3-DYNAMICS EOF H U

PARTICLES -
TF
s Z
b-Work c and Energy
s i
h y
P 1

Bibliography

Some of the contents that will be worked on this topic can be found in the

U
following book chapters:

Book

EH
P.A. Tipler, G. Mosca. Physics for Scientists and Engineers.
Chapter
6,7

-
6th ed., W.H. Freeman & Co Ltd, 2007.

F
H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman, F. Sears, M. Zemansky. 6,7
University Physics with Modern Physics. Global Edition (14th
ed.), Pearson Education, 2015.

Z T
W. Bauer, G.D. Westfall, University Physics with Modern
Physics. McGraw-Hill Global Education, 2011.
6,7

ic s
P.M. Fishbane, S. Gasiorowicz, S.T. Thornton, Fisika
zientzialari eta ingeniarientzat. UPV/EHU-ko argitalpen
5,6

s
zerbitzua, 2008.

y
UEUko Fisika Saila. Fisika Orokorra. UEU, 1992. 4

h
UEUko Fisika Saila. Fisika Orokorra: Ariketak. UEU, 1989. 4

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Some images appearing in the current document were taken from these
bibliographic sources. 2
Kick-off bet
In a ski station, two skiers and their instructor make a bet. There are two different slopes, a blue slope I and a
red one II, to descend from the top A to the bottom B and they are arguing which path is the fastest one. Each
of the skiers takes a different slope but the ski instructor says that both will arrive at the same time to point B.
The two skiers only descend by the gravitational pull and without resistance (no friction force). One skier has

U
chosen the blue slope I, that is a straight line connecting A and B point, the shortest distance between the top
and the bottom. The other skier however, has chosen the red one II that follows a longer path.

H
The skier from the slope I is convinced that his path is the one that minimizes the time required to reach B.

E
However, the other one says that his path has a steepest slope than the blue one and because of that, he will
be accelerated faster than the skier from the blue slope and this could enable him to reach point B faster than

-
using the blue path. Finally, the instructor says that the path is not related with the time needed for going from
A to B and all the speed variations that suffers the red path are somehow compensated with the distance,
yielding the same time for both paths. Therefore the time taken by the two skiers will be the same.

F
They make a bet. In order to win the bet, which is the most convenient approach? The one of the skier from

T
the slope I, the other one of the skier from slope II or the instructor’s point of view?

Z
Which skier will reach the bottom of the path ( point B) with a larger velocity?

ic s
y s
Ph 3

Experiment in the classroom

H U
- E
TF
s Z
s ic
h y
P 4
Debate in the classroom

Questions

1) What do we have to measure?

H U
E
2) What variables are important?

3) What do we have to assume?

-
TF
4) Think a way of determining the final velocities of the marbles.

s Z
s ic
h y
P 5

Impulse of a force
p t t
 =F
F  t p− po =∫t F
∫p d p=∫t  dt
F  dt = J

U
 dt
d p= F
o o o

When a force acts on a body, this body will receive

EH
an impulse equal to the change in linear momentum.
https://skepticalteacher.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/physics-of-karate-no-woo-required/

Work done by a force

-
 =F
F  r  (Vector field)

TF The infinitesimal work in the

d ⃗r displacement

s Z ⃗ ⃗r
dW = F⋅d

ic
 dW = F dr cos 

y s The work done going from A

to B = the sum of all

Ph B
W =∫A dW =∫A F
 ⋅d r
B
infinitesimal works.
Exercises: 1-3 6
 B B
W =∫A dW =∫A F
 ⋅d r 
Line integral of the field F

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B B B B
●
W =∫A F⃗1⋅d ⃗r +∫A F⃗ 2⋅d ⃗r +∫A F⃗3⋅d ⃗r +...=∫A ( F⃗1 + F⃗2 + F⃗3 +...)⋅d ⃗r

H
B
W =∫A ∑ F⃗ i⋅d ⃗r

E
i [W ]=[F ][r]=ML 2 T −2

-
B
● W =∫A ( F x dx + F y dy + F z dz )
SI : Joule( J )=N m

● If the force is constant

TF 6
 r =F  r cos  1 KW h=3,6 10 J
W = F⋅

Z
and the trajectory is linear

ic s F ∥= F cos 

y s Forces perpendicular to the

displacement do not do any work

Ph Example: Normal force in circular

motion
7

Example: How to do a line integral:

