ROC Handouts

RADAR OBSERVERS COURSE
S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO
1 FUNDAMENTALTHEORY 2
2 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF MARINE RADAR 14
3 SETTING UP AND OPERATING DISPLAYS 16
4 MANUAL PLOTING (TRUE & RELATIVE) 37
5 THE USE OF RADAR FOR NAVIGATION 54
6 RADAR AND COLREGS 60
SeaSkills Maritime Academy, Coimbatore

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1. FUNDAMENTALTHEORY
BASIC THEORY OF OPERATION OF MARINE RADAR
The word radar is an acronym derived from the phrase RAdioDetection AndRanging and applies to
electronic equipment designed for detecting and tracking objects (targets) at considerable
distances. The basic principle behind radar is simple - extremely short bursts of radio energy
(traveling at the speed of light) are transmitted, reflected off a target and then returned as an echo.
Radar makes use of a phenomenon we have all observed, that of the ECHO PRINCIPLE.
To illustrate this principle, if a ship‟s whistle were sounded in the middle of the ocean, the sound
waves would dissipate their energy as they traveled outward and at some point would disappear
entirely.
If, however the whistle sounded near an object such as a cliff some of the radiated sound waves
would be reflected back to the ship as an echo. The form of electromagnetic signal radiated by the
radar depends upon the type of information needed about the target. Radar, as designed for
marine navigation applications, is pulse modulated. Pulse-modulated radar can determine the
distance to a target by measuring the time required for an extremely short burst of radio-frequency
(r-f) energy to travel to the target and return to its source as a reflected echo. Directional antennas
are used for transmitting the pulse and receiving the reflected echo, thereby allowing
determination of the direction or bearing of the target echo. Once time and bearing are measured,
these targets or echoes are calculated and displayed on the radar display. The radar display
provides the operator a birds eye view of where other targets are relative to own ship.
Radar is an active device. It utilizes its own radio energy to detect and track the target. It does not
depend on energy radiated by the target itself. The ability to detect a target at great distances and
to locate its position with high accuracy are two of the chief attributes of radar.
There are two groups of radio frequencies allocated by international standards for use by civil
marine radar systems. The first group lies in the X-band which corresponds to a wavelength of 3
cm. and has a frequency range between 9300 and 9500 MHz. The second group lies in the S-band
with a wavelength of 10 cm. and has a frequency range of 2900 to 3100 MHz. It is sometimes more
convenient to speak in terms of wavelength rather than frequency because of the high values
associated with the latter.
A fundamental requirement of marine radar is that of directional transmission and reception,

which is achieved by producing a narrow horizontal beam. In order to focus the radio energy into a
narrow beam the laws of physics prevail and the wavelength must be within the fewcentimeters
range.
The radio-frequency energy transmitted by pulse-modulated radars consists of a series of equally

spaced pulses, frequently having durations of about 1 microsecond or less, separated by very short
but relatively long periods during which no energy is transmitted. The terms PULSE MODULATED
RADAR and PULSE MODULATION are derived from this method of transmission of radio-frequency
energy.
If the distance to a target is to be determined by measuring the time required for one pulse to
travel to the target and return as a reflected echo, it is necessary that this cycle be completed
before the pulse immediately following is transmitted. This is the reason why the transmitted

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pulses must be separated by relatively long non-transmitting time periods. Otherwise,

transmission would occur during reception of the reflected echo of the preceding pulse. Using the
same antenna for both transmitting and receiving, the relatively weak reflected echo would be
blocked by the relatively strong transmitted pulse.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF RADAR
Marine Radar was introduced in the Thirties in warships mainly for weaponry and navigational
use. Radar is an instrument in which every component works in perfect synchronization i.e., each
component does its job at the correct time.
Essentially Radar consists of four main components: -
1. Transmitter – It generates very high powered, high frequency radar pulses (electromagnetic
energy/ radio energy). Commercial marine radars are pulse radars i.e., the transmission is not
continuous. There is a time gap between two pulses. The pulses generated vary from 20kW to
60kW. The transmitter is capable of being switched on and off at a very high rate. The pulses
are sent through a channel called wave-guide to the Scanner for transmission.
2. Antenna System – It is an antenna that revolves 360 degrees, thus scanning the surrounding
area and so it is called as Scanner. It is highly directional i.e., it can transmit and receive the
echo in the same direction. The pulses are sent in a highly focused, channeled and in a beam
format.
Once the pulse leaves the scanner some of the energy gets attenuated in the atmosphere. The
pulse strikes any target that comes in its way and is reflected back to the scanner as echoes.
Depending on the nature of the target, some energy is absorbed and scattered. So ultimately
the echo of the pulse, which comes back to the scanner is very weak compared to the
transmitted pulse. Its power is as low as 2 x 10-12W.
3. Receiver – Here the received pulses (echoes) are amplified millions of times. They are converted
into video signals, which is nothing but DC voltage that is again amplified and fed to the
Display unit.
4. Display Unit – It is a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The video signal fed to it allows a number of
electrons to strike the CRT screen and thus the target gets painted.
The CRT screen is circular and represents the area around the ship, on a scale. It gives a bird‟s eye
view of the positions of targets. So it is also called as the Plan Position Indicator (PPI). The radius of
the PPI is the range scale.
The underside of the CRT screen has a phosphorous coating, which glows when struck by
electrons. This glow remains for a few seconds and that is called as persistence or after-glow of the
screen.
A thin stream of electrons is made to strike the center of the screen. This stream is then made to
move radially outwards towards the edge. Thus one trace is created. For every pulse transmitted
one such trace is created on the PPI. When an echo is received, processed and given to the CRT,
more electrons strike the screen and the tracing spot momentarily becomes fat and bright. Though
the tracing spot is continuously moving during this time, the blip created by it remains stationary
and visible, due to the persistence of the screen. Thus the presence of a target is detected.

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The radar pulse travels at the speed of light, i.e.,
300,000,000 meters per second or
300,000 Kilometers per second or
161,829 Nautical miles per second
„Micro second‟ is used as a unit of time as „Second‟ is too large a unit as far as the Radar is
concerned.
1 second = 106 micro seconds (μ sec)
The speed of radar pulse can be indicated as
300 meters per micro second or
0.3 Km per micro second or
0.161829 Nm per micro second
1 Nm = 1852 meters
To travel 0.162 Nm (roughly), the pulse takes 1 u sec.
So to travel 1 Nm, the pulse would take 1 μ sec =6.17μs
0.162
This can also be derived from the formulae: -
Distance = Speed x Time
THE PRINCIPLES OF RANGE AND BEARING MEASUREMENT
How does Radar Determine Range?
For every pulse transmitted, one trace is created on the PPI. The moment the pulse leaves the
scanner, at the same instant the tracing spot leaves the center of the PPI on its radial path towards
the edge. The tracing spot is made to move at half the speed of the radar pulse, on the range scale
in use (i.e., 150 m/μsec)
If the target were 3 miles off, the pulse would travel 3 miles (6.17 x 3 = 18.5 μ sec) to the target
and 3 miles (18.5 μ sec) from the target back to the scanner. The total distance traveled by the
pulse is 6 miles (37 μ sec). During this time the tracing spot would have moved only 3 miles on the
PPI, as its speed is half that of the pulse. At this point, the tracing spot momentarily becomes fat
and bright. Thus the target is painted at 3 miles, which is its actual range. This is how radar
determines the range of a target.
Range is measured by using range rings or the variable range marker (VRM).

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How does radar determine the bearing?
The scanner is highly unidirectional. It can transmit a pulse and receive its echo in one direction
at a time. The scanner is made to rotate clockwise at a steady speed (Generally between 12 & 30
RPM). The trace on the PPI is perfectly synchronized with the scanner, such that when the scanner
is pointing right ahead, the tracing spot moves in the 12 O‟clock direction and when it points at
the 3 O‟clock direction, the tracing spot also moves in the same direction. Now, the speed of the
pulse is so high compared to the slow RPM of the scanner that by the time the pulse hits the target
and comes back to the scanner as echo, the scanner would have hardly moved from its position.
So the paint of the target would appear in the same direction at which the scanner was pointing.
Thus radar determines the correct bearing of the target.
The bearing of the target is obtained by using the parallel cursor or the electronic bearing line
(EBL). In the latter case, a digital readout will be available.
If the display is gyro stabilized, the bearing thus obtained is the true bearing; otherwise the
bearing is relative.
Characteristics of the Pulse
The radar pulses are sent in a highly focused, channelised and in a beam format.
1. Vertical Beam Width (VBW):- It is defined as the angle formed at the scanner between the
upper edge and lower edge of the beam. The upper and lower edges of the beam are the lines
joining the 50% power points, considering the center of the beam to be having 100% power.
UPPER EDGE (50% POWER)
VBW CENTRE (100% POWER)
LOWER EDGE (50% POWER)
If the VBW were too small, then due to rolling and pitching, the beam would keep missing the
target during each roll and pitch. Due to this, the target would only paint intermittently and not
continuously.
As per IMO Performance Standards for Navigational Radar, the radar should function without
deterioration in performance when the vessel is rolling and pitching upto+ 100.

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If the VBW is more, better minimum range is achieved, as the lower edge of the beam would touch
the sea surface at a closer distance. However, if the VBW were too large, then the power of the
beam would be spread over a wider angle and it would not be able to travel long distances.
Therefore the VBW should be a compromise between minimum and maximum range.
In commercial radar sets, VBW is generally between 15 0 and 300.
2. Horizontal Beam Width (HBW) : It is defined as the angle formed at the scanner between the
leading edge and trailing edge of the beam. The leading and trailing edges of the beam are the lines
joining the 50% power points, considering the center of the beam to be having 100% power.
For commercial radars, the HBW is generally between 0.6 0 and 20.
TE (50% POWER)
ship
HBW CENTRE (100% PWR)
LE (50% POWER)
Effect of HBW on the target: Suppose a target has an angular size of one degree i.e., the right edge
and the left edge of the target subtends an angle of one degree at the scanner. Due to HBW this
target will appear larger in azimuth on the screen. This is because, as the scanner rotates, when
the LE of the beam touches the right edge of the target, it starts painting on the PPI and it
continues to paint till the TE leaves the left edge of the target. As a result of this the target will
have an extra angular size when it paints on the PPI. As the trace is synchronized with the center
of the HBW, the target has ½ HBW attached to its right and ½ HBW attached to its left. Thus on
the screen the target would subtend an angle equal to its actual size + one HBW (I.e., ½ HBW on
either side).
For a point size target (say a buoy), the effect is same. So it paints on the PPI with an angular size
equal to one HBW, as ½ HBW would be attached to either side of it. This effect of HBW on the
target is called as Beam Width Distortion.
½ ½ ½ ½
Paint size = Actual size + 1 HBW Paint size = 1 HBW
(Target with some angular size) (Point size target)
The advantage of this beam width distortion is that even a point size target like a buoy is painted
equal to the HBW. So it can be detected easily.
But this distortion also brings in a problem with it, called Bearing Discrimination

