Chapter

8 Architectural Working
Drawings

Figure 8.1  The La Chapelle floor plan represents real framing to carpenters who read, visualize, and build from a set of plans.

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 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     75

Variation on framing for La Chapelle Plan Set Plan

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 75 12/4/14 4:03 PM

 76    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans
Objectives
n Define and explain the various sheets that make up a set
of architectural plans.
n Identify the sheets in a set of working drawings and ex-
plain the information available from each working drawing.
n Define the most common scales used on architectural
plans. Explain why scales are important and what informa-
tion they make possible on a single plan sheet.
n Give examples of electronic plan scaling aids and software
available to estimators and builders. Explain how these
tools help estimators work faster and more accurately.
n Explain why section views and details are important plan
sheets. How do carpenters and other trade workers use
these views?
n Explain how Building Information Modeling software helps
build energy-efficient homes.
Architectural Plans and Plan
Sheets
Contract-related documents include the final building contract,
detailed specification sheet(s), and working drawings for con-
struction. This set of paperwork becomes part of the legal founda-
tion for the project. Each document is vital to the building process.
The various plan sheets listed below make up the working draw -
ings that builders and subcontractors typically use to develop their
estimates. Carpenters will use the same drawings to interpret the
design and build the structure.
Many people refer to a set of working drawings as plans or
blueprints. In fact, working drawings are part of the complete
set of architectural plans. Architectural plans include working
drawings, schedules, and other sheets shown in the list below.
Many architectural plan sheets are horizontal (section) views of
the building. The most common plan sheets include floor plans,
foundation plans, and roof plans. The order of plan sheets gen -
erally follows the order of the building process. Elevation views
are usually before building plans to give builders, homeowners,
and trade workers a sense of how the entire project will look on
completion. Not all architectural plan sets will include each sheet
listed below.
1. Title and Legend Sheet(s)
2. Plot Plan (site plan)
3. Elevations
4. Foundation Plan
5. Floor Framing Plans
6. Floor Plans
7. Ceiling Framing Plans
8. Roof Framing Plans
9. Window and Door Schedules
10. Details and Section Views
11. Interior Elevations
12. Trade Plans (Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing)
13. Specifications
M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 76
The sophistication and detail in a set of construction plans
may vary based on building design, owner’s need, and the ar -
chitect. In any case, enough detail is required to help minimize
mistakes and facilitate coordination within the various trades,
subcontractors, and materials suppliers. In drawing construction
plans, architects, drafters, or builders will illustrate many details
in only one place to eliminate confusion and redundant informa-
tion. For instance, specifying the same stud spacing on every wall
section is not required for most plans.
Title Sheets
The title sheet (Figure 8.2) is the cover for a set of architec -
tural plans. On new construction, the title sheet typically has
a front elevation view of the home. The title sheet normally
includes all pertinent information about the primary parties
involved with the project. The title sheet will list the architect
(designer), owner, builder, and major subcontractors, and it
may include a green home certification program’s seal and the
green verifier’s information. Other sheets in the plan set will
use a title block. The title block organizes some of the same
information from the title page for quick reference on each
page. Page numbers will be part of a title block to help keep
drawings organized.
Plan Visualization
Visualizing the finished home or addition by reviewing a set of
working drawings is a learned skill developed by builders, car -
penters, and other craftspeople. It takes practice to develop the
spatial skills necessary to visualize a three-dimensional building
represented on a two-dimensional sheet of paper. Experienced
carpenters can take a virtual tour in their minds of the finished
building as they read and interpret information in a set of ar -
chitectural plans. As this chapter covers each plan sheet, draw a
mental picture to visualize the information and begin developing
spatial skills. Figure 8.1 illustrates how the 2-D drawing becomes
a real 3-D structure.
Orthographic Projection
Drafters, engineers, architects, and builders use a system known as
orthographic projection to create drawings of three-dimensional
buildings on two-dimensional paper. Ortho means “straight
line” and this projection provides a graphical representation on a
two-dimensional plane. The projection represents objects drawn
with a common relationship ; that is, they are in scale with each
other. Common perspectives and drawing techniques are shown
in Figure 8.3.
A common drawing perspective providing a three-dimensional
view (3D) is the isometric view. Isometric views place all horizontal
lines at 30° angles relative to the horizon with vertical lines perpen-
dicular to the horizon. With this method, all lines are to scale and
remain in proportion. An example is shown in Figure 8.3.
12/4/14 4:03 PM
 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     77

S 05°00'00" W

W. KEITH POWELL
PROPERTY BOUN
156.29'

REMOVED
DARY LINE

25

Mc
GREENWAY AREA, OLD RAILROAD

MU
23
105.97'

25' REAR BUILD

ING SETBACK COMMERCIAL

RR
LINE 21
(RETAIL, RESTAURANTS,
19

Y W
COMMUNITY SERVICES)
LAND CONSERVATION AREA

Y A
X SEE NOTE 1
X
X X WOODED
15' SIDE BUILDING SETBACK LINE

X
X X CONSTRUCTION / AREA
RESIDENTIAL SUBDIVISION

LINE
N 02°00'00" E

SILT FENCE

DING SETBACK
LAWN AREA
SEEN NOTE 4
LIMITS OF SITE DELLA’S PLACE
LIMITS OF CLEARING COMMUNITY
INFILL LOT

158.12'
CLEARING PARK
WOODED DOWNSPOUT RAIN GUTTER
AREA STEPS
LOCATION (3 TYP.)
30'-0" 12

15' SIDE BUIL

DECK 10

17'-0"

18'-0"
E
LAN
8'-91/8" 8
8'-0"

ER
WY
LAWN AREA
14'-6"
10'-8" 33.14' SA

W
SEE NOTE 4
ROOF 1 STORY A WINDOW SCHEDULE
32'-0"

SYMBOL

S 05°00'00"
OVERHANG WOOD FRAME HOUSE ROOF
OVERHANG
1,987 S.F. 33'-0" ROUGH OPENING LIGHT VENT. EGRESS ENERY SPECIFICATIONS
N7

PATIO

22'-0
" SUB-FLOOR ELEV. = 106.32 MARK MODEL WIDTH × HEIGHT S.F. S.F. W. × H. (S.F.)
LAWN AREA Design U-Factor = 0.35
0°0

S
STEP 32'-10"
2' CANTILEVER SEEN NOTE 4
A (3) 3056DH/TR 9'-0 1/2" × 6'-6 1/2" 42.75 19.44 Design SHGC = 0.40
0' INFILL LOTS EARN GREEN CERTIFICATION POINTS
17.7 U-VALUE AND SOLAR HEAT GAIN
26'-0
0'00

2 CAR B 3060DH/TR 3'-0 1/2" × 7'-0 1/2" 14.25 6.04

10'-0"

PORCH COEFFICIENT (SHGC) MINIMUMS PER

SITE LOCATION MAP

"

GARAGE
WS
26'-0

STEPS
C 2630DH 2'-6 1/2" × 3'-0 1/2" 5.62 3.50 CLIMATE ZONE 3A
"W

15'-0"
"

10’ WIDE DRIVEWAY

" K
WOODED D (2) 2030DH/TR 4'-0 1/2" × 4'-0 1/2" 13.5 8.43 EMERGENCY EGRESS
W/ TURN-AROUND 22'-0 AL 10' AREA 1” = 120’
R310.1.1 MINIMUM OPENING AREA. ALL
SL

EW
ES

SID 4'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2"

GS

. E (3) 4050DH/TR 17.25 8.10

SEE NOTE 3 FOR MIN EMERGENCY ESCAPE AND RESCUE
DR

OPTIONAL SURFACES F (2) 2056DH/TR 2'-0 1/2" × 6'-6 1/2" 10.5 4.55 OPENINGS SHALL HAVE A
47.2
IVE

CONSTRUCTION G 6010TR 6'-0 1/2" × 1'-0 1/2" 4.20 - MINIMUM NET CLEAR OPENING OF 5.7
8'

SQUARE FEET. (EXCEPTION: GRADE

WA

DRIVEWAY MAY ALSO BE USED STAGING AREA

H (3) 3050DH/TR 9'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 40.5 18.22 32 1/2" × 27" (6.04) M. BDR. FLOOR OPENINGS SHALL HAVE A MINIMUM
WS
Y

SEE NOTE 2 E
AS CONSTRUCTION STAGING LIN
'

ACK NET CLEAR OPENING OF 5 SQUARE FEET).

88.5

UNTIL CONCRETE IS PLACED I 2040GL/TR 2'-0 1/2" × 5'-0 1/2" 8.25 3.24
ETB G
AND FINISHED GS
DIN E J 4010TR 4'-0 1/2" × 1'-0 1/2" 3.00 - R310.1.2 MINIMUM OPENING HEIGHT. THE
UIL
SL

TB
111

ON MINIMUM NET CLEAR OPENING HEIGHT

ES

CURB
GS

' FR Y STOP K 2050DH/TR 6'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 9.75 4.05

25 IT SHALL BE 24 INCHES.
UTIL G
.09'

.52'E
IDE T L (2) 3050DH/TR 6'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 27.0 12.15 32 1/2" × 27" (6.04) BDR. 2
8' W EMEN
WOODED
10' EAS 114 M 2630DH/TR 2'-6 1/2" × 4'-0 1/2" 7.87 3.5 R310.1.3 MINIMUM OPENING WIDTH. THE
AREA G MINIMUM NET CLEAR OPENING WIDTH
N 4050DH/TR 4'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 17.12 7.11 41 7/8" × 28" (7.63) BDR. 3 SHALL BE 20 INCHES.
"W
E
0'00
BENCHMARK ALK
EW O 28110AW 2'-8 1/2" × 1'-10 1/2" 3.73 3.49
0°0 SID ER R310.1.4 OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS.
S2 LIC ULD
“X” ON TOP OF CONCRETE
G " PUB SHO P 2650DH 2'-6 1/2" × 5'-0 1/2" 9.37 6.75 EMERGENCY ESCAPE AND RESCUE
WS

HIGHWAY MONUMENT 4'-0 EL

E RAV
GIRDER & HEADER SPANS
SL

ELEV. = 100.00 G SAN Q CUSTOM SK 2'-0" × 4'-0" Per P.E. 8.00 2.00 OPENINGS SHALL BE OPERATIONAL FROM
IDE
2' W
E THE INSIDE OF THE ROOM WITHOUT THE

LAN
G FOR EXTERIOR WALLS R CUSTOM SK 4'-0" × 4'-0" Per P.E. 16.00 NA USE OF KEYS, TOOLS OR SPECIAL
E
(supporting Roof and Ceiling) DH = DOUBLE HUNG, TR = TRANSOM, CS = CASEMENT, GL = GLIDER, AW = AWNING, SK = SKYLIGHT KNOWLEDGE.

