Well Known Experiments

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
SEMESTER III
CONTENTS
Group-A
Exp Name of experiment Page Date Signature
No No.
1. Y by Koening’s Method 3
2. Wavelength of prominent spectral lines by diffraction grating 7
3. Flatness of plate by Newtons Ring 10
4. Resolving power of telescope 13
5. Absorption coefficient of glass 16
6. Study of electron diffraction pattern 18
7. Solar Cell 21
8. Study of Numerical interpolation 27
Group-B
No No.
1. Figure of merit of mirror galvanometer 33
2. C1/C2 by Desauty’s Method 35
3. Zener diode as a Voltage regulator 37
4. h – parameters of CE transistor 40
5. Fixed bias and potential bias 44
6. L by Maxwell’s bridge 46
7. Resonance Pendulum 48
8. Theoretical study of Fourier series 52
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
SEMESTER IV
CONTENTS
Group-A
No No.
1. Searl’s goniometer 56
2. Double refraction in calcite prism 60
3. Resolving power of grating 61
4. Diffraction by single slit 62
5. Numerical Study of Oscillatory motion 63
6. Identification of elements in line spectra 71
7. e/m by Thomson’s Method 72
8. Analysis of elliptical polarized light 74
Group-B
No No.
1. FET characteristics 77
2. ‘C’ by ballistic galvanometer 81
3. UJT Characteristics 83
4. High Resistance by leakage method 85
5. To measure Permeability of free space 87
6. L by Andersons’s bridge 89
7. Study of Phonon Dispersion 91
8. Shunt Regulator 94
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
1. ‘Y’ BY KOENING’S METHOD

AIM: Measure the Young modulus of the given metal beam by Koenig’s method.
INTRODUCTION: There are various methods for finding Young’s modulus e.g.
Flexure/bending method, Searle’s method, Koening’s method etc. These all methods are more or
less able to calculate the four elastic constant: (i) Bulk modulus (β), (ii) Young modulus (Y), (iii)
Rigidity modulus (η) and (iv)Poisson’s ratio (σ).
All bodies are deformed when they acted upon by a force. The magnitude of the deformation by a
applied force enables a value of the elastic constants of materials. The force acting on each limit
area normal to body/surface is commonly called as stress and the deformation takes place referred
as strain. In the stresses are within Hook’s limiting values (which is depends on the types of the
materials) the strain disappeared when the stresses are removed. This limit is usually described as
elastic limit and such strain as permanent as the stresses are still further increased, the result is
fractured of the material. But Hook established that within the elastic limit strain is proportional
to stresses applied.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Under such condition one can have, 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = Constant, this (elastic) constant has definite values
which depend on the type of the material.
The elastic constants are:
𝑝
1) Bulk modulus (β) = where, v is the volume at present p and δv is fractional
𝛿𝑉/ 𝑉
change in it
𝐹 /𝐴
2) Young modulus (Y) = where δl/l is strain.
δl/l
𝐹𝑡 /𝐴
3) Modulus of rigidity (η) = where Ft is tangential force and 𝜑 is shear strain.
𝜑
In addition to these elastic constant one can add one more, when a sample like wire is stretched
there is a lateral contraction occurred. The fractional lateral contraction is produced is proportional
to the longitudinal stress applied.
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿 𝑟/𝑟
4) Poisson’s ratio (µ) = =
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛿𝑙/𝑙
9𝜂𝛽 (3𝛽−2 𝜂)
One can have correlation between these four elastic constants as: Y = 3 𝛽+ 𝜂 and µ = 2(3 𝛽+ 𝜂)
In the present method depression of the beam due to a load is suspended from the beam is observed
and measured with the help of two reflecting mirrors M and M. This method is bit sensitive
compare to the others with Venier scale. Because, even a small applied load is sufficient to change
the inclination angle between the mirrors to scale.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE:
1. The beam (AB) is placed horizontally on knife edges (K1 & K2). The hanger (H) kept in
centre of the beam, where the pan (P) can be suspended.
2. The mirrors (M1 & M2) are properly set, to the illuminated scale (S) reading are visible
through the properly focused telescope of the successive reflection from M2 and M1.
3. The reading without load (not even hangar) will be noted down and referred as ‘X0’.
4. Gradually increases the weight in step of 100 gm and note down all reading. Thereafter,
load will be gradually decrease in step of 100 gm, also note the respective observations.
(Actually, when the beam is loaded the mirror will be turned to each other (inwards) as a
result of depression produced in the beam)
5. One can repeat the experiment by changing the knife distance (L).
6. The accurate depression (x) is measured by subtracting the X0 from the mean of the mean
reading which deduced from the loading and unloading of the mass.
7. Draw a curve of depression (x) versus applied mass (m) and find the slope for calculation.
OBSERVATION:
1. Distances between mirrors M1 and M2 (α) = ________ cm

2. Distances between scale (S) and more remote M1 mirror (D) = ________ cm
3. Distances between two knife edges K1 & K2 (L) = __________ cm
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4. Breath of the beam (b) = __________ cm

5. Thickness of the beam (d) = __________ cm
6. Hanger weight is 98g.
7. Man of the pan 50g.
Position of the beam in absence of hanger & pan: X0 ____ cm

Obs Mass in the pan + Telescope Reading Mean X’ = Depression
No. mass of the pan Loading Unloading (𝐗𝟏+ 𝐗𝟐) X = X’ – X0
‘m’ g 𝟐 (cm)
X1 (cm) X2 (cm)
(cm)
1 98 + 0 = 98
2 98 +50 = 148
3 248
4 348
5 448
6 548
GRAPH:
mass
'm'
Slope =
m/x
Depression 'x'
CALCULATION:
3 𝑔 𝐿2 (∝ +2𝐷) 𝑚 3 𝑔 𝐿2 (∝ +2𝐷)
Young modulus (Y) =
2 𝑏 𝑑3
( )=
𝑥 2 𝑏 𝑑3
. Slope
Unit of Young modulus (Y) = dyne/cm2
N.B.: The standard value of ‘Y’ for:
i) Brass (alloy) bar : 100 – 125 GPa = 1.0 – 1.25 x 10 N/m2
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
ii) Grey Iron bar : 130 GPa = 1.3 x 10 N/m2

iii) Steel (structure) bar : 200 GPa = 2 x 10 N/m2
iv) Diamond : 1000 – 1220 GPa = 10 – 12.2 x 10 N/m2
VIVA:
1. Define Elasticity.
2. What is Stress? How is it different from pressure?
3. What is Strain? Which are the different types of strain?
4. Define Young’s Modulus ‘Y’
5. Give some applications where we need to measure ‘Y’
6. Define Hook’s Law.
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2. DIFFRACTION GRATING
AIM: To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by diffraction
grating.
APPARATUS: Mercury lamp, Spectrometer, diffraction grating, a reading lens, eye-piece, prism
THEORY:
Adjustment of Spectrometer:
I) Adjustment of the prism table
The prison table is leveled with the help of three screws beneath the prism table and spirit level.
II) Schuster’s method
a) First of all prism is placed on the prism table and then adjusted for minimum deviation
position. The spectrum is now seen through the telescope.
b) The prism table is rotated slightly away from this position towards the collimator and
spectrum is viewed focusing collimator on the spectrum.
c) Again rotate the prism table on the other side of minimum deviation position i.e. towards
the telescope and focus telescope for best image of the spectrum.
d) The process of focusing the collimator and telescope is continued till the slight rotation of
prism table does not make the image to go out of focus. This means that both the collimator
and the telescope are now individually set for parallel rays.
III) Grating should be normal to the axis of collimator:
1. Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the image of the grating is focused on
the vertical cross-wire.
2. The telescope is then rotated through 90° from this position.
3. The prism table is now rotated till the image of the slit, formed by reflection from the
grating is thrown on the cross-wire.
4. The turn table is then rotated through 45° or 135° from this position. The plane of the
grating thus becomes normal to the collimator axis.
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PROCEDURE:
1) The telescope is rotated on one side (say left) of the direct image till red line of the first
order spectrum comes on the cross wire. The spectrometer reading is recorded. Similarly,
the spectrometer readings are recorded for other spectral lines (say yellow and violet).
2) Now rotate the telescope on the other side of the direct image and repeat the same procedure
as above.
3) Find out the difference in spectrometer readings for each spectral line and calculate angle
of diffraction.
OBSERVATION:
(1) Observation for adjustment of the grating:

Least Count of the spectrometer = _______________ = ________ degrees
(2) Observations for the grating element:
Number of lines per inch on the grating = 15000 lines/inch
Grating element
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(3) Observations for angle of diffraction
Order Angle
Color of
of Reading for the (degrees) Ɵ sinθ 𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐧Ɵ
Spectrum λ= Å
Spectrum Spectrum (𝐚−𝐛) (deg.) 𝒏
= 𝟐
η
LHS RHS
A (deg.) B(deg.)
Yellow-1
Yellow -2
I
Green
Violet
CALCULATION: The wavelength of any spectral line can be obtained from the formula.
2.54
where, e = Grating element = 15,000 cm
θ = Angle of diffraction
n = Order of principal maxima
RESULT:
Wavelength of Yellow-1 = _______Å
Wavelength of Yellow-1 = _______Å
Wavelength of Green Line = ________Å
Wavelength of Violet Line = _________Å
VIVA:
1. Define diffraction of light.
2. What is a diffraction grating?
3. What is grating element?
4. What is the difference between prism spectrum and grating spectrum.
5. What are the two kinds of diffraction?
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
3. FLATNESS OF PLATE BY NEWTON'S RING
AIM: To Determine Flatness of plate by Newton's Ring

APPARATUS: Newton’s rings setup consisting of a Plano convex lens and a plane glass
plate fixed in a suitable holder, a sodium vapour lamp and a travelling microscope.
THEORY: Small variations of less than one or two microns can be measured using interference
fringes produced between the curved surface and an optical flat plate illuminated by
monochromatic light. (Monochromatic light is used because the fringes then have more contrast
and are more sharply defined). Like Newton's rings, the fringes may be regarded as contours of
ecitS distance from the surface of the flat, the separation between each fringe of the same colour
represents a height difference of half a wavelength of the light used. The optical flat method has
the disadvantage that the surfaces of the flat and specimen must be in close contact leading to
scratching of both.
Sources of Error and Precaution:
(1) Glass plates and lens should be cleaned thoroughly.
(2) The lens used should be of large radius of curvature.
(3) The sources of light used should be an extended one.
(4) Before measuring the diameter of rings, the range of the microscope should be properly
adjusted.
(5) Travelling microscope should be focused on a bright ring tangentially.
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PROCEDURE:
1. Newton’s ring are produced by enclosing the air film between the glass plate and the
convex lens, due to the phenomena of interference by thin film.
2. Measure the diameter ‘d’ of alternate odd (or even) rings with the help of traveling
microscope.
3. Now place the given flat plate to be tested under the convex lens and once again
measure the diameter ‘D’ of the same odd (or even) numbered rings.
4. Plot the graph of ‘d’ and ‘D’ vs. no. of rings (n).
5. Calculate dn2 - dm2 and Dn2 – Dm2 from the graph.
6. Calculate R by using the values from the graph.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Ring Microscope readings
no. Plane Glass Plate Flat Plate to be tested
N RHS LHS Diameter d 2 RHS LHS Diameter D2
(cm) (cm) d (cm) (cm ) 2 (cm) (cm) D (cm) (cm2)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1 1 1
= 4 λ (n - m) [ 2 − 𝑑2 - ]
𝑅 𝑑𝑛 𝑚 𝐷𝑛2 − 𝐷𝑚
2
1
. = 4λ[slope1-slope2]
R
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GRAPH:
Plane Glass plate
Flat plate to be tested
VIVA:
1. What is Interference?
2. What are the conditions for obtaining interference of light?
3. What are the different types of interference?
4. Why does the Na lamp give out red light in the beginning?
5. On what factors does the diameter of ring depend?
6. Why is centre of Newton’s rings dark?
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
4. RESOLVING POWER OF TELESCOPE
AIM: To measure the resolving power of telescope.
INTRODUCTION: Resolving power is defined as the ability of a microscope or telescope to

