C. C. Chou & K. w.

Lee
REFINING QUALITY OF RAW SUGAR

C. C. Chou & K. W. Lee

Domino Sugar Corp., New York

ABSTRACT
The effects of different impurities, present in raw sugar, in the process of refining are described.
Keywords: Sugarcane, raw sugar, refining, quality, polarization, invert, ash, moisture content, grain size, color,
dextran, filterability, insolubles, polysaccharides.
INTRODUCTION
In the early 19th century the goal of the refiner was to manufacture a white, dried crystalline product; thus color,
moisture and other qualities were used as a basis to determine a settlement price. There is a high correlation between
the quality of the raw sugar input md refinery production costs. In 1966 there was a concerted effort to relate raw
sugar quality to refinability and the American Sugar Co. (now the Domino Sugar Corp.) developed a raw sugar
purchase contract in which penalties and premiums were assessed for several parameters other than polarization (Culp
& Hageney 1967). The rationale behind raw sugar quality standards is to encourage the raw sugar mills to meet these
standards and to go beyond to enjoy premiums.
Cane sugar refineries can handle raw sugars of varied refining qualities, but considerable deviations can have a
sigmficant effect on a refiner's processing capability. With present levels of automation and efficient designing of the
refining process, large fluctuations in polarization and quality would reduce the ability of a refinery to maintain
capacity, contain costs and meet the customer's quality expectation. Poor-quality raw sugar results in extra costs
through losses, reduced sugar yields, increased use of processing materials (e.g., lime, filter aid 'and bone char),
increased steam consumption, poor white sugar quality, etc.
A literature review and a description of the 17 factors affecting the refining of raw sugar are available (Watson &
Nicol 1975): polarization, moisture, safety factor (or dilution indicator), ash, sulfate, polyvalent anions, color,
affinability, filterability, starch, polysaccharides, insoluble matter, bacterial count, trace elements, pesticides, silica
and floc-forming constituents.
Details on experiments with harvesting and operational changes on juice clarification and boiling schemes done
by millers to improve raw sugar @ty have been well documented (Cordovez 1986, Moritsugu 1986). Good-quality
raw sugar can only be made efficiently from good-quality cane, i.e., cane that is fresh and free from field soil (would
increase silica levels) and leaves and trash, which contribute to color and starch. Stale, but clean cane did not show
a great increase in color (S. Clarke, Assoc. Prof., Audubon Sugar Institute, Louisiana State Univ. pers. cornrn.
1993).
Efforts to raise quality have been successful, and a comparison between results in 1978 and 15 years later shows
that factors that were important to refiners have changed in response to the types of raws received. In 1978 the order
of importance was:
US: Polarization, color, filterability, ash, grain size, safety factor I

Europe: Polarization, ash, filterability, color, grain size, floc-forming constituents (Lopez-Ona 1979).
By 1993 this had changed:
US: Color, ash, dextran, polarization, filterability, invertlgrain sizelstarch (linked).
Europe: Color, polarization, filterability, ash, invertlgrain sizeldextran (linked) (Carreno 1993).
For the overall 1993 survey, raw sugar quality factors, in order of importance, were: Color, polarization, ash,
dextrantfilterability, invert, starch/grain size and moisture. It appears that the number one concern in
1978-polarization-has been addressed by the mills and is now ranked lower. Of paramount concern to the refiner
at present is color.
This paper stresses the significance and impact raw sugar quality parameters have on refining aspects. A refinery
has an optimum throughput determined by its capacity to handle impurities. If this capacity is overloaded, the
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consequences are numerous, includbig reduced refuiery throughput, reduction in white sugar quality and poor sugar
yield.
POLARIZATION
Polarization is a good indicator of thie load to be expected in recovery. If the purity of blackstrap molasses remains
constant, raising the polarization of the raw sugar melted iiot only increases the sucrose Input but also reduces the
nonsucrose ulput; therefore sucrose loss to molasses is also reduced.
Very high-quality raws, typically called Very High Pol (VHP) raws, have been the subject of numerous reports.