BIK
E LA
NE

YE R SAN
AY) E
W
GROUND SNOW LOAD (PSF) = 30
SHEET INDEX
SAW
IDE
4'-0
"W OF-W N BUILDING WIDTH = 36'
HT- VEL LA
PUB
RIG
LIC ALT TR
A
LDE
R SIZE SPAN NO. JACK STUDS
1 SYMBOL
DOOR SCHEDULE C1 COVER SHEET, SITE PLAN
(60' E ASP
H SHO
ID R AVEL 2-2×4 2'-10" 1 INTERIOR
"W G W MARK SIZE MAT’L. GLASS LOCKSET TYPE A1 SOUTH & EAST ELEVATIONS
SAN 12'-0 IDE EXTERIOR
2' W SITE STATISTICS: 2-2×6 4'-2" 1
2-2×8 5'-4" 2 1 30 × 68 × 13 4" EXT. STL. INS. 1" INS. ENTRY HG. A2 NORTH & WEST ELEVATIONS
0 20 40 LOT AREA: 26,548 S.F. / 0.61 ACRES
2-2×10 6'-6" 2 2 28 × 70 × 13 4" EXT. STL. INS. 1" INS. ENTRY HG.
A3 FOUNDATION PLAN
W DEDICATED GREEN SPACE: 6,674 S.F. / 25% 3 60 × 70 × 13 4" EXT. F.G. INS. 1" INS. S.G. ENTRY SL.

COVER SHEET &

SCALE IN FEET 2-2×12 7'-6" 2

W/ DETACHED GARAGE
BUILDING SIZE: 1,987 S.F. 4 28 × 70 × 13 8" INT. H.C. WD. HG. A4 FIRST FLOOR FRAMING PLAN
3-2×8 6'-8" 1
GARAGE SIZE: 272 S.F.
3-2×10 8'-2" 2 5 20 × 70 × 13 8" INT. H.C. WD. PRIVACY HG. A5 FIRST FLOOR PLAN
SITE PLAN 28 × 70 × 13 8"

ONE STORY RANCH

TOTAL IMPERVIOUS AREA: 2,259 S.F. / 9% 3-2×12 9'-5" 2 6 INT. H.C. WD. PC.
LOT AREA = 26,548 S.F. / 0.61 ACRES A6 CEILING FRAMING PLAN
PERVIOUS CONCRETE AREA: 1,053 S.F. / 4%
4-2×8 7'-8" 1 7 16 × 70 × 13 8" INT. H.C. WD. HG.
SITE PLAN NOTES: 40 × 70 × 13 8" A7 ROOF FRAMING PLAN

SITE PLAN
8 INT. H.C. WD. B.F.
4-2×10 9'-5" 2
LEGEND 4-2×12 10'-11" 2 9 30 × 70 × 13 8" INT. H.C. WD. PRIVACY HG. S-1 CROSS SECTIONS & INTERIOR ELEVATIONS
1) AREA RESERVED FOR LAND CONSERVATION:
A) THE GENERAL CONTRACTOR SHALL INSTALL AND MAINTAIN A PROPERTY BOUNDARY FOOTNOTE D, TABLE 602.7(1); “WHERE THE NUMBER
10 30 × 70 × 13 4" EXT. STL. INS. 1" INS. ENTRY HG.
D-1 DETAILS
CONSTRUCTION (SILT) FENCE AS SHOWN. FINAL PLACEMENT BY BUILDING SETBACK LINES OF REQUIRED JACK STUDS EQUALS ONE, THE
STL = STEEL, INS = INSULATED, S.G. = SAFETY GLASS, FG = FIBERGLASS,
HEADER IS PERMITTED TO BE SUPPORTED BY AN
EPA CERTIFIED ENGINEER, POSSIBLE SITE RETENTION POND APPROVED FRAMING ANCHOR . . .” HC = HOLLOW CORE, WD = WOOD, HG. = HINGED, PC = POCKET, D-2 DETAILS
PER LOCAL REQUIREMENTS. UTILITY EASEMENT
SL. = SLIDER, BF = BI-FOLD
B) SILT FENCES AND/OR HAY BALE DYKES SHALL BE LAND CONSERVATION BOUNDARY SOURCE: 2015 IRC TABLE 602.7(1) D-3 DETAILS
INSTALLED AS PER CIVIL ENGINEER’S INSTRUCTIONS TO
ROOF GUTTER & DOWNSPOUT
PROVIDE SOIL AND SEDIMENT CONTROL.
X X CONSTRUCTION FENCE
2) THE CONTRACTOR SHALL CONTAIN STAGING, STOCKPILE, AND
G GAS MAIN CODE ENFORCEMENT PLAN REVIEW APPROVAL
DISPOSAL ONLY WITHIN THE DESIGNATED AREA.
E U.G. ELECTRIC
3) OPTIONAL SURFACES FOR DRIVEWAY AND SIDEWALKS: GS GAS SERVICE
PERVIOUS CONCRETE, RECYCLED ASPHALT/RUBBER; GRAVEL;
CRUSHED STONE, BRICK, SEA SHELL, OR OTHER REGIONALLY SAN SANITARY SEWER
AVAILABLE RE-PURPOSED MATERIALS. PROTECT EXISTING PUBLIC SL SANITARY LATERAL
SIDEWALK DURING CONSTRUCTION.
W WATER MAIN
4) ALL LAWN AREAS SHALL RECEIVE FINAL GRADING AND SEEDING AS WS WATER SERVICE NOTE:
SOON AS POSSIBLE AFTER CONSTRUCTION IS COMPLETE. LAWN HOME DESIGN IS TYPICAL FOR INTERNATIONAL
OPTIONS; PLANNED NATURAL AREAS AND XERISCAPING WITH
ES ELECTRIC SERVICE ENERGY CONSERVATION CODE AND INTERNATIONAL
GRASSES AND WILD FLOWERS ACCUSTOMED TO LOCAL CONDITIONS 99 GROUND ELEVATION CONTOUR RESIDENTIAL CODE CLIMATE ZONE 3A.
AND YEARLY RAINFALL TO MINIMIZE WATER USE FOR IRRIGATION. LIMITS OF CLEARING
LICENSED LAND SURVEYOR

Figure 8.2  Check the title sheet for contact information and other details.

30° 30°
Front Right side
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION ISOMETRIC

Horizon line

Vanishing Vanishing
point point

PERSPECTIVE
Figure 8.3  A full set of building plans will use many drawing types to relate information using 2D and 3D techniques.

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 78    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans
Dimensioning Aids for Working with
Architectural Plans
Reading a set of construction plans requires practice, experi
ence, and spatial skills. To quickly read rough dimensions or for
estimating; a wide range of computer controlled, electronic, and
manual dimensioning aids are available. Even though these tools
usually provide enough accuracy for estimating and general draw-
ings, always refer to the architectural plans for exact dimensions
and details. Various scaling tools are available to increase accuracy
and speed when estimating; see Figure 8.4.
Architect’s Scale
There are several versions of the architect’s scale; the most com-
monly used is triangular with 11 different scales, one being a
full-size ruler. Common plan scales are shown in Figure 8.5.
The end of each scale has a fraction that designates the par-
ticular scale. In residential construction, 1>4″ = 1′ is the most
common scale used on working drawings, as shown in Figure 8 .6.
However, some plan sheets, depending on paper size, build -
ing size, and objects represented, may use 1>8″ = 1′ or other
scales. Be sure to check each sheet for the appropriate scale be-
fore taking measurements.
Professional Tip
Written plan dimensions always take precedence over scaled
and measured dimensions. Variations in printing and paper
can decrease the accuracy of measuring and scaling dimen-
sions from a physical plan set.
(a) Architect’s flat scale
(b) Architect’s triangular scale
Figure 8.4  Manual and electronic aids help estimate plans quickly estimator work quickly and accurately.
Sources: (a, b, c) Alvin & Company, Inc.; (d) Scalex Corporation
M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 78
How to Apply the Architect’s Scale  Learning to use the
architect’s scale is important to reading and interpreting working
drawings. Follow the steps shown below and refer to Figure 8.7 to
- practice with an architect’s scale and develop accuracy and confi-
dence in reading working drawings. The figure in this example is
part of plan sheet A-5 the detached garage from the La Chapelle
Plan But the technique can be used throughout any scaled set of
plans using an architectural ruler.
1. Find the appropriate fraction mark at the end of the scale that
corresponds to the scale of plan sheet A-5. In this example
shown in Figure 8.7, 1>4″ = 1′ is used.
2. Using the 1/4 ″ scale, set the architectural ruler on the zero
mark and one corner of the garage front.
3. Read across the scale to the other end of the garage and note 22′.
4. On a 1>4″ = 1′ scale, 5½″ is equal to twenty-two 1>4″ seg-
ments; i.e., 22′ as shown on plan sheet A-5. Take a basic ruler
and you will see the garage’s actual measurement on the plan
sheet is 5½″.
5. The area to the right of the zero mark on the architect’s
scale is for measuring inches. For example, you can meas -
ure 9″ on the scale right of the zero mark by counting nine
hash marks.
Civil Engineer’s Scale
On a building lot or larger land area, surveyors use measuring
equipment that divides parts of a foot into a decimal number car-
ried to thousandths of a foot for accuracy; for example, 255.469′
may be the length of a property line. Because of the larger scales,
decimal formatting, and accuracy, surveyors use this standard to
create the property lines on most plot plans. A civil engineer’s
(c) Rolling ruler
(d) Scalex PlanWheel
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 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     79