distinguish two close together images as being separate. An example of resolving power is how
well a telescope can show two stars as being separate stars.
The term resolution or minimum resolvable distance is the minimum distance between
distinguishable objects in an image, although the term is loosely used by many users of
microscopes and telescopes to describe resolving power. In scientific analysis, in general, the term
"resolution" is used to describe the precision with which any instrument measures and records (in
an image or spectrum) any variable in the specimen or sample under study.
PROCEDURE: Measure the gauss element‘d’ of the mesh. It is defused as the average distance
between two consecutive wires of the mesh. It can be found out as follows.
Position Microscop
of diff. ic Distance between two wires
(𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐 + 𝒅𝟑 + 𝒅𝟒 )
wires of readings d=
𝟒
mesh xi (𝒙𝟏𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟏𝟑 − 𝒙𝟑 ) (𝒙𝟏𝟒 − 𝒙𝟒 )
(𝒙𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝟏 ) d2= d3 = d4 =
d1= 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 cm
𝟏𝟎
cm cm cm cm
1
11
12
13
14
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Here, x1 = Position of 1st wire

x2 = Position of 2nd wire
” ” ”
” ” ”
” ” ”
th
x14 = Position of 14 wire
Focus the telescope at the mesh, which should been placed close to the sodium source. Next place
the Auxiliary slit on the telescope kept at distance & from the mesh. Now go on closing the slit till
the vertical wires of the mesh disappear.
OBSERVATION:
1) Measure the width of the auxiliary slit in the above explained position = a cm
2) Measure the distance of the mesh from the telescope = D cm
3) Calculate the theoretical resolving power using the formula theoretical R P = λ/a
4) Calculate practical R P = d/D
5) Repeat the exp. For 3 different values of D.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Dist between Theoretical Practical

Width of
Mesh and Resolving Resolving Average Average
Aux. Slit
Telescope Power Power T R P P R P
‘a’ cm ‘D’cm T R P = λ/a P R P = d/D
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RESULT:
VIVA:
1. Define Resolving power of telescope.
2. On what factors does Resolving Power depend?
3. What is Rayleigh criterion of resolution?
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5. ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF GLASS PLATE
AIM: To find the absorption coefficient of glass plate.

APPARATUS: Glass plates of different thicknesses, box with bulb, Light Intensity Meter.
THEORY: Absorption coefficient is a measure of light intensity absorbed by any material. In our
experiment we shall use glass plates as the material whose absorption coefficient is to be measured.
Intensity of light is measured with the help of Light Intensity Meter without placing any glass plate
between bulb and meter. When a glass plate of some thickness is placed or kept between bulb and
meter, then the value measured by the meter is less compared to the previous case as glass plate
absorbs some portion of light incident on it. The coefficient of absorption of a material can be
obtained using Lambert’s Law.
I = I0 exp (-α x) …(1)
I₀
Hence, ln ( ) = α x
𝐼
Absorption coefficient is given by α = slope
I₀
Where slope can be obtained by plotting the graph of ln( ) vs. d (thickness)
𝐼
PROCEDURE:
1. Open the box and set the Light Intensity Meter in such a way that maximum light falls on
it. This reading is called θ₀.
2. Now introduce glass plates of different thickness (d) one by one and measure the emerging
intensity of light.
3. This reading is measured as θ₁, θ₂ …… for different thickness measured as d₁, d₂ ……..
4. Repeat the above procedure by placing different combinations of glass plates and measure
the intensity of emerging light.
I₀
5. Plot the graph of ln( ) vs. d (thickness) and find the slope.
𝐼
6. Determine absorption coefficient ‘α’= ___ cm-1
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Thickness Measured Intensity ln (I₀/ I)
No. (d) Without plate ‘I0’ With plate/s ‘I’
(lux) (lux)
1
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GRAPH:
I₀
ln( )
𝐼
x
RESULT:
VIVA:
1. Define absorption of coefficient?
2. What is unit of absorption of coefficient?
3. Define interaction of matter with materials.
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6. ELECTRON DIFFRACTION PATTERN

(Ring Pattern-FCC Crystal)
AIM : To obtain the axial length of the given crystal.

APPARATUS : Travelling microscope, crystal.
INTRODUCTION:
Electron diffraction refers to the wave nature of electrons. However, from a technical or practical
point of view, it may be regarded as a technique used to study matter by firing electrons at a sample
and observing the resulting interference pattern. This phenomenon is commonly known as wave–
particle duality, which states that a particle of matter (in this case the incident electron) can be
described as a wave. For this reason, an electron can be regarded as a wave much like sound or
water waves. This technique is similar to X-rayand neutron diffraction.
Electron diffraction is most frequently used in solid state physics and chemistry to study the crystal
structure of solids. Experiments are usually performed in a transmission electron
microscope (TEM), or a scanning electron microscope (SEM) as electron backscatter diffraction.
In these instruments, electrons are accelerated by an electrostatic potential in order to gain the
desired energy and determine their wavelength before they interact with the sample to be studied.
The periodic structure of a crystalline solid acts as a diffraction grating, scattering the electrons in
a predictable manner. Working back from the observed diffraction pattern, it may be possible to
deduce the structure of the crystal producing the diffraction pattern. However, the technique is
limited by phase problem.
Apart from the study of crystals i.e. electron crystallography, electron diffraction is also a useful
technique to study the short range order of amorphous solids, and the geometry of gaseous
molecules.
PROCEDURE:
1. First focus the microscope to obtain the ring pattern and calculate least count of the
microscope.
2. To measure the diameter of the ring and obtain axial length from the calculations given
below.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE:
No. of R e a d i n g s w h e n Diameter Inter planer 𝒅𝟐 𝒂𝟐 =N h k l
ring c r o s s - w i r e i s o n of ring spacing (Å)2 N 𝒅𝟐
D = 𝑿𝟏 ~𝑿𝟐 𝟐𝝀𝑳
D = 𝑫 A.U.
cm (Å)2
L.H.S. R.H.S.
𝑿𝟏 cm 𝑿𝟐 cm
1 ↑ → ↓ 3 1 11
2 ↑ ↓ 4 2 0 0
3 ↑ ↓ 8 2 2 0
4 ↑ ↓ 11 3 1 1
5 ↑ ↓ 12 2 22
6 ↑ ↓ 16 4 0 0
7 ↑ ↓ 19 3 3 1
8 ↑ ↓ 20 4 2 0
9 S t a r t e n d 24 4 2 2
⸫Mean 𝑎2 =………Å2
Unit cell-length of the crystal = axial length a =………Å
𝜆L= Camera constant
V=100kV = 105 V=accelerating potential
L = 60 cm =distance between photographic film and specimen
ℎ 12.236 12.236
𝜆= = = =0.0387 A
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √𝑉 √105
Ring pattern-poly crystalline material
Constancy of the product (N𝑑 2 ) indicates a proper selection of the lattice type
N=ℎ2 +𝑘 2 +𝑙 2
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RESULT:
VIVA:
1. Define Crystal structure.
2. Define Miller indices.
3. Write an application of electron diffraction pattern.
4. Define Bragg’s Law.
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7. I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL
AIM: To determine the I-V characteristics of a solar cell.

APPARATUS: Light source, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Potentiometer (100kΩ), solar cell
INTRODUCTION:
A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts sunlight into electricity. Light shining
on the solar cell produces both current and voltage to generate electric power. This process requires
firstly, a material in which the absorption of light raises an electron to a higher energy state, and
secondly, the movement of this higher energy electron from the solar cell into an external circuit.
The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit and returns to the solar cell. All
photovoltaic energy conversion uses semiconductor materials in the form of a p-n junction.
The generation of current in a solar cell, known as the “light-generated current”, involves two key
processes. The first process is the absorption of incident photons to create electron-hole pairs.
Electron-hole pairs will be generated in the solar cell provided that the incident photon has energy
greater than that of the band gap.
A second process, the collection of these carriers by the p-n junction, prevents this recombination
by using a p-n junction to spatially the electron and the hole. The carriers are separated by the
action of the electric field existing at the p-n junction. If the light-generated minority carrier
reaches the p-n junction, it is swept across the junction by the electric field at the junction, where
it is now a majority carrier. If the emitter and base of the solar cell are connected together (i.e., if
the solar cell is short-circuited), the light-generated carriers flow through the external circuit.
THEORY OF I-V CHARACTERIZATION
PV cells can be modeled as a current source in parallel with a diode. When there is no light present
to generate any current, the PV cell behaves like a diode. As the intensity of incident light
increases, current is generated by the PV cell, as illustrated in Figure 1.
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Fig.1 I-V Curve of PV Cell and Associated Electrical Diagram

In an ideal cell, the total current I is equal to the current Il generates by the photoelectric effect
minus the diode current ID, according to the equation:
𝑞𝑉
I = Il - ID = Il - Io (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 – 1)
where Io is the saturation current of the diode, q is the elementary charge 1.6 x 10-19 C, k is a
constant of value 1.38x10-23 J/K, T is the cell temperature in Kelvin, and V is the measured cell
voltage that is either produced (power quadrant) or applied (voltage bias).
The I -V curve of an illuminated PV cell has the shape shown in Figure 2 as the voltage across the
measuring load is swept from zero to Voc, and many performance parameters for the cell can be
determined from this data, as described in the sections below.
Fig. 2 Illuminated I-V Curve Fig. 3. Equivalent Circuit model for a Phtovoltaic Cell
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT (ISC):

The short circuit current Isc corresponds to the short circuit condition when the impedance is low
and is calculated when the voltage equals zero. I (at V=o) = Isc
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For an ideal cell, this maximum current value is the total current produced in the solar cell by
photon excitation.
Isc = Imax = Il for forward-bias power quadrant
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (VOC):
The open circuit voltage (Voc) occurs when there is no current passing through the cell. V (at I=o)
= Voc
Voc is also the maximum voltage difference across the cell for a forward-bias sweep in the power
quadrant.
MAXIMUM POWER (Pmax). CURRENT at Pmax (IMP), VOLTAGE at Pmax(VMP):
The power produced by the cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the I-V sweep by the
equation P = IV. At the Isc and Voc points, the power will be zero and the maximum value for
power will occur between the two. The voltage and current at this maximum power point are
denoted as VMP and IMP respectively.
Fig. 4. Maximum Power for an I-V Sweep

FILL FACTOR (FF):
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is calculated by
comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that would be output at both the open
circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be interpreted graphically as the ratio
of the rectangular areas depicted in Figure 5.
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Fig. 5. Getting Fill Factor from the I-V Sweep

A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-like. Typical
fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a percentage.
EFFICIENCY (η):
Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power input Pin
into the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be Pmax since the solar cell can be operated up to its maximum
power output to get the maximum efficiency.
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝐹 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 × 𝑉𝑂𝐶

η= = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light, measured in W/m 2 or in suns
(1000 W/m2), with the surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The maximum efficiency (ηmax) of the
solar cell depends on the ambient conditions such as temperature and the intensity and spectrum
of the incident light.
SHUNT RESISTANCE (RSH) and SERIES RESISTANCE (Rs):

During operation, the efficiency of solar cells is reduced by the dissipation of power across internal
resistances. These parasitic resistances can be modeled as a parallel shunt resistance (RSH) and
series resistance (Rs).
For an ideal cell, RSH would be infinite and would not provide an alternate path for current to flow,
while Rs would be zero, resulting in no further voltage drop before the load.
It is possible to approximate the series and shunt resistances, Rs and RSH, from the slopes of the I-
V curve at Voc and Isc respectively.
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EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:

