Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 1 – The skeleton

Lesson 1.2 – Bones

Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Step 1 – Bone structure

Bones are remarkable for their:

 Strength - they are able to withstand a great deal of pressure (from the
weight and movements of the body, for example)
 Toughness - they are not easily broken or damaged

Like muscles, nerves, and every other part of the body, bones are made from
cells. They are composed of inorganic materials, mainly calcium phosphate and
calcium carbonate, and organic substances such as gelatin, collagen and fats.

Step 2 – Bone structure

We can categorise bone into four types of structure. These are:

Marrow cavities – Filled with marrow - a network of soft tissue. There are two
types of bone marrow:

 Yellow bone marrow, which is mainly fat, and serves as an energy reserve
 Red bone marrow, which provides the body with red and white blood cells
and blood platelets

Bulbous end (spongy or cancellous bone) – Consists of a latticework of thin plates

of bone called trabeculae, the space between which is filled with red bone marrow
which produces blood cells.

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Periosteum – A tough, fibrous sheath or membrane surrounding each bone.

Experiments have shown that it is the action of the periosteum which results in
both bone formation and bone repair after a breakage.

Shaft (cortical or compact bone) – Very dense and strong bone material that forms
an outer layer (beneath the periosteum) and in long bones is thickest in the middle
of the shaft.

Bone shafts are formed of compact bone, while the expanded ends usually include
a vaulted structure of cancellous bone, with a thin outer layer of compact bone.
This arrangement has the effect of transferring weight and stress from the bone
shafts to the joints.

Step 3 – Bone growth

The process by which new bone is formed is called ossification. An adequate
supply of calcium is vital to this process.

In the embryonic skeleton, compact bone begins with a cartilage model, which is
gradually replaced by bone.

As children grow from a foetus, and until late adolescence, their arms, legs, back
and other bones get longer. Full skeletal maturity occurs around 25 years of age
and this is when bone growth stops.

There is no difference in bone growth between males and females.

Step 4 – Bone growth

There are three types of bone cell.

Osteoblasts –

 Are bone-forming cells that make a matrix material known as osteoid which
mineralises to becomes bone
 Are the immature bone cells

Osteocytes –

 Originate from osteoblasts which have become trapped by bone matrix

 No longer produce matrix materials
 Are mature bone cells and their functions are the daily exchange of
nutrients and waste

Osteoclasts –

 Are large cells responsible for growth, maintenance and repair

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Step 5 – Bone growth

If you were to touch the skull of a new-born baby, you would be able to feel areas
of incomplete ossification or 'soft spots' called fontanels.

Rather than being pre-formed in cartilage like compact bone, the flat bones of the
skull and other cancellous bones begin as fibrous membranes. These membranes
consist mainly of collagen (a protein) and blood vessels.

Avoiding problems during bone growth

The skeleton grows quickly during childhood and adolescence. It is important,
therefore, that young people do not engage in extreme strength training. A good
guide to follow is that a child should only use his or her own body weight as a load
when training.

Step 6 – Bone types

Each bone in the body has its own unique shape, and has evolved to perform its
particular functions in the most effective manner.

Nevertheless, we can classify bones into four general groups:

 Long – The humerus is an example of a long bone

 Short – The carpals of the hand are examples of short bones
 Flat – The main bones of the skull and face are examples of flat bones
 Irregular – The vertebrae are examples of irregular bones

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Step 7 – Long bones

Long bones form the limbs. An example is the

femur, illustrated here.

Long bones have relatively slender shafts

compared with their thicker ends, where the
tendons and fascia sheets (thin sheaths of
fibrous tissue) are attached.

The long shaft is in the form of a cylinder of

compact bone, the thickness of the bone layer
at any point varying according to the amount of
stress it is subject to.

Each end of a long bone is shaped to form part

of the joint with the bone it is connected to. The
head of the bone is called the proximal end; at
the foot is the distal end.

The protrusions at the ends of long bones are called tuberosities, to which
ligaments and tendons are attached.

Step 8 – Short bones

Examples of short bones are carpal bones in the hands and

tarsals in the feet.

Short bones have a thin, hard surface surrounding spongy

tissue. They are typically round in shape, rather than being
flat or irregular.

