NSW Education Standards Authority

Mathematics Advanced Year 11

Calculus Topic Guide

The Mathematics syllabuses are the documents used to inform the scope of content that will
be assessed in the HSC examinations.

Topic Guides provide support for the Mathematics Stage 6 courses. They contain information
organised under the following headings: Prior learning; Terminology; Use of technology;
Background information; General comments; Future study; Considerations and teaching
strategies; Suggested applications and exemplar questions.

Topic Guides illustrate ways to explore syllabus-related content and consequently do not
define the scope of problems or learning experiences that students may encounter through
their study of a topic. The terminology list contains terms that may be used in the teaching and
learning of the topic. The list is not exhaustive and is provided simply to aid discussion.

Please provide any feedback to the Mathematics and Numeracy Curriculum Inspector.

Effective from 2019 Year 11, and Term 4, 2019 Year 12

Publication date December 2018

Updated NA
Contents
Topic focus ............................................................................................................................3

Prior learning.........................................................................................................................3

Terminology ..........................................................................................................................3

Use of technology.................................................................................................................3

Background information ......................................................................................................4

General comments ...............................................................................................................4

Future study ..........................................................................................................................5

Subtopics ..............................................................................................................................5
MA-C1 Introduction to Differentiation .................................................................................................. 6

Subtopic focus ................................................................................................................................. 6

C1.1 Gradients of tangents .................................................................................................................. 6

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 6

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 6

C1.2 Difference quotients .................................................................................................................... 7

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 7

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 7

C1.3 The derivative function and its graph .......................................................................................... 8

Considerations and teaching strategies ......................................................................................... 8

Suggested applications and exemplar questions .......................................................................... 9

C1.4 Calculating with derivatives ....................................................................................................... 10

Considerations and teaching strategies ....................................................................................... 10

Suggested applications and exemplar questions ........................................................................ 10

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 2 of 11
Topic focus
The topic Calculus is concerned with how quantities change and provides a framework for
developing quantitative models of change and deducing their consequences. The topic
involves the development of the basic concepts upon which differential calculus is built, namely
the connection between the gradient of the tangent to a curve and the instantaneous rate of
change of a function, rates of change and derivatives of functions and the manipulative skills
necessary for the effective use of differential calculus.

The study of calculus is important in developing students’ ability to solve problems involving
algebraic and graphical representations of functions and rates of change of a function with
relevance to all quantitative fields of study including physics, chemistry, medicine, engineering,
computing, statistics, business, finance, economics and the construction industry.

Prior learning
The material in this topic builds on content from the Number and Algebra Strand of the
Mathematics K–10 syllabus, including the Stage 5.3 substrands of Algebraic Techniques,
Surds and Indices, Equations, Linear Relationships and Non-Linear Relationships.

Terminology
angle of inclination  discontinuities normal to a curve 
average rate of change discontinuous power function
calculus displacement product rule
chain rule first principles quotient rule
chord gradient function rate of change
continuity initially secant
continuous instantaneous rate of change  smooth function
derivative limit  stationary
derivative at a point limiting value stationary point 
difference quotient Newton’s laws of motion tangent
differentiation non-smooth function velocity
differentiable

Use of technology
While ‘by-hand’ skills for solving equations and curve sketching are essential for students in
this course, graphing calculators or graphing technologies are a suitable means of exploring
many of the concepts studied in this topic and their use is encouraged in teaching and learning.
∆𝑦
In particular, graphing software is useful for investigating the ratio ∆𝑥 as ∆𝑥 → 0, introducing the
derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 and exploring graphically gradients, secants and derivative graphs.

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 3 of 11
Background information
It has been found that much of the initial development of calculus centred on the solutions of
two types of problems: (i) finding the gradient at a point on a curve and (ii) finding an area
enclosed by curved boundaries. In the 117th and 18th centuries Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
in England, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) in Germany, separately considered
these problems and concepts including rates of change, tangents and infinitesimals.
Infinitesimals are very small numbers but not equal to zero.