The coilcept was inveiited in South Africa, with VHP defined as over 99.3 pol. The cost advantages in temq of
savings in labor. energy ~ I K Iincreased yields in processing raws of high polarizations have been documented by several
refiners (Bennett 1981, Val Vleck et a1 1990). 011 die otlier lwid, some refiners find that premiums paid for above-
average polarization are lmd to justtfy because other factors will tend to donhate (Martin 1986). It should be pointed
out that not all retitiers wait VHP raws because they lave a product mix that requires a certain amount of nonsugars
for soft sugars and other products. Occasionally refiners have lad to purchase molasses to add to the product (Meikle
1986).
Some refiners complain about the dusty coiiditioils tlat exist while processing VHP raws. The sugar had to be
sprayed witli water and hi this damp condition had to be processed immediately. Judicious spraying is difficult td,
control and can lead to messes and blockages. Witli VHP sugar, improved filtratioii through carbonatation is expected;
but. this does iiot always happen, apparently because of a decreased flocculating rate due to the reduced amounts of
tlie usual long-claui 11101 wt impurities, coiiibined Witli a reduction in the dissolved ash content (Dreati 1982).
A low-polarizhig sugar is, however, discouraged. For example, tlie proposed Savannah Sugar. Refinery
polarizatioi~payment coiltract includes a stiff penalty for sugars < 97,.0 polarization. Refniers are interested in hiving
enough tioilsugars to meet soft sugar demands but prefer no more, than tlnt; besides low-po ion sugars develop
much more color t l m high-pol raws wlieii stored under similar conditiolis (Bruijn 1986).
Tliere must be a compromise to satisfy the requirements of sufficiently high polarizati the refiner and the
costs tlnt tlie raw sugar producers lmve to incur to produce tlis sugar. Although most producers do not wash their
sugars, Moritsugu (1g86) found that double-wash systems in tlie mill (witli the first wash being longer than the second)
were effective ui minimizing molasses purity increase. Ttiere is a limjt --- (approx.
--- 99 pol) beyond which more washing
will not increase the polarization of the sugar; above this, molasses purity rise increases (Moritsugu 1986).
INVERT
Raw sugars with lugli uivert coiiteiits tend to lave low pH. Altliougli much of the invert sugar is removed during
affiatioli, the washed sugar tends to lave a depressed pH, leading to tlie addition of alkali to adjust the low pH in the
melt liquor, which ui turn raises the ash content. Furthermore, upon degradation, tlie uivert contributes to color and
organic acid formation, wlicli then destroys sucrose.
When subjected to high temperature and strong alkaline conditions, high invert levels it1 raw sugar can result in
color buildup in liquor streams. hi a carbonatation refinery, higher-tlwi-normal uivert hi the melt liquor crui
occasionally show up hi the carb liquor as a brown color. Tlis situation las been traced to poor grain, poor purging
and ligh invert raw sugar. Altliougli invert is partially destroyed in carborntation, die final sugar may be difficult to
dry if the levels are too ligli (Fawcett 1986). When fine liquor is sold as a final product, it will exceed inJert
specifications, thereby requiring tlie addition of dissolved granulated sugar to w e it of a11 acceptable quality
(DOI~OV~II 1993).
All impurities in the molasses film surrounding tlie raw sugar crystal go to tlie recovery system, which acts as a
sink for all rejected or recycled impurities that pass tluougli the 3-4 white sugar boiluigs; mainly, color, ash and invert.
Assuming that there is no clxmge hi the iioilsucrose coilstituetits between raw sugar and molasses, Tate & Lyle Sugar's
"ideal molasses" formula predicts total sugars it1 molasses to be:
+
Z = 100(5 3 s)
3(3 + g)
where Z = total sugars as % of solids in molasses and g = IlivertINSS (or ash + organic nonsugars).
Invert sugar, which is probably the largest single contributor to reduced recovery, lms a twofold effect: it improves
the exhaustion of molasses, but it reduces sucrose recovery. hi the first place, invert is lion-melassigeiic so it reduces
~ C. C. Chou & K. W. Lee

the solubility of sucrose, allowing more to crystallize out. At low invert levels (i.e., low g), the sucrose level in the
exhausted molasses will depend on the melassigenic effect of the nonsugars. At intermediate invert and g levels, more
sucrose will be extracted, giving a lower level of sucrose in the molasses. Secondly, high levels of invert affect
crystallization rate. This not only limits the amount of sugar that can be crystallized within a practical time, but can
also lead to an increase in viscosity as supersaturation is increased to compensate (Donovan 1993, Reed et a1 1981).