V _
+
Solar cell
+
_ I(µA)
RL
V
PROCEDURE:
(1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure and illuminate solar cell using 60W bulb.
(2) Measure Voc by keeping RL = ∞ and measure Isc by keeping RL = o.
(3) Vary the load RL so that current increase in step of 5µA and correspondingly measure V.
(4) Plot the graph of I-V and P-V on the same graph paper.
(5) Determine the value of IMP and VMP for maximum power and calculate fill factor.
𝑉𝑀𝑃 × 𝐼𝑀𝑃
FF = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 × 𝑉𝑂𝐶
(6) Determine the series resistance of a solar cell.
𝑉𝑀𝑃
Rs = 𝐼𝑀𝑃
(7) Repeat the experiment for another intensity of light.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Intensity of light = _____lux
(i) Voc = ______volt (ii) Isc = ______µA
I(µA) V(volt) P = V × I (µW)
0
5
10
20
25
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
GRAPH :
VIVA:
1. Define solar cell and how it works?
2. What are the characteristics of solar cell?
3. What is Fill factor?
4. What is difference between shunt resistance and series resistance?
5. Plot the I-V curve and discuss.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
8. NUMERICAL METHOD BASED ON

INTERPOLATION FORMULAS
 Interpolation for equal value of the arguments:
If often happens that data are given in tabular form with value of X and y= f(X) at certain intervals
of X. Suppose the value of Y is needed for X, which is not listen in table. Usually, one simplest
procedure is to plot Y against X, draw a smooth curve from the points and read from the graph,
the required value of Y. The same result may be obtained by the use of interpolation formulas
provided that the given values of X are at equidistant, we first form a difference table as shown
below. Where the first, second, third and kth difference are given by,
Δy0 = y1-y0, Δy1 = y2-y1,….Δyn-1 = yn-yn-1

Δyn = yn+1
Δ2y0 = Δy1 - Δy0 = y2 - 2y1 + y0,…..
Δ yn = Δyn+1 - Δyn = yn+2 - 2yn+1 + yn
2
Δ3yn = Δ2yn+1 - Δ2yn = yn+3 - 3yn+2 + 3yn+1 - yn

……….
𝑟(𝑟−1)
Δryn = Δr-1yn+1 – Δr-1yn = yn+r – r yn+r-1 + yn+r-2 + …… + (-1)r yn
2!
= ∑𝑟𝑚=0(−1)𝑚 (𝑚𝑟 )yn+r-m - ------------------(1)
 DIFFERENCE TABLE:
x y Δ Δ2 Δ3 Δ4 Δ5 Δ6
x0 y0
x1 y1 Δy0
x2 y2 Δy1 Δ2y0
x3 y3 Δy2 Δ2y1 Δ3y0
x4 y4 Δy3 Δ2y2 Δ3y1 Δ4y0
x5 y5 Δy4 Δ2y3 Δ3y2 Δ4y1 Δ5y0
x6 y6 Δy5 Δ2y4 Δ3y3 Δ4y2 Δ5y1 Δ6y0
In forming such a table of differences, care must be taken to maintain the correct sign; the
subtraction must be performed in the order given in equation (1).
Now if xk and yk are given values in such a table, h is common internal of x,
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
h = x1 – x0 = x2 – x1 = x3 – x2 = xn – xn-1 and
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑘
x = xk + h.u ; u = ----------(2)
ℎ
then a value of Y for X not contained in table is given by Newton’s Interpolation Formula, (for
equally spaced data) (for beginning of table)
u(u − 1) 2 𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2) 𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2)….(𝑢−𝑟+1)
y = yk + u Δyk + Δ yk + Δ3yk + …… + Δr yk
2! 3! 𝑟!
----------(3)
Where xk is the value in difference table which is very close to the values of x. x is the value to be
interpolate which is not present in table.
A second useful form of this equation may also be obtained and called Lagrange’s formula (for xk
at the end of table)
𝑢(𝑢+1) 𝑢(𝑢+1)(𝑢+2) 𝑢 (𝑢+1)(𝑢+2)
y = yk + u Δyk-1 + Δ2yk-2 + Δ3 yk-3 + …… + …… +
2! 3! 𝑟!
(u+r-1) Δryk-r -----------(4)
It shall be noticed that equation (3) involves differences lying on diagonal line in the table, starting
from yk, while equation (4) uses differences on a horizontal line from yk. Thus equation should be
used for interpolation near the beginning of difference table and equation (4) for interpolation near
the end.
Summation should be continued until the desired number of significant figure is obtained. These
two formulas may also be used to extrapolate at both ends of the difference table but due caution
should be used in such cases unless it is known that the function is continuous beyond the tabulated
views.
An example has been solved for illustration :
 TABLE :
𝟐
X y = 𝒆−𝒙
0 1.0000
0.05 0.99750
0.10 0.99005
0.15 0.97775
0.20 0.96079
0.25 0.93941
0.30 0.91393
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
 DIFFERENCE TABLE :
x y Δ × 10-2 Δ2 × 10-2 Δ3 × 10-3 Δ4 × 10-4 Δ5 × 10-4 Δ6 ×10-4
x0=0 1.000
x1=0.05 0.99750 -0.250
x2=0.10 0.99005 -0.745 -0.495
x3=0.15 0.97775 -1.230 -0.485 0.10
x4=0.20 0.96079 -1.696 -0.466 0.19 0.9
x5=0.25 0.93941 -2.138 -0.442 0.24 0.5 0.4
x6=0.30 0.91393 -2.548 -0.410 0.32 0.8 0.3 0.7
⸫ xk = 0.05 ;
h = 0.05;
yk = 0.99750
𝑥–𝑥 0.0477 – 0.05
⸫ u= ℎ 𝑘= 0.05
⸫ u = -0.046
𝑢 (𝑢 − 1)
Now, y = yk + u Δyk + Δ2 yk
2!
𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2) 𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2)(𝑢−3)
+ Δ3yk + Δ4 yk
3! 4!
𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2)(𝑢−3) (𝑢−4) 𝑢(𝑢−1)(𝑢−2)(𝑢−3) (𝑢−4)(𝑢−5)
+ Δ5 yk + Δ6 yk
5! 6!
2
 Exercise 1. Interpolate in table (2) to find y = 𝑒 −𝑥 for x = 0.0477
Solution : Difference table for given data can be drawn as shown,
y = 0.99750 + 0.0003427 – 0.0001166813 – 0.00000311743 + 0.00000062476

– 0.00000005055
= 0.99772347643
y = 0.99772
2
 Exercise II: Interpolate in table (2) to find y = 𝑒 −𝑥 for x = 0.2862
Solution : Difference table will be same for both exercises
Here, x = 0.2862 ; xk = 0.30 ; h = 0.05 ; yk = 0.91393
𝑥 – 𝑥𝑘 0.2862 – 0.30
u= =
ℎ 0.05
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
u = - 0.276
Now, here xk is at the end so we will use Lagrange formula.
𝑢 (𝑢 – 1)
Y = yk + u Δyk-1 + Δ2 yk-2
2!
𝑢(𝑢+1)(𝑢+2) 𝑢(𝑢+1)(𝑢+2)(𝑢+3)
+ Δ yk-3 +
3
Δ4 yk-4
3! 4!
𝑢(𝑢+1)(𝑢+2)(𝑢+3) (𝑢+4) 𝑢(𝑢+1)(𝑢+2)(𝑢+3) (𝑢+4)(𝑢+5)
+ Δ5 yk-5 + Δ6 yk-6
5! 6!
= 0.91393 + 0.00703248 + 0.000409632 – 0.00001837315 + 0.00000312802

– 0.00000008736 – 0.00000001605
⸫ yk = 0.92135662621
⸫ yk = 0.92135
Exercise: Newton’s Formulae for Interpolation
Values of x (in degrees) and sin x are given in the following table.
x (in degrees) 15 20 25 30 35 40
Sin x 0.2588190 0.3420201 0.4226183 0.50 0.5735764 0.6427876
Determine the values of Sin 180 and Sin 380

 Interpolation for unequal values of the argument.
When the values of x are given for unequal intervals, eq.(3) and (4) do not apply but it is possible
to use divided differences or the interpolation formula of lagrange.
Suppose x0, x1, x2, ……, xn and y0, y1, y2, ……., yn are known, then for some other value of
x the Lagrange interpolation formula is used.
(𝑥 – 𝑥1 )(𝑥 – 𝑥2 )(𝑥 – 𝑥3 )……..(𝑥 – 𝑥𝑛 )
y = f(x) = (𝑥 . y0
0 – 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 – 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 – 𝑥3 )……..(𝑥0 – 𝑥𝑛 )
(𝑥 – 𝑥0 )(𝑥 – 𝑥2 )(𝑥 – 𝑥3 )……..(𝑥 – 𝑥𝑛 )

+ (𝑥1 – 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 – 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 – 𝑥3 )……..(𝑥1 – 𝑥𝑛 )
. y1
(𝑥 – 𝑥0 )(𝑥 – 𝑥1 )……..(𝑥 – 𝑥𝑛−1 )
+ (𝑥𝑛 – 𝑥0 )(𝑥𝑛 – 𝑥2 )……..(𝑥𝑛 – 𝑥𝑛−1 )
. yn
Exercise: The following data were obtained in the calibration of a platinum – rhodium
thermocouple. Find the temperature corresponding to a reading of 9.00 milivolts.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
tº C 630.5 960.5 1063.0

e mV 5.535 9.117 10.301
Exercise: Langrange Interpolation

Find the values of y corresponding to x=3.4 by using the following values
x= 0.5 1.2 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.7
Y= 3.1 5.0 9.1 14.4 20.3 29.6 45.0
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
GROUP B
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
1. FIGURE OF MERIT OF MIRROR GALVANOMETER
AIM: To determine the current sensitivity of a moving coil ballistic galvanometer (BG)
APPARATUS: Ballistic galvanometer, three resistance boxes, commutator and battery.
INTRODUCTION:
Current sensitivity ‘K’ is defined as the amount of current required to produce a deflection of
1 mm on a scale placed at a distance of one meter from the mirror of the galvanometer. It is
normally of the order of 10-6 Amperes/mm. K of the BG can be increased by: (1) increasing
the number of turns in the coil of the BG, (2) increasing the area of cross section of the coil of
the BG and (3) by using a strong magnet.
CIRCUIT:
R
G
PART-I: PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Resistance P<<Q<<<R
3. The value of high resistance R is kept constant throughout the experiment.
4. P and Q are varied, keeping their sum (P+Q) constant and the deflections d1 and d2 on the
scale are noted in mm.
5. Calculate the value of Ig.
6. Plot a graph of deflection d → Ig in the galvanometer. Slope of the graph denotes the
current sensitivity K of the galvanometer.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE:
E=1.5 volts is the emf of the battery, G = 100 Ω is resistance of the galvanometer, R is some
high resistance ≈ 10,000 Ω
d1 d2 (mm) d = Ig = K = Ig / d
Obs.No. P (Ω) Q (Ω) (mm) (d1+d2)/2 𝑬 ×𝑷 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 (µA/mm)
(µA)
(𝑷+𝑸)(𝑹+𝑮)
(mm)
1 1 1499
2 2 1498
3 3 1499
4 4 1496
5 5 1495
6 6 1494
7 7 1493
8 8 1492
GRAPH:
Ig
Slope
VIVA:
1. Define current sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer.
2. How can you increase the current sensitivity of B.G?
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
2. MEASUREMENT OF RATIO OF CAPACITANCES

