Praktikum Fisika Dasar 3

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FRANK HERTZ EXPERIMENT

A. Aim
To experimentally demonstrate the concept of quantization of energy levels according to Bohr’s
model of atom.

B. Apparatus
A mercury-filled Franck-Hertz tube, a neon-filled Franck-Hertz tube, an oven, a control unit for
power supply, and a DC current amplifier.
Sketch of Franck-Hertz Apparatus

C. Theory
James Franck and Gustav Hertz conducted an experiment in 1914, which demonstrated the
existence of excited states in mercury atoms. It confirms the prediction of quantum theory that
electrons occupy only discrete, quantized energy states. This experiment supports Bohr model
of atom. For this great invention they have been awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in the year
1925.
Apparatus used for the experiment consist of a tube containing low pressure gas, fitted with
three electrodes: cathode for electron emission, a mesh grid for the acceleration of electrons
and a collecting plate.
With the help of thermionic emission, electrons are emitted by a heated cathode, and then
accelerated toward a grid which is at a positive potential, relative to the cathode. The collecting
plate is at a lower potential and is negative with respect to mesh grid. If electrons have
sufficient energy on reaching the grid, some will pass through the grid, and reach collecting

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plate, and it will be measured as current by the ammeter. Electrons which do not have
sufficient energy on reaching the grid will be slowed down, and will fall back to the grid.The
experimental results confirm the existence of discrete energy levels.
As long as the electron collision is elastic, the electrons will not lose energy on colliding with gas
molecules in tube. As the accelerating potential increases, the current also increases. But as the
accelerating potential reaches a particular value, (4.9eV for mercury, 19eV for neon), each
electron posses that much of potential and now the collision become inelastic. As a result, the
energy level of electron bound to the atom is raised. Now the electron almost loses its energy,
and measured current drops.

Franck-Hertz Data for Mercury

When the accelerating voltage reaches 4.9eV (lowest energy required by the mercury atom for
excitation), the current drops sharply. This drop is due to inelastic collisions between the
accelerated electrons and electrons in the mercury atoms. The sudden onset suggests that the
mercury electrons cannot accept energy until it reaches the threshold to elevate them to an
excited state. Collected current drops at multiples of 4.9eV. At 9.8 V, each electron gets
sufficient energy to participate in two inelastic collisions. They excite two mercury atoms, and
no energy will be left. This process will repeat, for each interval of 4.9eV.

Franck-Hertz Data for Neon

For Neon gas, the process of energy absorption from electron collisions is clearly visible. When
the accelerated electrons excite the electrons in neon to upper states, they de-excite in such a

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way as to produce a visible glow in the gas region in which the excitation is taking place. There
are about ten excited levels in the range 18.3 to 19.5 eV. They de-excite by dropping to lower
states at 16.57 and 16.79 eV. This energy difference gives light in the visible range. If the
accelerating voltage is high enough, they can undergo a series of reactions, by the inelastic
collision between electrons and neon gas. Almost similar pattern is observed in the case of
neon gas at intervals of approximately 19 eV.

D. Procedure
Performing the Simulation:
The simulation helps the user to understand the Franck Hertz Experiment concept.
1. Click Display button to set U1 (the grid voltage) then click start button to start the
experiment and to show the cross sectional view of the Franck Hertz Apparatus and the
Glass tube.
2. Based on Grid voltage electrons reach the anode plate and inelastic collision with the
atoms increases.
3. Click Stop button then change the filament voltage and grid voltage to see the electron
emission and collision at each voltage.
4. Set the operating mode to PC by clicking Function button to see the graph. Observe the
excitation states of atoms. Select the type of gas to see the excitation states of different
gases.

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Variable Region:
1. Filament Voltage Slider : Helps to change the voltage applied to the filament.
2. Grid Voltage Slider: Helps to change the voltage applied to the grid.
3. Gas Type Combo Box: Helps to choose the type of gas.

