Chapter 1

Introduction
Since the beginning of criminal investigation, scientist & police personnel sought an
impeccable means of identification. In 1883, Alphonse Bertillon, a French police expert
devised and introduced 1st systematic attempt at personal identification. The Bertillon
system relied on a detailed description (portrait parle) of the subject, combined with full
length and profile photographs and a system of precise body measurements known as
anthropometry.

Bertillon set down the principles of anthropometry. The principle stated:

1. The human skeleton is unchangeable after the twentieth year.

2. It is impossible to find two human bones exactly alike.
3. Necessary measurements could easily be taken with the aid of simple instrument.

Although Bertillon promoted the idea of a systematic method of identification, the

shortcomings of his system gave rise to what would become the most widely use method
of identification & individualization worldwide for the next 80 years – FINGERPRINTS.

Fig. 1.1 Digital image of a fingerprint

Fingerprints, as well as palm prints & footprints, are made up of friction ridges. Scientific
Working Group on Friction ridge Analysis, Study & Technology (SWGFAST) defines a
friction ridge as –

“A raised portion of the epidermis on the palmar or planter skin, consisting of one or
more connected ridge units”

Dermatoglyphics: - the science of the study of skin pattern

Dactyloscopy: - identification by comparison of fingerprints

-By Merriam Webster

 Brief history

As earliest as 4000 BCE till present date, Fingerprint science has evolved as an abiding
subject of interest. In between there are some scientist whose contribution has become
a milestone in the history of fingerprint science such as Purkinje (1823) who
systematically classified patterns for the first time, Henry Faulds (1880) suggested
use of it in criminal identification, Francis Galton (1892) published book which
establishes individuality, permanence of fingerprint and Edward Richard Henry
whose identification system through fingerprints gained ground over the Bertillon’s
anthropometric identification system. The works of Grew & Bidloo, Malpighi, Hintze,
Albinus, Mayer, Bell, Herschel, Twain, Vucetich, Azizul Haque, Hem Chandra Bose
and many more are appreciated as well. Without them all, fingerprint science would
not have reached this remarkable stage.

Fig.1.3 Sir Juan Vucetich Fig.1.2 Sir Francis Galton Fig.1.4 Dr Henry Faulds

After the appreciable work of various experts has been published about the uniqueness &
permanency of fingerprints, the police began to appreciate and accept a system of
identification based on the classification of finger ridge patterns known as fingerprints.

The identification of criminals through fingerprints was the first most important break-
through in the scientific investigation of crime. As always, the judiciary and public took
some time to believe in the utility of fingerprints as a scientific aid. Today, fingerprint is
the pillar of modern criminal identification.
 Physiology & Embroyology

 An understanding of the
uniqueness of
fingerprints begins with
an understanding of the
physiology of human
skin. The skin is made up
of 3 main layers each
with distinct functions &
morphology: epidermis,
dermis and hypodermis. Fig.1.5 A cross section view of primary components of friction ridge
A cross sectional view
has been demonstrated in
fig.1.5

Table 1. Embryological Development

s.no. Time Developmental Process

interval
(In Weeks)
1. 6-7 Webbing between cartilaginous ‘fingers’ begin to deplete
Volar pads appear
2. 7-10 Volar pads grow
It vary in size, position, and shape
3. 10-15 Volar pad regression starts
Epidermal ridge cells begin to replicate in basal layer.
Primary ridges & sweat glands form
4. 15-17 Secondary ridge formation initiates
Top layer of epidermis forms
5. 17-25 Secondary ridges form between all primary ridges.
Ridges are apparent on skin surface
Dermal papillae form
Friction ridges have adult morphology
 Fundamental principles
Any branch of science works & progress on the basic principles. Principles are the basic
rules or law on which the theory governs. The following biological principles are basic in
understanding the science of fingerprints and its applicability in the field of personal
identification.

1st principle – “A fingerprint is an individual characteristic. No two fingers have yet been
observed to possess identical ridge characteristics

2nd principle – “A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an individual’s lifetime”

3rd principle – “Fingerprints have general ridge patterns which permit them to be
systematically classified”

Level 1 2 & 3 detail

A comparison of two fingerprints can lead to one of three conclusions: an exclusion,
identification, or inconclusive result. Fingerprint examiner describe three levels of detail
within a friction ridge impression.