C1/C2USING DE SAUTY’S AC BRIDGE
AIM: To measure ratio of capacitances using De Sauty’s AC Bridge.
APPARATUS: Resistors, multimeter, capacitors, AFO.
THEORY: Bridges based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge are one of the most accurate
devices for measuring impedance, capacitance and resistance. By replacing the DC source and
galvanometer used in Wheatstone’s bridge by an AC source and null detector respectively, De
Sauty’s AC bridge can be built. For a given value of R1, C2 and C1, R2 is adjusted to obtain the
balance point in the null detector without disturbing any other element of the bridge.
1
𝑅1 𝑗𝜔𝐶1 𝐶2
When the bridge is balanced, = 1 =
𝑅2 𝐶1
𝑗 𝜔𝐶2
𝐶2 𝑅1
The ratio of capacitances C2/ C1 can be determined using the balance condition =
𝐶1 𝑅2
This bridge provides the most suitable method for comparing the ratio of two capacitors if we
neglect dielectric losses in the bridge circuit. The balance condition is independent of
frequency and enables an accurate measurement of very low capacitance. The circuit of De
Sauty’s bridge is shown below.
CIRCUIT:
multimeter
AFO
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
2. Set the frequency to 1kHz on the function generator
3. Adjust C1 to 0.4 µf and R1 to 1kΩ
4. Balance the bridge by varying the Resistance R2
𝐶2 𝐶2 𝑅1
5. Determine the ratio of from the balance condition = and compare with its
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝑅2
theoretical value
𝐶
6. Repeat for two more values of R1 (2kΩ and 3kΩ) and determine the ratio of 𝐶2 in each case.
1
7. Repeat the entire set for another fixed value of C1.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
C1 = 0.1µF
C1 R1 (kΩ) R2 (kΩ) 𝐶
Practical 𝐶2 = 𝑅1
𝑅
Theoretical
𝐶2
1 2 𝐶1
SET 1 1
0.4 µf 2
3
1
0.22 µf 2
SET 2
3
RESULT:
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
3. ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

AIM: 1. To study Zener diode as voltage regulator
2. To calculate % line regulation
3. To calculate % load regulation
APPARATUS: Zener diode, Resistors, Power supply, Multimeter
INTRODUCTION:
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It is
acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break down
voltage, at which the diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes the
diode damages at the break down voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the
reverse breakdown region.
The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, its
depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there
will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place.
Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.
So a Zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode,
after the break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it
remains constant. This principle is used in voltage regulator using Zener diodes
The figure shows the zener voltage regulator, it consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected
in series with the input voltage Vs and zener diode is connected in parallel with the load R L in
reverse biased condition. The output voltage is always selected with a breakdown voltage Vz of
the diode.
The input source current, IS = IZ + IL………….. (1)
The drop across the series resistance, Rs = Vin – Vz …….. (2)
And current flowing through it, Is = (Vin – VZ) / RS ………….. (3)
From equation (1) and (2), we get, (Vin - Vz )/Rs = Iz +IL ………… (4)
Regulation with a varying input voltage (line regulation): It is defined as the change in
regulated voltage with respect to variation in line voltage. It is denoted by ‘LR’.
In this, input voltage varies but load resistance remains constant hence, the load current remains
constant. As the input voltage increases, form equation (3) Is also varies accordingly. Therefore,
zener current Iz will increase. The extra voltage is dropped across the Rs. Since, increased Iz will
still have a constant Vz and Vz is equal to Vout.
The output voltage will remain constant. If there is decrease in Vin, Iz decreases as load current
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
remains constant and voltage drop across Rs is reduced. But even though Iz may change, Vz
remains constant hence, output voltage remains constant.
Regulation with the varying load (load regulation): It is defined as change in load voltage with
respect to variations in load current. To calculate this regulation, input voltage is constant and
output voltage varies due to change in the load resistance value.
Consider output voltage is increased due to increasing in the load current. The left side of the
equation (4) is constant as input voltage Vin, IS and Rs is constant. Then as load current changes,
the zener current Iz will also change but in opposite way such that the sum of Iz and IL will remain
constant. Thus, the load current increases, the zener current decreases and sum remain constant.
Form reverse bias characteristics even Iz changes, Vz remains same hence, and output voltage
remains fairly constant.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig. 1 (a) Line Regulation (b) Load Regulation
PROCEDURE:-
A) Line Regulation:
1. Make the connections as shown in figure below.

2. Keep load resistance fixed value; vary DC input voltage from 5V to 15V.
3. Note down output voltage as a load voltage with high line voltage ‘VHL’ and as a
load voltage with low line voltage ‘VLL’.
𝑉 −𝑉𝐿𝐿
4. Using formula, % Line Regulation = 𝐻𝐿 × 100% where VNOM = the nominal load
𝑉 𝑁𝑂𝑀
voltage under the typical operating conditions. For ex. VNOM = 9.5 ± 4.5 V
B) Load Regulation:
1. For finding load regulation, make connections as shown in figure below.
2. Keep input voltage constant say 10V, vary load resistance value.
3. Note down no load voltage ‘VNL’ for maximum load resistance value and full load voltage
‘VFL’ for minimum load resistance value.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
4. Calculate load regulation using, % load regulation = 𝑉𝐹𝐿
× 100%
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Line Regulation RL= Load Regulation Vin=

Vin (V) Iz (mA) IL(mA) VL(V)
CALCULATION :
𝑉𝐻𝐿 −𝑉𝐿𝐿
% Line Regulation = × 100%
𝑉𝑁𝑂𝑀
𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
% voltage regulation = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
VIVA:
1. Define Zener diode.
2. Define Voltage Regulation.
3. Define line regulation.
4. Define load regulation.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
4.HYBRID PARAMETER OF TRANSISTOR

USING CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
AIM: To study H-parameter of transistor using characteristic curve.

APPARATUS: - Current meter and Voltmeter.
THEORY: Any four terminal device can be represented by an equivalent circuit for small signal
provided, there is a common connection between input and output and the black box contains
only linear elements (resistor and capacitor).
Linear
comlex
circuit
Input current (𝐼1 ) = Base current (𝐼𝐵 ) µA
Output current (𝐼2 ) = collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) mA
Input voltage (𝑉1 ) = Base – Emitter Voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) volts
Output voltage (𝑉2) = collector – Emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) volts
Since 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 are variable from the orignal amplifier circuit. The transistor has been
replaced by four H-parameter. Here, ℎ11 ℎ12 ℎ21 ℎ22 are constant for a given transistor but are
different in value for CE, CB, CC Circuit in which the transistor is used.
1. Input impedance of transistor Ω
𝜕𝑉𝐵𝐸
ℎ11 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 = ( ) when 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = Constant
𝜕𝐼𝐵
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
2. Reverse voltage amplification

𝜕𝑉𝐵𝐸
ℎ12 = ℎ𝑟𝑒 = ( ) when 𝐼𝐵 = Constant
𝜕𝑉𝐶𝐸
3. Forward current gain
𝜕𝐼𝐶
ℎ21 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 = ( ) when 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = Constant
𝜕𝐼𝐵
4. Output admittance of transistor Ω-1 or ℧
𝜕𝐼𝐶
ℎ22 = ℎ𝑜𝑒 = ( ) when 𝐼𝐵 = Constant
𝜕𝑉𝐶𝐸
In part :-1 The collector – emitter voltage is kept constant and by changing the base emitter
voltage the corresponding value of base current is found out
In part :-2 The collector – emitter voltage is changed by keeping base current constant and
corresponding to it the value of collector current is found out.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE: Part 1

Sr. No. Vce = 0V Vce = 5V
Base Emitter Current Ib (µA) Base Emitter Current Ib (µA)
Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
OBSERVATION TABLE: Part 2

Sr. No. Collector Voltage Collector Current (Ic) µA
Vce (V) Ib = 60 µA Ib = 100µA
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
CALCULATIONS:
𝜕𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝜕𝐼𝐶
ℎ11 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 = ( ) Vce = const. ℎ22 = ℎ𝑜𝑒 = ( ) Ib = const.
𝜕𝐼𝐵 𝜕𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝜕𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝜕𝐼𝐶
ℎ12 = ℎ𝑟𝑒 = ( ) Ib=const. ℎ21 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 = ( ) Vce=const.
𝜕𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝜕𝐼𝐵
GRAPH:
Ib = (µA)
Vce = 0
Vce=5V
Vbe (V)
Ic
ib = 150µA
ib = 100µA
ib =50µA
Vce(V)
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
5. FIXED BIAS AND POTENTIAL DIVIDER BIAS
AIM: To study fixed bias and potential divider bias circuit in NPN (SL 100) transistor at different
temperature.
APPARATUS: Heater, 300 c thermometer, 0-25 mA current meter, 0-10 Voltmeter, SL 100
transistor, + 12V Power supply
CIRCUIT: Fixed Bias and Potential divider Bias
VCC = + 12V
RL
1kΩ
R1 +
10kΩ
IL
-
C
B
SL100
Potential E +
div ider
Bias Potential
VCE
Fixed Div ider -
R2
Bias Bias
4.7kΩ
470Ω
RE
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. when the switch is connected to A, the circuit will work
as a fixed bias and when it is connected to B, it will work as a potential divider bias circuit.
2) Measure the collector current Ic and collector to emitter voltage Vce at room temperature
for fixed bias and potential divider bias circuit.
3) Increase the temperature of transistor from 40° to 60° in steps of 5° and note the
corresponding value of Ic and Vce for both circuits.
4) Draw graph of Ic → tempature for both circuits on the same graph paper.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Temperature Fixed Bias Potential Divider base
bias
Ic (mA) Ic (mA)
GRAPH:
Ic (mA)
F.B
P.D
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
6. MAXWELL’S BRIDGE
AIM: To determine unknown inductance as terms of known capacitance.

APPARATUS: Capacitors, resistors, inductor, AFO, H.P or null detector
INTRODUCTION:
This bridge is used to find out the self inductor and the quality factor of the circuit. As it is based
on the bridge method (i.e. works on the principle of null deflection method), it gives very accurate
results. Maxwell bridge is an AC bridge.
AC Bridges consist of a source, balance detector and four arms. In AC bridges, all the four arms
consists of impedance. The AC bridges are formed by replacing the DC battery with an AC source
and galvanometer by detector of Wheatstone bridge.
They are highly useful to find out inductance, capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor etc.
For balance,
𝒁𝒙 𝒁
= 𝒁𝟏
𝒁𝟒 𝟐
1
Where Z2 = 1
𝑅2
+𝑗𝜔𝐶
Z1 = R1
Z4 = R4
Zx = R3 + jωLr
𝑍𝑟 𝑍1
⸫ Zx = R3 + jωLr =
𝑍2
1
⸫ R3 + jωLr = R4 R1 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )
2
R3 = R4 R1 / R2 & Lr = R4 R1 C
46
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
CIRCUIT:
H.P Or
Null
Detector
AFO
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Obs. R1 Ω R2 Ω R3 Ω R4 Ω CµF L= R1 R4C
No.
1 300 Ω 300 Ω 300 Ω
2 400 Ω 400 Ω 400 Ω
3 500 Ω 500 Ω 500 Ω
4 600 Ω 600 Ω 600 Ω
5 700 Ω 700 Ω 700 Ω
RESULT:
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
7. RESONANCE PENDULUM
AIM: Study of resonance pendulum and to determine damping factor of simple pendulum.
Part I: To estimate length of simple pendulum for resonance
Part II: To draw resonance curve and to find actual resonance length of simple pendulum.
Part III: To find damping co-efficient ‘R’.
L
Ɵ
O l 50
A’
When bar pendulum is made to oscillate, simple pendulum starts oscillating with the same
frequency as that of bar pendulum. The oscillations of simple pendulum are called force
oscillations. The natural frequency of the oscillations for simple pendulum is given by,
1 𝑔
η = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙
The amplitude of forced oscillation depends upon the difference between square of natural
frequency and square of the frequency of external periodic force.
The displacement of simple pendulum is measured on scale by focusing the string with the cross-
wire by the telescope.
The amplitude of simple pendulum is given by,
1 𝑅 2 𝑃2 1 (𝜔2 – 𝑝2 )2
2
= ( )+
𝐴 𝜔4 𝑎2 𝑚 2 𝜔4 𝑎 2
where R = R/M
‘a’ is amplitude of simple pendulum
‘p’ is angular frequency of bar pendulum.
‘ω’ is angular frequency of simple pendulum
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
‘R’ is damping co-efficient
PROCEDURE:
(A) To estimate length of simple pendulum for resonance.