E. Assignment

1. Explain what do you learned about the quantization of radiation from the Franck-Hertz
experiment?
2. By working the simulation, find out the different quantized energy levels of Mercury and
Neon. Also account for the peaks in the Voltage-Current characteristics?
3. What happens when the accelerating potential reaches 4.9eV for mercury, 18.3eV for
neon and why?
4. What is the difference between elastic and inelastic collision?
5. Why electrons are used to excite atoms?
6. What happens when electron collides with a nucleus?

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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

A. Aim
1. To understand the phenomenon Photoelectric effect as a whole.
2. To draw kinetic energy of photoelectrons as a function of frequency of incident radiation.
3. To determine the Planck's constant from kinetic energy versus frequency graph.
4. To plot a graph connecting photocurrent and applied potential.
5. To determine the stopping potential from the photocurrent versus applied potential graph.

B. Theory
During his experiments on electromagnetic radiation (to demonstrate light consists of e-m
waves), Hertz noticed a spark between the two metallic balls when a high frequency radiation
incident on it. This is called photoelectric effect. Photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons
when electromagnetic radiations having sufficient frequency incident on certain metal surfaces.
We call the emitted electrons as photoelectrons and the current they constitute as
photocurrent. The phenomenon was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1880 and explained by
Albert Einstein in 1905 using Max Planck's quantum theory of light. As the first experiment
which demonstrated the quantum theory of energy levels, photoelectric effect experiment is of
great historical importance.

The important observations on Photoelectric effect which demand quantum theory for its
explanation are:
1. The Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous phenomenon. There is no time delay between
the incidence of light and emission of photoelectrons.
2. The number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
Also, the energy of emitted photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of incident light.
3. The energy of emitted photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident
light.

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The basic experimental set up which explains Photoelectric effect is as given below,

It has been observed that there must be a minimum energy needed for electrons to escape
from a particular metal surface and is called work function 'W' for that metal. The work
function can be expressed in terms of frequency as,
𝑊 = ℎ𝑣𝑜 … (1)
Where h is the Planck's constant and vo is the threshold frequency (minimum frequency for
photoelectric effect). The work function for some metals are listed in the table.
Metal Work Function (eV)
Platinum (Pt) 6.4
Silver (Ag) 4.7
Sodium (Na) 2.3
Pottasium (K) 2.1
Cesium (Cs) 1.9

according to Einstein the Photoelectric effect should obey the equation,

ℎ𝑣 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑊 ... (2)

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From the above expression,

𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣𝑜
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 ) … (3)
Which says the graph connecting the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons 'KEmax' and
frequency of incident radiation 'v 'will be a straight line with slope and Y-intercept
hvo= workfunction..

Graph connecting 'KEmax' and frequency:

Now, if we increase the reverse potential, the photocurrent gradually decreases and becomes
zero at a particular reverse potential. This minimum applied reverse potential is called stopping
potential V0. Hence the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons can be written as,
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑣𝑜 … (4)

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Graph connecting photocurrent and applied reverse potential :

For constant intensity and different frequencies

For constant frequency and different intensities

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C. Procedure
For performing the simulation:

1. Select the material for studying photoelectric effect.

2. Select area of the material,wave-length,intensity of incident light.
3. Switch on the light source.
4. Measure the reverse current for various reverse voltages.
5. Plot the current-voltage graph and determine the threshold voltage.
6. Repeat the experiment by varying the intensity for a particular wavelength of incident
light.
7. Repeat the experiment by varying the wavelength for a particular intensity of the
incident light .

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D. Assignment
1. Determine the minimum frequency required to have Photoelectric effect for an EM
radiation, when incident on a zinc metal surface.
2. Determine the target material if the threshold frequency of EM radiaion is 5.5x1015 Hz in
a particular photoelectric experimental set up.
3. Determine the maximum kinetic energy of photo-electrons emitted from a Zinc metal
surface, if the incident frequency is 3x1015Hz.
4. What sould be the stopping potential for photoelectrons if the target material used is
Platinum and incident frequency is 2x1015Hz?
5. What should be the minimum applied potential for complete stoppage of photocurrent
in an experimental if the target material is copper and the incident frequency is
2.7x1015 Hz.