Newton and Leibniz approached the fundamental aspects of calculus in different ways but both
in terms of graphs: Newton from the perspective of variables changing with respect to time, the
physical world and motion; Leibniz from the perspective of the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 spanning over
close infinitesimally small values in a sequence and analysis of such changes in graphs. Due
to the proximity of each mathematician’s separate but similar discoveries and the publishing of
their findings, there was much debate as to who specifically should be credited with the
‘invention’ of calculus – ultimately they both were. It is interesting to note that the basic theory
of differentiation and integration predated Newton and Leibniz and that their work brought
together this knowledge and connected differentiation and integration as inverse processes.

Exploration of Newton and Leibniz’s work, their different notations, infinitesimals, the evolution
of calculus and the controversy over its invention may be of interest to students. It is an
interesting piece of history which showcases how the exploration and development of a field of
study and mathematical and scientific advances can easily be derailed over a simple matter of
pride and ownership.

Today, calculus has permeated into many different fields such as physics, biology, engineering
and sociology, anywhere where changes in quantities are explored. It has had a profound
effect on the world and our lives, often without us being aware of it – for instance it helps us:
understand the stock market and its behaviour; make weather forecasts; analyse and predict
population growth and spread of diseases; and design structures.

General comments
This topic prepares students for the study of the calculus, which forms an integral component
of more advanced aspects of mathematics and introduces students to many of the basic
concepts upon which differential calculus is built. It introduces differential calculus grounded in
students’ knowledge of functions and their graphical representations which supports students
to develop a strong conceptual understanding of the connection between gradients, tangents
at a point, rates of change and derivatives of functions.

A geometrical introduction to the concepts of continuity and derivatives, including the idea of
the derivative as a rate of change, is recommended. Such an approach provides an avenue
into basic limit ideas and differentiation from first principles.

The definition of the derivative 𝑓′(𝑐) of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at a value 𝑥 = 𝑐 in its domain,
formalises the concept of an ‘instantaneous rate of change’ of a quantity. Graphical
representation of 𝑓(𝑥) as the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) provides for a visual representation of ‘rate of
change’ via the slope of a ‘secant line’ of the curve and suggests an interpretation of 𝑓′(𝑐) as
the gradient of a unique ‘tangent line’ or ‘tangent’ to the curve at the point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)).

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 4 of 11
Emphasis should be given to the power of the general theorems, which eliminate the need for
extensive detailed work with differentiation from first principles.

The extent to which formal proofs are introduced may vary; however, the computation of a
derivative and the resulting definition of the derived function as operations on functions, rather
than on their graphical representations, should be emphasised.

Future study
Students need to ensure that they can efficiently describe and interpret the behaviour of a
function and its tangent at a point and determine and use the derivative of a function to solve
problems to facilitate work in later topics.

The application of the product, quotient and chain rules to all functions within the scope of this
course is met in the Year 12 Calculus topic.

For students studying Mathematics Extension 1, this topic can be taught in conjunction with or
just prior to ME-C1 (C1.1 Rates of Change).

Subtopics
 MA-C1 Introduction to Differentiation

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 5 of 11
MA-C1 Introduction to Differentiation

Subtopic focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is for students to develop an understanding of the concept
of a derivative as a function that defines the rate of change of a given function. This concept is
reinforced numerically, by calculating difference quotients, geometrically, as gradients of
secants and tangents, and algebraically. The derivatives of power functions are found and
used to solve simple problems, including calculating gradients and equations of tangents and
normals.

Students develop an understanding of derivatives as representations of rates of change. This

process is of fundamental importance in Mathematics and has applications in all quantitative
fields of study including physics, chemistry, medicine, engineering, computing, statistics,
business, finance and economics.

C1.1 Gradients of tangents

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Review of the following may be needed to meet the needs of students:
˗ interpreting and graphing linear relationships
˗ determining the gradient of a line or between points
This section relates to content also reviewed in MA-F1 (F1.3).
 The majority of graphs studied by students have consisted of unbroken curves. This is a
sufficient basis for the intuitive idea of continuity. The behaviour of functions such as
1 |𝑥|
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 near the origin could be used to demonstrate discontinuities.
1 1
Functions such as 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +2 and piecewise linear functions could
be explored.
 A function 𝑓(𝑥) is called continuous or a continuous function if it is continuous at each
point in its domain, ie if 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 for every choice of 𝑐 in the domain of
the function.
 A secant is defined as the straight line passing through two given points on the curve. The
gradients of secants for particular cases should be explored. The general expression for
the gradient of the secant through the two points could be derived.
 Graphing technology could be used to discover the result that the gradient 𝑚 of a line is
the tangent of the angle 𝜃 that the line makes with the positive direction of the 𝑥-axis, ie
𝑚 = tan 𝜃. This can also be proved using trigonometry, but students will not be expected to
replicate a proof.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