Raw sugars with high invert content have been found to be sticky, do not flow, have a high angle of repose and
are difficult to handle in bucket elevators. Fawcett (1986) reported a 20-30 % reduction in capacity in dry cold weather
when high invert raws with as little as 0.7% invert refused to flow. They have a high angle of repose-90 degrees
or higher and form fine "spidery hairs," which means that when it gets to a chute, it has "more traction than 'Tiger
Paws'" and tends to stick to the buckets of the elevator, reducing its capacity. This makes it necessary to blow steam
into the boot of the raw sugar elevator and wash the chutes, hoppers and scale bucket frequently.
In terms of storage, high invert levels can stimulate osmophilic yeast activity to the point where the temperature
increases within the pile. A maximum storage temperature of 38°C has been suggested, but < 30DCis preferable
(Clarke, pers. c o r n . ) .
ASH (AND INVERT)
Saline and high-ash soils tend to result in cane with high-ash content and possible melassigenic problems (Clarke,
pers. c o r n . ) . If there is overliming because of deteriorated cane, scale and residual calcium increase with the
possibility of higher ash in the sugar. A

Centrifugal tests conducted at the Colonial Refinery for various combinations of high/low invert and high/low ash
raw revealed that the latter is more critical than the former given its relationship to producing a satisfactory washed
raw sugar. In other words, ash showed only small reductions with increased cycle and wash times; whereas invert
was cut significantly (Fawcett 1986). Although carbonatation and bone char can partially remove this residual ash,
capacity is limited.
It has been suggested that ash causes a loss in sucrose recovery equal to five times the quantity of ash contained
in the raw (Reed et a1 1981). Ash is more highly melassigenic than invert and organic nonsugars. The effect of high-
asli raws is to yield a higher-than-normal blackstrap purity. The amount of sugar lost to molasses will depend on
whether the cations are mostly Ca and Mg or K and Na, the last two being more melassigenic. The invertlash ratio
(g) is used to predict tlie purity of final molasses and therefore its quantity:
+
g = itivertl(as1i organic nonsugars)
A decrease in the invertlash ratio results in an increase in molasses purity. A good raw sugar sliould fall in the
range 1.5-2.0 for invertlash ratio (Fawcett 1986).
High asli in granulated sugars is a direct function of raws containing high Ca and Mg levels when the levels of
sulfate and carbonate are also high. High asli can increase the rate of scaling in evaporators and vacuum pans. The
ash scale that deposits on the tubes not only slows the pan down, but it can also flake off and contaminate the final
product. It is not uncommon to have to boil out the white pans on the lower purity strikes after as little as two days'
operation when processing high-ash raws. At a pan liquor of > 250 ppm sulfatelcarbonate, it is likely that the sulfates
and carbonates will plate out on the calandria tube surfaces (Tuson 1979). The abrasive action of the massecuite
(fillmass) moving through the tubes scours this scale into the product. The presence of these yellowlwhite insolubles
in the sugar product may require pan boil-outs during operating periods, with loss of production. While it is more
likely to occur hi the lower purity third and fourth white boilings, it could happen on first atid second strikes. Given
the corrosive nature of the acid used in boiling out, frequent boil-outs shorten the service life of the pan. Moreover,
reprocessing of the sugar to attain proper specification is costly in terms of energy, throughput and greater sucrose
loss.
A direct correlation exists between asli level and tlie color of the liquor from char. h normal ash-level raws, the
ash-absorbing power of the char remains after the decolorizing power is exhausted. If ash content is high, however,
the decolorizing capacity of the char is rapidly used up. Higher ash raws lead to more color in the char liquor,
requiring more wash water on the white sugar centrifugals and thereby reducing throughput and increasing
recirculation (Fawcett 1986).
The effect of ash on ion-exclmige systems is to reduce decolorizatioii performance although this is quite small.
At the T l m e s and Greetlock refineries, a 0.01 % increase in ash causes a minor increase (a couple of color units) in
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the fine liquor color, but this will generally be hidden in the natural variation occurring in the refinery (Donovan 1993).

MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture content is related to the sugars' keeping quahty. High moisture in raw sugar is conducive to deterioration
of sucrose by osmophilic yeasts. Under high-moisture conditions, a film of syrup f o m on the sugar crystals that is
dilute enough to allow growth of microorganisms.