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MILIKAN DROP OIL EXPERIMENT

A. Aim
1. To experimentally demonstrate the concept of Millikan’s oil drop experiment.
2. To find the terminal velocity of the drop.
3. To find the charge on a drop.

B. Theory
Oil drop experiment was performed originally by the American physicist Robert A. Millikan in
1909. It measures the size of charge on a single electron.

Apparatus consist of an atomizer, which helps to spray tiny droplets. By means of a short focal
distance telescope, the droplets can be viewed. There are two plates, one positive and the
other negative above and below the bottom chamber.dc supply is attached to the plates. Some
of the oil drops fall through the hole in the upper plate.
Using X-rays the bottom chamber is illuminated causing the air to ionize. As the droplets
traverses through the air, electrons accumulate over the droplets and negative charge is
acquired. With the help of dc supply a voltage is applied. Speed of its motion can be controlled

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by altering the voltage applied on the plates. By adjusting the voltage applied, drop can be
suspended in air. Millikan observed one drop after another, varying the voltage and noting the
effect. After many repetitions he concluded that charge could assume only certain fixed values.
He repeated the experiment for many droplets and confirmed that the charges were all
multiples of some fundamental value and calculated it to be 1.5924(17) ×10 −19 C, within one
percent of the currently accepted value of 1.602176487(40) ×10−19 C. He proposed that this was
the charge of a single electron.
Initially the oil drops are allowed to fall between the plates in the absence of electric field. Due
to gravity they accelerate first, but gradually slowdown because of air resistance.
The terminal velocity v1 in the absence of an electric field is calculated as,
𝑙1
𝑣1 =
𝑡1
where 'l1' is the distance travelled by the oil drop and ’t 1’ is the time taken. The drag force
acting upon the drop is calculated from stokes’s law and is given as,
𝐹𝑣 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣1
The apparent weight (true weight minus up thrust) for a perfectly spherical body is given by,
4
𝐹𝐺 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
3
At terminal velocity the oil drop is not accelerating, so the total force acting on it must be zero
𝐹𝑣 − 𝐹𝐺 = 0
𝐹𝑣 = 𝐹𝐺
9𝜂𝑣1
𝑟2 =
2𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
r = radius
η = viscosity of air
V1 = terminal velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
ρ = density of liquid
ρair = density of air

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Now a field is produced in the bottom chamber with the supply voltage. A likely looking drop is
selected and kept in the middle of the field of view by adjusting the voltage.
If the electric forces Fe, balances the gravitational force FG, the drop suspends in the air.
Then,
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝐺
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑞𝑉
= 𝑚𝑔
𝑑
where V is the balancing potential and d is the distance between the plates. If the
applied electric force Fe is greater than the downward forces, some of the drops
(the charged ones) will start to rise. Now the electric force will act upwards,gravity
and viscous forces acts downwards.
Corresponding terminal velocity v2 is calculated as,
𝑙2
𝑉2 =
𝑡2
where l2 is the distance travelled by the oil drop and t 2 the time taken. Now the total force
acting on drop is Fe-F’v-FG=0.
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑣 + 𝐹𝐺
F'V is the new viscous force under the action of electric field.
𝑞𝐸 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑉2 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑉1
𝑞𝑉
= 6𝜋𝜂𝑟(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
𝑑
𝑑
𝑞 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟 2 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
𝑉
Millikan repeated the experiment no. of times, each time varying the strength
of X-rays ionizing the air. As a result no. of electrons attaching to the oil drop
varied. Then he obtained various values for q, and is found to be a multiple of
1.6 x 10-19C.

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C. Procedure

1. Click on ‘START’ button.

2. Click on Combo box to choose the oil.
3. Double click ‘START’ button of stop watch and notice the time taken t1 by a drop, to
travel distance l1 between any two points .
4. Click ‘Voltage On’ to suspend the same oil drop in air, which is the balancing voltage V.
5. Click the ‘X Ray ON’ button and notice the time taken t 2 by same drop to travel
distance l2 between any two points.
6. Charge of drop is calculated using the equation,
𝑑
𝑞 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟 2 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
𝑉
7. Repeat the experiment for another oil.

