ISSN 0030400X, Optics and Spectroscopy, 2011, Vol. 111, No. 2, pp. 257–261. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2011.

Original Russian Text © S.N. Sakhnov, E.V. Leksutkina, O.A. Smolyanskaya, A.V. Usov, S.E. Parakhuda, Ya.V. Grachev, S.A. Kozlov, 2011, published in Optika i Spektroskopiya,
2011, Vol. 111, No. 2, pp. 289–293.

NANOPHOTONICS
AND BIOPHOTONICS

Application of Femtotechnologies and Terahertz Spectroscopy

Methods in Cataract Diagnostics
S. N. Sakhnova, E. V. Leksutkinaa, O. A. Smolyanskayab, A. V. Usova,
S. E. Parakhudab, Ya. V. Grachevb, and S. A. Kozlovb
aFedorov Federal State Institution Eye Microsurgery Complex, Krasnodar Branch, Krasnodar, Russia
b
St. Petersburg State University of Information Technologies, Mechanics, and Optics, St. Petersburg, 197101 Russia
email: o_smolyanskaya@mail.ru
Received January 21, 2011

Abstract—We study the destructive action of femtosecond pulses (200 fs) on the human cataractous crystal
line lens and the transmission of the cataractous lens in the terahertz spectral range of electromagnetic oscil
lations (0.2–1 THz) in relation to the density of the nucleus of the lens.
DOI: 10.1134/S0030400X11080261

INTRODUCTION EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS

In recent years, the optics of femtosecond laser
pulses is being transformed from the pure scientific
area to an applied innovative field [1, 2]. A large num
ber of breakthrough technologies related to this field
have appeared, especially in medicine and biology [1,
2]. This paper studies the possibilities of the applica
tion of terahertz femtosecond radiation in ophthal
mology. Cataracts are the most frequently occurring
pathology of the crystalline lens [3]. This disease leads
to changes in the chemical composition of the lens of
a patient, which causes its opacity and decrement in
visual acuity [4]. At present, instruments and tech
niques for measuring the density of the crystalline lens
are unavailable [5]. In connection with this, the devel
opment of diagnostic tools that use terahertz radiation
is an important and necessary problem in determining
surgical tactics for treating cataracts. An equally
important problem is the development of new ener
getic techniques of surgery of opacified lens [6]. The
radiation of a femtosecond laser can be focused on the
crystalline lens without damaging the cornea and
without opening the eyeball [7, 8]. This radiation can
perform the incision of the frontal capsule of the lens
(capsulorhexis), evaporate opacified cortical and
nuclear layers of the lens transforming them into gas
bubbles and water [9–11]. Using an ultrafine tube, one
can remove the destructed content from the lens cap
sule and implant an artificial crystalline lens [12]. The
application of femtosecond laser radiation will make it
possible to avoid complications specific to mechanical
and ultrasonic techniques of the cataract surgery
because it makes the use of instruments for operations
in the aqueous chamber unnecessary [7, 8].
AND TECHNIQUES
Experiments on the action of light radiation on the
human cataractous crystalline lens were performed
using a Solar FL1 laser based on the potassium
yttrium tungstate crystal (KYW laser; SOLAR Laser
Systems, Minsk, Republic of Belarus). The laser was
diodepumped and had the following operating
parameters: the main radiation wavelength was
1040 nm, the average output power was 1 W, the pulse
repetition velocity was 75 MHz, the pulse energy was
13 nJ, the pulse duration was 200 fs, the line width was
13 nm, and the beam diameter was 1.2 nm.
The laser radiation was focused on a sample with a
shortfocus lens (Fig. 1a). In some experiments, a
CC4 light filter was placed between the laser and lens
in order to reduce the intensity of the incident radia
tion. The mode of exposure to the laser was varied by
varying the velocity of scanning of the object under
study by the laser radiation. In experiments, the sam
ple under study can be displaced with respect to a
motionless laser beam using a 8MT193100 motorized
line (from Standa) with a minimal step of 2.5 µm. The
degree of damage of the crystalline lens was estimated
using a light microscope, a set of loupes, and photoin
duced reaction equipment.
The transmission of a cataractous crystalline lens in
the terahertz range of electromagnetic oscillations in
relation to the density of the nucleus of the sample was
studied with a terahertz spectrophotometer (Fig. 1b).
In the optical scheme, a beam emitted by a Solar FL
1 Yb:KYW femtosecond laser was split into pumping
and probe beams. The pumping beam passed through
a motorized optical delay line and was incident on an
indium arsenide semiconductor crystal, which was
placed in a constant magnetic field and which served