Whalley (1954) found the controlling factor to be the ratio of moisture to nonsucrose, which he called the safety
factor, SF:
SF (deterioration factor) =
(100-pol)
High values indicate sugars with poor keeping qualities. Originally a value of < 0.33 was considered acceptable
in that the microbial spoilage of sugar is effectively stopped; however, the maximum limit of this relationship has been
established at different levels by several authors, ranging from 0.22-0.33. In Domino Sugar's Raw Sugar Quality
Standard, the maximum is set at 0.30. As the moisture level pushes the safety factor above the safe limit, sucrose loss
due to microbiological action is seen to be very great. It makes the storing of wet sugars prohibitive even for short
periods (Petri & Carpenter 1979). It may be necessary to process the sugar immediately, and storage decisions may
have to be made on this basis.
Under certain circumstances, the undesirable storage of bulk sugar has to occur under less-than-ideal conditions.
I
Old raw sugars, not necessarily deteriorated in pol, give large unknown losses in the refinery (Watson & Nicol 1975).
Work on stored Hawaiian raw sugar showed a high correlation between polarization loss and safety factor; however,
many of the tests were run at much higher than normal safety factors (Clarke, pers. comm.).
GRAIN SIZE
Typically, grain-size specifications are given in terms of a percentage through Tyler 28 mesh (US 30) with the
, standard quality range from 22-52 % . A high number indicates low quality in that the sugar is rather fine. As grain
consistency affects the affimtion process, it is important that the refineries receive grains of uniform size and free of
conglomerates. Small lumps and conglomerates do not affine well, the latter being the major cause of poor affination
efficiency. Fine, damaged or mixed-grain raws require increased supervision to adjust the spray manifold more
accurately. The additional washing at the afiination station places a greater load on the remelt station. The poor grain
can cause blinding of the centrifugals as well as reduced throughput and impurity removal, often producing a white
liquor that crystallizes slowly (because of retained impurities) and purges poorly in the white sugar centrifugal (Clarke,
pers. comm.). Under most conditions the net effect of small and mixed grain is reflected in a decrease in melt rate,
increased fine liquor color and an increased loss of sucrose to f m l molasses (Reed et a1 1981).
Uniform grain consistency is important; otherwise, wet spots (such as those in conglomerates) can be present,
providing sites for microbial decomposition. Most microbes are osmophilic and will grow under high-Brix conditions
such as those in conglomerates and lumps that trap molasses. Lumpiness and partially damaged raws can not be
adequately detected by standard sugar sampling and could result in a false higher quality of the sugar. The Thames
Refinery reported a sugar that tested 98.5 polar with 4100 color, but with large amounts of hard, brown, lumps at 6960
and syrupy pieces at 94.7 pol and > 16,000 color. Mechanical handling equipment was stopped many times, and the
minglers were frequently blocked (Martin 1986). Conglomerated raw sugar of the same mesh size as good grain was
found to be si@~cantly lower in pol, but higher in polysaccharides. Conglomerates are more likely to form at high
purities and at high supersaturation with poor pan circulation. Moreover, high mother liquor supersaturation at the
completion of a strike-especially with inadequate crystal content-can cause fine crystal formation when the
massecuite cools after discharge (Clarke, pers. comm.).
It has been Domino Sugar's experience that in especially luglier polarization raw sugars, which can be very dry,
there are problems in handling. Sugar losses in loadinglunloading these cargos are high as the sugar readily slips off;
often water would have to be added to control the dust. As with any fine sugar powder, there should be precautions
to avoid the hazards of a dust explosion. The subject of sugar dust classification has been covered by Morden (1993).
COLOR
It has been shown that there is an inverse relationship between washed sugar color (and melt liquor color) vs melt
C. C. Chou & K. W. Lee

rate, thereby adding sigmticantly to the cost of refining dark-colored sugars (Reed et a1 1981); but color avoidance in
the form of low-colored incoming raws is preferred to color removal. Causes for high colors in raws include the
nature of the soil, cane variety and ripeness, efficiency in clarifying the juice, methods of pan boiling, pigments and
color precursors present in the cane, and color developed in process such as caramelization through holding process
liquors at high temperatures for extended periods (Clarke, pers. comm.; Lopez-Ona 1977).