3/
32" = 1' scale can be used to read these large-scale drawings easily. The
3 civil engineer’s scale divides into six scales; each scale further mul-
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
32 tiplies by a factor of 10 for increasingly larger scale drawings. See
the engineer’s scale chart and example for reading a civil engineer-
1/ ing scale in Figure 8.8.
8" = 1'
1
8 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Electronic Scaling Tools
3/
Electronic tools are available for scaling plans when estimating.
16" = 1'
Two popular types, the ScaleMaster II and the Scalex PlanWheel
16 14 10 8 6 4 2 0 3 (shown in Figure 8.4), can perform linear, area, and volume
16
measurements for easy and accurate estimating. Some electronic
measuring aids are wireless and interface with spreadsheets and
1/
4" = 1' estimating software. Some versions have a small calculator built
1 in to help with adding and subtracting measurements. All dimen-
10 8 6 4 2 0 4 sioning aids help with calculations required for estimating. In ad-
dition, electronic aids increase accuracy to a higher level and can
3/
8" = 1' decrease overall estimating time.
6 4 2 0 3
8

Working Drawings
1/
2" = 1'
1 Depending on building complexity, roof design, and other vari-
4 2 0 2 ables, a set of working drawings for a residential home may be 5
to 10 sheets. For basic designs, a simple floor plan, a few speci -
3/
4" = 1' fications, and possibly a roof plan is all many carpenters need
once the building corners are determined with a site plan. The
3 0 1 2 3
4 point is that working drawings may be very simple or very com-
plex depending on the project and the experience level of the
1" = 1' builder and crew members. Using the International Residential
Code, experienced carpenters can easily adjust to a particular set
1 9 6 3 0 1 2 of working drawings. The complexity of the drawing is a factor
in determining the plan sheet size; standard sizes are shown in
Figure 8.9.
11/2" = 1'
The working drawings provided to contractors for bidding
112 9 6 3 0 2 serve many purposes in the overall construction process. Below
are some applications of working drawings other than physical
construction.
3" = 1'
1. Estimating and Take-offs. The builder and subcontractors
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 use working drawings to calculate all of their materials, labor,
and other expenses.
2. Permitting. In residential construction, the requirement for
12" = 1' full scale; (also use 1/16" = 1')
plans in the permitting process varies by jurisdiction. Some
16 0 1 2 3 architects create a set of plans specifically for permitting; they
may have a slightly different look than actual working draw-
ings.
Yellow mark = one scaled foot 3. Permanent Record. A set of working drawings constitutes
a permanent record of construction and design, along
Figure 8.5  Eleven scales are available on a triangular architect’s with all details and specifications. Provide a set to the
ruler. The most common used in residential construction is 1/4″ = 1′. homeowner for future repairs, additions, or remodeling
projects.
4. Legal Record. The working drawings become part of the le -
gal record for the building. If legal issues arise during or after
construction, courts may use working drawings as a basis for
determining important facts.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 79 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 80    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans

Using the common 1" = 1" scale, the master bedroom’s

physical measurement is 45/8". Using the 1/4" plan scale
converts it to the actual size of 18'-5".

La Chapelle House Plan

Figure 8.6  Scaled drawings help to illustrate an entire building on a single plan sheet.

2 5

3 1

Figure 8.7  Using the scales on an architectural ruler, a carpenter, builder, or designer can draw large-scale areas on plan sheets.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 80 12/4/14 4:04 PM


Presentation and Elevation Viewing
Style
Presentation View
Plan books, internet sites, architects, or builders may provide a
presentation view (Figure 8.10). This is essentially a tool for selling
the plans or home and provides little related to actual construc -
tion detail. Presentation views, in pencil or color, typically show
fully developed landscaping, distinctive features, and even people
to present the finished home in a favorable light. Unless the owner
specifically requests the added perspective provided by a presenta-
tion drawing, it is not included in most construction plans.
Whole House Elevation Views
Elevation views provide a visual and scaled view of the home’s exte -
rior or interior. Most plan sets include views with each side shown
and detailed. Elevations include references to many specifications for
framing and exterior finishes. Roof slopes, ceiling heights, finished
floor heights, and roofing and siding materials are usually identified
on elevation sheets, as shown in Figure 8.11 and detailed as follows:
Roof slope: Roof slopes may not be the same for all covered
sections of the home. For example, dormers, shed roofs, and
garages may have different slopes.
Ceiling heights: Ceiling heights are provided on most elevation
sheets and may be included on specifications or detail sheets.
Exterior finishes: Exterior finishes are usually illustrated and noted
on elevations. In some cases, the street side of a home will be brick
and the other three sides are covered with siding or other materi-
als to meet restrictions of the neighborhood or community.
Topography: The actual lot grade (topography) helps estimators
calculate foundation materials and grading work. Elevations
also illustrate the home’s finished look in relation to grade.
Interior Elevations
Interior finish work such as cabinets, trim work, and built-in
bookcases may have a plan sheet (see Figure 8.12) with interior
elevations so carpenters know where to set these items. Interior
elevations dimension universal design features like lowered
counters or fixtures so carpenters can install the features ac -
cording to requirements. Universal design heights and details
for doors, cabinets, and other features are discussed in other ar-
eas of the text.
Layout and Framing Plan Views
For plan views, a cutting plane is a horizontal line “cutting” the
object for a better view. For example, with typical floor plans, the
horizontal cutting plane is typically at a height that cuts through
doors and windows on exterior walls so they are in the final view.
Removing the area above the cutting plane creates a bird’s-eye view
looking down into the structure like the example in Figure 8.13.
M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 81
Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     81
Professional Tip
The oldest known plan or drawing dates back to around 2100 BC
and is credited to the Chaldean Prince of Lagash, a city-state
in ancient Mesopotamia. In his time, the prince was known as
an engineer and a builder.
Plot or Site Plan
A site plan (Figure 8.14) contains information verified by a sur -
veyor, engineer, and others. It illustrates important features such
as utility easements, topography, property lines, setbacks, and el -
evations. Site plans usually include the building footprint, drive -
ways, auxiliary buildings, and other constructed features on site
as references. A plot plan, very similar to a site plan, is specifically
for recording a piece of land and shows much of the information
on the site plan without a house on the lot. Some of the important
aspects include the following:
Easements: Any property easements must be specifically located
and identified. It is advisable to check with code officials and
utility companies for restrictions and setbacks related to prop-
erty easements.
Setbacks: All property setbacks shown on site plans should be
verified with local zoning officials before construction begins.
A quick phone call can help eliminate serious code problems
related to building within a setback area.
Benchmark: The benchmark sets the elevation of many con-
struction features, including finished floor levels and founda-
tion heights.
Site plans contain very important information about el -
evation. Each site plan has an elevation called the benchmark.
The benchmark represents a starting elevation that may be
an actual elevation above sea level or, for ease of use, an arbi -
trary number like 100.00 ′. In either case, all points of eleva -
tion throughout the site plan reference against the benchmark
elevation. Carpenters and masons will use these elevations
as starting points to calculate foundations and finished floor
heights. Masonry workers will use these elevations to build and
check all foundation walls, piers, and other structural compo -
nents of the foundation system.
Site or plot plans have become more significant in today’s
environment of green building. The orientation of the building
is important to operating efficiency. Windows and doors can be
oriented and sized to maximize any solar advantages based on
the home’s location. The site plan can be used to manipulate the
scaled building footprint into the best orientation for solar ef -
ficiency based on location, building size, and limitations of the
building lot. These plan sheets also show protected areas like tree
drip zones and natural areas, as well as areas designated for mate-
rials storage and heavy equipment.
12/4/14 4:04 PM
 82    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans

Civil Engineer’s Scale

(also commonly used by surveyors) A
Scale Multiply Scale by Factor of 10 8.5" × 11"
Division/Ratio for Larger Scale B
11" × 17"
10 / 1 to 1 1" = 1' 1" = 10' 1" = 100'
20 / 1 to 2 1" = 2' 1" = 20' 1" = 200'
30 / 1 to 3 1" = 3' 1" = 30' 1" = 300' C
40 / 1 to 4 1" = 4' 1" = 40' 1" = 400' 17" × 22"
50 / 1 to 5 1" = 5' 1" = 50' 1" = 500'
60 / 1 to 6 1" = 6' 1" = 60' 1" = 600'
D
22" × 34"
1" = 30'

30 0 20 40 60
E
34" × 44"
Figure 8.8  Civil engineering scales are designed for working with
very large distances.