Level 1 includes the general ridge flow and pattern configuration. Level 1 detail is not
sufficient for individualization, but can be used for exclusion. Level 1 detail may include
information enabling orientation, pattern type, shape, and location of core and delta, and
distinction of finger versus palm. Fig.1.6 (A)

Level 2 detail refers to the minutiae within the pattern. It includes formations, defined as
a ridge ending, bifurcation, dot, or combinations thereof. An analysis of level two details
includes not only the types of minutiae but also the relative positions of the minutiae
along the friction ridges. The Level 2 detail enables individualization. Fig.1.6 (B)

Level 3 detail includes all dimensional attributes of a ridge, such as ridge path deviation,
width, shape, pores, edge contour, incipient ridges, breaks, creases, scars and other
permanent details. The study of level 3 details is known as ridgeology. Fig.1.6 (C)

Fig. 1.6 (A) (B) (C)

 Characteristic features of fingerprint
According to the 3rd principle the fingerprints may be resolved in 4 general pattern types.

 Arch
 Loop
 Whorl
 Composite

The common characteristics which make up these patterns are known as pattern area,
type line, delta and core.

FBI Manual defines a delta as

“That point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of divergence of two typelines, and
located at or directly in front of the point of divergence”

Typeline may be defined as

“The two friction ridges, either continuous or broken, that diverge from the delta
in opposite direction and surround the main pattern”

Core may be defined as

“The Centre of the pattern and as the focal point around which the ridges flow”

Fig.1(a) OCCURENCE OF PATTERN TYPE IN GENERAL

POPULATION

LOOP
WHORLS
ARCH
COMPOSITE
 PATTERN DEFINITIONS

According to CFPB manual:

 PLAIN ARCH –
In a plain arch pattern, the ridges extended from one side of the finger to the other
without turning back, rising slightly at the center, where the curvature looks like an
arch.

 TENTED ARCH –
In some patterns of the arch type, the ridges near the middle may have an upward
thrust, arranging themselves on both sides of a vertical spine (or axis) towards which
adjoining ridges converge not necessary in equal proportions, and appearing as a tent
in outline.

 PLAIN LOOPS –
In a loop pattern one or more ridges recurve i.e. run back on their previous course,
having a delta and at least one ridge intervening between the `Inner' and `Outer'
terminals. There are two kinds of loops - Ulnar and Radial. A radial loop is so called
because the ridges terminate in the direct of the radial bone of the forearm i.e. the
ridges slant towards left in case of right hand finger and to the right in case of left
hand fingers. An ulnar loop is so called, because the ridges terminate in the direction
of Ulnar bone of the forearm in other words the ridges slant right towards right in case
of right hand fingers, and left in case of left hand fingers. A plain loop is one which
does not conform to the definite of a Nutant loop or converging loop.

 CONVERGING LOOPS -
A converging loop is one in which there is a visible convergence within the pattern
area.

 NUTANT LOOPS -
In Nutant loops, the ridges about the summit of the core bend and drop in the
direction of the delta.

 CENTRAL POCKET LOOPS –

This pattern can be described as in incipient whorl because a few ridges about the
core possess features of the whorl type and the remaining ridges conform to the loop
 type. There must be no more than four recurving ridges intervening between the core
and inner delta.

 WHORL -
In whorls, some of the ridges make a turn through at least one complete circuit. There
are two deltas.
 TWINNED LOOP -
Twinned loops possess two well defined loops which more or less embrace each
other. A ridge must appear in the core of at least one of the loops when both loops are
formed by a continuous unbroken ridge. There are two deltas on either side of the
pattern.

 LATERAL POCKET LOOPS -

In this type of pattern, the ridges constituting of the two loops bend sharply downward
on one side before recurving thus forming a `Pocket'. This pocket is filled by the
ridges of the other loop. Both deltas are on the same side of the ascending loop.
.
 ACCIDENTAL -
This is a comparatively uncommon type of pattern being one of the more complicated,
combinations of patterns, such as loop by loop whorl resting on loop, loop resting on
whorl, whorl resting on whorl, arch with pocket etc.