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Bearing Discrimination
When there are two targets on the same range but slightly different bearings, each of these
targets will have ½ HBW attached to their right and left edges when they paint on the PPI.
So if the distance between their closer edges is equal to or less than one HBW, both the
echoes will merge and they will appear as one big target.
The ability of the radar set to clearly distinguish between two targets that are on the same range
and slightly different bearings, as two separate echoes on the PPI, is called as Bearing
Discrimination. It is a limitation of the radar set.
The limiting factor for bearing discrimination is HBW. That means in order that the two targets
paint as two separate echoes on the PPI, the distance between their closer edges should be more
than HBW.
A B
R R
HBW
C C (Scanner)
HBW (in degrees) can also be given in meters.
Example: The HBW of the Radar set is 20. There are 2 targets, both at 4 miles range. How far apart
should they be in order that they paint as 2 separate targets?
In the figure, C is the scanner;
A & B are the closer edges of the targets. CA = CB = 4 miles.
Angle ACB = HBW = 20 (i.e., if A & B are to just merge on the PPI).
Therefore B.D = 20. We know that in a circle,
Length of the arc =Radius X ( 00) 57.3
So, AB=Range x HBW = 4 x 2 miles = 4 x 2 x1852 meters = 258.6 m. 57.3 57.3

57.3

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Therefore Bearing Discrimination of the set at 4 miles range is 258,6 meters. i.e., the two targets
should be more than 258.6 meters apart in order paint as two separate targets.
As per IMO Performance Standards, Bearing Discrimination should not exceed 2.5 0.
3. PULSE LENGTH
The distance between the leading edge and trailing edge of the pulse is called Pulse Length. It is
also the time taken for the pulse to leave the scanner i.e., the interval between the instance the LE
leaves the scanner and the instant the TE does so. Pulse Length is expressed in Microseconds or in
Meters, as the speed of the pulse is a constant (300 m/us).
For example, if PL = 0.2 us, then in meters it will 0.2 x 300 = 60 m.
Effect of PL on the target : When the echo returns from a target, it will have same length as the
pulse. When the LE of the pulse enters the scanner, the tracing spot on the PPI becomes fat and
bright and continues to remain so till the TE of the pulse comes in. Thereafter the tracing spot
reduces back to its original size and continues on its radial path towards the edge of the screen.
Therefore, the tracing spot becomes a blip for a time interval equal to the PL (say 0.3 us or 60 m).
During this interval the tracing spot would have moved half the distance of the PL in meters (i.e.,
30 m), as its scale speed is half that of the pulse. Hence, the paint on the PPI would appear to have
a radial depth equal to ½ PL in meters.
The tracing spot is synchronized with the LE of the pulse. So the correct range of the target is the
range of the nearest edge of its paint on the PPI. Therefore, PL does not affect range accuracy. But
due to this effect of PL, a limitation called Range Discrimination occurs.
Range Discrimination
When there are two targets on the same bearing but slightly different ranges, each of these
targets will have a radial elongation of ½ PL when the paint on the PPI and so the paint of the
nearer target will expand towards the other. If the distance between the two targets is less than or
equal to ½ PL, both the target echoes will merge and appear as one big target.
The ability of the radar set to clearly distinguish between two targets that are on the same bearing
and slightly different ranges, as two separate echoes on the PPI, is called as Range Discrimination.
It is a limitation of the radar set.
The limiting factor for range discrimination is PL. That means, in order that the two targets paint
as two separate echoes on the PPI, the distance between them should be more than ½ PL.
½ PL
C 090 0
(Center)
Actual size of target ½ PL radial depth

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Example:- If PL of the radar set = 0.2 us, how far apart should two targets on the same bearing
and slightly different ranges be, in order to paint as two separate targets? I.e., what will be the
Range Discrimination?
PL = 0.2 μs = 0.2 x 300 = 60 meters.
RD = ½ PL = 30 meters.
i.e., the targets should be more than 30 m apart for them to paint as two separate targets.
As per IMO Performance Standards, two small similar objects on the same bearing, separated by
50 m in range, should be separately indicated when using a range scale of 2 Nm or less, when the
targets lie between 50% and 100% of the range scale in use.
The PL also affects the Minimum range at which a target can be painted on the PPI.
The radar transmission is not continuous, but in pulses, i.e., Tx – stop – Tx – stop format. The
same channel (wave-guide) is used from the transmitter to scanner and scanner to receiver. So
there are chances that the high-powered energy from the transmitter might enter the receiver and
thus damage it. Therefore to safeguard the receiver, an electronic gate called TR cell is situated
before the Rx section, which closes and blocks the Rx section while transmission is in progress. So
during transmission, there is no reception.
When transmission is over (i.e., when the trailing edge of the pulse leaves the scanner), this
electronic gate opens and the radar is ready for reception of target echoes.
Consider a PL = 0.2 μs or 60 m. Until the transmission of 0.2 μs is over (i.e., until the whole 60 m
of PL comes out of the scanner), there is going to be no reception. Now, the moment the LE of the
pulse leaves the scanner, at the same instant the tracing spot leaves the center of the PPI. When
the TE comes out, the pulse would have traveled a distance of 60 m. But during this time, on the
PPI, the tracing spot would have traveled 30 m. Only now, the receiver is open for any reception.
That means, if there is any target within 30 m (i.e., within ½ PL), its echo would come back to the
scanner before the opening of the receiver (i.e., end of transmission), and so it will never be
painted. Therefore, PL is the main factor affecting Minimum range.
Minimum Range = ½ PL in use
On commercial marine radars, there are 3 or 4 values of PL and they automatically change, as the
range scale is changed. The set may be provided with a PL selector switch, having two positions
marked SHORT and LONG. So the operator has the option of selecting either short or long pulse.
The various values of Short and Long pulses (in micro seconds) for the different range scales, is
given in the operating manual. By default, always the short pulse is used, as it gives better
minimum range and better range discrimination. Long pulse is used only when searching for
specific targets such as buoys, light vessels etc., or when making landfall.
4. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF) OR
PULSE RECURRENCE RATE (PRR)
It is number of pulses transmitted per second. For marine radars generally PRF is between 500
and 4000. They have 3 or 4 values that change automatically with the range scale.

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The transmission is in the Tx – Gap – Tx – Gap format. Each „Tx – Gap‟ is considered as one
combination. Considering a PRF = 2000 i.e., in one second 2000 such combinations are sent.
The time gap 1 sec = 1000000μs = 500μs.2000 2000
(Time gap between transmissions)
The time taken for the transmission of the Pulse (say 0.2 µs) is negligible when compared to the
time gap between transmission of two pluses.
The „Gap‟ is the period during which the reception is open. It can be seen that once a pulse is
transmitted, the receiver is open for the next 500 µs. That means the pulse can travel a maximum
of 250 µs to a target, 250 µs from the target back to the scanner and still get painted on the same
trace. Therefore, the Maximum theoretical range for a PRF of 2000 is 250 µs. In terms of nautical
miles, it can be derived from the formula
Distance = Speed x Time
= 0.162 nm/ µs x 250 µs
= 41 Nm. (rounded off)
The PRF should match with the range scale in use. This PRF of 2000 is OK if the radar is on 6
miles range scale as the operator is concerned about only those targets that are within 6 miles
range and the maximum theoretical range is 41 miles. So there is a reserve range of 41 – 6 = 35
miles. That‟s acceptable as long as there is no shortfall.
If a range scale of 48 nm is in use, the PRF of 2000 is unacceptable as the max range is 41 nm
whereas the requirement is 48 nm. This PRF is not suitable for 48 nm range scale as there is a
short fall of almost 8 nm. Therefore to have a max range of 48 nm or more, the time gap between
transmissions should be more so that the pulse has more time to travel longer distances. This is
achieved by reducing the PRF.
Considering a PRF of 500,

the time gap or reception period between transmission = 1 sec= 1000000µs = 2000 µs
500 500
The pulse can now travel a maximum of 1000 µs one way (162 nm), come back and still get
painted on the PPI on the same trace. This PRF therefore can be matched with the 48 nm range
scale as there is also a reserve range of 162 – 48 = 114 nm.

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From the above, it can be seen that Lower the PRF, better the Maximum range.
So Maximum range is inversely proportional to PRF.
5. SCANNER RPM
RPM is Revolutions per minute. The radar scanner rotates 3600. It should rotate at a constant
speed. The RPM of marine radar is generally between 12 and 30.
As per IMO Performance Standards for Marine radars, the scanner should rotate at a steady RPM
of at least 12 in relative wind speeds upto 100 knots.
Considering a Radar with following characteristics
VBW = 210 PL = 0.2 µs
HBW = 1.50 PRF = 2000
RPM = 20
In 1 min., the scanner rotates 20 times i.e., = 20 x 360 = 7200 0
In 1 sec., it would rotate 72000 = 1200 60
In the same 1 sec, 2000 pulses are transmitted.
So for a scanner rotation of 1200, 2000 pulses are sent
In 10 of rotation, 2000 = 16.6 pulses are sent. 120
And in 1.50rotation, 16.6 x 1.5 = 25 pulses are sent.
Even a point size target paints equal to HBW. That means 25 pulses would interrogate a point size
target and so its echo on the PPI would be very clear and accurate with excellent Picture
Resolution.
Therefore the Picture Resolution of the radar set depends on its RPM-PRF relationship.

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6. WAVE LENGTH
A Wave Length (in m) = Velocity (in m/sec)
A‟ XFrequency (in Hz)
WL is inversely proportional to Frequency.
X-axis: Time (in µs)
Y-axis: Current (in Amperes) AA‟: Wave Length
Generally in Marine radar, two wavelengths are used.
WL FREQ BAND
3 cm 9100 – 9500 MHz X
10 cm 2900 –3100 MHz S
8 mm 33 GHz K (new type, not many found yet)
When the radar pulse is sent out, it is subjected to two main factors:-
(i) Attenuation - It is the loss of the energy caused to due to absorption and scattering in the
atmosphere. For a 10 cm radar wave, attenuation in the atmosphere is much less
compared to a 3 cm radar wave.
(ii) Diffraction - When a ray of energy (radar waves) passes very close to the surface of the
earth, it bends slightly towards the surface. This effect is called as Diffraction. When the
radar waves are diffracted downwards they follow the curvature of the earth for some
distance. This effect is more for a 10 cm radar
(iii) Wave compared to 3 cm. Therefore, 10 cm radar wave can travel longer distances.
From the above, it is evident that 10 cm radar is better than 3 cm radar as far as long range is
concerned.
But when it comes to short range, 3cm radar scores over 10 cm radar due to the following
reasons:-
(i) Detection of small objects nearby is poor in 10 cm radar compared to that of 3 cm radar.
This is due to the interference caused by the energy reflected by the sea surface. This
reflected energy tends to lift the radar beam, thereby increasing the minimum range of
detection, as the lower edge of the beam would now touch the sea surface at a further
point. This effect is more in 10 cm waves than for 3 cm waves.