Figure 8.9  The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) de-

Foundation Plan veloped a standard for working drawings using a letter designation
corresponding to each sheet size. Large size E prints provide the most
The information on a foundation plan provides critical dimen - detail and are easier to read.
sions for structural support features. The height of the cutting
plane should be set to “cut through” any windows, doors, or other
openings in basement walls so the builder can define locations,

1,987
1,,98
1
1, 9877 Sq.q. Ft.
Sq Ft Ranch
Rancnch
nc h on n 0.61
61 Acres
0.6
.61 Acre
Ac res
re s
3 Bedrooms
Be
B edroo oms
2 Baths
Ba
Baath
tth
hs
2 Car
Ca
C ar Garage
Ga
G arage
ara g
Solar
ar Hot
Solla
So Ho
H ot Water
W te
Wa terr
Photovoltaic
Ph
P hoottov
tov
ovoollta i Supplemental
taic Suup pp
plle
emmeen tal Electric
ntal
ta Ellec
E ectr
triic
tr ic

Figure 8.10  Presentation drawings are used to present the finished home in the best light possible for selling sets of plans or the proposed
new home.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 82 12/4/14 4:04 PM


type, and other specifics. Take a look at the information below
and noted in Figure 8.15 of important specifications provided by
foundation plans.
Foundation wall type and width: The foundation width as
determined by code or design may not be the same for all
areas of the building.
Window openings: Window type, size, and location may not be
the same at all locations.
Dimension lines: Carefully note dimension lines and their refer-
ence points. They may represent the outside edge, the center-
line, or the inside edge of the object referenced.
Footings and piers: Dashed lines represent the footing width
for foundation walls, piers, and columns. The footing width
beyond the foundation wall, column, or pier on either side is
the footing projection (see Figure 8.15).
Concrete: Some concrete specifications may be listed on foun-
dation plans, but refer to specifications sheets for all pertinent
details.
Local frost lines: The depth of footings below grade must be
defined by local code jurisdictions based on local soil and
weather conditions. In the International Residential Code,
Table R301.2(1), footnote b states, “The jurisdiction shall fill
in the frost line depth . . . with the minimum depth of footing
below finished grade.” (2015 IRC, p. 29)
Ma t h T i p
The footing projection is the width of the footing beyond the
foundation wall, pier, or column. IRC R403.1.1 Minimum Size
states, “Footing projections, P, shall be not less than 2 inches
and shall not exceed the thickness of the footing.” (2015 IRC,
p. 80) For the example in Figure 8.15, what is the total foot-
ing width based on the footing projection and basement wall
specifications?
Answer: Foundation wall is 108″ concrete with an exterior
footing projection of 34″ and an interior footing projection of
34″ = 16″ total footing width.
Floor Plan
Floor plans like the example in Figure 8.16 are usually the most
information-packed of all plan sheets. Like the foundation plan,
the floor plan cutting plane should be at a height that includes all
window and door openings. This sheet defines the size and layout
of all rooms and may include electrical, HVAC, and plumbing
information. If the home design is more complex, however, elec-
trical, HVAC, and plumbing may be on separate sheets to simplify
the view and help eliminate mistakes and oversights during esti -
mating and construction.
M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 83
Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     83
The floor plan provides the information needed to estimate
many materials like studs, drywall, doors, windows, and floor
framing. Many plan sets include framing sheets for floors, walls,
and ceilings as shown in the following sections. Although not re-
quired, framing sheets help estimators work more accurately and
help carpenters reduce material waste.
Room size and layout: As with any dimension, be sure of
the reference point so the actual work will match the floor
plan. In rooms with appliances, bathroom fixtures, or other
equipment, the point of reference for dimensions is critical
to design. For example, the kitchen cabinets are often
preordered based on floor plan dimensions. A mistake in
reference point here during rough framing means the cabi-
nets may not fit in the finished wall space. See Figure 8.17
and the examples of minimum spacing requirements from
the International Residential Code Figure R307.1, Mini-
mum Fixture Clearances. Always confirm that dimensions
meet any local changes to the model code.
Piers and columns: The surface contact area of support for
framing materials over bearing supports (piers and columns) is
regulated by IRC section R502.6.1. It requires floor joists ends
over bearing support to lap a minimum of 3″ and requires the
boards to be nailed with three 10d face nails.
Plumbing fixtures: IRC Section R307, Toilet, Bath and
Shower Spaces, specifies minimum spacing requirements for
these fixtures. Reading the floor plans correctly while laying
out the walls is critical to assure code-compliant spacing in
all areas.
Electrical and HVAC: Floor plans are used by trades work-
ers to position outlets, switches, home integration systems,
HVAC supply and return registers, and many other compo-
nents of the home design.
Exterior features: Floor plans dimensionalize the place-
ment of decks, porches, garages, and other attached, exte-
rior features. Depending on design, exterior features like
decks may have details specified and illustrated on other
plan sheets.
Ma t h T i p
A floor plan measures from edge to edge on the exterior. One
exterior kitchen wall shows an outside dimension of 12′-8″.
According to the specifications, all exterior walls are framed
with 2 × 6 studs, 1>2″ gypsum board on the interior, and 1>2″
OSB sheathing on the exterior. Wall-to-wall, what is the maxi-
mum width of the cabinet assembly?
Given dimension is 12′-8″. Subtract the 2 × 6 wall thick-
ness from both sides (5½″+5½″ = 11″). Subtract the gypsum
board and OSB from both sides (1>2″+1>2″ = 1″ × 2 sides
= 2″). Final answer: 12′-8″ - 11″ - 2″ = 11′-7″ maximum cab-
inet assembly width.
12/4/14 4:04 PM
 84    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans
La Chapelle House Plan
Figure 8.11  Elevation drawings may identify important framing and finish design requirements, such as roof slope.
Framing Plans for Ceilings and Roofs
Ceiling or roof framing plans provide details for all structural
components and the layout spacing and arrangement of the sys -
tem. For example, in Figure 8.18, spacing and framing details for
all ceiling joists are noted on the ceiling framing plan (sheet A-6).
In addition, the size and type of all materials is defined in the
framing plan.
A ceiling or roof framing plan (Figure 8.18) will show details
of framing for green features such as I-joists, raised-heel trusses,
engineered lumber, or recycled steel. These green and sustainable
design options must be detailed for carpenters to follow the de -
sign specifics. Estimators also need this information for bidding.
Some of the green features on framing plans may be included on
the specifications sheets.
Without a framing plan, carpenters will design a ceiling or
roof system based on the IRC code requirements to provide a code-
minimum system that meets all standards for safety. However,
using the green features noted above will improve on the mini -
mum design requirements of the International Residential Code
and may reduce materials consumption.
M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 84
Detail and Section Views
The detail and section views provide very specific information about
a particular construction or design feature. These views provide en-
larged drawings to show specific details. To assure compliance with
design and efficiency standards for the home, carpenters need de -
tail sheets to define materials, techniques, and special applications.
Detail and section views are often combined several to a sheet.
When a particular area of a plan sheet has a corresponding al -
phabetical or numerical indicator, refer to the detail sheets. This
indicator directs the carpenter to a particular enlarged view on the
detail sheet. For example, note the window flashing details from
plan sheet D-1 in Figure 8.19.
One of the most common detail views is a wall section. See
Figure 8.20 for the wall detail from plan sheet D-1. Common prac-
tice is to include one typical wall section and any details unique to
the home’s design or special features. A wall section may include
green features and framing requirements above code minimums
as shown in Figure 8.20. Study detail sheets carefully before con -
struction begins to assure compliance with structural, materials,
and energy-efficiency requirements.
12/4/14 4:04 PM
 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     85

La Chapelle House Plan

Figure 8.11  (Continued)

Schedules and Specifications Professional Tip

With a set of architectural drawings, the most common sched -
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) or CADD (Computer-Aided
ule or specification sheet is for windows and doors. Throughout
Design and Drafting) are very similar. Both are available as
a plan set, windows, doors, and other components have a numeric al freestanding programs or as part of a total BIM package.
or alphabetical designator corresponding to an entry on the
schedule sheet. Information on the schedule sheet will provide
specifications, model numbers, material type, size, rough open -
programs provide materials lists and 3D real-world walkthroughs
ings, manufacturer, and may include a notation of the product’s
and at the same time calculate the impact of materials and con -
efficiency. See the window schedule from plan sheet C-1 in
struction techniques on building operating efficiency. Stand-
Figure 8.21. Chapter 43, Windows, Skylights, and Tubular
alone estimating and accounting programs are available as part
Day-Lighting Devices, covers the efficiency standards noted on
of fully integrated modeling software called Building Information
the C-1 plan sheet.
Modeling (BIM). BIM is sophisticated software that models many
aspects of a building, including air quality, energy consumption,
CAD Programs for Design and and operational efficiency.
Energy Efficiency
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software has been available for
3D Design and Estimating Software
building design and estimating for years. Options range from Today’s estimating and 3D modeling software programs (resi-
simple to very sophisticated software and hardware packages for dential and commercial) range from entry-level programs to
residential and commercial construction. The most advanced highly sophisticated custom programs. A basic example of what

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 85 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 86    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans

Figure 8.12  Elevations for interior work help carpenters meet layout and installation requirements.
La Chapelle House Plan

3D MODEL SHOWING CUTTING PLANE FLOOR PLAN

Cutting plane

Figure 8.13  Floor plans are horizontal section views and become part of a set of working drawings.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 86 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     87

S 05°00'00" W
PROPERTY BO
156.29'
UNDARY LIN
E

105.97'
25' REAR BU
ILDING SETB
ACK LINE

LAND CONSERVATION AREA

X SEE NOTE 1
X
X X WOODED

15' SIDE BUILDING SETBACK LINE

X
X X CONSTRUCTION / AREA

LINE
N 02°00'00" E
SILT FENCE

ACK
LAWN AREA
LIMITS OF
SEEN NOTE 4
LIMITS OF CLEARING

ILDING SETB

158.12'
CLEARING
WOODED DOWNSPOUT RAIN GUTTER
AREA STEPS
LOCATION (3 TYP.)
30'-0"

15' SIDE BU
DECK

17'-0"

18'-0"
8'-91/ 8"

8'-0"
LAWN AREA 10'-8" 33.14'
14'-6"

W
SEE NOTE 4
ROOF 1 STORY

32'-0"

S 05°00'00"
OVERHANG WOOD FRAME HOUSE ROOF
OVERHANG
1,987 S.F.