 =x 2 y 2 i  x 2− y 2  j
F Calculate the line integral of the given field between
points (0,0) and (1,1) using different trajectories:

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C1: (0,0)→(1,0)→(1,1)
B
C2: (0,0)→(0,1)→(1,1)

H
C3: along the line y=x
∫ A
 ⋅d r
F

C1:
C4: along the curve y= x2

 =x 2 j
- E
F
y=0 ⇒ F 1,0
(0,0)→(1,0)
dy=0 ⇒ d r =dx i
∫0,0 x 2 j⋅dx i =0

(1,0)→(1,1)
2

Z T
 = y i 1− y  j
x =1 ⇒ F 2

s
dx=0 ⇒ d r =dy j

ic 3

[
1

]
s
∫1,0 [ y i 1− y  j ]⋅dy j =∫1,0  1− y  dy= y− 3 = 32
1,1
2 2
1,1
2 y

y
0

Ph
Using C1:  r =0 2 = 2
B
∫A F⋅d 3 3
8
 C2:  =x 2 y 2 i  x 2− y 2  j
F

 =− y 2 j
x =0 ⇒ F

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(0,0)→(0,1)
dx=0 ⇒ d r =dy j

] EH
1
2  2 − y3
∫0,0 − y j⋅dy j=∫0,0 − y dy= 3 = −1
0,1 0,1

[
-
0 3

(0,1)→(1,1)
TF
 =x 2 i  x 2 −1 j
y=1 ⇒ F

Z
dy=0 ⇒ d r =dx i

s
1
x3
∫0,1 [ x i  x −1 j ]⋅dx i =∫0,1 x dx= 3 = 13
1,1 1,1

[ ]
ic
2 2 2
  
0

Using C2:
y s∫
B
 r = −1  1 =0
F⋅d

h
A 3 3

P 9

C3:  =x 2 y 2 i  x 2− y 2  j
F

(0,0)→(1,1) x=y ⇒ F = x 4 i 0 j

U
dx=dy ⇒ d r =dx idx j

H
1
x5
[ ]
∫0,0 x i⋅ dx i dx j =∫0,0  x dx= 5 = 15
1,1 1,1

E
4 4
   Using C3
0

-
F
C4:

(0,0)→(1,1) y=x 2 ⇒ F

Z T
 =x 6 i  x 2 − x 4  j
dy=2 x dx ⇒ d r =dx i 2 x dx j

1,1

ic s 1,1
∫0,0 [ x6 i  x 2−x 4  j]⋅dx i 2 x dx j =∫0,0 [ x 6 x 2− x 4 2 x ]dx=...

y s
Ph
Exercises: Repeat for the following force field:
 =x 2 y 2 i  2 x 3 y j
F
3
Result: 1/3 for any trajectory 10
Power
How fast is the work done?
The rate at which a force does work is called power (P).

dW
H U
E
● Instant power P=
dt
 r
dW = F⋅d  d r = F⋅
P = F⋅  v
-
F
dt

● Average power
Z T 〈 P 〉=
W

s
t

ic
[ P ]=[ F ][v ]=MLT −2 LT −1= ML2 T −3

s
y
m J
SI : Watt W = N =

h
s s
kW NOTICE! kW h is an

P horse power=735 W energy unit!

11

KINETIC ENERGY
B
W A  B =∫A F
 ⋅d r = ∫A m ddtv⋅d r
B
∫A m ddtv ⋅v dt
B
∫A dtd
B

 1

mv⋅v dt

U
= =
2

1
[ 2 1 2
]1
B
2
W A  B= m v = m v B− m v A
2 2 2
EH
-
A

F
1 1 2 [ E k ]=ML 2 T −2
E k = mv⋅v = m v Kinetic energy

T
2 2 (Work units)

s Z
ic
W A  B =E k −E k = E k
B A
THEOREM OF KINETIC ENERGY
The work done by all forces applied on

s
W 0 ⇒ v B v A

y
an object is equal to the change in its
kinetic energy.