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(ii) Example - For a scanner height of 18 m, if a target (ht – 3 m) at 5 miles can be detected
on a 3 cm radar, for the same target to be detected on a 10 cm radar, its height should
three times More i.e., 9 m.
(iii) In order to have the same HBW as 3 cm radar set, the horizontal size of a 10 cm radar
scanner would have to be increased threefold. This is not easily practicable in merchant
ships, as space is the prime factor.
Both Min and Max range are important for radar. But since the priority is for better Min range,
generally 3-cm radar is preferred for the main radar. If there are two radars on board, then one
of them has to be a 3-cm and the other could be a 10 cm one.
2. IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF MARINE RADAR
1. Maximum Range : With scanner height = 15 metres

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Target Height of Ship size Maximum Range

Coast
Coast Lines 60 m - 20 Nm
“ 6m - 7 Nm
Ships - 5000 GT 7 Nm
“ - 10 m length 3 Nm
Objects/Buoys - Effective echo area 2 Nm

of 10 m2
2. Minimum Range: For all objects upto range scale of 1 Nm, with scanner height of 15 m, the
minimum range detection range should not exceed 50 m.
3. Display : (Head - up, relative)
SHIP SIZE DIAMETER
500 – 1600 GT 180 mm
1600 – 10,000 GT 240 mm
10,000 GT & Above 340 mm
4. Range Scales :
RANGE SCALES No. Of Range Rings
0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48 Nm & above 6
OR
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 Nm & above 4
On 0.75 miles range scale, there are only 2 range rings.
5. Range Accuracy: Should not exceed 1.5% of the maximum range scale in use or 70 m,
whichever is greater.
6. Bearing Accuracy:+ 1 Degrees or Better, for echoes appearing on the edge of screen.
7. Range Discrimination: Should not exceed 50 m On 2‟ range scale
Or less. Between

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8. BearingDiscrimination :Should not exceed 2.5 0 50% - 100% of screen
9. Scanner RPM: At least12 (with relative wind speed - 100 kts.)
10. Roll &Pitch :+ 10 0.
11. Hdgmarker : Required. Max error + 1 0, thickness <0.5 0.
12. Azimuth Stabilization: To be azimuth stabilized with Compass input. If Compass control
inoperative, then to operate satisfactorily in unstabilized mode.
13. Means to check drop in Performance, relative to a Standard established at the time of
installation. Also means to be provided to correctly 'Tune' in the absence of targets
14. Anti - Clutter controls to be provided to suppress clutter, with nil effect when fully turned
anti-clockwise. Automatic anti-clutter control if provided, must be able to be switched off.
15. When switched 'ON' from cold condition, to be operational within 4 minutes. 'STANDBY'
condition required and capable of being operational within 15 seconds.
16. Where True Motion is provided, the trace origin (except under manual control) not to continue
beyond 75% of the radius of the Display.
17. If two Radars are fitted, it should be operational
(i) individually
(ii) Together
(iii) interswitching may be provided (for interchange of displays only)
(iv) so installed that failure of one should not cause failure of electric supply to the other.
18. All controls to be identified by IMO approved symbols.
3.SETTING UP AND OPERATING DISPLAYS
BASIC CONTROLS OF A RADAR
1. BRILLIANCE : This is also called „Brightness‟. The Brilliance controls the strength of
electron stream in the CRT, byvarying the negative voltage of the Control Grid. When the

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Brilliance control is set at minimum, the control grid has high negative voltage w.r.t. the cathode
and so no electrons are released from it. As this control is turned clockwise, the negativity of the
control grid reduces, thus allowing the electrons to strike the screen and the picture is visible. If
set too high, the screen would appear very bright and the targets that paint cannot be
distinguished against the bright background. Therefore, to set the Brilliance control to the
optimum level, the control must be increased till the sweep of the trace is visible and then
decreased till the sweep of the trace just disappears.
2. FOCUS : This control if provided, is used to ensure that the electron stream converges to a
point, as it reaches the CRT screen. This is done by suitably altering the current passing through
the focus coil in the CRT. To focus correctly, the fixed range rings should be switched on and this
control should be adjusted till the rings appear as thin as possible. In most of the modern sets, the
focus is usually pre-set and no control is provided.
3. GAIN : Once the Brilliance is set, the next control to be adjusted is the „Gain‟. Gain means
amplification. The echoes received by the radar are very weak. This control is used to amplify the
received echoes to an extent enough to clearly paint the target echo on the PPI. This control works
in the IF or video amplifier stage of the radar receiver. The optimum setting of Gain control is to
increase it clockwise till a speckled background (like the night sky full of stars) is visible on the
screen. The speckled background is the receiver noise, which is being amplified in the absence of
targets (prior to the radar being tuned). The setting of Gain would have to be reduced when using
shorter range scales.
4. TUNING : This control is used to manually alter the Local Oscillator frequency in order to
bring the IF signal to the correct value required by the IF amplifier (30 – 60 MHz). There are two
controls for tuning – coarse and fine. The main tuning control is fitted on the LO itself in the
Receiver unit. Once adjusted, this control does not require any re-adjustments. The remote or fine
tuning control is fitted on the Display unit.
A meter or a magic eye or LEDs are used to give the indication of correct tuning. The maximum
deflection of the pointer in the meter, maximum overlapping of the magic eye or maximum number
of LEDs being lit indicates perfect tuning. But if none of these are working, then tuning to be
carried out for maximum target echoes or clutter echoes.
5. Anti Sea Clutter or Swept Gain Control or Sensitivity Time Control (STC): Echoes from the sea
when painted on the PPI is called sea clutter. Sea clutter paints generally around the centre up to
a max range of maximum 3 miles. The clutter is roughly oval in shape, with the greater part
towards the windward side. As the sea gets more and more rough the clutter echoes increase in
density. Even in moderate conditions, the echoes from small targets such as buoys, boats etc.,
tend to get drowned or swamped by clutter, i.e., they become indistinguishable against so many
clutter echoes.
6. The purpose of the STC is to suppress these sea clutters on the PPI. This control works in the
Video Amplifier section, in opposition to the Gain , i.e., it reduces the amplification factor. The
gain control setting affects the whole PPI, so reducing the gain would cause all the targets to fade
off. But the setting of anti sea clutter control works only within 3 miles range, i.e., within 37
microseconds after transmission. The effect of STC is maximum soon after transmission and
tapers off to zero at a range of maximum 3 miles. Anti-clutter should be so adjusted that the
targets within the clutter area appear just brighter than clutter. The clutter should never be

16
completely eliminated. This control should be frequently adjusted as per the prevailing sea
conditions.
7. Anti Rain Clutter or Differentiator or Fast Time Constant (FTC) : Rain clutters are echoes of the
rain drops in a rainfall area that paint fairly well on the PPI. When there is heavy rainfall, the rain
echoes paint strongly and steadily on the PPI and the rainfall area appears like a bright patch. This
is due to the large amplification factor (Gain) and the Pulse Length. PL causes all echoes to expand
radially outwards on the PPI (by ½ PL in meters) and so the several million rain echoes overlap
each other, thus forming a bright patch. In fact, tropical rainfall areas may easily be mistaken for
land echoes because of their large size, bright appearance, clearly distinguishing edges and
regularity in painting.
Targets within the rainfall area cannot be distinguished against the clutter. Reducing the gain
would cause all the targets to fade off. So the best way to suppress these rain clutters is to reduce
the PL of the received echoes. This is effectively done by the anti rain clutter control. This control
works in the Video Amplifier section where a special circuit called Differentiator Circuit is
provided.
Increasing the FTC clockwise reduces the PL of the received echoes, thereby reducing the
overlapping of the rain echoes. So the bright patch becomes lighter and lighter. This control is to
be adjusted till the targets within the rain patch appear stronger than the clutter. If adjusted too
much all targets in the screen would fade off, as its effect is on the whole screen. When there is
no rain, this control should be brought back to the minimum.
8. Automatic Clutter Control (ACC) : Is based on the fact that the sea and rain echoes are random
echoes whereas target echoes are systematic. When the ACC is switched on, the echoes received
from one pulse are compared to the echoes received from earlier pulse. If they are inconsistent i.e.,
if they do not agree in echo strength and time of arrival, they are not fed to the CRT. Hence most
clutter echoes are rejected, without loss of target echoes. The ACC control is preferred to manual
clutter control because it provides the correct level of gain for nearby targets, regardless of the
varying clutter density. It also adapts to changes in sea conditions. In case the manual clutter
control is to be used, the ACC should be switched off.
9. Contrast : On digital Radar displays, the contrast control helps to differentiate the echoes from
the background brightness. Contrast cannot be adjusted without adjusting Gain / Tuning controls
and also Gain / Tuning controls cannot be adjusted without setting Contrast (a chicken and egg
situation). Hence adjust contrast to say 40% and then adjust Gain / Tuning controls. Repeat this
step 3 times to get the setting right.
THE PROCEDURE TO SWITCH ON THE RADAR SET
1. Make sure that the scanner is clear.
2. The Brilliance, Gain, STC and FTC controls should be set to minimum.

17
3. Set the main function switch (OFF/STANDBY/TRANSMIT) to „Standby‟. As per IMO

performance standards, the radar set should come to standby condition within 4 minutes.
This is required for the set to warm up.
4. During this time, set the following :
- Range selector switch to the desired range (Generally 12M is suitable as a medium
range).
- PL selector to desired position. By default it is always in „Short Pulse‟.
- Presentation mode switch to “North-Up”, “Course-Up” or “Head-UP” as desired.
5. When the set has warmed up, set the main function switch to „TRANSMIT‟.
6. Set the „Brilliance‟ control to the optimum level.
7. Set Contrast
8. Increase the „Gain‟ control till a speckled background is visible on the screen.
9. Tune the set as per manufacturer‟s instructions.
10. Adjust Contrast again ( Repeat steps 7,8,9 three times)
11. Use the STC and FTC controls as and when required.
12. Adjust other controls as necessary.
Switching off procedure
 Change over to a medium range (12M is suitable).
 Set the Brilliance, Gain, STC and FTC controls to minimum.
 Set the main function switch to „OFF‟.
Checking the Efficiency of the set (Performance Monitor)
As per IMO Performance Standards, all radars should have a means of ascertaining the level of its
overall performance,(in comparison to its performance at the time of installation) even in the
absence of targets in the vicinity.
Prior to getting into the Performance Monitor mode, the operation manual should be consulted for
the setting of Range scale, Brilliance, Gain, STC, FTC, PL, etc.
Checking Transceiver :
An Echo box (size of a food can with precise dimensions) is placed within the aerial drive unit (or
on deck high above). The Radar pulse (which is matched with the echo box) reverberates within its
cavity, oscillations built up and re-radiated as an echo, producing a radial response called the

18
performance monitor signal. In this case the echo on the screen would show up as a Cartwheel (as
echo box rotates with the scanner) and its radius is measured. If echo box is outside (deck
mounted), then a plume is displayed.
If the Echo Box is inside, all components of the Radar are not checked and hence the transmitter
performance is tested separately as follows.
Checking Transmitter Performance:
A neon tube is placed very close to the scanner. As the transmitted energy strikes the neon tube, it
glows due to ionisation. A voltage so developed in this external circuit is passed on to the CRT as a
pulse and is depicted as a plume or feather (or indicated on a meter) which is compared.
OR
A transponder located on the Aerial drive, reacts to the reception of Radar pulses by transmitting
after a short delay, a coded low level echo in bursts and show up on the display as ARCS.
This type of transponder activates only if the signal is above a minimum power level. The power
level within the HBW if above the minimum power level set, corresponds to arc displayed.
PLUME CARTWHEEL
If, at any time, the efficiency drops below 80%, an investigation of the causes must be made. The
common causes are water or dirt in the waveguide, salt or dust on the scanner, improper tuning
etc. If the causes are not as simple as that, then the help of a technician should be sought for.
RANGE ACCURACY
As per IMO Performance Standards for Navigational Radar, the error in the range of an object
should not exceed 1.5% of the maximum range of the scale in use, or 70 m, whichever is
greater.
Range accuracy depends upon:-
(i) Correct synchronization between transmission of pulse and the commencement of the
trace.