Take 25 oscillation of bar pendulum and determine its period as follows,
Period of bar pendulum (T) = Time taken for 25 oscillations / 25
However, let ‘T’ be the period of simple pendulum and calculate as,
𝑔𝑇 2
l0 = cm
4𝜋2
(B) To draw resonance curue and to find actual resonance length of simple pendulum.
1. Take weight and put in pan of simple pendulum.
2. Select length of simple pendulum as lo-10, lo-8, lo-6…. lo, lo + 2, lo + 4… lo + 10 and
focus by telescope on scale.
3. Oscillate bar pendulum, so that forced oscillations are set up in simple pendulum. Note
down the maximum displacement on scale.
4. Repeat the experiment for the value mentioned for the value of pendulum
5. Repeat your observations in table given and plot the graph of amplitude → l
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr Length of simple Maximum deflection of string Maximum amplitude
No. pendulum (l) cm on scale (cm) of simple pendulum
LHS Á1 RHS Á2 Á= 𝑨́
𝑨 ́𝟏 − 𝑨 ́𝟐
A= × l (cm)
𝑳
𝟐
Length of hook to scale (L) = ___________ cm

Actual resonance length of simple pendulum lo =_________ cm (from graph)
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Amplitude ‘A’(cm)
Length ‘l’ (cm)
(C) To find damping co-efficient ‘R’.
* Take length of simple pendulum either to lo + 2 or lo – 2.
* Vary mass in the pan and note down the amplitude for each mass.
* Note down the observations in the table given below. [Fig ‘b’]
Length of simple pendulum (l) = _________ cm
(L) = __________cm
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Mass in Pan 𝟏 Observation for max Amplitude of 𝟏
𝒎𝟐
m = (m1+m2) g Displacement (cm) simple pendulum 𝑨𝟐
𝟏
( 𝒈 )2 𝟏
LHS RHS Á= 𝑨́ ( 𝒄𝒎 )2
A = ( 𝑳 ) × l (cm)
𝑨 ́𝟏 − 𝑨 ́𝟐
A 1́ A 2́
𝟐
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
GRAPH:
INTERCEPT ON:
𝑙0 − 𝑙 ́ 2 1
( 𝑙0
)( ) 𝑎2
 find a2
𝑅2 𝑙2
Slope of the graph =
𝑔 𝑙0 𝑎2
Calculate value of ‘R’ ?
R is frictional force per unit velocity hence its unit is dyne sec/cm OR g/sec
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
8. THEORETICAL STUDY OF FOURIER SERIES
AIM: Theoretical study of Fourier Series

THEORY:
Fourier series is a series whose terms are sine and cosine function. Since sine and cosine are
periodic functions, Fourier series can represent only periodic function. Since time period of sine
and cosine function is 2π, we take the average value of series over the interval of (-π to π) i.e. 2π.
Mathematically, Fourier series is written as
F(x)=a0/2 + a1cos x + a2cos 2x + ..........+ ancos nx + b1sin x + b2sin 2x + ........ + bn sin nx
Where an and bn are called the Fourier coefficients.
Now ,
𝜋
a0=1/π [∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥]
𝜋
an= 1/π[∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 ]
𝜋
bn= 1/π[∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥]
Thus using the above formulae we can find the coefficients of Fourier series.
APPLICATION OF FOURIER SERIES:
Problems involving vibrations or oscillations occur frequently in physics and engineering. Some
common examples being vibrating tuning fork, a pendulum, a weight attached ton spring, sound
waves , alternating electric currents etc .They involve the sine’s and cosines which are used in
describing simple harmonic motion and wave motion. Here Fourier analysis is useful as it deals
with all the harmonics that are produced and also gives the amplitude of each frequency (the
coefficients) .It also called harmonic analysis.
PROBLEMS:
Part I.
x F(x) Sin x Sin 2x Cos x Cos 2x F(x)Sin x F(x)Sin 2x F(x)Cos x F(x)Cos2x
0 2.34
30 3.01
60 3.69
90 4.15
120 3.69
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
150 2.20
180 0.83
210 0.57
240 0.88
270 1.09
300 1.19
330 1.64
Mean
Part II.
x F(x) Sin x Sin 2x Cos x Cos 2x F(x)Sin x F(x)Sin 2x F(x)Cos x F(x)Cos2x
30 7.97
60 8.02
90 7.24
120 5.67
150 3.67
180 1.76
210 0.55
240 0.22
270 0.94
300 2.42
330 4.73
360 6.82
6
Mean
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
EXAMPLES:
1. Find a Fourier Series for f(x) = x, -2<x<2, f(x+4)= f(x).
2. Find a Fourier Series for f(x) = |x|, -2<x<2, f(x+4)=f(x).
3. Find a Fourier Series for f(x) = {−2,2, −1 ≤𝑥<0

0≤𝑥<1
, f(x+2)= f(x)
VIVA:
1. Define Fourier Series.

2. What are the conditions for any series to be a Fourier series?
3. Define Odd and Even functions.
4. Define Fourier Coefficients.
5. Give any four applications of Fourier series.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
SEMESTER IV
GROUP A
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1. CARDINAL POINTS BY SEARLE’S

GONIOMETER
AIM: - To measure the focal length of an optical system of two thin lenses by means of Searle’s
goniometer.
THEORY: - Nearly every optical instrument consists not of a single lens but of a number of
co-axial spherical lenses either in contact or spaced apart or forming a combination of both the
systems. In such optical systems or a system of two thin lenses the position of the image cannot
be determined from focal points alone but one needs to have information about some other
points also known as cardinal points. These points define every detail about the characteristic
feature of the lens system so far as image formation and magnification by the lens is concerned.
There are three pairs of these points.
1. FOCAL POINTS
2. PRINCIPLE POINTS
3. NODAL POINTS
They are defined as follows.

1. FOCAL POINTS:
As shown in figure if a point source is places at the point F1, emergent rays will travel parallel
to the axis after undergoing refraction.F1 is called first focal point. F1 is the object position for
an object whose image is formed at infinity (Di = ∞). Similarly when rays parallel to the
principle axis are incident on a convex lens, it undergoes refraction and converges at a point
F2. This point F2 is called second focal point. F2 is the image position for an object kept at
infinity (Do = ∞). First focal point (F1):- It is a point on the axis of the lens such that the rays
emerging from it travel parallel to the principle axis on reflection or refraction by the lens or
the optical system. Second focal point (F2):- It is a point on the axis of the lens such that only
incident ray travelling parallel to the axis of the lens or optical system will after refraction,
appear to come from it. The planes passing through F1 and F2 and perpendicular to the axis are
called focal planes.
2. PRINCIPAL POINTS:
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Consider a ray F1S emerging from a point source F1 being incident on the first lens. This ray
will emerge along the direction TW after undergoing refraction in the direction ST. The rays
F1S and TW will intersect at a point H1.When they are extended along their original directions.
The plane perpendicular to the axis and passing through point H1 is called first principal plane
and the point on the axis is called first principal point. As shown figure the incident ray PQ
parallel to the axis undergoes refraction from the first lens travels in the direction QR and
finally emerges out from the second lens along the direction RF2. F2 is the second focal point
of a lens system. On extending rays PQ and RF2 along their original directions will intersect at
point H2. The plane passing through H2 and perpendicular to the axis is called second principal
plane of the lens system and the point P2 on the axis is called second principal point. The
principle points are two points on the lens, which are such that if an object lying normally to
the axis of the lens is placed at one of them, an image of the some size lying on the same side
of the axis of the lens is formed at the other. Any ray incident on the first principal plane H1P1
appear to emerge out from point H2 of the second principal plane H2P2 i.e. if the object lies on
H1P1 the image lies on H2P2. Since H1P1= H2P2, Magnification=1.
3. NODAL POINTS:-
The nodal points are the pair of points on the axis of the lens such that ray of light directed
towards one of these points (N1) will after refraction from the lens appear to emerge in a parallel
from the second points(N2).
Let a ray of light AT1 parallel to the axis is directed towards the first principal plane H1P1 at a
point H1. If will then emerge out at the second principle plane in the direction H2F2 from points
H2. Let us consider another ray AT1(which is emerging from point A) and parallel to H2F2 is
incident on the first principal plane at T1.This ray will emerge out of the second principal plane
in the direction T2R parallel to H2F2 (where T1P1=T2P2). The point of intersection of the
incident ray AT1 and emergent ray T1R with the principal axis gives the position of nodal points
N1 and N2. When the medium is same on both the sides of the lens system, the nodal points
merge into principal points.
PROCEDURE:-
The Goniometer if first adjusted so that the vertical wire lies in the focal plane of the
goniometer lens. This may be done adjusting the wire so that there is no parallax between it
and its image when seen in the lens and the mirror kept behind it.
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
The optical system of two lenses is now kept such that its axis horizontal scale index zero. The
two lenses are kept at a distance d apart from each other.
A scale is placed in front of the system of two lenses is adjusted in the focal plane by looking
through the goniometer lens and system. This is done by removing the parallax between the
vertical wire of the goniometer and an image of a division of the scale just opposite. The
location for the scale just opposite is considered zero mark of the scale and the goniometer
scale index reading is also zero.
The movable arm of the goniometer is now rotated and for every change of the vertical wire
on the scale by 0.2 cm on either side of zero division a corresponding change in goniometer
scale is noted.
The distance of the scale from nearer lens of the system is noted as d.
The system is now rotated through 180° and the above procedure is repeated to obtain h, h'
and d'.
Note the value of l, the length of the movable arm of the goniometer and find the focal lengths
of the lenses f1 and f2 by plane mirror method.
The experiment should be performed for minimum three value of d. The following formula
helps to determine the focal length theoretically.
1 1 1 d
= + -
F f1 f 2 f1f 2
Where f1-focal length of lens L1 & f2-focal length of lens L2

CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS:-
1
Plot a graph of against d and find the distance d between the lenses when the system works
F
1
as a plane parallel plate. When d=f1 + f2 ; = 0. Then the system works as a plane parallel
F
plate or a glass plate.
OBSERVATIONS:-
Length of the movable arm of the goniometer l =___ cm.
No. Distance Distance Change in the Change in the Mean h' = Focal 1
between between scale reading goniometer h1  h2 length of F
two scale and ‘h’ (cm) scale reading 2 the system (cm
lenses d nearer lens d (cm) (cm) h -1
)
(cm) (cm)' F= .l(cm)
h'
‘h1' ‘h2'
1
Rotate through 180o
2
Rotate through 180o
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
3
Rotate through 180o
Plot the cardinal points on the graph paper.
L1- position of the lens of focal length f1.