 =F
F Ph
Example: Ball going upwards

 t  ⇒ 
J =p − p0 ; =F
F  r  ⇒ W =E k −E k 12
B A
POTENTIAL ENERGY
CONSERVATIVE FORCES

A force is conservative if:

● the work done is independent of the

H U
E
trajectory, i.e. it depends only on the

-
starting and final points.
or

F
● the work done on a closed path is zero.

W A  A =∮ F⋅d
 r =0

Z T Ep : Potential energy

s
B

ic
● W A  B =∫A F
 ⋅d r =− E p −E p =− E p
B A

y s
 is conservative:
If F

h
 E x , y , z
 =− ∇
F p

P 1D: F =−
d E p x 
dx
Gradient: 3-dimensional
derivative of a scalar field 13

GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD AND EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

H U
- E
TF
s Z An equipotential surface (line) refers
to a region in space where every

ic
point has the same potential.

s
The gradient is oriented towards
higher values through the direction

h y corresponding to the maximum rate

of change.

P Gradient ┴ equipotential surface.

14
Gradient of a scalar field V(x,y,z)

 V x , y , z= ∂ V i ∂ V j ∂ V k

∇
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V
∂x
: Derivative of function V(x,y,z) with respect
to x, keeping constant the rest of variables.
H U
Slope of the tangent to V(x,y,z) in the x
direction.
- E
TF
If the gradient of a function is not zero, it gives the direction of maximum

Z
rate of change.

ic
Example: V x , y , z=x e s
2 − yz

s
 V  x , y , z=2 x e− yz i−x 2 z e− yz  j−x 2 y e− yz  k
∇

h y
P
∂ V dV
In one dimension: Gradient = derivative =
∂ x dx 15

The potential energy is undetermined up to a constant value:

Ep

U
E p +const . W =( E p +const .) A−( E p +const . ) B =E pA −E pB

or
EH
⃗ E = −∇
−∇ p
⃗ ( E +const .)
p

-
or in one dimension
TF
s
−
d Ep
dx Z
= −
d ( E p + const .)
dx

s ic
In general (most of the times):

h y E p r =∞=0

P
W A ∞ = E p  rA −E p ∞=E p  rA 
16
MECHANICAL ENERGY
The following equation holds for any force:

U
B
W A  B =∫A F
⋅d r =E k B −E k A = E k

In addition, if the force is conservative,

B

EH
⃗ =−mg ^k ⇒ E p =mgz+const .

-
W A  B =∫A F
⋅d r =E p A−E p B =− E p F

TF ⃗ =−k x ^i ⇒ E p= 1 k x 2 +const .
F
2
Therefore,

s
E p A− E p B =E k B −E k A Z MECHANICAL ENERGY
E m= E p E k

ic
 E p E k  A=E p  E k  B

y s
When acting on an object, if all forces
are conservative, the mechanical energy
CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY

h
is conserved (it remains constant).
 E m =0 E mA=E mB

P
Exercise: 1, 4, 5
17
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=54VrCrWqaPU (W. Lewin; from minute 24:04 to 30:00)

NON CONSERVATIVE FORCES

W A  A =∮ F⋅d
 r ≠0

Example: Friction force

H U
Always opposes the motion Fm⋅d r 0

- E
When non conservative forces do work the Em is not conserved, but...

W net =E kB −E kA
TF
s Z
W net =W cons . +W non cons .=E pA −E pB +W non cons .

ic
E kB −E kA=E pA−E pB +W non cons .

s
y
E kB + E pB =E kA + E pA +W non cons . The “lost” work is transformed
into thermal energy (heat) or

Ph E mB =E mA +W non cons .

Δ E m=W noncons .
irreversible deformation energy.