19
(ii) Uniformity and recti linearity of the time base - Uniformity of the time base means the
tracing spot should have a steady speed and exactly equal to half that of the radar
pulse. Recti linearity of the time base means that each trace created should be perfect
straight line.
(iii) Scale size of the tracing spot - The inaccuracy caused by this would be half of the scale
size of the spot. Suppose the diameter of the screen is 300 mm and the diameter of the
spot is 0.5 mm. When using a 3 miles range scale,
150 mm (radius of screen) = 3 miles = 3 x 1852 = 5556 m.
So, 0.5 mm (spot size) = 0.5 x 5556= 18.52 m
150
The inaccuracy in this case will be 9.25 m.
The inaccuracy caused by scale size of spot increases with increase in range scale.
(iv) Height of scanner – When observing small targets very close by, the radar measures the
range from the scanner to the target whereas the correct range should be the distance
along the surface of the earth.
BEARING ACCURACY
As per IMO Performance Standards for Navigational Radar, the error in the bearing of an object,
whose echo appears on the edge of the screen, should be capable of being measured with an
accuracy of +10 or better.
The factors that govern the Bearing accuracy are:-
(i) Angle of Squint i.e., correct alignment between the heading marker and the ship‟s head.
(ii) Correct alignment between the heading marker and the bearing scale.
(iii) Gyro error, if any, when display is gyro stabilized.
(iv) Type of bearing marker used.
(v) Recti linearity of the trace.
(vi) Beam-width distortion.
(vii) Scale size of the spot.
Factors affecting MINIMUM RANGE
a) PULSE LENGTH – It is the main factor affecting the Minimum range. Shorter the Pulse Length
better the Minimum Range.

20
b) DE-IONISATION DELAY – An electronic gate called TR cell is situated before the receiver
section, which blocks it during transmission for safety reasons. When transmission is over,
this gate opens and the receiver is ready for reception. The TR cell consists of a glass tube filled
with a mixture of inert gas and water vapour. It has two electrodes in it with a gap in between.
A HT potential difference is maintained between the electrodes, but current does not flow due
to the gap. When the transmitted energy enters the TR cell, it ionizes the inert gas, which now
becomes a good conductor of electricity and so the circuit is complete. Sparks start jumping
across the gap between electrodes, which prevents the transmitted energy from entering the
receiver section. When transmission is over, the ionized gas de-ionizes and the TR cell opens
for reception of echoes. However a small delay occurs for the gas to de-ionize. This delay
between the completion of transmission and commencement of reception increases the
Minimum detection range. A delay of say .05 us causes the minimum range to increase by 7.5
meters.
c) THE VBW AND HEIGHT OF SCANNER – These two factors govern the distance off at which
the lower edge of the beam would touch the sea surface. The VBW is generally fixed but the
Height of scanner varies depending upon the ship‟s draft at that time. Lower the height of
scanner above sea level better the Minimum range.
Targets closer than the point at which the lower edge of beam touch the sea surface, may also
paint due to (i) Ht of target and (ii) Side lobe echoes.
d) HEIGHT OF TARGET – Due to this the top portion of the target might intercept the radar
beam and so get painted.
e) SIDE LOBE ECHOES – The leading and trailing edges of the beam is taken to be 50% power
points. Some energy is also transmitted on either sides of the main lobe and would have power
less than 50% of the transmitted power. These low energy transmissions are also in the form of
lobes like the main beam. Since they are on either side of the main lobe, they are called side
lobes. Because of their low energy levels, only very close by targets respond to side lobes.
f) WAVE LENGTH – As discussed earlier, smaller the wavelength better the Minimum detection
range. Therefore 3cm radars are preferred.
As per IMO Performance Standards, for a scanner height of 15 m, the Minimum detection range
shall not exceed 50 m.
Factors affecting MAXIMUM RANGE
a) HEIGHT OF SCANNER -- Higher the scanner above sea level, greater the detection range.
b) POWER OF SET – Greater the power of transmission, greater the Maximum detection range.

21
c) The generated power of the set is subjected to attenuation in the atmosphere and also within
the set. Greater the length of the wave-guide or the number of bends in the wave-guide, greater
the attenuation within the set and so lesser the power and lesser the Maximum Range. If the
power is doubled, the maximum range increases by 25 %.
d) WAVE LENGTH – Larger the wavelength, greater the Maximum range. 10 cm radar is
preferred.
e) PRF – Maximum Range is inversely proportional to PRF. Lower the PRF, greater the Max range.
f) PULSE LENGTH – Longer the Pulse, greater the detection range. Long pulses have more energy
in them and so they have a greater ability to suffer attenuation in the atmosphere.
g) VBW and HBW – Narrower the beam widths greater the directional concentration of the
transmitted energy and so greater the max range.
h) RECEIVER SENSITIVITY – Every receiver generates noise. Greater the amplification factor
more the level of noise. Receiver sensitivity is its ability to amplify very weak echoes sufficiently
enough without loosing them in the receiver noise. Better the sensitivity of the receiver, better
the max detection range of a target.
External factors effecting Radar Detection Range
1.) NATURE OF TARGET
a) Height above sea level – Higher objects are detected further away than lower objects.
b) Horizontal size – Larger the horizontal size,

greater the echoing surface and better the detection range. A faint line on the PPI is easier
to spot then an isolated blip.
c) Composition – Harder substances are better reflectors of radar energy than softer ones.
The radar reflectivity of the following substances in ascending order: snow, sand, wood,
concrete, rock and best of all is metal.
d) Nature of surface – Smooth surfaces return good echoes when they are perpendicular to
the radar beam. The same smooth surface, if it is slanting, it becomes a poor radar target.
Rough surfaces return echoes of medium strength from all angles of view.
e) Aspect -- It is the angle from which an object is viewed. In the figure below, when the
aspect is 900 (R) or (G), there is greater echoing surface on the targets hull and so greater
detection range. When the aspect is 000 0 or 1800, detection range is less, as echoing
surface is less.
ASPT 90 0

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ASPT 180 0 ASPT 000 0
ASPT 90O
Poor echoes Good Echoes
Detection Range = 5 Nm Detection Range = 10 Nm
A land target may be steep on one side and gently sloping on the other side. When radar views the
steep side, there is good detection range. But as the aspect changes and the sloping side of the
land is now viewed, the detection range is considerably less.
2.) WEATHER EFFECTS
(i) Rain -- Drops of falling water is called rain. In a heavy tropical downpour, the rainfall area
appears as bright solid block on the PPI. Targets within this area cannot be distinguished.
They can sometimes be mistaken for land echoes due to their large size, bright appearance,
clearly defined edges and regularity in painting. Detection ranges of targets behind this rain
area are severely reduced. If rain is falling on the observing vessel, detection ranges in all
directions will be adversely affected due to attenuation.
(ii) Hail -- Similar to rain drops, hail stones also give echoes on the PPI. Large hail stones give
stronger echoes than rainfall. The rate of precipitation with hail is usually lesser than with
rain. So attenuation due to hail is much less than with rain.
(iii) Snow -- In cold climates, commonly the snow falls in single crystals. So echo from this snow
is not troublesome unless there is heavy snowfall. However, in temperate latitudes, several

23
snow crystals join together and fall as large flakes. Their echoes show up on the PPI like rain.
The
(iv) Attenuation - Due to snowfall is usually much less than with rain as the rate of precipitation
is less.
(v) Fog -- Echoes from fog particles is negligible, but the attenuation can be severe. In colder
climates, dense fog appreciably decreases detection ranges of all targets. In warmer climates,
unless there is thick fog with nil visibility, the detection ranges are not affected much.
3.) ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION
It is changing of distance of the radar horizon due to changes in atmospheric conditions. The point
where the ray of radar energy just grazes the earth‟s surface as a tangent, is called the Radar
Horizon. Because of their greater wavelength compared to light waves, radar waves refract more
(i.e., bend more) and so the radar horizon is further away than the visible horizon.
GH = Distance of geometric horizon from ship = 1.93 h
VH = Distance of visible horizon from ship = 2.07 h
RH = Distance of Radar horizon from ship = 2.20 h
RT = Distance of target from radar horizon = 2.20 x
HT = Theoretical detection range of target.
Where „h‟ is height of scanner above sea level in meters
„x‟ is height of target above sea level in meters and distances are expressed in Nm.
The distance of Radar horizon (2.20 h) is true under certain assumed atmospheric conditions,
which are the estimated mean values over land, throughout the year.
Atmospheric Pressure – 1013.2 mb (Decreasing with increase in height, at a rate of 11.8mb per
100 m.)
Air Temperature- 150C at sea level (Decreasing with increase in height, at a rate of 0.650C per
100 m.)
Relative Humidity- 60 % at sea level (assumed to be constant at all height)

24
Any change in the above conditions will cause a change in the distance of radar horizon.
There are three forms of anomalous propagation:-
1.) SUB-REFRACTION - If the radar rays bend less than usual they will touch the earth surface as
a tangent, at a point closer than the standard radar horizon of 2.20 h . Since this decreases
the detection range of surface targets, it is called as Sub-refraction.
SUB – REFRACTION
In the above figure, R is the Radar Horizon under normal conditions and R‟ is the radar horizon
due to Sub-refraction. Target A cannot be detected now.
Sub-refraction occurs when the temperature falls at a greater rate than the standard lapse rate
of 0.650C per 100 m or if the relative humidity increases with height.
Sub-refraction will be found whenever cold breeze blows over relatively warm sea, as in the
following cases:-
 In the lee of an iceberg.
 On the leeward side of very cold land masses.
 Land breezes in coastal regions (they blow during night time)
2.) SUPER-REFRACTION -- If the radar rays bend more than usual they will touch the earth
surface as a tangent, at a point beyond the standard radar horizon of 2.20 h . Since this
increases the detection range of surface targets, it is called as Super-refraction.