257
258 SAKHNOV et al.

(a)

1 2 3
4

(b)

PM1 PM
PC
InAs
DL
FL1
P F
L1
LA
BO M2
M3
L2
MOM
λ/4

BD W CdTe PM2 G BS M1

Fig. 1. (a) Experimental setup for femtosecond laser irradiation of human crystalline lens: (1) laser, (2) light filter, (3) lens, (4)
fixed biological sample, and (5) motorized delay line. (b) Scheme of terahertz spectrophotometer: (FL1) Yb:KYWlaser of fem
tosecond light pulses; (M1–M3) plane mirrors; (BS) beamsplitter; (DL) delay line; (MOM) mechanooptical modulator; (InAs)
InAs crystal; (PM) permanent magnet; (G) Glan prism; (PM1, PM2) parabolic mirrors; (P) polarizer; (F) filter; (L1, L2) lenses;
(BO) biological object; (CdTe) electrooptical crystal; (λ/4) phase plate; (W) Wollaston prism; (BD) balance detector; (LA) lock
in amplifier, and (PC) computer.

as a generator of terahertz radiation. In this scheme,
the generated terahertz radiation propagated only in
the direction that corresponded to the angle of reflec
tion from the semiconductor crystal, since InAs is
opaque in the terahertz spectral range. The semicon
ductor crystal was placed at the center of the cylinder
on its axis such that the pumping radiation was inci
dent on the crystal through one hole, whereas the
reflected terahertz radiation was emerged through the
other hole.
The generated terahertz radiation was collimated
with an offaxis parabolic mirror and was transmitted
through a teflon filter, which cut off highpower radi
ation in the wavelength range shorter than 50 µm.
Then, the radiation was transmitted through a tera
hertz polarizer, which separated the horizontally

OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY Vol. 111 No. 2 2011

 APPLICATION OF FEMTOTECHNOLOGIES
polarized component. The polarized radiation passed
through an object with a certain amplitude–phase
transmission, and, as the terahertz radiation passed
through the object, it experienced diffraction. Then, the
radiation was focused by a parabolic mirror on an elec
trooptical detector, a cadmium tellurite crystal. Upon
simultaneous incidence of the probe femtosecond beam
and the terahertz beam on the electrooptical CdTe crys
tal, the terahertz pulse induced birefringence for the
probe beam because of the electrooptical effect.
At a given moment of time t, the magnitude of the
birefringence is directly proportional to the electric
field strength of the terahertz wave E(t). Using the
optical delay line, we varied the period of time of the
intersection of the terahertz pulse and the probe beam
pulse in the crystal. The further scheme measured the
induced birefringence. The measurement scheme of
the birefringence consisted of a quarterwave plate, a
Wollaston prism, a balance photodetector of the in
house design (BPW34 diodes, a microcircuit of an
OP177 amplifier from Analog Devices), and an LIA
MV150 lockin amplifier (from Femto) that was con
trolled by an MC1000A mechanooptical modulator
(from Thorlabs) placed in the pumping beam. The
scheme operated as follows. In the absence of terahertz
radiation, the probe beam experienced no birefrin
gence, and, after the passage through the quarterwave
plate, which changed the horizontal polarization of the
beam to a circular polarization, and the Wollaston
prism, was split into two beams with orthogonal polar
izations and equal intensities. An unbalance signal was
measured. Upon changing the polarity of the terahertz
pulse, the sign of the birefringence changes, which, in
turn, causes a change in the polarity of the signal from
the photodetector. Therefore, the unbalance signal
measured at different delays yields information on the
time dependence of the amplitude E(t) of the terahertz
radiation. To increase the signaltonoise ratio, the
scheme contained a lockin amplifier. A filtered and
amplified signal was sent to a computer via an NI4065
digital voltmeter (from National Instruments).
In the LabView medium, a virtual instrument was
created, which controlled the delay and the measure
ment process and made it possible to determine the
time profile of the terahertz pulse. The determined
time dependence E(t) of the terahertz radiation was
shown on the computer monitor.
In an FL2 spectrophotometer, terahertz radiation
had the following characteristics. The frequency range
was 0.05–2 THz, the average power was 28 µW, the
pulse repetition velocity was 75 MHz, the pulse power
was 0.148 W, and the pulse duration was 2.5 ps. Mea
surements were performed in the range 0.2–1 THz, in
which the main power of the terahertz radiation of this
spectrophotometer was concentrated.
To measure the terahertz spectra of crystalline
lenses, the measurement without samples was initially
OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY Vol. 111 No. 2 2011
259
performed, and, then, with samples, which were
placed between the focusing lenses of the scheme.
Samples under study were human crystalline lenses
of a different degree of density and maturity. The
lenses were obtained in the course of extracapsular
cataract extractions from 20 patients. The operations
were performed according to medical indications for
patients with immature, mature, hypermature senile,
and complicated cataract. In one case, the cataract
was complicated with uveitis, in two cases, with high
degree myopia, and, in two cases, with glaucoma. In
14 out of 20 eyes, the density of endothelium was lower
than 1500 cells/mm2, which determined the choice of
the surgery of these patients by the extracapsular
extraction according to the classical technology. Cap
sulotomy was performed on the boundary between the
upper and middle quarters of the lens such that to
minimize the traumatization of the lens substance. For
this purpose, the delicate hydrodissection and visco
dissection of the cataractous crystalline lens from the
capsular bursa were performed. The extraction of the
nucleus was performed by different expression tech
niques without direct pressure and without using
direct action on the nucleus with damaging instru
ments. The crystalline lens that is devoid of the capsu
lar protection is subjected to large changes compared
to the lens surrounded by the capsule. When placed in
a physiological solution, crystalline lens swells due to
considerable hydrophilia and, subsequently, becomes
completely opaque. Therefore, we used the method of
dry preservation with and without using silica gel. Sil
ica gel is a compound that possesses a pronounced
hydrophilia and is capable of adsorbing of up to 20% of
water in addition to the natural desiccation of the lens.
This increases the storage time of the lens; however, it
also reduces the validity of the investigation, since the
optical density of the lens changes. Based on this, crys
talline lenses were stored in sterile pouches in a water
free medium at a temperature of 4–8°C to reduce the
evaporation. The storage time of samples was 7 days
from the moment of operation to the conducting
experiments.
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS
ON DESTRUCTIVE ACTION
OF FEMTOSECOND LASER RADIATION
UPON CATARACT CHANGED CRYSTALLINE
LENSES
Initially, as a sample, we used a human crystalline
lens with a thickness of 280 µm of the fourth degree of
density according to the Buratto classification.
Investigations yielded the following results.
(i) The displacement of the sample at a velocity of
156 µm/s did not lead to visible changes in the struc
ture of the lens.
(ii) Focusing the laser radiation onto the frontal
surface of the sample and displacement of the lens at a
260 SAKHNOV et al.

Damage
line

(а) (b)

Fig. 2. Damaging crystalline lens by femtosecond laser: (a) focusing onto frontal part of lens; (b) focusing onto rear part of lens.