Development of color can occur not only in the liquid phase but also inside the crystal. The primary cause of
qystal color increase is the Maillard reaction, which becomes more significant at higher temperatures. As large mol-
wt-Maillard reaction products are preferentially occluded in the crystal, efforts to lower the reaction products should
lower the amount of color in the crystal (Clarke 1986).
When decomposition takes place during storage, at1 increase in color can be noticed long before the sucrose loss
can be measured. The rate of color increase is greater for sugars that are already dark, suggesting that the sugar
destruction reactions are progressive or self-catalytic (Petri & Carpenter 1979).
There is a fine line as to the proper amount of molasses film that should be on the crystal while in storage. Sugars
should be of high enough test so that excessive molasses does not remain on the grain, providing a breeding ground
for microbial growth and causing stickiness and caking as well as sucrose decomposition. Nevertheless, it is believed
that washing off the molasses film would leave a film of water, which may be worse (Petri & Carpenter 1979; Steele
1986).
In goodquality raws the molasses film surrounding the crystals contains the bulk of the impurities (> 80 %) and
is easily removed by affmtion. This operation should remove the greatest proportion of impurities as subsequent
removal at later stages of refining are less economical. Any sugar that does not affime well is thus a problem for the
refinery. While some color bodies (those not occluded) are removed at the affmtion station, substantial amounts are
returned to process by means of remelt sugars. Refiners want to purchase the minimum amount of color to send
through the white sugar process.
With high-colored raws there is an increase in affmtion wash, thus sending more sucrose to recovery with
subsequent loss. If the decolorization process cannot pro3uie a-fight enough effluent to keep granulated color at the
required level, more processing materials (i.e., lime, bone char) must be made available or remelting is necessary.
With respect to inorganic additives, sodium hydrosulfite is sometimes used in raw sugar factories to reduce color;
however the sulfite-bleached color may return 011 storage or processing, leading to unanticipated color-removal
problems, especially across bone char. Chou (1983) has described the effect of sulfitation on the operations of both
raw sugar d s and refineries. Occasionally a premium is paid for such a cargo that is apparently low in color, and
then the sugar will not decolorize over bone char (Chou 1986; Clarke 1985; D. Demone, Environ. & Quality Control
Manager, Domino Sugar Corp., pers. comm., 1995). The net refuling cost is higher for these sugars; worse still, the
sultite used in raw sugar treatment is oxidized to sulfate, increasing pan scale in the refinery. Excessive use of sulfite
may also result in noncompliance of regulatory sulfite-level requirements.
In a collaborative test between C&H Crockett refinery and the Hawaiian owners from 1986-87, it was concluded
that at a raw color of approx. 1200 ICUMSA and a nonsucrose content of approx. 0.60, the savings in refining costs
could support the necessary raw factory facilities and investments needed to meet the raw sugar quality level
determined by the Crockett staff (Humm 1988). The color specification of 1200 was based on that normally produced
by the clarifier feed. The desired incoming nonsugars level was determined by balancing nonsucrose with soft sugar
and refined syrup products volume. The raw sugar qual~tywould allow operation without an affmtion station, thereby
giving savings in labor, energy and maintenance associated with affination equipment. With no affmtion syrup, there
would be a major reduction or even the elimination of remelt operations, no molasses production and no sucrose losses
to molasses. Concurrent with the low colorlhigh polarization, however, nonsucrose deficiency had to be made up by
injecting molasses and/or manufactured invert syrup into the process. Details of the Very Low Color (VLC) operating
mode at Crockett without an affination or recovery station are given by Van Vleck et a1 (1990).
INSOLUBLES
It has been reported that fine insoluble solids can reduce centrifugal efficiency by blinding the screens, reducing
throughput and impurity removal. The only parameter that correlated well with filtration impedance was total
suspended solids (Devereux & Clarke 1984a & b). As a result of poor filtration, there could be the cost of extra filter
aid used at the press station, more frequent starts resulting in higher sugar losses in filter cake, and higher sweet water
 Factory: Processing

volume. Alternately, decreased filterability could necessitate reduction of Brix to get the liquor through. Reduced
Brix requires more energy for evaporation, but even more expensive is the time lost and energy cost'ii~feeding low-
Brix material to the pans. c
The suspended solids that hinder filtration are either polysaccharides, fiber or inorganic materials such as Ca, A1
and Si (Donovan & Lee 1994). It has been determined by many that particle sizes of < 5 micron d i m . had the
strongest effect on filtration impedance (Devereux & Clarke 1984a & b, Donovan & Lee 1994). In fact Donovan &
Lee (1994) concluded that most of the concn. is in the 0.5 micron area. They found that levels of suspended solids
> 250 ppm reduced the filtration capacity of the Thames refinery.