Fig.1.7 Fingerprint patterns

 Ridge characteristics

Permanency of ridge characteristics and their unique distribution by shape, location and
direction provides the basis for the premises that no two fingerprints are same except
when obtained from the same finger of same person.
Some commonly observed ridge minutiae are shown in fig. 1.8

Fig. 1.8 Ridge minutiae and their example

 Latent Fingerprints

Fingerprints are the most encountered physical evidence at the scene of crime. They are
present in three forms, latent, visible and plastic. The most common type of fingerprint
found at crime scene is Latent Fingerprint which is left unobserved by the perpetrator.

DEFINITION-:
“Present and capable of emerging or developing but not now visible, obvious”

Merriam –Webster

“A chance impression caused by perspiration through the sweat pores on the friction
ridges of the skin being transferred to another surface”

Fingerprints: analysis and understanding

Mark R. Hawthorne

“Whenever fingers or the palmer surfaces comes in contact with any polished or smooth
surface, they leave an invisible image on that surface of contact due to perspiration. This
invisible image of fingers and palm is known as latent fingerprint.”

Personal identification through fingerprints

Prof Surinder Nath

Latent fingerprints which are often found at the scene of crime , are the best evidence.
The incessant hope of the scientific criminal investigator at the scene of crime is the
discovery of proper physical evidence, a fingerprint, which will point directly to the
criminal. The fingerprint occupies a position of paramount importance in circumstantial
evidence due to the following reason:

1. The simplicity with which fingerprints may be obtained.

2. Their conclusiveness in establishing identity.
3. The immutable character of the fingerprint during life.
4. The existence of common filing systems.
 Matrix
A fingerprint is usually formed by the papillary ridges leaving a deposit of perspiration
on the surface with which the finger has been brought into contact. These friction or
papillary ridges are marked by fairly regularly placed depressions which are called as
sweat pores. The sweat pores contain glands, which are known as eccrine sweat glands.

In order to make latent prints visible, composition of the print must be known so as
suitable technique should be applied to develop the hidden evidence.

A huge amount of Latent fingermark deposits is water i. e. 98%. The other contents
include lipids (fatty acids, cholesterol, squalene, and triglycerides), amino acids and
proteins, environmental contaminants (lotion, soap, cosmetics, etc. ) and the products of
environmental chemical reactions following deposition.

Due to psychological effect, the eccrine sweat glands become more activated when one is
nervous or excited resulting into greater perspiration than during normal time. Thus,
despite all the precautions observed, a criminal is liable to leave his latent impressions
upon the articles and at other places of contact in a moment of hurry. These latent
impressions lead an investigating officer to the concerned criminal.

Latent fingerprint development

Latent fingerprint are made visible using a variety of procedures. As science progressed,
specializations developed in the form of numerous sub disciplines dedicated to
addressing increasingly specific issues with latent fingerprint development. Contribution
from these scientific sub disciplines have led to improved methods for developing latent
prints Fig. 1(b) fingerprint development technique

Physical Processing
Methods
Fingerprint
Development
Techniques
Chemical Processing
Method
.
 Physical Processing Methods
 Fingerprint Powder
Fingerprint powders are a fast, effective, and low cost method of latent fingerprint
development. Fingerprint powders are used on dry, non-porous surfaces. They are most
often used at a crime scene where large areas and fixed objects need to be processed
quickly and thoroughly. While “dusting for prints” is a common technique, it is also the
least sensitive technique compared to chemical processing methods.

Fingerprint powders are most effective on fresh fingerprints. the longer a latent print
remains on a surface, the drier it gets as the water evaporates. Even though the oils are
present, there is less material for the powder to adhere to.

 Composition of fingerprint powder

While the formulations of fingerprint powders have changed throughout the years, most
of the powders we use today were developed by mid-nineteen hundreds.
Most powders are composed of a pigment and an adhesive carrier particle and a filler
material.
The adhesive component is often a rosin extract, such as dragon’s blood ( powdered rosin
of the Daemonorops Draco plant), stearic acid, cornstarch, raven powder, Acacia
powder, or lycopodium powder
The filler material used is most commonly fine to medium mesh pumice. Pumice is a
volcanic rock, rich in silica (SiO2), with a crystalline structure similar to that of glass.
There are many different colors and formulations of fingerprint powders.
There are four common types of fingerprint powders.
Fig. 1(c) Types Of Conventional Powder Available

Granular Powder

Magnetic Powder
Types Of Powder
Fluorescent Powder

Metallic Flake Powder