Step 9 – Flat bones

When we call a bone 'flat', we mean that it is broad and has a smooth surface.
Using this definition, can you think of an example of a flat bone?

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Feedback: Some examples are the

cranium (or skull), the scapula
(shoulder blade), the pelvis, and the
sternum. Their flatness serves either to
give protection for soft organs (as in the
case of the cranium), or to provide
attachments for muscles over a large
area (as with the scapula).

Flat bones are formed from hard bone

material with variable thicknesses of a
spongy layer sandwiched in between.

Step 10 – Activity Note: to find out the answer, complete this activity online.

Question: Which of the following flat bones are used in movement?

 Pelvis and cranium

 Scapula and pelvis
 Cranium and sternum
 Sternum and scapula

Step 11 – Irregular bones

We define all bones that don't fit into the
categories of long, short, or flat as
irregular. Some examples are the
vertebrae in the spine, and bones in the
ear and face.

Vertebrae are irregular bones and the main weight bearing area is a thick 'disc-
shaped' section giving them great strength while being able to hold a lot of
marrow. The spine is involved in many types of body movement. We will discuss
the bones of the spine in more detail, shortly.

There are two additional types of bone not included in this classification by shape,
but instead are classified by location.

 Sutural bones are small bones located within the joints of some cranial
bones
 Sesamoid bones are small bones that are embedded in tendons where
considerable pressure develops (for example the patella bone or kneecap)

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Step 12 – Bones and exercise

It has been shown that bone density will tend to increase as a result of the bone
being stressed.

Question: Can you think of two kinds of exercise that stress bones to a moderate
or high degree?

Feedback: Weight training, running, rowing and cycling all stress the bones of the
body to at least a moderate extent. Walking and swimming generally have less
effect, although they are useful in terms of their energy use and their aerobic
fitness benefits.

Step 13 – Bones and exercise

The long-term effects of weight bearing exercise on the skeleton includes

increases in:

 Bone density
 Strength of ligaments
 Strength of joint structures
 Thickness of articular cartilage

Regular weight-bearing exercise has also been shown to have a marked effect in
reducing the risk of osteoporosis.

Step 14 – Activity

Match the items on the left so that they match the correct definitions on the right.

Periosteum a latticework of thin plates of bone called

trabeculae that combine strength with lightness

Compact bone a very dense and strong bone material that forms
an outer layer; in long bones it is thickest in the
middle of the shaft
Cancellous filled with a network of yellow or red soft tissue
bone called marrow.

Marrow cavities a tough, fibrous sheath or membrane surrounding

each bone. Its action results in bone formation,
and bone repair after a breakage

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Level 2 Anatomy and Physiology
Lesson 1.2 Bones

Feedback:
Cancellous bone a latticework of thin plates of bone called
trabeculae that combine strength with lightness

Compact bone a very dense and strong bone material that forms
an outer layer; in long bones it is thickest in the
middle of the shaft
Marrow cavities filled with a network of yellow or red soft tissue
called marrow.

Periosteum a tough, fibrous sheath or membrane surrounding

each bone. Its action results in bone formation,
and bone repair after a breakage

Step 15 – Activity Note: you can only complete this activity online. This activity
consists of matching the labels below to the correct pictures:

A. Long bone
B. Short bone
C. Flat bone
D. Irregular bone

Step 16 – Activity Note: to find out the answer, complete this activity online.
Question: What are the long-term effects of exercise on the skeleton? Select
three correct answers.

 Increased thickness of articular  Reduced joint structure strength

cartilage  Increased bone density
 Increased risk of osteoporosis
 Increased ligament strength

Step 17 – Summary

Bones can be divided into four types of structure: periosteum, cortical or compact
bone, cancellous bone, and marrow cavities.

Bone formation is called ossification. In compact bone, bone material is laid down
onto a cartilage model. Spongy or cancellous bones, such as the flat bones of the
skull begin as fibrous membranes into which osteoid material is secreted.

An adequate supply of calcium is vital to the process of ossification.

Bones can be classified according to their shape as follows: long bones, flat
bones, short bones and irregular bones.

Regular weight-bearing exercise has been shown to increase bone density,

ligament strength, joint strength, and the thickness of articular cartilage. It can also
reduce the risk of osteoporosis.

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