33'-0"
N7

PATIO
0" SUB-FLOOR ELEV. = 106.32
22'- LAWN AREA
0°0

PS SEEN NOTE 4
STE 32'-10"
2' CANTILEVER
0'
17.7
26'-
0'00

2 CAR

10'-0"
PORCH
0"

GARAGE

WS
26'-

STEPS
"W

15'-0"
0"

10’ WIDE DRIVEWAY WOODED

0" K
W/ TURN-AROUND 22'-
EW
AL 10' AREA

SL
ES
GS
SID .
SEE NOTE 3 FOR MIN
DR

OPTIONAL SURFACES

47.2
IVE

CONSTRUCTION

8'
WA

DRIVEWAY MAY ALSO BE USED STAGING AREA

WS
Y

SEE NOTE 2 E
AS CONSTRUCTION STAGING LIN
'

K
88.5

UNTIL CONCRETE IS PLACED ET BAC G

AND FINISHED GS
L DIN E
BUI SL
111

T B
ON
ES

CUR P
GS

25 ' FR LITY
STO
UTI G
.09'

W IDE NT
.5 2'E
114
8 ' E
EM
WOODED
10' EAS
AREA G

0" W
E
LK
WA
00'0
BENCHMARK IDE
0° CS ULD
ER
S2 LI
“X” ON TOP OF CONCRETE
G " PUB SHO
WS

HIGHWAY MONUMENT 4'-0 EL

E RAV
SL

ELEV. = 100.00
IDE
G SAN

ANE
2' W
G
E L
YER
L ANE W
IKE SAN Y)
EB
4'-0
" WID
S AW I C
HT -
RIG TRAVE
WA
OF- L LANE
R
PUB
L
HAL
T LDE
(60' E ASP SHO
I D R A VEL
0" W IDE
G W
SAN 12'- 2' W SITE STATISTICS:
0 20 40 LOT AREA: 26,548 S.F. / 0.61 ACRES

W DEDICATED GREEN SPACE: 6,674 S.F. / 25%

SCALE IN FEET
BUILDING SIZE: 1,987 S.F.

SITE PLAN
GARAGE SIZE: 272 S.F.

LOT AREA = 26,548 S.F. / 0.61 ACRES TOTAL IMPERVIOUS AREA: 2,259 S.F. / 9%
PERVIOUS CONCRETE AREA: 1,053 S.F. / 4%
La Chapelle House Plan

Figure 8.14  A site plan contains important information for positioning the home on the building lot. When builders have the option, solar orienta-
tion of the home can significantly improve a home’s energy efficiency.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 87 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 88    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans
La Chapelle House Plan
Figure 8.15  Foundation plans detail all footings, piers, foundation walls, and basement walls.
these programs can do is shown in Figure 8.22. Most can produce
a complete set of working drawings for any residential design.
Some engineers, architects, and builders in residential construc -
tion use AutoCAD®. However, AutoCAD requires training and
is primarily a commercial design product. Programs tailored for
residential construction are easy to use and provide many levels
of detail. Some 3D design programs can integrate with account -
ing programs for detailed cost reports and estimating functions.
Modern builders and subcontractors take advantage of tech-
nological advances in communications and software that inte-
grate design, accounting, and scheduling software. These modern
tools save time, reduce errors, and help builders become more effi-
cient and profitable. Learning to work with these programs is a pre
- these numbers as part of operating efficiency and energy costs
requisite to management positions in the construction industry.
Building Information Modeling (BIM)
An example of BIM software is the REM/ Rate™ software used
by Energy Star HERS raters. This software package provides
energy modeling based on criteria input by the rater, such as
M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 88
blower door and duct blaster testing, insulation quantity and
quality of installation, energy-efficient lighting, appliances,
and heating and cooling equipment. Using BIM software, a
rater can provide a detailed analysis to the builder or home -
owner of the operating costs and operating efficiencies of the
building.
One of the many functions of BIM software is to compare
products for efficiency and cost. For example, windows of dif-
ferent efficiency levels can be compared to calculate the an -
nual energy cost differences. BIM programs make calculations
based on building orientation and latitude to determine solar
heat gain for windows and doors. The software will calculate
on an annual basis. Green remodelers and builders use the
reports generated by BIM software programs to help custom -
ers see the advantages of green and efficient components and
materials.
12/4/14 4:04 PM
 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     89

Figure 8.16  Floor plans contain abundant information for carpenters and other workers. Sometimes HVAC, plumbing, and electrical crafts have
their own floor plan sheets to help increase detail and readability.

15 in. Wall 15 in. Wall

21 in.
21 in. 21" clearance
clearance clearance

Water closet
or bidet
Wall Wall

Shower
30 in.

Tub

30 in. 21 in.
clearance
24 in. clearance
in front of opening
Tub

Figure 8.17  Reading floor plans to lay out walls is critical to assure code compliance in areas like bathrooms. Many jurisdictions will adapt
(change) the model code to meet local requirements and concerns.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 89 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 90    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans

La Chapelle House Plan

Figure 8.18  A framing plan helps eliminate errors in design and makes carpentry more efficient and cost effective.

Figure 8.19  Plan detail sheets help assure the building envelope construction meets design standards.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 90 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     91

La Chapelle House Plan

HOUSE SECTION VIEW, TYPICAL MATERIALS
1
Figure 8.20  Wall sections provide information about all materials needed to construct the system in a way that meets design and efficiency
requirements.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 91 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 92    section Three  Project Planning and Architectural Plans

A SYMBOL
WINDOW SCHEDULE
ROUGH OPENING LIGHT VENT. EGRESS ENERY SPECIFICATIONS
MARK MODEL WIDTH × HEIGHT S.F. S.F. W. × H. (S.F.) Design U-Factor = 0.35
A (3) 3056DH/TR 9'-0 1/2" × 6'-6 1/2" 42.75 19.44 Design SHGC = 0.40
U-VALUE AND SOLAR HEAT GAIN
B 3060DH/TR 3'-0 1/2" × 7'-0 1/2" 14.25 6.04 COEFFICIENT (SHGC) MINIMUMS PER
C 2630DH 2'-6 1/2" × 3'-0 1/2" 5.62 3.50 CLIMATE ZONE 3A

D (2) 2030DH/TR 4'-0 1/2" × 4'-0 1/2" 13.5
E (3) 4050DH/TR 4'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 17.25
F (2) 2056DH/TR 2'-0 1/2" × 6'-6 1/2" 10.5
G 6010TR 6'-0 1/2" × 1'-0 1/2" 4.20
H (3) 3050DH/TR 9'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 40.5
I 2040GL/TR 2'-0 1/2" × 5'-0 1/2" 8.25
8.43 EMERGENCY EGRESS
8.10 R310.1.1 MINIMUM OPENING AREA. ALL
EMERGENCY ESCAPE AND RESCUE
4.55 OPENINGS SHALL HAVE A
- MINIMUM NET CLEAR OPENING OF 5.7
SQUARE FEET. (EXCEPTION: GRADE
18.22 32 1/2" × 27" (6.04) M. BDR. FLOOR OPENINGS SHALL HAVE A MINIMUM
3.24 NET CLEAR OPENING OF 5 SQUARE FEET).

J 4010TR 4'-0 1/2" × 1'-0 1/2" 3.00
K 2050DH/TR 6'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 9.75
L (2) 3050DH/TR 6'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 27.0
M 2630DH/TR 2'-6 1/2" × 4'-0 1/2" 7.87
N 4050DH/TR 4'-0 1/2" × 6'-0 1/2" 17.12
O 28110AW 2'-8 1/2" × 1'-10 1/2" 3.73
P 2650DH 2'-6 1/2" × 5'-0 1/2" 9.37
Q CUSTOM SK 2'-0" × 4'-0" Per P.E. 8.00
R CUSTOM SK 4'-0" × 4'-0" Per P.E. 16.00
DH = DOUBLE HUNG, TR = TRANSOM, CS = CASEMENT, GL = GLIDER, AW = AWNING, SK = SKYLIGHT
- R310.1.2 MINIMUM OPENING HEIGHT. THE
4.05 MINIMUM NET CLEAR OPENING HEIGHT
SHALL BE 24 INCHES.
12.15 32 1/2" × 27" (6.04) BDR. 2
3.5 R310.1.3 MINIMUM OPENING WIDTH. THE
MINIMUM NET CLEAR OPENING WIDTH
7.11 41 7/8" × 28" (7.63) BDR. 3 SHALL BE 20 INCHES.
3.49
R310.1.4 OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS.
6.75 EMERGENCY ESCAPE AND RESCUE
2.00 OPENINGS SHALL BE OPERATIONAL FROM
THE INSIDE OF THE ROOM WITHOUT THE
NA USE OF KEYS, TOOLS OR SPECIAL
KNOWLEDGE.

La Chapelle House Plan

Figure 8.21  The schedule sheet provides details on specific components to assure compliance with certification programs like the ICC 700
National Green Building Standard, Energy Star, or LEED for Homes.

La Chapelle House Plan

Figure 8.22  CADD-type programs can generate a wide range of detailed drawings and perspectives.