25
In the above figure, R is the Radar Horizon under normal conditions and R‟ is the radar horizon
due to Super-refraction. Target A would now be detected.
Super-refraction occurs when either the temperature falls at a slower rate than the standard
lapse rate of 0.650C per 100 m or if the relative humidity decreases with height.
Super-refraction will be found whenever warm breeze blows over relatively cold sea, as in the
following cases:-
 In areas of high pressure (in the centers of anti-cyclones)
 Sea breezes in coastal waters are warm compared to sea (day time).
 Daytime winds blowing over Land locked seas such as Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Persian
Gulf, etc.
3.DUCTING - If the rays leaving the scanner are refracted downwards very sharply, they would
strike the sea surface, get reflected upwards, get refracted downwards again and strike the sea
surface at some further point. This would go on continuously and the rays would effectively follow
the curvature of the earth, carrying the energy to greater distances without much loss.
Though coming from greater distances, the echoes returning along the same path will be strong. As
the energy is trapped within a narrow belt or „duct‟, this form of severe super-refraction is called
Ducting.
Ducting occurs when there is sharp decrease in the relative humidity with height, accompanied by
temperature inversion i.e., temperature rises with height instead of falling.

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Movement of Various Targets across the Radar Screen in
Relative motion North – UP and True Motion with and without current
Own Ship: Co 0300 / 12 Kts)

Tgt 1: Land
Tgt2: Anchored Vessel
Tgt3: Stopped Vessel
Tgt4: Moving Vessel
(True course 180 0 /15kts)
With Current - 0000 / 5 kts

27
Consider CMG / SMG to be 0250 / 13 kts
Own Ship : Co 0300 / 12 Kts)
Tgt1 : Land
Tgt2 : Anchored Vessel
Tgt3 : Stopped Vessel
Tgt4 : Moving Vessel
(True course 180 015 Kts)
(WITHOUT CURRENT)
Own Ship: Co 0300 / 12 Kt
Tgt 1: Land
( True course 180 0 / 15 Kts)
With Current - 0000 / 5 kts
Consider CMG / SMG to be 0250 / 13 kts

28
Own Ship : Co 0300 / 12 Kt
Tgt1 : Land
( True course 180 0 / 15 Kts)
Student Exercise:

29
In each of the 4 above diagrams, specify how the targets 1 to 4 move across the screen.
Diagram 1 Diagram 2
N-Up (w/o N-Up (with
Current) Current)
Tgt 1 Tgt 1
Tgt 2 Tgt 2
Tgt 3 Tgt 3
Tgt 4 Tgt 4
Diagram 3 Diagram 4
True Motion True Motion
(W/o Current) (With Current)
Tgt 1 Tgt 1
Tgt 2 Tgt 2
Tgt 3 Tgt 3
Tgt 4 Tgt 4

30
Own Ship Co 030 0 / 15 Kts Own Ship Co 030 0 / 15 Kts
Own Course 030 0 / 15 Kts
For all 3 Figures:

31
Tgt1 : Fine on Stbd Bow
Tgt2 : On Port Bow
Tgt3 : On Stbd Beam
Tgt4 : Right Astern
Tgt5 : On Port Beam
In Head – Up (Rel) Relative Motion
1. Only RelBrg of all tgts available. For True add Own Ship‟s Course to RelBrg. Possibility of
making errors. Irrespective of Course steered, Heading marker always UP.
2. Picture Smudges while Alteration of Course. Picture moves in the opposite direction by same
angle.
3. If Course Altered, RelBrg of Tgt changes (giving false sense of security)
4. Not to use this display in ordinary circumstances as too many disadvantages.
5. The only display possible, if GYRO fails.
6. All Targets (including Land) move on the resultant of
Reciprocal of Own Ship‟s Course and Speed (OS course always 000 0)
AND
Target‟s own Course and Speed
In Head- UP (True) Relative Motion
1. True Brg of all tgts available.
2. Picture Smudges while alteration of course. Picture moves in the opposite direction by same
angle.
3. If course altered, True brg of all tgts still continuously available.
4. Irrespective of course, heading marker always UP. Compass RING Turns. Heading marker
shows course steered, but geographical orientation confusing. Example – If course 180 0 ,
Heading marker still shows UP. Instant comparison with CHART may be difficult.
5. Ideal while primarily navigating by sight since easy comparison possible.
6. All Targets (including Land) move on the resultant of Reciprocal of Own Ship‟s Course and „
Speed (OS course always 0000 )

32
AND
Target‟s own Course and Speed
In North – UP (Gyro Stabilized) Relative Motion
1. Heading marker appears on the Gyro course steered.
2. All tgts appear on their true brg, and on the Screen appear at such location relative to heading
marker. Example – A Tgt on the Port beam, appears at 90 0 on the Port side from the Heading
marker.
3. Comparison with Navigational Chart is easy as navigational Chart is also North - UP.
4. A good display to be used under all conditions of visibility, Traffic situation, Coastal Navigation
when frequent position fixing is required.
5. Can identify other tgt‟s geographical location with respect to Own ship.
All the above 3 Modes of Display – i.e. Head-UP (Rel), Head- UP (true) & North- UP are Relative
Motion, wherein the Own Ship always is stationary at the electronic center. Hence other than a tgt
on the same course and speed as that of the Own Ship, all other tgts (whether moving, stopped,
fixed) have a relative motion. This Relative Motion is a resultant of Reciprocal of Own Ship‟s Course
and Speed and Target‟s own Course and Speed.
The Trace origin symbolising the current Own ship‟s position on the Screen (with respect to the
Land shown in Dark Line) moves on the course steered ie 090 0 and the LOG Speed. The Heading
marker extends from the Trace origin (Electronic spot) on the Gyro course steered and progresses
across the Screen with the movement of the Trace origin. Except under manual override
conditions, the Trace origin should not continue to a point beyond 75% of the radius of the
display.
If the Radar automatically resets, the Screen jumps from Screen 1 to Screen 2, whereby
trace origin appears to start at the same spot as it did in Screen 1, but the Picture is that of Screen
2. In the same order, the picture progresses to Screen 3.

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True Motion Sea Stabilised is the display to be used under normal condition while wanting to
navigate in the True Motion Mode. LOG should be capable of giving the speed over water. If one
uses Course made good & speed made good as the input for normal True Motion, the target
information as obtained by Radar Plotting wold give the Target‟s course made good and speed
made good. This could result in confusion in the implementation of the Rules of the Road. ROR is
to be applied to Ship‟s heading (or in other words Course steered and Speed over water) which can
be obtained only if Gyro Course and LOG speed over water is input. However the threat perception
from targets always remains the same irrespective of whatever is the course and speed input.
Remember that at all times the bearing and distance of all targets from own ship is correct, due to
the fact that whenever the Radar Scanner is facing the Target, the target paints at its true bearing
and distance from own ship.
SPURIOUS ECHOES
Indirect echoes -- Shipboard obstructions such as masts, funnel, cross trees, etc., may reflect the
radar energy on to a target in some other direction. The echo returns along the same path and
paints in the direction of the obstruction. Such echoes are called Indirect echoes. On the PPI, along
with the indirect echo the direct echo of the target also paints at the correct bearing. The range of
the indirect echo will be almost same as the true echo.
Generally large targets such as land cause the indirect echoes, because even if the observing ship
yaws, the indirect energy leaving it will not miss a land target. In order to identify this false echo, a
slight alteration in course would help, as the indirect would then miss the target and its paint
would disappear from the PPI.
Side Lobe echoes – As explained earlier under „Minimum range‟, when transmission takes place,
some of the energy is radiated as weak beams at various angles on either side of the main beam.
These weak beams are called Side Lobes. The energy content of these side lobes is extremely small
and so only closeby targets respond to them. As the side lobes sweep over the target, an echo is
painted in the direction in which the main lobe (and also the trace) is pointing at that time. When

34
the main lobe sweeps over the target a large echo is produced. The end result is that on either side
of the main echo a series of small echoes are found, all at the same range.
Reduction of gain would eliminate the effect of side lobe echoes. When using slotted wave-guide
type of scanners, the side lobe echoes are considerably reduced.
Multiple echoes – When two ships move close to each other on parallel courses, sometimes a
series of echoes appear on the bearing of the other ship at equal intervals of range. The closest
echo is the correct position of the target. The other echoes are called multiple echoes. They are
caused by the transmitted energy being reflected back and forth between the hulls of the two ships
and each time the energy returns to the scanner, it paints. Multiple echoes occur only on the beam
bearing i.e., when the hulls of the two vessels are parallel to each other.
O ooo
Second Trace Echoes – The pulse takes about 6.17 us to travel 1 Nm. So the tracing spot would
take double the time (12.34 us) to travel 1 Nm on the range scale in use, as its speed is half.
Suppose the PRF is 2000. Then the time gap between two transmissions is 1/2000 sec or 500 us
and the maximum range that the pulse can travel one way is 250 us or 41 Nm. On a 6 miles range
scale, the tracing spot takes about 74 us (12.34 x 6‟) to reach the edge of the screen. At this point

35
the trace is blanked and it comes backs to the center and waits there (for 500 – 74 = 426 us) till
the second pulse is transmitted. So now any target further away than 6 miles will not paint on the
PPI, as there is no trace. However, due to presence of super-refraction, the echo from a radar
conspicuous target at a range of more than 41 Nm (say 45 Nm) will paint on the PPI. This echo
would have arrived at the scanner 556 us (i.e., 45‟ x 6.17 = 278 us one way) after the
firsttransmission. But we know that after 500 us, the second transmission takes place and so the
second trace starts on its radial path and after 56 us the distant target (45 Nm off) echo has
arrived and gets painted on this second trace. In 56 us the second trace would have traveled
around 5 Nm (rounded off) (D = S x T) on the 6 Nm range scale and so the target echo paints at 5
Nm. Since the echo of the first pulse gets painted on the second trace, this echo is called second
trace echo.
For the formation of Second trace echoes the following points are important:-
 PRF of the set
 The presence of Super-refraction
 The presence of a radar conspicuous target at the appropriate range depending on the PRF
in use.
When the range scale is changed, the PRF changes and all the above calculations are now
different. So, either the second trace echo would disappear or if it still paints, it would be at some
other range. Therefore, to identify a second trace echo, the Range Scale needs to be changed.
4. MANUAL PLOTTING (RELATIVE & TRUE MOTION)

36
Relative plotting is done on a North Up - Relative Motion display. In a RM display the center of the
screen represents the Own Ship‟s position and it is kept stationary on the screen at all times. Own
ship’s motion is applied to all targets in the reverse direction. As a result of this,
 Stationary targets (such as buoys, land and stopped vessels) move on the screen in the
opposite direction of own ship‟s true course and speed.
 All moving targets move across the screen in their Relative Motion Lines (RML), which is a
resultant of their true course & speed and own ship‟s reverse course & speed.
Radar plotting is the art of obtaining all necessary anti-collision and navigational information from
two or more observations of each target on the radar screen. It involves the construction of a
triangle of relative velocities.
Determining the CPA/ TCPA of the target
When a target is detected on the radar screen, the first thing to find is the threat perception of this
target i.e., whether she is coming on a collision course or going to develop a close quarter situation
or is it passing clear. So immediately its range and bearing are noted at the time of observation.
Then the movement of the target is observed for a certain period of time (say 6 min or 12 min
preferably divisible by 3) and its range and bearing are again noted. The time interval between the
two observations is called Plotting Interval. The range and bearings observed are as follows :-
Own Ship‟s True Course and Speed - 000 0 (T) x 15 kts
Time Bearing Range
1400 hrs 030 0 (T) 10 Nm
1412 hrs 020 0 (T) 8 Nm
(All bearings are true bearings as N-up display is a gyro-stabilized display)
On the Radar Plotting sheet, now plot these observations with the help of bearing scale and range
scale given on the plotting sheet. The first observation plotted should be marked as “O” and the
second plot marked as “A” with their time of observation written next to them. Join O & A. The
line OA is the Relative Motion Line of the target i.e., the direction in which the target moves on the
RM screen. This RML is the resultant of the target‟s true course & speed and the reverse of own
ship‟s true course & speed. So if both vessels maintain their course and speeds the target will
continue to come down in the direction of line OA. Assuming so, extend the OA line further beyond
the center “C”.