1
 For what values of 𝑥 is the function 𝑦 = 𝑥−3 (a) continuous and (b) discontinuous?

4 − 𝑥2 for 𝑥 < 0
 A function is defined as follows: 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
(𝑥 − 2)2 for 𝑥 > 2
Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 which would ensure that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous.

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 6 of 11
 Find the equation of the line that is inclined at 30° to the positive 𝑥-axis and passes
through the point (0,2).

C1.2 Difference quotients

Considerations and teaching strategies

 Examples in different contexts could be investigated, such as physical phenomena that
change over time at: (a) constant rates, (b) varying rates; and interpreting these changes
using graphical representations and gradients.
 Students could explore and describe qualitatively the behaviour of a function or quantity,
using terms such as ‘increasing’, ‘decreasing’, ‘increasing at a decreasing rate’, and
interpret these terms graphically
˗ A function 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 if 𝑓(𝑐) < 𝑓(𝑑) for all
𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 < 𝑑 ≤ 𝑏.
˗ A function 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 if 𝑓(𝑐) > 𝑓(𝑑) for all
𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 < 𝑑 ≤ 𝑏.
 Given a distance-time graph, the rate of change over an interval is illustrated by finding the
average speed for the interval, while the instantaneous rate of change is the speed at a
particular instant in time (for example, the speed as read from a vehicle’s speedometer).
 Students learn about displacement as a further development of their knowledge of
distance-time graphs. The significance of negative values for displacement and velocity
should be understood.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 For each of the following functions, determine the values of 𝑥 for which the function is
(a) increasing and (b) decreasing.

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 1
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +4
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 7 2
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 5
(vii) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 3
𝑥
(viii) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|

 A particle 𝑃 moves along a straight line for 8 seconds, starting at the fixed point 𝑆 at time
𝑡 = 0. At time 𝑡 seconds, 𝑃 is 𝑥(𝑡) metres to the right of 𝑆. The graph of 𝑥(𝑡) is shown in
the diagram.

O 3 6 t

(a) At approximately what times is the velocity of the particle equal to 0?

(b) At approximately what time is the particle moving with the greatest velocity?

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 7 of 11
C1.3 The derivative function and its graph

Considerations and teaching strategies

 This section could be used to establish the connection between C1.1, C1.2 and C1.3
 Digital technology could be used to explore the connection between the gradients of the
secants and the limiting value. For instance, given point 𝑃 on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), a
number of secants could be drawn through a succession of points 𝑄1, 𝑄2, 𝑄3, …, on the
curve, first on one side of 𝑃, then on the other. This should illustrate that the tangent line at
𝑃 is the limiting position whose gradient is approached by the gradient of the secant
through 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) and 𝑄(𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)) as 𝑄 approaches 𝑃.
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 Algebraically the gradient of line 𝑃𝑄 = (𝑥+ℎ)−𝑥
= . As ℎ approaches zero,
ℎ
line 𝑃𝑄 approximates the tangent to the point 𝑃 and its gradient approaches the limiting
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
value. This can be represented by lim = 𝑓′(𝑥).
ℎ→0 ℎ

 The gradient of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is also called the derivative or differential coefficient of

𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
 Note that the limit may fail to exist even for a continuous curve: the curve may have a
vertical tangent (infinite slope), or a sharp bend, as in 𝑦 = |𝑥| at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
 The process of determining the gradient function, using 𝑓′(𝑥) = lim ℎ
is called
ℎ→0
‘differentiation from first principles’ or finding the derivative using ‘first principles’.
 ‘Differentiation from first principles’ may be performed as follows (or by using an equivalent
form): For example:
˗ Given the 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥, find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) using first principles.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
((𝑥+ℎ)2 +5(𝑥+ℎ))−(𝑥 2 +5𝑥)
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
𝑥 2 +2𝑥ℎ+ℎ 2 +5𝑥+5ℎ−𝑥 2 −5𝑥
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0
ℎ(2𝑥+5+ℎ)
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0

∴ 𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5
˗ Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) using first principles given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Let 𝑐 be any point in the domain of the function.
𝑓(𝑐+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑐)
Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
, where this limit exists.
ℎ→0
2 ′ (𝑐+ℎ)2 −𝑐 2
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑓 (𝑐) = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
2𝑐ℎ+ℎ 2
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0

= lim (2𝑐 + ℎ)
ℎ→0

= 2𝑐
Since this limit exists for all values of 𝑐 in the domain of the function, the derived
function is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥.