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 92 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 Chapter 8 Architectural Working Drawings     93

KeyTerms
architectural plans presentation view plot plan detail and section views
title sheet elevation view benchmark schedule sheet
orthographic projection cutting plane foundation plan Building Information Modeling
isometric view bird’s-eye view floor plan (BIM)
architect’s scale site plan ceiling or roof framing plans

ReviewQuestions
1. Describe how BIM software is important to building and
verifying energy-efficient home construction.
2. What is the purpose of the benchmark on site plans? What
important elements of construction reference the benchmark
as a starting point?
3. How many scales does a triangular architectural ruler have?
What is the most common scale used for residential plan
sets? What are the advantages of a scaled drawing?
4. What accessory materials are available for scaling and estimat -
ing? What advantages do these accessories offer estimators and
builders?
5. Describe and explain at least three advantages available when
using design, estimating, and drawing software.
6. Which plan sheet usually has the most building informa -
tion? What types of information are available from this plan
sheet?
7. What plan sheets provide information about required types
of windows and doors and their correct placement?
8. When locating the building on the site, which working draw-
ing would verify information on setbacks, easements, orien -
tation, and other factors?
9. What is the purpose of section and detail views?
10. Where in the plan set would you find information about the
parties involved in the construction process?

M08_POWE4171_01_SE_C08_074-093.indd 93 12/4/14 4:04 PM

 Chapter
36 Common, Hip, and
Valley Rafters
Objectives
n Explain the layout techniques for common, hip, and
valley rafters.
n Explain rafter/truss overhangs and projections.
n Demonstrate the use of a framing square to lay out rafters.
n Demonstrate the use of a rafter square to lay out rafters.
n Explain how to use a framing square table for rafter
calculations.
n Demonstrate measuring and layout techniques for
common, hip, and valley rafter end cuts.
n Explain why valley rafters have long and short versions.
n Lay out and explain typical rafter types required to build
common residential roof designs.
The Common Rafter
The common rafter is the primary roof rafter used for gable roofs,
combination gables in T or L shape designs, the saltbox roof, and
gambrel roofs. There is even a common rafter in the center of a hip
roof in many cases. Measuring, marking, and cutting common raft -
ers for each of these roof styles follows exactly the same procedure.
Therefore, learning and understanding the common rafter is the
most important step toward building many types of roof systems.
Laying out and cutting dimensional lumber rafters is a sys -
tematic process. Carefully follow the descriptions in this chapter
to understand plumb cuts, level cuts, bird’s mouths, line lengths,
and other features of common rafters.
Calculating the Line Length
Common rafter line length can be determined using a conventional
framing square, or a Speed Square and associated rafter tables.
Accomplished carpenters have their personal preferences for par -
ticular tools and layout methods; however, knowing how to use dif-
ferent framing tools and methods makes a more versatile carpenter.
The line length calculation method (Figure 36.1) uses the
Pythagorean Theorem and a right triangle to determine a rafter’s
line length, which is the hypotenuse (C) of a right triangle. Using
the unit run and unit rise will give you the theoretical line length of
one unit length; if you know thetotal run of the rafter, you can calcu-
late the line length. The total run and total rise will give you the total
unit length, which is the theoretical length of the rafter. Remember
the rafter is based on single units combined to complete the total
rafter. See the illustrations and math examples in Figure 36.1.
Framing Square Step-Off Method
Stepping off a rafter is the oldest method still used to create raft -
ers of all types. The process uses only a framing square or Speed
582 
M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 582
Square and the information provided on plans. With the tradi -
tional framing square, use square gauges to improve accuracy and
assure each step-off is the same as the last one. See the example of
how to use square gauges and a framing square for increased ac-
curacy in Figure 36.2.
Framing Square Tables
The blade portion of a professional framing square displays rafter
tables for common, hip, and valley rafters. The same information
can also be seen in Table 36.1. The tables give the unit length of a
rafter based on the design roof slope. Most framing squares show
12 12
common unit lengths for slopes from 2 up to 18 . Table 36.1
shows the unit length information found on the side of a tradi -
tional framing square. Rafter tables are also readily available on
the internet. The following examples show that one simple method
for calculating the length of a rafter works for common, hip, and
valley rafters.
Professional Tip
The Swanson Speed Square, the Empire Rafter Square, and
other small triangular framing squares use rafter tables in a
booklet provided with the square. Keep these books handy to
reference the rafter span tables.
Working with the information in Table 36.1, calculate the to-
tal length for a common rafter and a valley rafter using typical roof
12 12 12
slopes such as 4 , 8 , or 10 . The following example shows
the simple steps using the 4
12
roof slope. Work with other slopes
as practice and confirm your answers with Table 36.1.
1. Using Table 36.1, note the common rafter unit length for a
4
12
sloped roof is 12.65″.
2. Again using Table 36.1, note the valley rafter unit length for
a4
12
sloped roof is 17.44″. Remember, a professional fram-
ing square has all the solutions found in Table 36.1 and more
right on the blade! (See the section of the framing square
blade shown in Figure 36.1.)
3. Calculate the total rafter length for the common rafter. As -
sume the roof span is 28 feet, so total run (half the total span)
is 14 feet. 14 units of run × 12.65″ per unit = 177.1″.
Convert 177 to feet and inches: 177>12 = 14.75′ or 14′@9″.
Now convert the decimal: .1 × 16 = 1.6. Round to 2>16,
which reduces to 1>8.
Final common rafter length is 14′@9 1>8″.
4. Repeat the process in step 3 with the valley rafter. The total
run is 14′ as shown in step 3.
5. Calculate valley rafter length:
18/12/14 5:23 PM
 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     583

4
x1
gth
en
n it l C2 = unit rise2 × unit run2
h =U 12 C2 = 82 + 122
g t 2 '
en 6.8 C2 = (64 + 144)
i n eL =1 8
"

9'-3" total rise

L C2 = 208
al .42
re tic x 14 C = 208
eo 14 "
Th .42 C (line length) = 14.42" as the unit length of
14 8"
the common rafter.
12"

14' total run

28' total span

"
8 5/8
6'- 12
th:1
leng 8
9'-3" total rise

line
ic al
oret
T he

14' total run

28' total span

The theoretical line length does not account for half the thickness of the
C2 = Total rise2 + Total run2
ridge board which is subtracted from the theoretical line length:
C2 =9.252 + 142
Actual LL = 16.78' (theoretical LL) – ¾"
C2 = (86.56 +196)
16 feet plus .78 × 12 = 9.36
C2 = 281.56
Keep the 9" with the 16′ and convert the .36
C = 281.56
.36 × 16 = 5.76, rounded to 6/16, reduced to ⅜"
C (theoretical line length) = 16.78
Now we have the final total of 16'-9⅜″ as the theoretical rafter length.
Subtract ¾ , which is half the actual thickness of a 2× ridge board, from
16'-9⅜" for the final and actual length to cut the common rafter:
16'-9⅜" − ¾" = 16'-8⅝"

Figure 36.1  Calculation method for determining total rafter length.

14 units of run × 17.44″ unit length = 244.16″. Keep in mind the framing square tables are simple represen-
Convert 244 to feet and inches: 244>12 = 20.33′ or 20′@4″. tations of the right triangle. Using the Pythagorean Theorem you
can easily calculate any unit run for any rise. See the examples in
Now convert the decimal .16 to sixteenths of an inch: Figure 36.3. You can also find the answer on the framing square.
.16 × 16 = 2.56. Round to 3>16. One example is for a common rafter with a 12″ unit run; the other
Therefore, final valley rafter length is 20′@4 3>16″. is for hip and valley rafters that have a 16.97″ unit run.

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 583 18/12/14 5:23 PM

 584    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

23

12"
22 24
16
15 14
21 23
20
14 13
22
19 21
13 12
8"
18 20
12 11 17 19
11 10 16 18
15 17
10 9 14 16
13 15
9 8
12 14
11 13
8 7

10 12
9
7 6

Framing
11
8 10
6 5

7 9
6
5 4

gauge
8
5 7
4 3

4 6
3
3 2

5
2 4
2 1

1 3
2
1
1

CL The actual plumb line to be

#1 Set the framing square and align 8" on the tongue and 12" on cut is ¾" (half the ridge
¾" thickness) from the theoreti-
the blade with the top edge of the rafter. Lock the framing gauges
at this position when available. cal plumb line marked in
step one

#3 Crow’s foot
on edge of
board 22
23
24
16
15 14

21 23
20
14 13

22
19 21
13 12

18 20

#2
17
12 11

19
16 18
11 10

15 17

Plumb
14 16
10 9

13 15
9 8

12 14

cut
11 13
8 7

10 12
9
7 6

11
8 10

12
6 5

7 9
6
5 4

8
5 7
4 3

4 6
3
3 2

8
5
2 4
2 1

1 3
2
1
1

Rafter
#2 Draw a line down the tongue edge to create the first plumb
cut.
#3 Mark the 12" intersection (blade side) with the rafter by
using a crow’s foot. A crow’s foot creates an exact point to
work from and is more accurate than a single line or mark. Final
plumb cut
#5
#6 One unit run is 12"; therefore 14
feet total run is 14 units of run
#4 22
23
24 22
23
24 22
23
24
16

16

16
15 14

15 14

15 14

21 23 21 23 21 23
20 20 20
14 13

14 13

14 13

22 22 22
19 21 19 21 19 21
13 12

13 12

13 12

18 20 18 20 18 20
17 17 17
12 11

12 11

12 11

19 19 19
16 18 16 18 16 18

14 unit runs (14.42") × 14' (total run) =

11 10

11 10

11 10

15 17 15 17 15 17
14 16 14 166 14 166
10 9

10 9

1 9

13 15 1133 15
1 13
1 15
10
9 8

9 8

9 8

12 14 122 14 12 14
11 13 11
1 1133 11 13
8 7

8 7

8 7

10 12 10 1122 10 12

201.88" / 12" =
9 9 9
7 6

7 6

7 6

11 11 11
11
8 10 8 10
10 8 10
1
6 5

6 5

6 5

7 9 7 9 7 9
6 6 6
5 4

5 4

5 4

8 8 8
5 7 5 7 5 7
4 3

4 3

4 3

4 6 4 6 4 6
3 3 3

16.82' rafter length.