Other insoluble particulate materials include bagacillo, fiber, soil and microbial spores-all of which either cause
deterioration or offer sites for water absorption and microbial growth. The insoluble matter should be < 0.1 % for
good-keeping raw sugar (Petri & Carpenter 1979). It has been noted that bagacillo in raw sugar develops high color
in process; surprisingly, however, this parameter is not penalized (Carreno 1993).
DEXTRAN
Dextran, although not present in fresh clean cane, can become a major problem when formed in stale cane and in
mills operating under unsanitary conditions (Roberts et a1 1988). Some experts claim that the low mol-wt dextran
problem is more of a refinery problem because there is more of that low range in the incoming raws as most of the
high mol-wt material (> 500,000) is removed at the raw sugar factory (Devereux & Clarke 1984a & b). Increase in
dextran l~velsduring storage was measured by Steele (1986). An increase of > 30 % was observed over a 6-mo period
for sugars stored in a tropical area.
At the refinery level dextran is a problem even before it arrives. Because of its dextrorotary optical activity, it
falsely enhances pols; for every 333 ppm dextran in the raw sugar, polarization is raised by a minimum of 0.10 degrees
(Hanson 1980). Besides elevated polarizations, dextran has been noted to cause elongated crystals and increased
viscosity, which'can slow down filtration, decrease rates of crystallization and increase turbidity-all of which result
\
in higher refining costs and additional sugar losses.
Although Domino's contract on dextran penalty starts at about 550 ppm (250 MAU), the threshold dextran concn.
in raw sugar at which additional expenses would be incurred by the refiner has been estimated to be in the 250-300
ppm range, beyond which, cost increase is probably exponential (Hans,on 1980). In the affination step, the elongated
raw sugar crystals reduce the efficiency of minglihg and purging of syrup; the problem is compounded due to the
increased viscosity of the magma. To maintain acceptable washed sugar color, excess wash might be applied to
increase both affination syrup purity and volume. As much of the dextran is occluded in the crystal, the affining step
does not remove it so it is carried into the refining process and concentrated.
The increased viscosity due to dextran can slow remelt press filtration. Occasionally, excessive filter aid and/or
lowering Brix are required to maintain the standard melt rate. In the boiling of remelt sugars, operators often report
elongated crystals in high remelt strikes and in affition syrup boiling when high dextran raws are melted.
Furthermore, dextran is known to cause high viscosity in the final magma, thereby limiting exhaustion.
When soft sugar crystals become elongated as a result of high dextran raws, the impact is seen in boiling and
centrifuging problems; more importantly, the syrup phase of the soft sugar is sticky and viscous. This causes a
slowdown in packaging rate if not a total remelt of the unacceptable soft. Soft sugar produced from raw sugar with
> 700 ppm dextran will experience flowability problems due to stickiness (Chou & Wnukowski 1980).
When dextran level is extremely high, high-grade massecuites may show elongated grains and increased boiling
time, resulting in increased color, reduced pan capacity, higher energy costs and sucrose losses (Moritsugu 1986).
The mother liquor viscosity is increased so that the massecuite purges poorly. When dextrans become occluded in
white sugars, they are unsuitable for making cordials because polysaccharides-especially dextrans-give a cloudy
appearance in alcoholic solutions. At times the high turbidity levels contribute to difficulty in meeting turbidity
specifications for liquid sugar production.
OTEIER POLYSACCHARIDES
The presence of polysaccharides is best known for hindering filtration. While starch, gums, waxes, phosphates,
silicates and proteins lave been identified as being associated with impeding filtration, the subject is not well
understood. The starch effect on a noncarbonatated refinery is not obvious although it is often implicated in filtration
problems. Chou (1974) found a correlation between phosphate and alcohol insolubles and filtration, but only a slight
C. C. Chou & K. W. Lee

correlation with polysaccharides and none with silicate, starch or protein. In carbonated slurries, however, Hidi &
McCowage (1984) found a high correlation with phosphates; a moderate 'correlation with Si, A1 and high levels of Mg;
and a slight correlation with starch, gums and high mol-wt dextran (i.e., 40-50 million mol wt).