37
Now the clearance between own ship and target can be found i.e., the Closest Point of Approach
(CPA) of the target. The CPA is the point at which the range of the target is the minimum. To get
this point, draw a line perpendicular to the OA from “C” intersecting the OA line. The point of
intersection “N” is the CPA and the distance CN is the CPA distance.
Along with the CPA, the time at which the Target will be at CPA (i.e., the TCPA) should also be
known.
To travel the distance OA the target took 12 minutes.
So to travel the distance AN, it would take AN x 12 minutes.

OA
oreg., if AN = 6 Nm and OA = 3 Nm,
Then TCPA = 6 x 12 = 24 minutes.

3
Add this 24 mins to the time of „A‟.
Therefore the TCPA = 1412 hrs + 24 mins =1436 hrs.
Determining True Course and Speed of the Target
Once the threat perception of the target is known and if there is a close quarter situation
developing, then the next thing to find out is the situation between the vessels i.e., whether the
target is crossing, over-taking or coming on a reciprocal course, which rule is applicable and who
is the Give-way vessel among the two. For this we should know the TRUE COURSE of the target.

38
Apply own ship‟s True Course and Speed to the point “O”. Own ship‟s T. Co is applied in reverse
direction to all targets. So from the point „O‟, draw a line in the direction opposite to own ship‟s
T.Co i.e., 000 –180 = 180 0
Now convert the OS‟s speed of 15 kts into the plotting interval (12 min) distance.
In 60 min, distance traveled by OS is 15 Nm
In 12 min, the distance traveled would be 12 x 15 = 3 Nm.60

Measure this 3 Nm, using the same range scale that was used for plotting the points O & A. From
O, cut an arc on the line drawn in the direction of 180 0. This point of intersection is marked as
point “W”. Now join W & A and the triangle is complete.
In this triangle, there are three sides OA, WO, and WA. Each of these lines is a Vector. A vector is
a line that is True in direction and True in length.
So when we say Vector OA, it means the direction is from O to A only and not otherwise. The
Length is also from O to A only, not more, not less. All this information so gathered is for the time,
which is the plotting interval.
In the OAW triangle,
Vector OA is Relative Motion Line (RML) of the target.
Vector WO is True Co. & Speed of Own Ship and
Vector WA is True Co. & Speed of the Target
Measure the direction and distance WA from the center of the bearing scale and this is the True
Co. & Speed of the target.
In this example, WA is 270 0 (T) x 16 kts.
Now to find out the situation between the vessels we need to know the Relative Bearing and Aspect
of the target.
Relative bearing is the Own Ship‟s point of view. It is the bearing of the target in relation to the
OS‟s True Heading. In other words, it is the angle between the OS‟s heading and the target‟s
bearing. It is measured between 000 0 and 180 0 on either side of OS.
R. Brg = Difference between OS‟s True Course and Targets bearing at „A‟.
OS‟s T Co = 000
Target brg at A = - 020
R. Brg 20 0 (G)
R. Brg cannot exceed 180 0. If it exceeds, then subtract that number from 360.
Therefore R. Brg of the target is 200 (Green). This means that the target is 20 degrees away from
the own ship on its STBD side.
‘Green’ means the target is on the STARBOARD side of Own ship.

39
‘Red’ means the target is on the PORT side of Own ship.
Aspect is the target‟s point of view. It is the bearing of own ship in relation to the Target‟s True
Heading. In other words, it is the angle between the target‟s heading and OS‟s bearing from the
target. It is measured between 000 0 and 180 0 on either side of the target.
Aspect = Difference between Target‟s True Course and OS‟s bearing from „A‟.
Target T Co = 270
OS brg from A = - 200
Aspect 70 0 (Red)
This means the own vessel is 70 degrees away from the target on its PORT side.
Aspect also cannot exceed 1800 . If it exceeds, then subtract that number from 360.
‘Red’ means the Own ship is on the PORT side of Target.
‘Green’ means the own ship is on the STARBOARD side of target.
Determining the Situation between vessels
As per ROR rule 13 (Over-taking Vessel), a vessel is said to be over-taking when it is approaching
the other vessel from more than 22.5 0 abaft the other vessel‟s beam or when during nighttime it
can see only the stern light of the other vessel.
112.5 0 (R) 090 0 (R)
B
112.5 (G) 090 (G)
A
0 0
In the above figure, Vessel B is said to be over-taking, as the angle from which it is approaching
vessel A is more than 22.5 0 abaft A‟s beam (i.e., more than 112.5 0 from vessel A‟s heading). In
other words, since the Relative Bearing of vessel B is more than 112.5 0, it is an over-taking vessel,
provided her speed is more than vessel A.
Own Ship vs Target Ship

40
Relbrg> 112.5 0 - Target overtaking OS, if Tgt speed better than OS
RelBrg< 112.5 0 - Target crossing
Target Ship vs Own Ship
Aspect > 112.5 0 - Own Ship overtaking Target ship, if OS speed is better
Aspect < 112.5 0 – Crossing situation
In the above example, the R.Brg of the target was 20 0 (G) and the aspect was 70 0 (R). Since both
the R.Brg as well as Aspect is less than 112.5 0, the situation is Crossing. Therefore ROR Rule 15
applies and as per this rule the vessel, which has the other on its starboard, is the Give-Way
vessel. As per that own ship is the Give-Way vessel.
Report of Target
1.) CPA
2.) TCPA
3.) True Course and Speed
4.) Relative Bearing
5.) Aspect
6.) Situation between vessels (i.e., which ROR rule applies?)
7.) Give-Way Vessel?
Action Taken by vessels
The OA line i.e., the RML of the target is the most important line as it gives the direction of target
movement on the radar screen and also immediately provides you with the threat perception of the
target.
The OA line is extended assuming that both vessels maintain their courses and speeds. Since it is
the resultant of the target‟s T Co. & speed and OS‟s reverse T Co. & speed, the moment either
one of the vessel alters course or speed, the RML changes.
To find the new RML and the effect of the action the procedure is as follows:-
1.) Find the Point of alteration i.e., the point at which the target will be at the time of
alteration. This point “P” will on the OA extended line only because till that time no ship
will alter and the old OA line prevails.

41
The time of “O” is 1400 hrs and “A” is 1412 hrs. Suppose the action is to be taken at 1415 hrs. So
the target‟s location after 3 mins is to be plotted be.
In 12 mins, the distance OA was covered
In 3 mins, the distance covered will be

3 x OA miles.
12
Measure this distance and from A cut an arc on OA line. This point will be the point of alteration
„P‟.
2.) Now on the OAW triangle, apply whatever alteration done by own vessel on the OS‟s vector
i.e., WO. (If action is taken by target, then apply the alteration on the vector WA). New
Course is now -WO‟. And the new RML is - O‟A.
3.) Transfer this new RML (O‟A) to point „P‟ as this RML is effective only from the point of
alteration. Extend this beyond the center „C‟. You will find that the CPA has increased. So
the objective of avoiding the close quarter situation is achieved.

42
WAVE FORMS USED IN MARINE RADAR
DIRECT CURRENT : As soon as the current is switched on, it increases to maximum value from
zero in a very short while. Thereafter the current stays at that value till it is switched off. When
switched off, the current quickly falls off to zero.

43
Power Supply: Radars require an AC input, which is usually provided from the Ship‟s Mains/
Emergency switchboard.
Delay Line: It stores the energy received from the power source.
Trigger Unit: This unit is the time-keeper of the Radar. It tells every component when to start and
stop working. It activates the Modulator Unit, Time Base Unit and the Trace Blanking Unit, by
sending them spike wave signals. The number of spikes sent per second depends on the PRF of
the radar set.
Modulator: It is a device, which switches the magnetron on and off as required. For every spike
wave received from the trigger unit, the modulator releases one powerful DC pulse (square wave of
10,000 to 15,000 Volts) from the delay line to the Magnetron. The duration of each pulse is the PL
and the number of pulses per second is the PRF.
Magnetron :It is a very efficient, high powered and high frequency transmitter. It is capable of
being switched on and off for very short durations (equal to PL) by the pulses received from the
Modulator, at the desired PRF. The frequency generated by the Magnetron depends on the
Wavelength of the radar set (3 cm or 10 cm). The output of the magnetron consists of high
frequency pulses of electromagnetic energy (AC square wave), which are sent to the Scanner
through a hollow metal tube called a wave-guide.

44
Scanner :
 It is a highly uni-directional antenna. It sends the pulses out and also receives the echoes,
one direction at a time.
 Since it rotates at a constant speed and the full 360 0, the entire area around it gets
scanned regularly.
 As per IMO Performance Standards, the Scanner should rotate with an RPM of at least a
steady 12, even with a relative wind speed of 100 knots.
 The size and type of the scanner determines the HBW and VBW of the set.
 The uni-directional property of the scanner gives it a better aerial gain compared to an
omni-directional antenna.
 In the olden days, scanners used to be of 4 types – Parabolic plate, Parabolic mesh, Cheese
and Double cheese.
 The latest Radars use the Slotted wave guide type of scanner.
 The Slotted wave guide type of scanner is preferred in modern radars because it offers less
wind resistance and has less side lobe effect.
 Higher the height of scanner above sea level, better the maximum detection range of the
radar.
 Lower the scanner RPM, better the Picture Resolution of the set.
TR Cell : It is a transmit/receive switch (an electronic gate), which blocks the receiver section of
the radar during transmission in order to prevent the transmitted energy from entering the receiver
and thus damaging it. As soon as the transmission is over, the TR cell opens up, allowing the
received echoes to pass into the receiver.
Local Oscillator : It is a valve of special construction (Klystron). It generates low power

frequency of about 30 to 60 MHzbelow the magnetron frequency.
Mixer :It mixes the received echoes with the local oscillations. The output of the mixer has 3
frequencies - (i) the received frequency, (ii) the LO frequency and (iii) the difference between the
two. This difference is called as the Intermediate Frequency (IF), which is generally about 30 to 60
MHz.
IF Amplifier : It selects and amplifies only the IF signals, ignoring the other two frequencies. Due
to temperature variations, voltage fluctuations and ageing of the components, the LO frequency
may somewhat drift from its original frequency. This would cause a change in the IF. The IF
amplifier can accept variations in the IF of about + 5 MHz.
The echoes returning from the target are very weak and of greatly differing signal strengths.
Therefore these echoes are required to be amplified millions of times to be able to show up on the
screen. The IF amplifier may be of Linear type or Logarithmic type.