(а) (b)

Fig. 3. Damaging crystalline lens by femtosecond laser: (a) destruction of lens with carbonization upon continuous action;
(b) destruction of preliminarily colored lens using CC4 filter.

velocity of 37.5 µm/s lead to a surface damage of its
soft layers (cortex) on the frontal surface with a depth
of no more than 300–400 µm in the form of a contin
uous line (Fig. 2a). The width of the line of damage
corresponded to the width of the focused laser beam.
A denser part (nucleus) remained intact (Fig. 2a).
(iii) Focusing of the radiation onto the plane of the
nucleus of the crystalline lens and displacement of the
sample at a slower velocity of 37.5 µm/s led to a dam
age of the cortex at the periphery of the lens in the
form of continuous defect with a width that corre
sponded to the width of the focused laser beam. A
denser part (nucleus) remained intact (Fig. 2b).
a transmittance of 54%, no damaging action was
observed.
(vi) Irradiation of the motionless crystalline lens
that was preliminarily colored with a black dye
through a CC4 light filter led to a local damage; in par
ticular, a tunnel defect of the lens tissue was formed
with a small surrounding carbonization zone (Fig. 3b).
TERAHERTZ TRANSMISSION SPECTRA
OF HUMAN CATARACTOUS CRYSTALLINE
LENS DEPENDING ON DENSITY
OF NUCLEUS OF SAMPLE

(iv) Continuous laser irradiation of the motionless
crystalline lens for 60 s led to the destruction of its thick
ness by 65% with the formation of a carbon deposit
(carbonization effect) in the action zone (Fig. 3a).
(v) Upon irradiation of the motionless object
through a CC4 light filter with a thickness of 3 mm and
As samples, we used cataractous crystalline lenses
from patients, which, according to the Buratto classi
fication, were of the first to the fifth degrees of density.
Altogether, we studied five samples. As a result of
investigation, we measured the terahertz transmission
spectra of human cataractous crystalline lenses in rela
tion to the density of the nucleus of the biotissue

OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY Vol. 111 No. 2 2011

 APPLICATION OF FEMTOTECHNOLOGIES
T
1.0
0.5
2 4
3
1
0
0.2 0.4
Fig. 4. Transmission spectra of terahertz radiation by (0) normal and (1–4) cataractous human crystalline lenses; optical density
of lens nucleus increases in series 0–4.
(Fig. 4). Plot 0 corresponds to the sample with the low
est optical density of the nucleus of the lens (first
degree), and each subsequent measurement (1–4) was
performed with the lens of a higher optical density of
the nucleus. Plot 1 falls out from the general trend of
decreasing in the transmittance with increasing density,
which can be explained by a complex inhomogeneity of
the examined biological object. This figure demon
strates that changes in the intensity of the terahertz
transmission spectrum can be used in diagnostics of the
development of cataract of the human crystalline lens.
CONCLUSIONS
We showed that femtosecond laser radiation acts
destructively on the human cataractous crystalline
lens. The degree of the destructive action of the femto
second radiation is different at different displacement
velocities of the sample, increasing with decreasing
velocity. The action of the femtosecond radiation on
the fixed (motionless) crystalline lens leads to the
development of carbonization, and the action for a
time period longer than 30 s causes an internal
microexplosion. Coloring the lens with a black dye
lowers the threshold of its destruction by the femtosec
ond radiation. The use of the light filter reduces the
carbonization effect and localizes the lesion.
There is a correlation between density of the crys
talline lens and its transmission spectrum in the tera
hertz range. We showed that, as the cataract of the lens
is developed, the intensity of the terahertz transmis
sion spectrum decreases. Therefore, terahertz radia
tion in the range 0.2–1 THz can be used as a diagnos
tic tool for determining cataract of the human crystal
line lens.
OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY Vol. 111 No. 2
261
0
0.6 0.8 1.0
f, THz
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by grants from the Agency
on Education of the Russian Federation GK P1199
(2009–2011) and NSh5707.2010.2.
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Translated by V. Rogovoi
2011
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