DECREASES ê HORSEPOWER
TORQUE
INCREASES é REMAINS CONSTANT
26
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Application When a motor is driving a load, it will be called upon to deliver either a constant or a
Types variable torque, and either a constant or variable horsepower. The amount of torque
and horsepower required, will depend upon the speed and size of the load.
There are three main application types. Let’s consider each briefly.
This type of load is often found on machines that have friction-type loads, such
as conveyors, gear-type pumps, and load lifting equipment.
The horsepower required increases when the speed increases. The torque
requirement does not vary throughout the speed range except for the extra
starting torque needed to overcome the breakaway friction. The torque remains
constant because the force of the load does not change.
This type of load is used for loads that demand high torque at low speeds and
low torque at high speeds. Examples of these loads are machines that roll and
unroll paper or metal.
Since the linear speed of the material is constant, the horsepower must also be
constant. While the speed of the material is kept constant, the motor speed is
not. At start, the motor must run at high speed to maintain the correct material
speed while torque is kept at a minimum. As material is added to the roll, the
motor must deliver more torque at a slower speed. In this application, both
torque and speed are constantly changing while motor horsepower remains the
same.
This type of load is used for loads that have a varying torque and horsepower at
different speeds. Typical applications are fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps,
mixers and agitators.
As the motor speed is increased, so is the load output. Since the motor must
work harder to deliver more output at faster speeds, both torque and
horsepower are increased.
27
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Speed Control Now that you understand what factors are important in choosing a motor for an
for a DC Motor application, we are ready to look at how to actually control the speed of the motor.
Let’s start with the DC motor.
The base speed of a motor is the speed at which the motor will run with full line
voltage applied to the armature and the field.
The speed of a DC motor is controlled by varying the applied voltage across the
armature, the field, or both. When armature voltage is controlled, the motor will
deliver a constant torque characteristic. When field voltage is controlled, the motor
will deliver a constant horsepower characteristic.
DC APPLIED VOLTAGE
FIGURE 28. FIELD VOLTAGE VS. ARMATURE VOLTAGE IN CONTROLLING A DC MOTOR’S SPEED
DC motors are used in industrial applications that require either variable speed
control, high torque, or both. Since the speed of most DC motors can be
controlled smoothly and easily from zero to full speed, DC motors are used in many
acceleration and deceleration applications.
For these reasons, DC motors are used to run large machine tools, cranes and
hoists, printing presses, cranes, elevators, shuttle cars and automobile starters.
28
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Speed Control Since each motor type has its own characteristics of horsepower, torque and speed,
for an AC Motor different motor types are more suited for different applications.
The basic characteristics of each AC motor type are determined by the design of
the motor and the supply voltage used. These design types are classified and
given a letter designation, which can be found on the nameplate of motor
types listed as “NEMA Design.”
IN THE WORKPLACE
The conveyor on this beer
bottling line is powered by a
NEMA Design B motor.
29
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Speed Control The induction motor is basically a constant speed device. The speed at which
for an AC Motor an induction stator field rotates is called its synchronous speed. This is because it is
(continued) synchronized to the frequency of the AC power at all times. The speed of the
rotating field is always independent of load changes on the motor, provided the line
frequency is constant.
Synchronous speed is determined by the number of poles that the motor has,
and the frequency being supplied to it. The equation for determining the
synchronous speed of a motor is:
N = 120f/P
Where:
N= the synchronous speed of the motor in revolutions per minute (RPM)
f= the frequency supplied to the motor in Hertz (Hz)
P= the number of poles the motor has
Motors designed for 60 Hertz use (standard in the US) have synchronous speeds
as follows:
Poles RPM
2 3600
4 1800
6 1200
8 900
10 720
12 600
14 514
16 450
Induction motors do not run at synchronous speed; they run at full load speed,
which is the rotational speed of the rotor. Full load speed is always slower. The
percent reduction in speed is called percent slip. The slip is required to develop
rotational torque. The higher the torque, the greater the slip.
The motor speed, under normal load conditions, is rarely more than 10% below
synchronous speed. If the motor is not driving a load, it will accelerate to nearly
synchronous speed. As the load increases, the percent slip increases.
For example, a motor with a 2.8% slip and 1800 rpm synchronous speed would
have a slip of 50 rpm, and a full load speed of 1750 rpm (1800 - 50 = 1750 rpm). It
is this full load speed that will be found on the motor's nameplate.
From the formula, it is evident that the supply frequency and number of poles are
the only variables that determine the speed of the motor.