18
Exercises: 6-11
1. Constant direction and conservative force (Linear motion)

F =F x i

U

vo∥ F  =F  x  i
F

H
dE p B
F  x =− ⇒ E p  x =−∫A F  x  dx

E
dx
1

-
2
E= m v + E p ( x)=const .
2
Analytical equation:
1 dx
( )
2

T F x dx t

Z
E= m
2 dt
+ E p ( x)=const . ⇒ ∫x =∫t d t → x=x (t )
√ 0
2 /m [ E −E p ( x )] 0

Graphically:

ic s PA =E p  P

y s PB=E
AB=E k P

Ph F
dE
 =− p i =−tan  i
dx
P ' : E p E ⇒ E k 0 19

Limits to motion:
 P 1, P 2  , P 3, ∞: E p E

U
0, P 1  , P 2, P 3 : E p E POTENTIAL WELL

H
● In classical mechanics, particles cannot cross the well.

E
● In quantum mechanics, they can cross the well.

P1: v=0 F > 0(towards P 2 )

-
P 4:
P 2:
v=v max F =0

TF
v=0 F < 0(towards P 1 )
Continuously
oscillating
P 3:
∞:

s Z
v=0 F> 0(towards ∞)
E =E k ( E p=0)

s ic
Different energy levels imply different limits to motion.

h y Watch this video of Walter Lewin

P
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXXF2C-vrQE
20
 H U
- E
TF
s Z
s ic
h y
P 21

dE p
ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIUM F =0=−
dx

H U
- E
TF
s Z
s
Stable equilibrium:
ic Unstable equilibrium:

y
Minimum. If there is a perturbation, Maximum. If there is a perturbation,

h
forces act towards equilibrium forces move the particle away from

P
position. the maximum.
22
Exercises: 12-13
Some comments about the kick-off bet

●The magnitude of the final velocities must be equal due to the

U
conservation of energy.

same, i.e. it depends on the trajectory.

EH
The elapsed time to reach the final point should not be necessarily the

-
Conservative forces have nothing to do with the time required to cover a

F
●

distance, but with the conservation of energy. (to be improved).

Z T
There is an optimum trajectory that minimizes the time required to cover
a distance. It is called brachistochrone.

ic s
y s
Ph
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachistochrone_curve#/media/File:Brachistochrone.gif

https://9gag.com/gag/a6VbR8L (an interesting video on paths) 23

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1a) Gravitational potential energy: ⃗ =−mg ^k ⇒ E p =mgz+const .
F
2
1 dz
( ) dz
z t

U
E= m
2 dt
+mgz=const . ⇒ ∫z =∫t d t=t−t 0
0
√ 2/m [ E−mgz ] 0

] EH
z

− [√ m 2
√ E −mgz =t−t 0

-
2 mg z 0

√ F
2
[ √ E −mgz−√ E −mgz 0 ] =−g (t−t 0)

√ Z[ √ T √ ]
m
2 1 2 1 2
mv − m v 0 =−g (t−t 0 )

s
m 2 2

ic
√ v2 −√ v20 =−g (t−t 0)

y s v=v 0 −g t −t 0 
1

h
2
 z= z 0 v 0 t−t 0 − g t −t 0 
2

F P
 =−mg k ⇒ a =−g k Uniformly accelerated motion 24
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1b) Elastic potential energy: ⃗ =−k x ^i ⇒ E p= 1 k x 2 +const .
F
2
2
1 dx 1 2
( ) dx
x t
E= m + k x =const . ⇒ ∫x =∫t d t=t−t 0

U
2 dt 2
√ 2
[ 1
]
0 0
2
E− k x

H
m 2

E
x
dx 1
[ x
]
x
∫x = arcsin =(t−t 0 )

√ [
2 k 2E
] √ k /m √ 2 E /k
-
0
x0
−x 2 d2 x

F
m2 k  F =−k x=m a x =m 2

T
dt
x x0 2
d x −k
arcsin

Z
−arcsin =ω(t−t 0 ) = x
√ 2 E /k √ 2 E/k dt 2 m
0
arcsin
x
√ 2 E /k
=ω(t−t 0 )+φ0

ic s d2 x
dt 2
=−2 x

y s
x= √ 2 E / k sin [ ω(t −t 0 )+φ0 ]

h
A [F ]

P
[k ]=
[ x]
x =A sin [ t−t 0  0 ]
N 25
SI :
Simple harmonic motion m