L2- position of the lens of focal length f2.
d=L1L2=the distance between two lenses.
Fx- equivalent focal length of the system.
Fy- equivalent focal length of the system after rotation through 180°.
VIVA:
1. What is the importance of cardinal points? Name them.
2. What are focal planes? Define focal points.
3. Explain principal points and nodal points of optical system.
4. When do they coincide?
5. Where is the vertical wire of the goniometer to be adjusted? How?
6. What happens when the distance between two lenses is equal to the sum of
focal lengths of two lenses?
7. What is the expression of the focal length of the system of two thin lenses?
8. Define the six cardinal points. What are their importances?
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
2.DOUBLE REFRACTION BY CALCITE PRISM

AIM: To determine the refractive index of ordinary and extraordinary rays by double refraction
phenomenon.
THEORY: Calcite is a uniaxial birefracting crystal. When unpolarised light is made normally
incident on the surface of the calcite crystal, the ray is doubly refracted and both the refracted
rays advance in different directions with different velocities. This phenomenon is called double
refraction. The ray propagating in direction of incidence is known as the ordinary ray and
other one which is deviated in the direction other than the incident one is known as extra-
ordinary ray .The ordinary ray follows Snell’s law where as the extra-ordinary ray doesn’t.
PROCEDURE: Adjust the spectrometer for parallel rays. Mount the calcite prism on the prism
table. Adjust the telescope and prism table in such a way that the ordinary ray and extra ordinary
ray are adjusted in their minimum deviation positions. Note the readings for the angle of
minimum deviation, separately. Here, note that δE < δo. Calculate the refractive indices of
ordinary and extra-ordinary rays. Again note that no > ne.
 A   mO 
sin 
* n0   2 
 A
sin 
2
 A   mE 
sin 
* nE   2 
 A
sin 
2
Nature of the Reading of Direct Minimum Refractive Index n=

ray min. reading Deviation  A  m 
sin 
deviation ‘b’  m =a ~ b  2 
‘a’ (degrees) (degrees)  A
(degrees) sin 
 2 
Ordinary
Extra-
ordinary
RESULT:
n0 > ne
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
3.MEASUREMENT OF THE RESOLVING POWER OF

GRATING
AIM: To study the measurement of resolving power of grating.
PROCEDURE:
Adjust the spectrometer for parallel rays by Schuster’s method. Mount the grating on the prism
table and adjust the telescope for the 1st order of spectral lines. Focus the telescope on the
yellow doublet and note down the angles Ѳ1 and Ѳ2 of the yellow doublet. Ѳ is taken as the
average of Ѳ1 and Ѳ2. Next mount an auxiliary slit over the telescope and go on closing the slit
width, till the two yellow lines are just not distinguishable. Measure the slit width ‘a’ in this
position.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Wave length Telescope Telescope Angle cos Ɵ

reading for reading for Angle Ѳ = Ѳ𝟏+Ѳ𝟐
𝟐
(deg)
LHS ‘a’ (deg) RHS ‘b’ (deg) (deg) (deg)
𝑎−𝑏
Yellow 1 Ѳ1 = 2
Yellow 2 𝑎−𝑏
Ѳ2 = 2
CALCULATIONS:
 na 
Substituting the values of ‘n’, ‘a’ and ‘Ѳ’ in the equation Practical RP =  ; Where e
 eCos 
2.54
= , we can get the value of practical resolving power.
N
N= No of lines per inch of grating = 15,000

Calculate the theoretical resolving power using the formula: Theoretical RP = , where

1  2
 and   1 ~ 2
2
1 = 5790 Å and  2 = 5769 Å are the wavelengths of the yellow lines for Hg source. Compare
the theoretical and practical resolving power.
VIVA:
1. Define resolving power of grating.
2. On what factors does resolving power depend?
3. Does it depend on the spacing between between the ruling?
4. How can you increase the resolving power?
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
4. DIFFRACTION BY SINGLE SLIT
AIM: To determine the wavelength of monochromatic light by diffraction at single slit.

PROCEDURE:
Level the spectrometer and adjust it for parallel light by Schusters method which is explained
as under:
Shusters method:
Illuminate the slit of the collimeter with light from mercury source and without any focussing,
place the prism approximately in the position of minimum deviation. Turn the prism slightly
away from this position, bringing the refracting angle towards the telescope. Focus the
telescope on the image as distinctly as possible. Rotate the prism slightly to the other side of
the minimum position and focus the collimeter until on looking into the telescope the image is
again as distinct as possible. Repeat this process of alternatively focussing the collimeter and
telescope until the rotation of the prism do not cause the image to go out of focus. When this
is the case the rays entering and leaving the prism are parallel.
After doing Schusters method remove the prism and mount an Auxillary slit on the telescope.
Adjust the width of Auxillary slit till you get a clear diffraction pattern. Take the readings of
the dark bands on either side of the central maximum and note down Ɵ using the formula,
bsinƟ = n λ
Calculate λ.
Here, b = width of Auxillary slit (to be found)
n = order of dark band (i.e. 1,2,3…etc)
Ɵ = Angle of the dark band
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Obs. No. Order of L.H.S R.H.S Ɵ𝟏 − Ɵ𝟐 𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏Ɵ
Ɵ = Λ= Å
dark band reading Ɵ1 reading Ɵ2 𝟐 𝒏
(deg) (deg) (deg)
RESULT:
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
5. NUMERICAL STUDY OF OSCILLATORY

MOTION
AIM 1: To study Numerical Study of the motion of simple harmonic oscillator.

(i) To calculate the position, velocity and acceleration of the simple harmonic oscillator, and
also to understand the phase plot of the system.
(ii) To calculate kinetic energy, potential energy and total mechanical energy of the simple
harmonic oscillator, and to understand the law of conservation of total mechanical energy.
THEORY:
Position of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator: x (t) = Asin (ω0t + φ)
Velocity of the Simple Harmonics Oscillator: v (t) = ω0 Acos (ω0t + φ)
Acceleration of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator: a(t) = −ωo2 Asin(ωot + φ) = −ωo2 x(t)
𝑘
Natural Frequency of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator: ωo = √𝑚
1 1
Total Mechanical Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator: E = KE + PE = 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 + 2 𝑘 𝑥 2
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE:
Method of Calculation:
Let us consider: φ = 0, m = 1 kg, k = 1 N m-1, A = 1 m, Time step = 0.1 s
No. t (sec) x(t) (m) v(t) (m s-1) a(t) (m s-2) KE (J) PE (J) E (J)
1
0 0 1 0 0 0.5 0.5
2
0.1 0.099833 0.995004 -0.09983 0.004983 0.495017 0.5
3
0.2 0.198669 0.980067 -0.19867 0.019735 0.480265 0.5
4
0.4 0.389418 0.921061 -0.38942 0.075823 0.424177 0.5
5
0.5 0.479426 0.877583 -0.47943 0.114924 0.385076 0.5
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
5.5 -0.70554 0.70867 0.70554 0.248894 0.251106 0.5

5.6 -0.63127 0.775566 0.631267 0.199249 0.300751 0.5
5.7 -0.55069 0.834713 0.550686 0.151627 0.348373 0.5
5.8 -0.4646 0.88552 0.464602 0.107928 0.392072 0.5
5.9 -0.37388 0.927478 0.373877 0.069892 0.430108 0.5
6 -0.27942 0.96017 0.279415 0.039037 0.460963 0.5
FOR OBJECTIVE (I):

No need of calculating KE, PE and E.
Plot the graphs: (i) x(t) – t, v(t) – t, a(t) – t
(ii) Phase plot : x(t) – v(t)
x(t) v(t) a(t)

1.5
x(t), v(t), a(t)
-1.5
t (second)
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Phase Space Plot
FOR OBJECTIVE (II) :
No need of calculating a(t).
Plot the graphs : KE – t, PE – t, E – t

Energy Plots
KE PE E
t (second)
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Aim_2: Numerical Study of the motion of damped harmonic oscillator.

Objectives:
(iii) To calculate the position and velocity of the damped harmonic oscillator, and
also to understand the phase plot of the system.
(iv)To calculate kinetic energy, potential energy and total mechanical energy of the
damped harmonic oscillator, and to understand the damping of the total
mechanical energy.
THEORY:
Position of the Damped Harmonic Oscillator:
−𝑏𝑡
x (t) = A 𝑒 2𝑚 sin (ωt + φ)
Velocity of the Damped Harmonics Oscillator:
𝑏
ν(t) = ω A 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 2 m cos (ωt + φ) - x(t)
2𝑚
Frequency of the Damped Harmonic Oscillator:
𝑘 𝑏2
ω= −
𝑚 4𝑚
Total Mechanical Energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator:
1 1
E = KE + PE = 𝑚 𝑣2 + 𝑘 𝑥2
2 2
CALCULATION:
φ = 0, m = 1 kg, k = 1 N m-1, A = 1 m, b = 0.5 N m-1 s, Time step = 0.1 s
No. t (sec) x(t) (m) v(t) (m s-1) KE (J) PE (J) E (J)
1
0 0 0.866025 0 0.375 0.375
2
0.1 0.084359 0.820388 0.003558 0.336518 0.340076
3
0.2 0.163935 0.770479 0.013437 0.296819 0.310256
4
0.3 0.238332 0.716902 0.028401 0.256974 0.285375
5
0.4 0.307213 0.66026 0.04719 0.217972 0.265162
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
5.5 -0.25251 0.074236 0.031882 0.002755 0.034637

5.6 -0.24427 0.090309 0.029835 0.004078 0.033913
5.7 -0.2345 0.104883 0.027496 0.0055 0.032996
5.8 -0.22335 0.117916 0.024942 0.006952 0.031895
5.9 -0.21097 0.129379 0.022254 0.008369 0.030624
6 -0.19753 0.139258 0.019508 0.009696 0.029205
FOR OBJECTIVE (I):
No need of calculating Ke, PE and E.
Plot the graphs: (i) x(t) – t, v(t) – t
(ii) Phase plot : x(t) – v(t)
x(t) v(t) a(t)
t (second)
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Phase Space Plot
x(t)
FOR OBJECTIVE (II) :

Plot the graphs : KE – t, PE – t, E – t
Energy Plots
KE PE E(t)
t (second)
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
EXERCISE:
SR.NO. t(second) X(t) V(t) P.E. K.E. T.E.
1 0 0
2 0.2
3 0.4
4 0.6
5 0.8
6 1
7 1.2
8 1.4
9 1.6
10 1.8
11 2
12 2.2
13 2.4
14 2.6
15 2.8
16 3
17 3.2
18 3.4
19 3.6
20 3.8
21 4
22 4.2
23 4.4
24 4.6
25 4.8
26 5
27 5.2
28 5.4
29 5.6
30 5.8
31 6
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VIVA:
1. Define SHM
2. Define natural oscillation, damped oscillation and forced oscillation.
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6. TO IDENTIFY THE ELEMENTS IN A LINE

SPECTRUM
AIM: To identify the elements in a line spectrum.
APPARATUS: Travelling Microscope, film having the line spectra of the elements to be
identified and the spectrum of some standard substance (e.g. copper) recorded side by side.
There are three line spectra on the film strip. The top most spectra are of copper. The central
spectra are of copper + element to be detected, while the lowermost spectra are of carbon arc.
The lines of the copper spectra are marked with dots. The lines of the central spectra, which
are not common with the copper spectra, belong to the elements to be detected and are also
marked by ink dots.
PROCEDURE:
The dotted lines of the copper spectrum are identified from the given standard spectrum of
copper. The wavelength of these lines  1,  0 and  2 are noted from the standard wavelength
chart. The readings m1, m0 and m2 corresponding to  1,  0 and  2 are noted using travelling
microscope.
 1 = --------------- Å m1= -------- mm
 2 = ----------- Å m2 = -------- mm
Dispersion (b) is defined as the number of wavelengths per mm of the spectrum
b = (  1-  2) / (m1 - m2) = -------------- Å/mm
The crosswire of the microscope is put parallel to the spectrum and the microscope readings
for all the dotted lines in the element spectrum are taken. The wavelength corresponding to any
line is given by the relation,  =  0 ± mb where, m = distance in mm between known and
unknown wavelength and b is the dispersion.
Obs Microscope Microscope Wavelength Distance  = Elements

No. readings of readings of of cu line between  0±mb (Å) present
element copper and  0 = m
spectrum spectrum Å (mm)
(mm) (mm)
1
2 m1 1
3 m0 0
4 m2 2
5
CALCULATIONS:
Calculated wavelengths are compared with those of the principle lines of the elements given
in the table. Then name the elements present.
71
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
7. e/m BY THOMSON’S METHOD
AIM: To determine velocity 'v' and ratio of charge to mass e/m of electron by Thomson’s
method.
Constants of C.R.T
1) Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field ‘Ho’ = 0.36 gauss
2) Deflection of the spot ‘y’ on the screen of CRT =_1 cm
5) Voltage applied ‘V’=___________ volts
6) Length of the deflecting plates ‘p’ =___________cm
7) Distance of deflecting plates from screen ‘L’ =__________cm
8) Distance of screen from small hole ‘l’ =__________cm
10) Distance between plates‘d’ =__________cm
PROCEDURE
Set the wooden stand in Gauss ‘A’ position. Put C.R.T in central part of wooden stand.
Switch on the mains of regulated power supply and see the intense green spot on the circular
screen of C.R.T. Apply voltage 'v' from supply to displace the spot either upward or
downward by 1 cm. Note the applied voltage ‘V’.
Now place the magnets symmetrically on both sides of the CRT, so as to apply uniform
magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of electric field. Adjust the position of the
magnets in such a way that the spot returns back to its initial position i.e., both crossed fields
balance each other.
Switch off power supply. Remove C.R.T from wooden stand and place the compass on the
wooden platform. Without disturbing the position of magnet and stand, keep compass at a
distance of 1 cm, 2 cm ....... l cm from the screen, on the platform. Measure θ1 and θ2 for each
distance.
Table for magnetic deflection
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Distance Distance of Deflection (deg) tan θ H= H0tanθ Mean h= H-H’ h(l-x)

of needle needle (deg) (guass) (guass) (guass.cm)
from hole from H’
x cm screen Θ1 Θ2 θ (guass)
(l-x) cm
Plot h (l-x) versus x and find out the area under the curve. To find area under the curve first
count the no. of squares under the curve (both positive and negative part).
Area =
(number of squares on the positive side - number of squares on the negative side)
(number of squares in one unit of ' x' axis  number of squares in in one unit of ' y' axis)
From Simpson’s rule, Area =
p
( + L) PV y  108
Charge to mass ratio e/m = 2 emu/gm
1
{ l 2 H + area]2  d
2
(p/2 + L) PV y  108
V= cm/sec
1 2
{ l H + [area ]}  d
2
VIVA:
1. Define importance of e/m ratio.
73
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
8. STUDY OF ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT
AIM: To study the properties of a polarized light.