Varying the voltage is not a good way to change the speed of the motor. In fact, if
the voltage is changed by more than 10%, the motor may be damaged. This is
because the starting torque varies as the square of the applied voltage.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Speed Control Since the frequency or number of poles must be changed to change the speed of
for an AC Motor an AC motor, two methods of speed control are available. These are:
(continued)
• Changing the frequency applied to the motor
For example, by adjusting the frequency to 30 Hz, the motor can be made to run
only half as fast.
We will look at adjustable frequency drives in much more detail in Module 20,
Adjustable Frequency Drives.
Two-speed motors usually have one winding that may be connected to provide
two speeds, one of which is half the other.
Motors with more than two speeds usually include many windings. These can be
connected many ways to provide different speeds. Refer to APPENDIX A:
Typical Multispeed Motor Connections.
IN THE WORKPLACE
Everyone is familiar with this
piece of equipment. The portable
three-speed oscillating fan can
be found in most homes.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
STARTING A starter is a device that is used to start a motor from a stop. The across-the-line
THE MOTOR starter is by far the most common. This type of starter places the motor directly
across the full voltage of the supply lines, hence the name: "across-the-line.” When
Across the Line an induction motor is placed across-the-line, it will accelerate to full speed in a
matter of seconds.
What applications are suitable for this type of rapid acceleration? Pumps of all
types, fans and blowers, and most machines such as drill presses, lathes and
grinders are suitable.
We will discuss starters in much more detail in Module 19, Starter Basics.
Small DC motors are generally started by simply closing the line switch. No auxiliary
starting equipment is necessary to limit the initial rush of current. The same practice
applies to most small (and some large) polyphase motors.
From this, we can see that the power company will be rather concerned, since they
have to supply the actual current necessary to start (and also to run) the motor. So,
it is desirable (if not necessary) to limit the initial rush of current to a reasonable
value, about 1.25 to 5 times the full load rating. There are several ways of doing
this:
• (AC/DC) Inserting resistance in the line, and then cutting the resistance
gradually as the motor comes up to speed.
• (AC) Using a reduced voltage starter, which we will discuss in much more detail
in Module 21, Reduced Voltage Starters.
• (AC) Using a wound rotor type of motor, which employs a resistor controller for
the starting function and which may also serve as a speed control device.
• (AC) Using the Wye-Delta method, in which the stator is connected in a Wye at
the instant of starting, and in Delta after the motor has reached normal speed.
• (AC) Using an adjustable frequency drive, which we will discuss in much more
detail in Module 20, Adjustable Frequency Drives.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
REVERSING In applications where it is desirable to run a motor in both forward and reverse,
THE MOTOR there are a few options for providing a reversing capability.
Manual A manual reversing starter can be used to change the direction of rotation of a
Reversing three-phase, a single-phase or a DC motor. It is made by simply connecting two
Starter manual starters together. The electrical diagram is shown in Figure 29.
START START
MECHANICAL
INTERLOCK
FORWARD REVERSE
CONTACTS F F F R R R CONTACTS
STOP STOP
This type of device is generally used to run lower horsepower motors, such as
those found on fans, small machines, pumps and blowers.
Magnetic A magnetic reversing starter performs the same function as a manual reversing
Reversing starter. Electrically, the only difference between manual and magnetic starters
Starter is the addition of forward and reversing coils and the use of auxiliary contacts.
The forward and reversing coils replace the pushbuttons of a manual starter. The
auxiliary contacts provide additional electrical protection and circuit flexibility.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
BRAKING THE Two common methods used for braking a motor are DC injection braking and
MOTOR dynamic braking. We will look at both in detail, starting with electric braking.
DC Injection DC injection braking is a method of braking in which direct current (DC) is applied
Braking to the stationary windings of an AC motor after the AC voltage is removed. This
is an efficient and effective method of braking most AC motors. DC injection braking
provides a quick and smooth braking action on all types of loads, including high-
speed and high-inertia loads.
Recall that opposite magnetic poles attract and like magnetic poles repel. This
principle, when applied to both AC and DC motors, is the reason why the motor
shaft rotates.
In an AC induction motor, when the AC voltage is removed, the motor will coast to a
standstill over a period of time, since there is no induced field to keep it rotating.
Since the coasting time may be unacceptable, particularly in an emergency
situation, electric braking can be used to provide a more immediate stop.
In turn, this constant magnetic field in the stator creates a magnetic field in the
rotor. Since the magnetic field of the stator is not changing in polarity, it will attempt
to stop the rotor when the magnetic fields are aligned (N to S and S to N).