Sugarcane polysaccharides are of two groups: Those intrinsic to'cane and those produced as a consequence of
deterioration. Starch has been considered the most significant polysaccharide causing processipg problems. Starch
content is highest in immature cane, tops and leaves. Most starch is occluded in the crystal and is not efficiently
removed at affination, resulting in difficult filtration and production of sticky massecuites that do not purge well. High
levels of polysaccharides sbch as starch lead to turbidity in pressed liquor (Clarke, pers. comm.).
Carbonatation rkfineries have recognized that the action of starch in affined raws can be responsible for producing
very poor-filtering calcium carbonate slurries, severely reducing throughput. Studies have suggested that it is the
amylose component of starch which interferes with calcium carbonate crystal growth. The amylose acts as a protective
colloid and coats the surface of the growing carbonate crystal, which suppresses agglomerate formation, resulting in
low average particle size and poor filtration. It is believed that at >250 ppm starch, its deleterious effect in a
carbonated refinery yill be perceived (Alexander & Matic 1974, Donovan 1993). At the Hulett refinery, the
acceptable range is 100-150 ppm. A bonus is applied for raw sugar < 100 ppm starch; while every 30 ppm increment
> 150 ppm has an increased penalty (Alexander & Ravno 1985).
It has been suggested that the viscosity effects of starch and dextran combined are amplified; these effects could
include blocked char filters, increased viscosity, reduced throughput and decreased crystal yield. In 1988, for
example, the Colonial refinery had a raw sugar so high in starch that the turbidity level was more than three-fold
normal levels in the melt liquor. The starch in this high-turbidity liquor "coated" the char, clogged the pores and
drastically impaired the flow (Johnson 1989).
FILTERABILITY
To maintain standard melt rate, when a poor filtering raw is encountered at the refinery, Chou (1983) gives the
following six options: Use a less tight grade of earth, increase earth usage, lower viscosity by decreasing Brix, blend
sugar with a better filtering raw, increase liquor temperature and optimize operating conditions (i.e., sluicing
efficiency, condition of cloth, remelt quality, increased number of press cycles).
Lab-scale experiments by Chou (1983) show possible improvements in filtration rate with the following: Sodium
hydroxide for pH adjustment through grade #3 new earth; removal of accumulated phosphate and calcium oxide in
regenerated earth; presence of the proper concn. of polyelectrolyte (anionic charge) in washed sugar liquor; and
treatment of washed sugar liquor with CAL carbon to remove organic macro molecules. Unfortunately these methods
are not practical for refinery operations.
Although filterability is of great concern to the refiner in terms of being able to maintain standard melt and density
'
through the presses, not many refiners have a criterion for filterability in raw sugar purchase contracts. Some methods
include the CSR Nicholson-Horseley test (used in the purchase contract), the Tate & Lyle and C&H pressure filter
methods, and B.C. Sugar's plugging valve test (Chen & Chou 1993). Chou (1983). reported a method that has been
used internally at Domino Sugar for evaluating raw sugar filterability using "standard" earth and for evaluating filter-
aid (diatomaceous earth) quality using "standard" raw sugq There is currently no official method recommended by
ICUMSA for testing the filterability of a raw.
Pollack et al(1969) showed that,other parameters being equal, an avg filtering raw sugar has a capacity (expressed
as gallday-ft2) higher than a poor filtering raw by 28.6 and 33 % for 0.1 and 0.25 % admix, resp. The avg turbidity
of pressed filtered liquor for good raws was 15 Nephelos in contrast to an avg 48 Nephelos for poor raws.
DISCUSSION
This paper is meant to assist understanding and communication between raw sugar producers and refiners on the
refining aspects of various quality raw sugars. As the US sugar refining industry faces yet higher competitive
pressure, more regulatory compliance requirements and increased demand for high-quality products, it is to the mutual
benefit of the sugar industry as a whole to establish cooperative partnerships.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Domino Sugar Corp. for the o p p o d t y to develop and present this paper and all the Sugar
Technologists of the past for the documentation and knowledge passed onto us.
 Factory: Processing

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