45
Linear amplification : The IF amplifier has several stages. Each stage amplifies by a certain
amount. The output of one stage is given as the input to the next stage, and so on. Ultimately, the
output signals of the final stage would all be of the same strength. Hence all targets would appear
equally bright on the PPI, regardless of whether it is a navigational buoy or a large ship.
Logarithmic Amplification : After every stage of the IF amplifier, a parallel lead is taken, all are
joined together and then fed to the video amplifier. The advantage of this system is that a contrast
is available between weak and strong echoes and also between targets, sea clutter and rain echoes.
The output of the IF amplifier is given to the video amplifier through a Detector circuit, which
converts the IF signals into video signals.
Video Amplifier: It controls the amplification of the signal voltages that are fed to the electron
gun of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
CRT: It provides a visual display of all targets in the vicinity.

46
Time Base unit : For each spike wave received from the Trigger unit, it generates a saw-tooth
wave and feeds it to the deflection coils in the CRT.
Trace Blanking Unit : Spike wave from the trigger unit activates it and cuts of the electron
stream from hitting the CRT after the Tracing spot has traveled the full radius of the screen and
come back to the centre, till such time the next pulse is transmitted.
Wave-guide : It is a tube of rectangular cross sectional area, made of non-corrosive material such
as copper. Its area of cross section depends upon the wavelength of the radar set. The wave-guide
carries the high-powered pulses from the Magnetron to the scanner. It also carries the received
echoes from the scanner to the Mixer, through the TR cell. A small length of wave-guide also
connects the LO and the mixer. The length and number of bends in the wave-guide, water or dirt
in it, all causes severe loss of power within the wave-guide, thus decreasing the first detection
range of all targets.
CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)
A CRT is a funnel shaped, glass vacuum container with an electron gun at its narrow end and a
screen at its broader end. The electron gun gives out electrons that strike the screen. The screen is
coated with a phosphor compound, which glows when struck by electrons.
Heater: It is a coil of high resistance wire. A current is passed through it in order to heat up the
cathode.
Cathode: It is an oxide coated cylinder, which gives off electrons when heated due to thermionic
emission.
Control Grid:It is a hollow cylinder, which covers the cathode. It is has a small hole on its axis,
through which electrons leave as a stream. It is given a negative potential with respect to cathode.
The negative potential of the CG is varied by means of the Brilliance control, which controls the
flow of electrons. Lesser the negativity of the CG, greater the number of electrons passing through
it.

47
First Anode : It is a hollow cylinder, which is given a high positive potential (about 800 Volts)
with respect to cathode. It attracts the electrons from the cathode and accelerates their movement
towards the screen. It is also called accelerating anode.
Focus coil :It is a coil of wire wound around the narrow part of the CRT. When a direct current
passes through it, a magnetic field is developed around it, which acts on the electron beam making
it to converge to a point as it reaches the screen.
Deflection Coils : When the saw-tooth wave from the Time base unit is fed to the Defection coils,
a magnetic field is formed around it, which tends to pull the electron beam towards the edge of the
screen, in the direction at which the scanner is pointing at that time. Thus one trace is created.
The trace is created for every pulse transmitted. Further the deflection coils are made to rotate
around the neck of the CRT (or in modern radars, the deflection coils develop a rotating magnetic
field) thereby creating a rotating trace, which is perfectly in synchronization with the Scanner
rotation.
Screen : The screen is coated with a phosphor compound, which glows when struck by electrons.
If the brilliance is set high, lot of electrons strike the screen, out of which some might bounce off
and tend to hit the screen again. This is called secondary emission. It reduces the sharpness of the
picture. The underside of the screen is therefore fitted with a superfine mesh of Aluminium,
which is connected to the final anode, in order to prevent secondary emission. The aluminium
mesh collects the bounced electrons and passes them on to the final anode.
Final Anode : It is coating of a chemical called Aquadaq, on the inner side of the broad part of
the glass envelope, right up to the screen. It has a very high +ve potential of 18000 Volts with
respect to cathode. Apart from accelerating the flow of electrons towards the screen, the final
anode also shields the electron beam from external magnetic fields. The electrons collected by the
final anode (aluminium mesh) are returned to the cathode, by means of an electric cable, thereby
preventing the build up of negative static charge at the screen.

48
THE ADVANCED BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RADAR

49
SHADOW AREAS, SHADOW SECTORS & BLIND SECTORS
Shadow Areas: When the transmitted energy strikes a large target, most of the energy is
scattered by it and some energy is reflected back to the scanner. A very limited amount of energy
may go beyond the large target. This happens due to diffraction. The area directly beyond the large
target is called as Shadow Area. Targets in this area do not show up on the PPI, unless they are
very radar conspicuous.
The above figure shows the vertical extent of a shadow area. Though target B is smaller than target
A, it will paint on the PPI whereas target A will not paint as it in the shadow area of target M. But if
the height of A is big enough to intercept the radar rays, it will then paint.
The above figure shows the horizontal extent of a shadow area. Target D is smaller and further
away than target C. Still, only target D will paint. Since target C in the shadow area of target N, it
will not paint on the PPI.
It is for these reasons that the radar picture of a land differs from the actual one on the chart,
especially if the coastline is high. In such a case, only the coastline and 1 or 2 miles beyond it
would appear on the radar screen. Further beyond, only radar conspicuous targets (such as a high
rise building) would paint on the PPI, as shown in the following figure.
SHADOW AREA OF COAST
RADAR CONSPICUOUS OBJECT

50
Shadow sectors: Shipboard structures such as masts, Samson posts etc., obstruct the radar
beam partly. Targets directly beyond the obstruction do appear on the PPI because of
diffraction, but theirdetection ranges are considerably reduced. Such areas are known as
shadow sectors. The presence of shadow sectors can be found out by reducing the gain control till
such time that the clutter echoes are only just visible. The total absence of clutter echoes in the
direction of the obstruction indicates its presence. The relative bearings of the extremities of the
shadow sector are measured and displayed. If the gain is increased clutter will appear in the
shadow sectors.
Blind Sector: Sometimes, the shipboard structures, such as a funnel, completely obstructs the
radar beam. Due to this, no echoes are received from targets beyond these structures and so
they are not detected at all. Such targets are said to be in the „Blind Sector‟ of the scanner. This
is caused due to bad siting of the scanner. In modern ships, the scanner is usually mounted on a
special mast, so that it is above or far away from all major obstructions and hence has no Blind
Sectors.
Blind sectors can also be measured as no clutter echoes ever appear within it.
In the following figure, the area between the dotted lines is the Blind Sector. On either side of it, is
the shadow sector.

51
SITING OF COMPONENTS
SCANNER :
 The height of scanner above sea level should be between 12m and 18m for best all-round
performance.
 A very high scanner would give good maximum detection ranges of all targets, but since the
VBW for a given scanner is fixed, the minimum detection ranges would be affected.
Conversely, a too low scanner would affect the maximum detection range of targets.
 The scanner should preferably be fitted above the funnel and below the cross-trees in order
to avoid blind sectors caused by them. The cross-trees would still cause blind sectors, but
as the scanner is below them, it would lie up in space.
 On ships with center-line masts, the scanner should be placed slightly off-centered to avoid
shadow sectors right ahead.
 The scanner should be in a vertical line with the transceiver unit so as to keep the length of
the waveguide and the number of bends in it, to a minimum, which would result in less
attenuation or loss of power within the waveguide.
 It should be kept well away from aerials of other equipment‟s.
DISPLAY:
 The Display unit should be kept at a safe distance from magnetic compasses, as stated by
the manufacturer.
 It should be so sited that the Master, Pilot or Navigator can view both, the radar screen,
and the visual scene, easily and quickly.
 It should be sufficiently far away from equipments such as the clear-view screen, electric
telegraph, fans, etc., whose sparking would cause interference.
TRANSCEIVER :
 It should be as directly below the scanner as possible so as to keep the waveguide as

short and straight as possible.
 It should be at a safe distance from magnetic compasses, as specified by the

manufacturer.
 It should be safe from spray, rain, dust, etc., and should have lot of space around it, so
that repairs can be carried out easily.
SPARE PARTS:
 Certain spare parts, especially the magnetrons, may seriously affect magnetic
compases. So they should be kept in a specially designed box.
 The box should be at least 10 metres away from magnetic compasses, if the safe
compass distance is not marked on it.

52
Radiation hazards of Radar Pulses
Continuous exposure to powerful electro-magnetic energy (500 kW or more) can cause some ill-
effects to human health. But the pulses transmitted by the commercial marine radar are very short
and relatively weak (20 to 60 kW). Therefore they present no danger at distances beyond 1
metre from the scanner. However going near the scanner, while the radar is working should be
discouraged.
If a waveguide is open while radar is being operated for repairs, one should avoid looking into the
open waveguide or even standing in front of it. This is because the energy inside the waveguide
is much more concentrated.

53
5.THE USE OF RADAR FOR NAVIGATION
POSITION FIXING BY RADAR
Radar can be very useful in fixing the vessel‟s position while coasting. The radar ranges and
bearings of land points around the vessel can be used for this purpose. The following points should
be kept in mind while using radar for position fixing:
 Radar ranges are more reliable than radar bearings. This is because the accuracy in
radar bearing is affected due to beam width distortion, especially the bearings of land ends.
So it is always better to take radar ranges of 2-3 land points for position fixing.
 The radar bearings of these land points, if taken, should be used only as a secondary
means, i.e., for confirming the position fixed on the chart.
 Best fixes can be obtained by taking Visual bearings of fixed objects and their radar
ranges.
 From undetermined coasts, ranges of the closest point of land could be taken. For this the
VRM should be increased till it touches any point on that land for the first time.
In the following figure, the ranges of land points A, B & C are their closest points, as the VRM is
just touching the land for the first time. While transferring this range on the chart, these points
cannot be determined as they are not sharp edges. But that would not make any difference on
their position lines (arcs), as far as we take the range from approximately around the points A, B
or C.