STATOR
ROTOR
The only thing that can keep the rotor from stopping with the first alignment is the
rotational inertia of the load connected to the motor shaft. However, since the
braking action of the stator is present at all times, the motor is braked quickly and
smoothly to a standstill.
Since there are no parts that come in physical contact during braking, maintenance
is kept to a minimum.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Dynamic Braking Dynamic braking is another method for braking a motor. It is achieved by
reconnecting a running motor to act as a generator immediately after it is
turned off, rapidly stopping the motor. The generator action converts the
mechanical energy of rotation to electrical energy that can be dissipated as heat in
a resistor.
Dynamic braking of a DC motor may be needed because DC motors are often used
for lifting and moving heavy loads that may be difficult to stop.
There must be access to the rotor windings in order to reconnect the motor to act as
a generator. On a DC motor, access is accomplished through the brushes on the
commutator.
In this circuit, the armature terminals of the DC motor are disconnected from the
power supply and immediately connected across a resistor, which acts as a
load. The smaller the resistance of the resistor, the greater the rate of energy
dissipation and the faster the motor slows down.
The field windings of the DC motor are left connected to the power supply. The
armature generates a voltage referred to as “counter electromotive force” (CEMF).
This CEMF causes current to flow through the resistor and armature. The current
causes heat to be dissipated in the resistor, removing energy from the system
and slowing the motor rotation.
The generated CEMF decreases as the speed of the motor decreases. As the
motor speed approaches zero, the generated voltage also approaches zero. This
means that the braking action lessens as the speed of the motor decreases. As a
result, a motor cannot be braked to a complete stop using dynamic braking.
Dynamic braking also cannot hold a load once it is stopped, because there is no
more braking action.
For this reason, electromechanical friction brakes are sometimes used along with
dynamic braking in applications that require the load to be held, or in applications
where a large heavy load is to be stopped. This is similar to using a parachute to
slow a race car before applying the brakes.
FIGURE 31. DYNAMIC BRAKING IS OFTEN USED WITH ELECTROMECHANICAL FRICTION BRAKING
Dynamic braking for AC motors can be handled with an adjustable frequency drive.
We will discuss adjustable frequency drive in much more detail in Module 20,
Adjustable Frequency Drives.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
REVIEW 3 Answer the following questions without referring to the material just presented.
2. Work out the horsepower rating of a motor that moves a load of 1000 pounds a
distance of 330 feet in one minute.
Answer: _________ HP
4. Name the two devices that can be used to reverse the direction of a motor.
________________________________
________________________________
5. Reducing the voltage supplied to the field of a DC motor will cause the motor
speed to INCREASE or DECREASE. Circle the correct answer.
6. Using the synchronous speed formula, calculate the full load speed of a motor
with 8 poles running on 60 Hz with a slip of 2.2%.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
GLOSSARY Adjustable This device converts the incoming 60 Hz power into any
Frequency Drive desired frequency, allowing an AC motor to run at virtually
any speed.
Base Speed The speed at which a DC motor will run with full voltage
applied to the armature and the field
Conventional Flow A theory regarding the flow of current. It states that current
Theory flows from positive to negative.
Dual Voltage A motor made for two voltages. It enables the same motor
Motor to be used with two different power line voltages.
Electron Flow A theory regarding the flow of current which states that
Theory current flows from negative to positive.
Full Load Speed The true speed at which a motor turns, found on the
nameplate. To calculate, take Synchronous Speed minus
Percent Slip. It is the speed of the rotor.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Series Motor A DC motor with the field coil wired in series with the
armature coil. It is also called a universal motor.
Shunt Motor A DC motor with the field coil wired in parallel with the
armature coil.
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BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
Squirrel Cage The most common AC motor type, named for the rotor’s
Induction Motor resemblance to a cage used for exercising squirrels.
REFERENCE In preparing this training module, some material was taken from the publication
listed below:
Gary Rockis and Glenn A. Mazur, Electrical Motor Controls. (Homewood, IL:
American Technical Publishers, Inc., 1997).
39
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
3. Blanks on the bottom of the graph, from left to right: “1/4”, “1/2”, “3/4”.
Blanks on the side of the graph, from top to bottom: “Torque”, “Speed”.
4. Blanks from left to right: “L1”, “L2”, “L3”, “B”, “C”, “A”.
5. Delta
5. Increase
40
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
41
BASICS OF MOTORS AND MOTOR CONTROL
42
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Milwaukee, Wisconsin U.S.A.
101 Basics Series and 201 Advanced Series are trademarks of Cutler-Hammer University, Cutler-Hammer and Eaton Corp.
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