3 2

3 2

3 2

5 5 5
2 4 2 4 2 4
2 1

2 1

2 1

1 3 1 3 1 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
1

#4 Move the framing square down the rafter and realign with the #7 Mark the final plumb line along the rafter to complete the
mark made in step three. process.
#5 Mark the next intersection of the 12" unit run with the rafter like
step #3 above.
#6 Repeat steps 3-5 as required for the total run of the rafter. In
this example 14 times are required to get a total run of 14 feet.

Figure 36.2  The step-off method is more accurate with square gauges.

Table 36.1  Rafter Table for Unit Length of Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters

Roof Slope Common Rafter Unit Length Hip and Valley Rafter Unit Length
12
2 12.17 17.09
12
3 12.37 17.23
12
4 12.65 17.44
12
5 13 17.69
12
6 13.42 18
12
7 13.89 18.36
12
8 14.42 18.76
12
9 15 19.21
12
10 15.62 19.70
12
11 16.28 20.22
12
12 16.97 20.78

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     585

COMMON RAFTER TRIANGLE Seat Cut (Bird’s Mouth)

C2 = A2
+ B2 The seat cut creates a level surface so the rafter will sit securely
C2 = 122 + 82 on the wall plate and tight against the outside edge of the wall top
14 C2 = 144 + 64 plate. The seat cut, commonly known as a bird’s mouth, consists
.42
" C = 208 of a plumb line and a level line. Remember all plumb lines and
8"
C = 14.42 level lines are marked the same way; the only thing that changesis
the location of the mark. When using a framing square or a Speed
Square, just repeat the process at each location.
The plumb line of the seat cut is the lower mark of the rafter
12" line length. Use a square and mark a plumb line in this location.
The level line of the seat cut does not have an exact procedure or
standard. Many carpenters have their own methods; regardless of
HIP OR VALLEY RAFTER TRIANGLE
the method used, the important points to remember are these:the
C2 = A2 + B2 seat cut level line should never be wider than the wall plate and you
C2 = 16.972 + 82 should never remove more than one-third of the rafter depth . The
18. C2 = 287.98 + 64 level line length will decrease as the slope of the roof increases.
76" C = 351.98 See Figure 36.5.
C = 18.76
8"
Professional Tip
Usually rafters are cut with circular saws. When cutting the
bird’s mouth, be careful not to cut past the plumb line. Fin-
16.97"
ish the cut with a hand saw or reciprocating saw to maintain
Figure 36.3  The unit length of common, hip, or valley rafters is easy rafter integrity and strength.
to calculate with the Pythagorean Theorem.

Seat Cut Adjustment for Siding

Professional Tip
Calculators designed for construction are available to save
time and increase accuracy. Framers may use them to
double-check their calculations and estimators use them for
speed and accuracy.
Sometimes the seat cut is adjusted to allow exterior siding under-
neath the rafter. This technique helps protect the upper edge of the
siding material and is more common with wood siding materials.
In this case, the plumb line is moved down the thickness of the sid-
ing material and the level line is simply extended. See Figure 36.6.

Beyond the Wall Plane: Rafter Tails

Rafter Length Adjustments to
Account for Ridge Boards
The line lengths calculated in the preceding examples are thetheo-
retical line lengths; in other words, the actual mathematical calcu-
lated length from the outer plane of the wall to the center point of
the ridge. To account for the thickness of the ridge board you must
remove half the thickness of the actual ridge board from the rafter
theoretical length. See Figure 36.4.
Professional Tip
After the rafter length and all plumb and level lines have been
marked, determine the length needed for the rafter tail; that is, the
outward end of the common rafter. The rafter tail is designed to
support fascia and soffit material used to close in the roof system.
Properly sized rafter tails and the completed eaves protect win -
dows, doors, and sidewalls from snow, rain, and solar heat gain.
Protecting a home’s interior from solar heat gain in the summer
months can significantly reduce cooling expenses. In Chapter 11,
Green Aspects of Building Sites, refer to the section about seasonal
angles of the sun for more information about the effects of soffit
depth on solar heat gain.

All rafters must be properly fastened on both ends to meet

code minimums. However, areas subjected to high winds or
GreenTip
the possibility of seismic activity often go beyond code in their Protecting the windows and doors from solar heat gain
fastening requirements. Some jurisdictions require structural with extended soffits and other methods can reduce
strapping continuously from the rafters or trusses in the roof the run time for cooling equipment, increasing building
all the way down to the foundation. Check with local code
operating efficiency and reducing monthly utility costs for
officials for requirements at the building site. A wide range of
the life of the building.
ties and straps are available.

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 585 18/12/14 5:23 PM

 586    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

CL

l
gth ica ½ the ridge board width
en ret gth must be subtracted from
el e o n
l lin Th e le the calculated line length
ti ca il n
e ore
Th
Ridge board

l
ica
o ret gth
e n
Outside Th e le
edge of il n
top plate

Top plate
16
23
15 14
22 24
16
15 14

14 13
#2
21 23
13 12
20
14 13

22
2
19 21 1 11
11 10
13 12

18 20
10 9
17
12 11

19
9 8
16 18
8 7
1 10

15 17
7 6
14
1

16
10 9

6 5
13 15
5 4
9 8

12 14
4 3
11 13
8 7

3 2
10 12
2 1
9
7 6

11
1
8 10
6 5

1
7 9

1
6
5 4

2
8

2
5 7
4 3

3
#1
4 6

3
3
3 2

4
5

4
2 4
2 1

5
1 3

5
2

6
1
1

7
8

8
9

9
10
#1 Use the framing square or triangular square to draw the #2 Make a mark perpendicular to the plumb line half the
10
11

11
12

12
plumb line at the ridge end. thickness of the ridge board, usually ¾". 13

13
14
This line is not drawn down the edge of the ridge board. 14
15

15
16

16
17

17
18

18
19

19
20

20
21

21
22

22
23

23
24

#3
#3 Draw another plumb line on the mark created in step 2. This
is the actual line to cut when making the rafter.
Figure 36.4  When using ridge boards, be sure to account for the thickness of the ridge board when marking common rafter line lengths.

Overhang and Projection of new number is the total run of the rafter tail because the tail is
Rafter Tails essentially a short rafter. Now measure along the top edge of the
rafter from the seat cut plumb line to mark this line length for the
Overhang is the extended length of the rafter beyond the exterior rafter tail plumb line.
edge of the wall system. Plans may provide the overhang length;
however, in many cases the projection of the rafter tail is given.
The projection is a horizontal measurement of the distance the Professional Tip
rafter travels beyond the outer wall edge (plane). With either
Cutting plumb lines and level lines on rafter tails after the raft-
number, carpenters can complete the rafter design and mark the
ers are in place is tricky and can be dangerous. With carefully
final plumb cut. designed and cut rafters, these cuts are easily made before
Figure 36.7 illustrates both the projection and overhang for the rafters are installed, eliminating the hazards and difficulty
a rafter tail. When plans provide the projection only, divide the of cutting from a ladder.
projection by 12 ″ to get the unit runs of a common rafter. This

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 586 18/12/14 5:23 PM

 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     587

The level line should never

gth be wider than the wall
e len plate or remove more than
Lin one-third of the rafter

Seat cut
plumb line

2/3
1/3
Top plate Seat cut

Do not cut more than 1/3 of the

rafter depth making a bird's
mouth

Finish cut with

a handsaw

Seat cut Seat cut

Figure 36.5  A seat cut is a plumb line and a level line combination.
12
8

36 1
/1
6"
ov
Extend erh
3/
Seat cut 4" level line an
g
6"

Final plumb line

Top plate 30" projection

Siding Projection = 30", so 30" / 12" = 2.5. 2.5 × 14.42 (unit

length for 8/12 slope common rafter) = 36.05" or
36 1/16"
Figure 36.7  The rafter tail is essentially a short rafter with the line
Figure 36.6  The seat cut can be adjusted to allow siding under the rafter. length calculated exactly like a common rafter.

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 587 18/12/14 5:23 PM

 588    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

CLOSED SOFFIT DESIGN OPEN SOFFIT DESIGN

Figure 36.8  The cornice design determines the cuts needed on the end of a common rafter.

Rafter Tail Variations Rake Overhangs

The end cuts on a common rafter will vary depending on the
design requirements. Many variations are common in residen -
tial construction. When the roof’s edge design calls for a closed
soffit, only a plumb cut is needed on the rafter’s tail. A closed
soffit essentially “seals” the soffit area and rafter tails with a ba -
sic box technique. Hence, some carpenters call a closed soffit a
boxed soffit.
When the roof edge design calls for an open soffit, a plumb
cut and a level line cut are required. The open soffit design fin -
ishes the end of the rafter tail with fascia board and leaves the
underside exposed. The roof system is “sealed” from the outside
with a frieze board or similar method. Figure 36.8 illustrates the
two basic methods. Details and fully illustrated construction
techniques for both designs are found in Chapter 39, Cornice
Construction.
When building a closed soffit, some carpenters will allow the
rafters to run wild, meaning the rafter ends are not yet uniform
in length. The final plumb cut, which sets the final length of all
rafters, is not marked until all the rafters are secured in their final
position. Carpenters then mark the plumb line on a rafter tail on
both ends of the roof system and use a chalk line to snap a straight
line down all rafter edges. Finally, a sliding T-bevel or level is used
to plumb the chalk mark along the rafter sides and each is cut indi -
vidually. See the Step by Step Procedure: Making a Plumb Cut on
Common Rafter Tails for cutting a plumb and level line on rafter
tails after they are installed.
The area of a gable roof that extends beyond the plane of the end
wall is called the rake end. A rafter known as arake rafter is used to
frame this area. Other common names for a rake rafter include a
fly rafter or a barge rafter. Several methods are used, but each pro-
vides the same structural support for the rake end. Keep in mind
the depth of the rake has a direct bearing on shading windows and
protecting the end wall from rain, wind, and stormwater. Green,
highly efficient design accounts for this principle and may require
a design well beyond the very short rakes (0 to 6″) of some homes.
Rake Supports and Lookouts
Lookouts are short sections of framing lumber the same dimen -
sional size as the rafter material. They provide the structural support
for the rake rafter; finish fascia, and soffit material. Lookouts are in-
stalled and secured before the roof sheathing is applied. Later, when
sheathing is applied, it adds support to the rake end by stopping any
deflection in the rake. See the installation methods in Figure 36.10.