54
 Radar ranges of land points that are 90 degrees apart, gives the best accuracy. In the
above figure, points C & D are 90 degrees apart.
 Radar ranges from land points that are 180 degrees apart (points A & C, in the above figure)
should be avoided. This is because sometimes their position arcs do not intersect at all and
even if they intersect, they would meet at two different points.
Charted track
 If you cannot get land points that are 90 or close to 90 degrees apart, then ranges from at
least 3 different land points should be taken (preferably 60 degrees apart from each other).
Their position arcs would intersect each other and form a „Cocked-hat‟. Generally the center
of the cocked-hat is the vessel‟s position.
 Fastest changing range should be taken last.
 Slowest changing ranges to be taken first.
C D
A/Co
Charted Track
DR position
of vessel

55
In the above figure, as the vessel is moving, the rate of change of range from land D is the fastest
as vessel is heading towards it. Land A being abeam of vessel, its range will change quite slowly. So
land A‟s range should be taken first, then land B, C and lastly D.
It is important to bear in mind that as the vessel is moving, it is always better to plan as to which
land points would you select for the next radar fix and which range would you measure first.
POSITIONING THE INDEX LINE ON THE RADAR DISPLAY
it is intended to make good a course of 010_(T) and to pass 3.6 miles off the island C (the indexing
target). The index line can usually be positioned on the display in one of three ways: either
(a) Set 3.6 miles on the variable range marker and then turn the mechanical cursor to
010_/190_(T).
Now, lay off the index line at a tangent to the variable range marker and parallel to the cursor
(b) Measure the range and bearing of the indexing target from a chosen position on the course line
(any position will do, but preferably a beam position, an alter-course position or another position
where the highest accuracy is needed). Plot the range and bearing on the reflection plotter, turn
the cursor to 010_/190_(T) and lay off the index line, parallel to the cursor and passing through
the plotted position; or
(c) Electronic index lines (when provided) can usually be set up by entering the desired angle and
offset required. The latest standards require four of these lines.

56
The availability of information from radar and ARPA forms the basis of a number of techniques
which may assist in the safe navigation of vessels. Successful and safe use of these require an
ability to relate the echoes displayed by the radar to the information shown on the chart and an
understanding of the levels of performance and accuracy which can be achieved under given
circumstances. Where radar information alone is used in making a landfall, the ship‟s position
may be in considerable doubt and it may be difficult positively to identify specific echoes,
particularly if the observer is unfamiliar with the locality. In routine coastal navigation there may
be more general certainty as to the vessel‟s position, but effective use of these techniques will
require organization, skill, practice and a thorough awareness of the capability of the radar
system.
They will also be found to be of assistance in certain pilotage situations but it has to be said that
current civil marine radar equipment has a very limited ability to contribute to the docking of
vessels.
This chapter discusses the difficulties of making comparison between the radar picture and
charted features before passing on to describe the navigation techniques in terms of the underlying
theory covered elsewhere in this text. It is often stressed that radar is only an aid to navigation.
This does not mean that radar information is necessarily of any less value than that obtained from
other sources. What it does mean is that radar data should not be used in solation and to the
exclusion of that available from other sources. The radar system should be seen as one element in
a variety of data sources which must be taken into account in arriving at decisions related to
directing the safe navigation of the vessel. The exercise of command decision making based on an
evaluation of navigation information derived from all sources is referred to as navigation control.

57
IDENTIFICATION OF TARGETS AND CHART COMPARISON
It is sometimes suggested that the radar picture offers a bird’s-eye view of the area surrounding
the observing vessel. This analogy is imperfect on a number of counts but two are particularly
evident in the use of radar for navigation. The radar aerial does not look down on the terrain from
a great height and thus its view can be obstructed. Further, it does not offer the optical resolution
.which the use of the word „eye‟ may imply. As a consequence, the radar picture may be an
incomplete and fairly coarse version of the chart‟s finely detailed plan view of the terrain.
This may limit the observer‟s ability to identify positively elements of the terrain echoes and relate
them to the charted representation.
Interpretation of the displayed picture involves consideration of a number of factors each of which
will be discussed in turn.
LONG RANGE TARGET IDENTIFICATION
When making a landfall, the radar must be carefully observed in order to obtain an early indication
of the presence of the terrain. In the absence of clutter .The first echoes will have to be found
against the background of receiver noise. If the observer knows the approximate bearing and range
at which to expect the first echoes, early detection may be assisted by, from time to time,
temporarily setting the gain control a little higher than the normal optimum level. A slight loss of
contrast is traded for an increase in received signal strength and this may be beneficial when
looking in a specific area as opposed to scanning the entire screen area. Where an echo stretch
facility is provided, it may be found similarly helpful. A knowledge of where to look for the expected
echoes on the screen pre-supposes other sources of information concerning the vessel‟s likely
position and the probable detection range of specific terrain features. Such information may stem
from dead reckoning techniques, knowledge of leeway and tidal streams, other position-fixing
systems (GNSS or LORAN C), and an assessment of specific target detection ranges in the light of
radar, target and environmental characteristics.
This emphasizes the complementary nature of the various data sources available for the safe
navigation of the vessel. Initially the presence of the land may be indicated by only a few responses
and these will be considerably distorted by the angular width of the resolution cell which will be
large at long range. Under these circumstances it will be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
identify positively specific terrain features from the few distorted echoes which are being observed.
It must be appreciated that the use of the echo stretch technique is likely to exacerbate the
problem by adding radial distortion and it should be switched off after it has fulfilled its role of
assisting initial detection. Identification may be assisted if the observer knows which parts of the
terrain are likely to show first and also the approximate range and bearing at which they should
appear. As indicated in the previous paragraph this pre-supposes other sources of information
related to probable position and target detection considerations.
To exploit fully the use of radar in making a landfall, adequate preparation should be made in
termsof collating the information from other sources. An up to date and best available estimate of
the ship‟s position should be maintained using information from all available sources. Prior to
making the landfall, the chart and the Admiralty Sailing Directions should be consulted in order to
assess the ranges at which the radar should detect specific terrain features which are likely to be
easy to identify. This assessment should take into account the characteristics of the radar system,
the characteristics of the target, the atmospheric conditions and any limits to detection which may

58
be imposed by clutter or attenuation. In particular it should be remembered that frequently

coastlines are backed by higher terrain and at long ranges it must be borne in mind that the first
land to show is not necessarily the coastline. Failure to appreciate this can be dangerously
misleading because the measured range will suggest that the vessel is farther to seaward than is in
fact the case. Also, as the land is closed, responses will be obtained from land which is lower and
closer than that originally detected and as it comes above the horizon it may give an exaggerated
impression of the speed at which the vessel is approaching the land. When a particular landfall
has been made on more than one occasion, it may be possible to establish a list of good landfall
targets which may supplement those tabulated in the Sailing Directions. It has to be recognized
that, while civil marine radar offers early warning of the presence of most land formations, long
range target identification is not a function at which it excels. A coded racon is probably the only
sure source of early positive target identification and its range may well be limited by the height of
its aerial. Positive identification of just one target is a major step forward because it may then be
possible to identify other terrain echoes by virtue of their known range and bearing from the
identified target. Care must be taken not to jump to conclusions when a radar echo appears in the
general area in which a particular point of land is expected by DR.
There appears to be a great temptation to ascribe immediately and unquestioningly the hoped-for
identity to the target. This temptation must be resisted until cross-checks have established that
any fix so obtained is consistent with all other available sources of information.

59
6. RADAR AND COLREGS
COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Radar can be put to good use through the important stages in collisionavoidance by the navigator.
It is the suitable set up of radar and the interaction from the navigator that makes it a valuable aid
to navigation.
DETECT: Here the influencing factors are: Range scale in use; Pulse length; Brilliance; Gain;
Tuning; Sea and Rain clutter controls; Blind and Shadow sectors; Headlands and other
obstructions in the vicinity. Optimum set up and skillful observation, ensure that the radar detects
as expected (with inherent limitations). Long range scanning should be used at appropriate
intervals for early warning.
PRIORITISE: When the number of detected objects is small; all can be tracked. But as the number
increases, a navigator should examine and select target echoes for plotting. The degree of threat
posed by selected echoes should help to rank them for tracking. Let alone humans, most
automatic aids also have limitations on numbers of echoes that can be tracked at a given time.
Track: Navigator should plot the tracks of the selected echoes. Where plotting manually, and
depending upon the level of threat and time available, the report may even have to be restricted to
the nearest approach information only.
R O R: The relevant paragraphs of the ROR should be considered to decide on the responsibility
between vessels and the avoiding action to be taken. Aspect and relative location of the target
vessel would be required for ROR application. Justification for choice of action is heavily dependent
upon the mention and application of the relevant paragraphs of the Rules. The relevant application
would be considered in the examples used. Plan: Action to be taken by own vessel should be
planned and plotted. Trial manoeuvre may be used, where available, to plan the change required at
an appropriate time to take avoiding action. The effect of the intended action on other target
echoes in the vicinity should also be examined.
Execute – Manoeuvre: The movements of all threatening echoes during the manoeuvre should be
monitored carefully.
Monitor: Plotting should be resumed on completion of the manoeuvre. The vessel‟s return to her
original status or further avoiding action should be considered, especially when in vicinity of other
navigational hazards.

60

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RADAR OBSERVERS COURSE

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

2 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF MARINE RADAR 14

3 SETTING UP AND OPERATING DISPLAYS 16

4 MANUAL PLOTING (TRUE & RELATIVE) 37

5 THE USE OF RADAR FOR NAVIGATION 54

6 RADAR AND COLREGS 60

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BASIC THEORY OF OPERATION OF MARINE RADAR

A fundamental requirement of marine radar is that of directional transmission and reception,

The radio-frequency energy transmitted by pulse-modulated radars consists of a series of equally

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pulses must be separated by relatively long non-transmitting time periods. Otherwise,

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF RADAR

Essentially Radar consists of four main components: -

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The radar pulse travels at the speed of light, i.e.,

300,000,000 meters per second or

300,000 Kilometers per second or

161,829 Nautical miles per second

1 second = 106 micro seconds (μ sec)

The speed of radar pulse can be indicated as

300 meters per micro second or

0.3 Km per micro second or

0.161829 Nm per micro second

To travel 0.162 Nm (roughly), the pulse takes 1 u sec.

So to travel 1 Nm, the pulse would take 1 μ sec =6.17μs

This can also be derived from the formulae: -

Distance = Speed x Time

THE PRINCIPLES OF RANGE AND BEARING MEASUREMENT

How does Radar Determine Range?

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How does radar determine the bearing?

Characteristics of the Pulse

UPPER EDGE (50% POWER)

VBW CENTRE (100% POWER)

LOWER EDGE (50% POWER)

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In commercial radar sets, VBW is generally between 15 0 and 300.

Paint size = Actual size + 1 HBW Paint size = 1 HBW

(Target with some angular size) (Point size target)

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HBW (in degrees) can also be given in meters.

In the figure, C is the scanner;

A & B are the closer edges of the targets. CA = CB = 4 miles.

Therefore B.D = 20. We know that in a circle,

Length of the arc =Radius X ( 00) 57.3

So, AB=Range x HBW = 4 x 2 miles = 4 x 2 x1852 meters = 258.6 m. 57.3 57.3

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For example, if PL = 0.2 us, then in meters it will 0.2 x 300 = 60 m.

Actual size of target ½ PL radial depth

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PL = 0.2 μs = 0.2 x 300 = 60 meters.

Minimum Range = ½ PL in use

4. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF) OR

PULSE RECURRENCE RATE (PRR)

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The time gap 1 sec = 1000000μs = 500μs.2000 2000

(Time gap between transmissions)

Distance = Speed x Time

= 0.162 nm/ µs x 250 µs

= 41 Nm. (rounded off)

Considering a PRF of 500,

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