APPARATUS: Light source, analyser, polarizer, lux meter
PROCEDURE: Arrange the source of monochromatic light, convex lens, polarizer, quarter
wave plate and analyser with circular scale on optical bench in such a way that they remain
collinear. Note the intensity (I) of the light from lux meter for different orientations ‘Ɵ’ of the
analyser. Take X’- O - X as reference line on the graph paper and plot the intensity (I) of the
light for 0o, 90o , 180o, 270o and 360o orientation of analyser. What conclusion do you draw
from the shape of the closed curve by joining the intensity points?
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Obs. Angle of Intensity 90 ͦ

number rotation (Ɵ) ‘I’ (lux)
1 0o
2 10o
X’ X
3 20o O
180 ͦ 0ͦ
4 30o
5 40 ͦ
6 50 ͦ 270 ͦ
7 60 ͦ
8 70 ͦ
9 80 ͦ
10 90 ͦ
11 180 ͦ
12 270 ͦ
13 360 ͦ
Calculate the ratio a / b from the graph
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Corresponding to the above readings, plot a graph of I→ Cos 2
The equation observed is: I =

a 
 b Cos 2 b
From the graph calculate slope ‘m’ and intercept ‘c’

‘m’ = a  b  and ‘c’ = b
Determine the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’. Calculate the ratio a / b
VIVA:
1. What do you mean by polarized light?

2. State Brewster’s Law.
3. What is a Polaroid?
4. What do you mean by optic axis?
5. What is Malus Law?
75
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
GROUP – B
76
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF FET
AIM: To obtain the static and transfer characteristics of field effect transistor.
APPARATUS: 0-12 V regulated supply; V.T.V.M, 0-5 V supply; Digital Multimeter

COMPONENT: BFW10
THEORY:
The field effect transistor is a semiconductor device, in which the current through device is
controlled by an applied electric field across the same conducting material. The FET is also known
as Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET). In FET only one type of charge carrier is responsible
for conduction.
SYMBOL:
The FET has three terminals:

Source: The source S is terminal through which the majority charge carrier enter the bar.
Gate: The gate G is the terminal through which the flow of the charge carrier in the transistor is
controled.
Drain: The drain D is the terminal through which charge carriers leave the bar.
CIRCUIT:
77
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE:
Connect the FET; VTVM; current-meter and voltmeter as shown in fig.

Static characteristic:
1. Keep gate to source voltage VGS=0.
2. Increase the drain to source voltage VDS from zero to 6V in step of 0.2 volt and note down
ID.
3. Repeat the experiment for VGS = -0.5V; -1.0V; -1.5V
4. Draw the graph of ID→ VDS for different value of VGS.
Transfer characteristic:
1. K
eep drain to source voltage VDS = 6 volts
2. I
ncrease the gate to source voltage VGS from zero to -5.0 volt in step of 0.5 volt. Note down
the
drain current for each value of VGS.

Draw the graph ID → VDS.
78
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
CALCULATION:
From the output chracteristic curve find out the following quantities.
a) Pinch off voltage: pinch off voltage is the voltage of VDS, after which the ID becomes
constant. Vp=__volt.
b) Saturation Drain Current (IDss): Saturation drain current for VGS=0 is denoted by IDss. The value
of IDss is determined from the curve for VGS=0 as shown in fig. IDss=__mA
c) Transconductance( gm ): It is usually measured at VGS=0V and VDS=__volt gm=(
= ___ ℧ or Ω-1
d) Drain Resistance (rd):It is usually measured at VGS=0V in linear region of characteristics.

rd =( =____ohm
e) Amplification factor : µ= gm* rd=___

 From Transfer characteristic curve:
f) Gate-Source cut-off voltage VGS(off): one value of VGS at which ID=0mA is gate source cut off
voltage denoted by VGS(off).
 Check VGS(off) = Vp =__ volt
OBERVATION TABLE:
(A) For output characteristic:
Obs. No. VDS Drain Current ID(mA)

volts VGS=0V VGS=0V VGS=0V VGS=-1.5V
1 0.0
2 0.5
3 1.0
4 1.5
.. 2.0
.. 2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
79
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
(B) For transfer characteristic:
Obs No. VGS Drain Current ID(mA)

Volts
VDS=5V VDS=8V
80
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
2. ABSOLUTE VALUE OF CAPACITY BY

BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER
AIM: To study absolute value of capacity by ballistic galvanometer.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
A condenser is an arrangement, by which the capacity of a charged conductor for holding
charge can be increased by many fold. The capacity of a condenser is defined as 'C = Q / V '.
Its unit is 'Farad' or 'micro-Farad'
A Galvanometer suitable for measuring quantity of electricity (charge) is called "Ballistic
Galvanometer (BG)" or "Non Dead Beat Type Galvanometer".
PROCEDURE:
Set up Lamp and Scale Arrangement.
TO FIND 'R/ Δ’
Make electrical connection as shown in figure. Keeping R1+R2 = Const., for different values of
'r', note the steady deflection ‘δ’ of BG.
Table-1: R1 + R2 = ___ ohm (const)

Obs. Low Steady r/ δ Mean r/ δ
No. Resistance Deflection Ω / cm Ω / cm
rΩ δ cm
81
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Make connections as shown in figure. Keeping the sum of R1+R2 = const to the same value as
in table 1, vary R1 and R2. Note the deflections θ1 and θ3 on scale. Determine the Periodic time
'T' (Time for one complete oscillation) of B.G.
To find ‘θ /R1’
Periodic of B.G. = T = --------- sec
Resistance of Galvanometer = -------- ohm
Obs. R1 (Ω) R2 (Ω) 1 cm 3   4

1 θ/R1 Mean θ/R1 cm℧
No. cm    1  1 cm/Ω
3 
cm
Calculation
T r 
C=   = -------------- µF
2  R1
82
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
3.CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT
AIM: - To obtain static characteristic of UJT
APPARATUS: - 0 – 12 V power supply (2 Pcs), 0 – 10 mA current meter, 0 – 10 V volt meter
(2 Pcs), UJT
THEORY: - The Uni Junction Transistor (UJT) consists of a bar of n-type material, with
external leads; Emitter, Base 1 and Base 2. The emitter is highly doped
having many holes. The n region is lightly doped. Therefore resistance
between two base is very high when emitter is open. A p-n junction is
formed between a p-type emitter and the n- type bar. The structure, symbol
and equivalent circuit of UJT are shown in figure.
B2
B2 R1
Ideal
E E
R2
B1
B1
N – Type UJT
As shown in equivalent circuit, a potential of about 0.4V appears between the emitter and
B1where VB1B2 is inter base voltage. The co-efficient of VBB is known as intrinsic stand off
ratio ƞ (Eta). If emitter voltage VE is less than VBB no current will flow through emitter. when
the emitter voltage will be equal to VBB the junction is forward bias, the UJT turns on, and the
resistance between the emitter and base one (B1) decreases, so emitter current IE will increase.
Here hole current increases and the resistance of bar decreases with a correspondence decrease
in voltage drop between emitter and base 1. As a result emitter current increases until it is
limited by power supply.
B1 VB1B2
IE
VB1E
VB1E + VB1B2
_
B2
83
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE:-
(1) Connect the circuit as shown in above figure.
Keep (VB1B2) = _________ volt fixed.
(2) Change (VB1E) voltage in step of 0.2 volt and note down corresponding
emitter current IE and VB1E
(3) Repeat the experiment for another value of VB1B2
(4) Plot graph IE VB1E
(5) Calculate ƞ = VP – VD
VB1B2
PEAK
VB2B1 = _______ volt
VB1E
IE
IE
VP= Peak Voltage

VD= voltage drop across diode
VB2B1= Voltage between Base 1 and Base 2
IE = Emitter current in mA
VB1B2 = ------- volt VB1B2 = ------- volt VB1B2 = ------- volt

IE mA VB1E volt IE mA VB1E volt IE mA VB1E volt
84
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
4.High Resistance through Leakage
AIM: To study high resistance through leakage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
Part 1:
Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Press key K1 for 10 seconds to charge the capacitor.
Release it and keeping key K3 pressed so that capacitor discharges through the B.G, note the
deflections d1’ and d1’’’ of the spot on the same side of the scale.
Part 2:
Press key K1 for 10 seconds to charge the capacitor, release it and press K 2 for 2 seconds, so
that capacitor discharges in those 2 seconds through the resistor ‘R’. Thereafter, release K 2,
and keeping key K3 pressed so that capacitor discharges through the B.G, note the deflections
d2’ and d2’’’ of the spot on the same side of the scale. Repeat the experiment, increasing the
discharge time of capacitor to 4, 6 and 8 seconds and note the deflections d2’ and d2’’’ of the
 
 t 
spot in each case. Plot a graph of log d1/d2 → time‘t’. Substitute the value of slope  
 log d1 
 10 d 
 2 
in the formula and determine ‘R’.
85
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Part 1:
Throws when C is discharged Corrected throw

through B.G. (cm) d1 = d1’[d1’/d1”’]1/4
d1’ d1”’ (cm)
Part 2:
Obs. No. Time Throws when C is Corrected throw log10[d1/d2]

‘t’(sec) discharged through d2 = d2’[d2’/d2”’]1/4
‘R’(cm). (cm)
d2’ d2”’
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
Periodic time ‘T’ of B.G. =------------------ Sec

Capacitance ‘C’ = -------------- µf
CALCULATION
 1 1
R=     slope = ------------------ MΩ
 2.303 C 
VIVA:
1. What is allowed to leak in order to determine high resistance?
2. What is time constant of RC circuit?
3. Can this method be used to determine low resistance?
4. What is the order of resistance that can be determine by this method?
5. Explain the construction of ballistic galvanometer.
86
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
5.DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE

USING THE PRINCIPAL OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
AIM: To determine the permeability of free space.
PROCEDURE:
Set up the circuit as shown in the above figure. Adjust the deflection of the spot on the scale to
zero. Remove some resistance from the resistance box ‘R’. Pass around ‘1 Amp’ current
through the primary coil after pressing the Rayleigh key. Release the key and note the first and
third throw of the spot on the scale so that a corrected throw may be obtained. Repeat the above
𝐼
procedure for different values of ‘R’. Plot a graph of 𝑅 → (𝜃) and determine the permeability
of free space 𝜇0
𝑅 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴𝐾 × 106 (𝐼⁄𝜃)
Slope = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴𝐾 × 106
Where, 𝑛1 = number of turns per meter in the primary coil = 900
𝑛2 = Total number of secondary turns = 300
𝐴= Cross sectional area of primary in m2.
Radius of primary coil = 2.6 cm
𝐾= Charge Sensitivity of B.G in mm/µcoulomb =179 mm/µcoulomb
𝐼= Current in primary coil in Amp.
𝑟 = Internal resistance of secondary coil = 27Ω
𝐺= Resistance of galvanometer = 500Ω
µ0 = ?
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐻
µ0 =
𝑛1𝑛2𝐴𝐾×106 𝑚
87
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE
Obs No. Resistance (𝑹) First throw Third throw Corrected
Ω (𝜽𝟏 ) (mm) (𝜽𝟑 ) (mm) throw
1
 4
   1  1
 3 
(mm)
88
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
6. ANDERSON’S BRIDGE
AIM: To determine the unknown inductance.
APPARATUS: Capacitors, resistors, inductor, AFO, H.P or null detector
INTRODUCTION:
Anderson’s Bridge is the modification of Maxwell’s inductance-capacitance bridge. The main
advantage of this method is that it can be used for the wide range of self-inductance
measurement.
CIRCUIT:
An ac bridge is a natural out growth of a dc bridge. In its basic form it consists of four bridge
arms, a source of excitation and a null detector.
Initially keep the D.C resistance of all arms of Fig (1) same, after taking into account the D.C
resistance of coil ‘L’. Now vary the value of ‘r’ till the voltage in the multimeter reduces to
minimum or you hear minimum sound in the head phone. Obtain the value of inductance ‘L’
after substituting the values of Q, R, S and r in the equation: L= C {RQ + r (R+S)}. Repeat the
above experiment for different values of ‘P’ ‘Q’ ‘R’ and ‘S’
89
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION TABLE:
PΩ QΩ RΩ SΩ rΩ L(Henry)
Note: - L > C R Q
(Approximate value of ‘L’ is provided, so that the value of C R Q to be taken the experiment
can be evaluated)
90
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
7.STUDY OF PHONON DISPERSION

AIM: Calculate the phonon dispersion and relation between ω and q for silver atom. (Mass of
silver atom= 1.79 × 10-22 g, lattice constant= 4.1 Å and spring constant = 60 N/m) and also find
the allowed values of q.
The energies (or frequencies, w) of the phonons (quanta of lattice vibrations) as their function
of the wave vector q i. e. ω vs. q relation is known as phonon dispersion curve. Consider 1-D
crystal lattice and assume that the forces between the atoms in the lattice are proportional to
relative displacements from the equilibrium positions. Here, we use harmonic approximation;
(i) it means the displacements are small, (ii) atoms in the lattice are interconnected by elastic
springs, (iii) neglecting interaction of nth atom with nearby atom.
Therefore,
𝐹𝑛 = 𝐶 (𝑢𝑛+1 − 𝑢𝑛 ) + 𝐶(𝑢𝑛−1 − 𝑢𝑛 )
𝑑2 𝑢𝑛
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑛 = (𝑢𝑛+1 +𝑢𝑛−1 −2𝑢𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡 2
Suppose N is total no of atom, therefore N coupled differential equations. Hence boundary
condition applied to the end atom in the lattice. Now, let us consider, solution of the equation
is in the form
𝑢𝑛 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑞𝑥𝑛−𝑤𝑡)
Where, xn =equilibrium position of nth atom and xn=na
i.e. possible because of the translational symmetry of lattice. Equation represents a travelling
wave in which all the atom oscillate with the same frequency w and the same amplitude A and
hence wave vector q.
Equation 2 can be written as,
𝑑 2 𝑢𝑛
𝑀 = 𝐶(𝑢𝑛+1 + 𝑢𝑛−1 − 2𝑢𝑛 )
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑀𝐴(𝑖𝜔)2 (−𝑎)𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑛𝑎 = 𝐶 [ 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑞(𝑛+1)𝑎 + 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑞(𝑛−1)𝑎 − 2𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑛𝑎 ] 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
−𝜔2 𝑀𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑛𝑎 = 𝐶 [𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑛𝑎 𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑎 + 𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑛𝑎 𝑒 −𝑖𝑞𝑎 − 2𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑛𝑎 ]

𝑀𝜔2 = 𝐶 [2 − 𝑒 𝑖𝑞𝑎 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑞𝑎 ]
𝑀𝜔2 = 2𝐶 [1 − cos 𝑞𝑎]
𝑞𝑎
𝑀𝜔2 = 4𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2
4𝐶 𝑞𝑎
𝜔2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝑀 2
91
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
4𝐶 𝑞𝑎
𝜔=√ |sin |
𝑀 2
Allowed values of q:
Long chain, N is very large. Therefore, x(na,t) = x(na+Na, t)
Allowed values of q will come from this boundary condition
cos(𝑞𝑛𝑎 − 𝜔𝑡) = cos(𝑞𝑛𝑎 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑞𝑁𝑎)
This will be true for one cycle or for an integer no.
qna=P2π, where P=1,2,…..,N
qa=P2π/N
In first Brillouin zone allowed values of qa run from 0 to 2π.
From figure, when qa →0 [very long λ]
2𝑘
𝜔= √ (1 − cos 𝑞𝑎)
𝑚
1
cos 𝑞𝑎 = 1 − (𝑞𝑎)2 + … … …
2
𝑘
𝜔 = √ |𝑞𝑎|
𝑚
92
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
At small q = Acoustic Wave

when qa →π [short λ]
2𝜋
𝑎 = 𝜋
𝜆
Then,
2𝑘
𝜔 = √ (1 − cos 𝑞𝑎) = 𝑞𝑎 = 𝜋, cos 𝜋 = −1
𝑚
𝜔(𝑞)
𝐶=
𝑞
Is not depends on q.
EXAMPLE:
1. Calculate the phonon dispersion relation between ω and q for silicon atom (mass of Si
atom = 4.6 × 10-23g, lattice constant = 5.4Å and spring constant = 190 N/m). Find the
allowed values of q.
2. Calculate the phonon dispersion relation between ω and q for gold atom (mass of Au
atom = 3.27 × 10-22 g, lattice constant = 4.08 Å and spring constant = 32 N/m. Find
the allowed values of q.
VIVA:
1. What is Phonon?
2. Define Phonon Dispersion curve.
3. Which crystals exhibit optical phonon modes?
4. How does the group velocity differ for optical and acoustic lattice vibrations?
5. Which feature in the specific heat requires quantum physics for its
explanation?
6. Why does the coefficient for thermal expansion vanish at zero temperature?
93
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
8.SINGLE TRANSISTOR SHUNT VOLTAGE

REGULATOR
AIM: - To design a power Supply of 9V, 100mA load current using shunt voltage regulator.
APPARATUS: - DVM, SANWA multimeter, 750Ω
COMPONENTS: - 12-0-12 Transformer, 470µF/ 25, Diode 1N4001 (2 Pcs), Transistors,
Zener, 9.1V, 400 mW.
THEORY: - The Shunt type voltage regulator using transistor is shown in figure, which
extends the power handling capacity of the basic zener diode and also exhibits improvement
in regulation. As shown in figure source resistance Rs is in series with supply and should be
large enough to absorb the over voltage. Zener diode D2 is connected between collector and
load of transistor. Action of the circuit is as shown. As the voltage across the diode is
constant, an increase (decrease) in v0 produces an equal increase (decrease) in VBE which
increases collector current Ic. Hence the voltage drop in Rs will increase and tend to restore
the output voltage to its original value. Here we can use low power type zener diode.
PROCEDURE :-
(a) Construct the full wave rectifier capacitor filter as shown in figure.
(b) Change the load current from 0 mA to 100 mA and measure the output voltage. Draw the
load characteristics of a power supply.
(c) Consider the following voltage,
When ILmin= 0 mA ; Vo = Vmax= volt
ILmax = 100 mA; Vo = Vmin= volt
(d) Now select the transistor SL100 which has the following characteristics.
Transistor- N-P-N P0=4 watt
VCEmax= 50 V hfe=40-300
Icmax=500 mA
(e) Construct the shunt regulator using above component and obtain the load characteristics of
the supply.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
V  VFL
% Voltage Regulation= NL  100%
V FL
From the graph, calculate % of regulation in both case.
94
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
I)
Load Current IL Without Regulation With Regulation

Obs..No
(mA) Vo (Volt) Vo (Volt)
II)
Vz at 50mA
(volts)
Vmin
Vn
Vmax
GRAPH:
95
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
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PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1. ‘Y’ BY KOENING’S METHOD

1. Distances between mirrors M1 and M2 (α) = ________ cm

4. Breath of the beam (b) = __________ cm

Position of the beam in absence of hanger & pan: X0 ____ cm

ii) Grey Iron bar : 130 GPa = 1.3 x 10 N/m2

III) Grating should be normal to the axis of collimator:

(1) Observation for adjustment of the grating:

(3) Observations for angle of diffraction

3. FLATNESS OF PLATE BY NEWTON'S RING

AIM: To Determine Flatness of plate by Newton's Ring

Plane Glass plate

Flat plate to be tested

4. RESOLVING POWER OF TELESCOPE

AIM: To measure the resolving power of telescope.

INTRODUCTION: Resolving power is defined as the ability of a microscope or telescope to

Here, x1 = Position of 1st wire

Dist between Theoretical Practical

5. ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF GLASS PLATE

AIM: To find the absorption coefficient of glass plate.

6. ELECTRON DIFFRACTION PATTERN

AIM : To obtain the axial length of the given crystal.

7. I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

AIM: To determine the I-V characteristics of a solar cell.

Fig.1 I-V Curve of PV Cell and Associated Electrical Diagram

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT (ISC):

Isc = Imax = Il for forward-bias power quadrant

OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (VOC):

Fig. 4. Maximum Power for an I-V Sweep

Fig. 5. Getting Fill Factor from the I-V Sweep

𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝐹 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 × 𝑉𝑂𝐶

SHUNT RESISTANCE (RSH) and SERIES RESISTANCE (Rs):

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:

8. NUMERICAL METHOD BASED ON

Δy0 = y1-y0, Δy1 = y2-y1,….Δyn-1 = yn-yn-1

Δ3yn = Δ2yn+1 - Δ2yn = yn+3 - 3yn+2 + 3yn+1 - yn

= ∑𝑟𝑚=0(−1)𝑚 (𝑚𝑟 )yn+r-m - ------------------(1)

y = 0.99750 + 0.0003427 – 0.0001166813 – 0.00000311743 + 0.00000062476

Here, x = 0.2862 ; xk = 0.30 ; h = 0.05 ; yk = 0.91393

= 0.91393 + 0.00703248 + 0.000409632 – 0.00001837315 + 0.00000312802

Determine the values of Sin 180 and Sin 380

(𝑥 – 𝑥0 )(𝑥 – 𝑥2 )(𝑥 – 𝑥3 )……..(𝑥 – 𝑥𝑛 )

tº C 630.5 960.5 1063.0

Exercise: Langrange Interpolation

1. FIGURE OF MERIT OF MIRROR GALVANOMETER

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. MEASUREMENT OF RATIO OF CAPACITANCES

AIM: To measure ratio of capacitances using De Sauty’s AC Bridge.

APPARATUS: Resistors, multimeter, capacitors, AFO.

3. ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The drop across the series resistance, Rs = Vin – Vz …….. (2)

And current flowing through it, Is = (Vin – VZ) / RS ………….. (3)

Fig. 1 (a) Line Regulation (b) Load Regulation

1. Make the connections as shown in figure below.

Line Regulation RL= Load Regulation Vin=

4.HYBRID PARAMETER OF TRANSISTOR

AIM: To study H-parameter of transistor using characteristic curve.

Input current (𝐼1 ) = Base current (𝐼𝐵 ) µA

Output current (𝐼2 ) = collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) mA

Input voltage (𝑉1 ) = Base – Emitter Voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) volts

Output voltage (𝑉2) = collector – Emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) volts

2. Reverse voltage amplification

OBSERVATION TABLE: Part 1