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D. Table of Observation
Terminal
Distance Time Distance Time Balancing Charge
velocity
No travelled taken travelled taken potensial of the
v1 v2
l1 (cm) t1 (s) l2 (cm) t2 (s) V drop q
(m/s) (m/s)

B. Assignment
1. An oil drop of 12 excess electrons is held stationary under a constant electric field of
2.55 x 104V/m in Millikan’s oil drop experiment. The density of the oil drop is 1.26 cgs
units. Estimate the radius of the oil drop.
2. Use the simulation and find out the charge on any five drops. By comparing the charges
on the drops, find out the charge on an electron?
3. Why bubbles are rising up through water or any other liquid?
4. Why tiny drops becomes clouds where as bigger drops fall as rain?
5. Calculate the terminal velocity of an olive oil drop and then its radius.

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PLANK’S CONSTANT

A. Aim
Determination of Planck’s constant.

B. Apparatus
0-10 V power supply, a one way key, a rheostat, a digital milliammeter, a digital voltmeter, a 1
K resistor and different known wavelength LED’s (Light-Emitting Diodes).

C. Theory
Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist named Max
Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck’s constant is that ‘quanta’ (small packets of energy)
can be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It describes the behavior
of particle and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of light.
An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential
barrier is developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an
external voltage in the forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across the p-n
junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of potential barrier becomes very low
and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in the forward biased condition electrons crossing the junction
are excited, and when they return to their normal state, energy is emitted. This particular
voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee voltage is reached,
the current may increase but the voltage does not change. The light energy emitted during
forward biasing is given as ,
ℎ𝑐 (1)
𝐸=
𝜆
c = velocity of light
h = Planck’s constant
λ = wavelength of light

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If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee
voltage), the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉 (2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get

ℎ𝑐 (3)
𝑒𝑉 =
𝜆
The knee voltage V can be measured for LED’s with different values of λ (wavelength of
light).
ℎ𝑐 1 (4)
𝑉= ( )
𝑒 𝜆
Now from equation (4), we see that the slope s of a
graph of V on the vertical axis vs. 1/λ on the horizontal
axis is
ℎ𝑐 (5)
𝑠=
𝑒
To determine Planck’s constant h, we take the slope s
from our graph and calculate
𝑒
ℎ= 𝑠
𝑐
using the known value
𝑒 𝐶𝑠
= 5.33 x 10−28
𝑐 𝑚
Alternatively, we can write equation (3) as
𝑒
ℎ= 𝜆𝑉
𝑐
calculate h for each LED, and take the average of our results.

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D. Procedure
Place the mouse pointer over the components and click to drag wire.

1. After the connections are completed, click on ‘Insert Key’ button.

2. Click on the combo box under ‘Select LED’ button.
3. Click on the ‘Rheostat Value’ to adjust the value of rheostat.
4. Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter,which is the knee
voltage.
5. Repeat, by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.
6. Calculate ‘h’ using equation
𝑒
ℎ= 𝜆𝑉
𝑐
7. The wave length of infrared LED is calculated by using equation
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝑒𝑉

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E. Table of Observations
Wavelength λ Knee voltage
Colour of LED λxV h = eλV / c
(nm) (V) volt

F. Assignment

1. What is the value of knee voltage for a Yellow LED light?

2. Calculate the value of Planck’s constant for blue LED, for its knee voltage.
3. Calculate the wavelength of IR LED by comparing with Red LED at their corresponding
knee voltage.
4. Calculate the value of IR LED by comparing with Green LED at their corresponding knee
voltage.
5. Calculate the wavelength of IR LED by drawing a graph between voltage and
wavelength.
6. What happens when an LED is directly connected to a power supply? Which is the most
suitable value of resistor if a power supply of 0-12 V is used?
7. Which LED has the largest energy gap?

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