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 8 of 11
 Some students may enjoy the challenge of finding the derivatives such as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 ,
1
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 by first principles, but
this is beyond the requirements of this course.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
 Different notations such as 𝑦 ′ , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), , (𝑓(𝑥)) and the use of variables other than 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
and/or 𝑦 should be discussed and used in examples.
 The visual interpretation of a derivative (a ‘gradient function’) could be established by
estimating the gradients at key points on a given graph and plotting them on new axes
below the given graph. This can be done with and without using the equation of the given
graph of the function.
 The geometrical significance of the sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) is to be understood, including the
determination of whether or not 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing or decreasing.
 A stationary point of 𝑓(𝑥) is a point on 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) where the tangent is parallel to the 𝑥–axis,
and at such a point 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0.
 The importance of the case when 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 should be stated and students should
understand that in that case further investigation is needed to determine the nature of the
point.

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

 Use differentiation by first principles to verify that if 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥, the gradient function is
𝑦 ′ = 6𝑥 − 1.
 Given the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥, using first principles determine 𝑦′ and hence find the
equation of the tangent to the curve at (1, 4).
 The diagram shows the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

(a) For which values of 𝑥 is the derivative, 𝑓′(𝑥), negative?

(b) What happens to 𝑓′(𝑥) for large values of 𝑥?
(c) Sketch the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥).
 The diagram below shows the graph of the gradient function of the curve.

For what value of 𝑥 does 𝑓(𝑥) have a local minimum? Justify your answer.

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 9 of 11
 The graph shows the displacement of a particle that is moving in a horizontal line.
(a) Describe in words the motion of the particle during the first seven minutes.
(b) Sketch the graph of the velocity of the particle as a function of time.

 Complete the following table, relating the corresponding features of a function and its
gradient function. If there is no distinguishing feature, write ‘nil’ in the cell.

Feature of the function Feature of the gradient function

There is a stationary point
The graph increases
The graph lies below the horizontal axis
There is a stationary point
There is an 𝑥-intercept
There is an 𝑥-intercept

C1.4 Calculating with derivatives

Considerations and teaching strategies

 While proofs of the following theorems will not be examined, a satisfactory derivation is
educationally desirable: If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are differentiable functions of 𝑥, then
(a) if 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑢, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑘𝑢′ where 𝑘 is a constant
(b) if 𝑦 = 𝑢 ± 𝑣, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑢′ ± 𝑣′
(c) if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑢)𝑢′ (for any differentiable function 𝑓)
(d) if 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑢𝑣 ′ + 𝑢′𝑣
𝑢 𝑣𝑢′ −𝑢𝑣 ′
(e) if 𝑦 = 𝑣 , 𝑦 ′ = 𝑣2
, (𝑣 ≠ 0).

Suggested applications and exemplar questions

𝑑 𝑛
 Use the result 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 to find the derivative of each of the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7

Mathematics Advanced Year 11 Topic guide: Calculus, updated December 2018 Page 10 of 11
 (b) 𝑓(𝑡) = √𝑡
1
(c) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
 Differentiate:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 2
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 1
𝑥+1
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
1
(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+2

(e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 3)10

 The line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 is a tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1 at the point (−2, −1). Find
the values of 𝑚 and 𝑐.
 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 at the points where the curve
cuts the 𝑥-axis. Where do the tangent lines meet?
 The displacement 𝑥 metres from the origin at time 𝑡 seconds of a particle travelling in a
straight line is given by 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 − 9𝑡, where 𝑡 ≥ 0.
(a) Find the velocity at time 𝑡 seconds.
(b) Calculate the velocity when 𝑡 = 2.
(c) Find the time when the particle is stationary.

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