Cutting the Rafter Tail Level Line

Plumb line
A level line is commonly used on the rafter tail to provide a level
nailing surface for soffit material. Like marking the level line for a
bird’s mouth, no exact process is common in all areas. Whatever
process is used, make sure the level line does not cut away too
much of the plumb cut that is used to attach the fascia board. Use
a framing square set to the roof slope to make this final cut on the Figure 36.9  When setting the level line, be sure enough of the
rafter tail. See Figure 36.9. plumb line remains to fasten the fascia boards.

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 588 18/12/14 5:23 PM

 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     589

Notch in first rafter for lookout

Lookout can be spaced from 16"

o.c. up to 32" o.c. depending on
the depth of the rake and the Ridge board
structural support required
Rafter ties

Rafter

Rake board

Two 10d nails required

in the notched joint
and the butt end Fascia

Lookouts supported
by gable wall

Rake rafter

Gable wall studs

Gable wall top plate

With very short rakes (6" or

less), an extended fascia
board and ridge board
extension provide
structural support

Rake board

Short blocks can be added on 24"

centers to add additional support and
a nailing surface for soffit material

Figure 36.10  The rake end of a gable roof is supported with various methods depending on design and preference.

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 589 18/12/14 5:23 PM

 590    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

Set stud beneath ridge board with the formula shown in the following example, which uses a
to plumb and toenail both 12
ends with two 10d nails Ridge board roof with a slope of 8 .
1. Convert the on-center spacing to units of run. With 16 ″ o.c.
12 spacing you have 16>12 = 1.33 units of run. With 24 ″ o.c.
8 16" CD
spacing you have 24>12 = 2 units of run.
Rafter 2. Multiply the unit rise (slope) by the unit runs calculated in step 1.
With studs spaced 16″ o.c. you have 8 × 1.33 = 10.64″. Now
convert the fraction: .64 × 16 = 10.24>16. Reduce to 10>16,
then 5>8″ for a common difference of 10 5>8″. With studs
spaced 24″ o.c. you have 8 × 2 = 16″ common difference.
Top plate The gable stud directly under the ridge board must be square
on both ends, then plumbed and toenailed to the top plate and un-
24" o.c. derneath the ridge board with two 10d nails at each end. After the
typical center stud is plumb and secure, mark the wall plate with the de -
CD (common difference) sired o.c. spacing, and then cut each stud to the appropriate length
1. Convert on-center spacing (24") to units of run 24 / 12 = 2 units of run. using the common difference method shown in Figure 36.11.
2. Multiply units of run x unit rise. 2 × 8 = 16" common difference.

Figure 36.11  Determining the common difference (CD) of gable

end studs.
Notching Gable End Studs
A framing square or Speed Square can set the angle to mark the
top end of gable studs for notching. Keep in mind the gable stud
GreenTip overall length is the common difference length illustrated in
Using 24″ on-center spacing is preferred where accept- Figure 36.11. Make this mark so the top edge of the gable stud will
able to reduce materials. When making gable end studs be flush with (or slightly less than) the top of the rafter. The other
use the shortest available material to again reduce waste mark for the gable stud determines the notch location that will
and improve framing efficiency. support the rafter.

Gable Stud Cut-and-Fit Method

Gable End Studs
The gable end rafter is the rafter directly above the end wall of the
house. Gable end studs provide the support for the gable end rafter.
They are square on the end that sits on the wall top plate, then
notched and angled on the upper end that directly supports the
rafter above. The notched and angled end of gable studs are all the
same, but the length changes at each on-center point by a common
difference. Calculate the common difference for any roof slope
Depending on carpenter preference, gable studs can be eas -
ily set on the wall plate on-center marks and plumbed with
a level, and then marked against the rafter directly. Mark the
stud at the underside of the rafter and at the top of the rafter.
Then cut the notch the same depth as the rafter stock thickness.
This method is simple and does not require a framing square;
however, each stud must be marked individually to ensure ac -
curacy. See Figure 36.12.

CUT-AND-FIT METHOD

Mark
Top of stud mark
Gable stud

Rafter Notch mark

Level

24" o.c. mark

Top plate

Figure 36.12  Using the plumb method and o.c. spacing to mark gable studs.

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 590 18/12/14 5:24 PM


Professional Tip
The notched section of a gable end stud should be no deeper
than the thickness of the rafter.
Hip Rafters
Hip rafters travel from the ridge board to the wall top plate just like
a common rafter but at a 45° angle. Since hip rafters are at an angle
they have slightly different cuts on each end, and importantly, hip
rafters are longer than common rafters because they travel at an
angle to get to the wall plate. The hip rafter essentially creates a
connection between two roof types, the gable and the hip. This ef-
fect, or change in roof plane, eliminates the gable end and makes
the roof design very good at resisting high winds. Figure 36.13
illustrates basic hip roof framing components.
A professional framing square has hip and hip jack rafter tables
that provide the unit lengths for hip rafters. Again, because hips form
an intersection of two roof planes and run at 45° angles to the ridge
board, they are longer than common rafters. The slope of a hip roof
section is the same as the slope of the common rafters in the gable sec -
tion. The rafter that connects between the hip rafter and the end wall
plate of the building is the hip jack rafter. Hip jacks increase structural
support and create on-center nailing surfaces for roof sheathing.
Hip Rafter Unit Length
For estimating purposes, the rough length of a hip rafter can be
measured using a framing square once you know the total run
Common rafter at
end of ridge board
Main ridge board No common rafter at
end of ridge board
Common rafter
Collar tie
Ceiling joist
Fascia
board
Gable
section
Hip
section
Figure 36.13  Basic hip roof components.
M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 591
Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     591
and total length of the roof’s common rafters. See the example in
Figure 36.14 and follow these simple steps using a common rafter
that is 12′ long and a total run of 9′.
1. Use the 12″ mark on the blade as the total length of the com-
mon rafter.
2. Use the 9″ mark on the tongue as the total run for the com-
mon rafter.
3. Measure across the outside edges between the 12 ″ and 9 ″
marks, which in this case is about 15″.
This technique shows how powerful the right triangle and a
framing square can be with simple framing or estimating tasks.
For the rough length, good for estimating and ordering materials,
the framing square measurement of 15″ represents 15′, so the es-
timator or carpenter knows 16′stock will be required. Remember
this important aspect: this method is for rough estimating and
does not account for overhangs . The length of the overhang must
be added to the estimated length before ordering.
The Pythagorean Theorem will calculate the length of hip
rafters using the same technique as common rafters. Since we al -
ready know all 45° hip rafters have the same slope (unit rise) as
common rafters, we can calculate the unit length. The unit run of
a common rafter is 12 ″ because it travels straight to the wall top
plate from the ridge board. The unit run of a hip rafter is 16.97 ″
because it travels at a 45° angle between the ridge board and the
wall top plates.
A hip rafter forms a 45° angle with the corner of the building
and the ridge board. A common rafter forms a 90° angle with the
ridge board. In both cases the right triangle can be used to calcu-
late framing lengths and number of pieces required for estimating.
Hip rafter
Rafter tail
Top of wall
(top plate)
Hip jack rafters
Hip rafter
18/12/14 5:24 PM
 592    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

Follow the basic equations in Figure 36.15 to calculate a hip rafter

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Di length. Notice how the equation comes up with the same result
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ag 3
Tongue on found on framing squares. A good framing square or calculator is
al: always valuable to carpenters.
9" 15
"

Math Tip
2
Vertical rise of roof

12" Calculate the total line length for a hip rafter with a total
or unit rise

12
run of 14 feet and a slope of 5 . See Figure 36.16 and
the following steps using a framing square and basic con-
9"

Blade struction math.

1 2

2 1 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
Calculating dimensions of hip and other rafters is a basic pro-
12" 1 cess. Use these steps to calculate a hip rafter theoretical line length:
Horizontal run of roof
or unit run 1. Looking at a framing square table, find the line for hip raft -
ers, move down to the 5 ″ mark and find 17.69. This means
Figure 36.14  Using a framing square to estimate hip rafter lengths 17.69″ per foot of run for the hip rafter.
for ordering or estimating.
Common rafter
Ridge board
90°

Hip jack rafter Hip rafter

e tr iangle
Slop 2
1
Ridge board
8 Total Top plate
rise
Step off 45°
r un
Total method
Hip rafter
45°

Common
rafter Square

C
=h
B = unit rise

ip
11' raf
un= ter
To tal r len
gth
2'
=2
th) A = unit run
g wid
u ildin C2 = A2 + B2
pan (b
Ro of s C2 = 16.972 + 82
C2 = 287.98 + 64
C2 = 351.98
C = 351.98
C = 18.76 hip unit length.
This can be found on the framing
square under the 8" mark and the hip
rafter line.

Now calculate the total hip length

based on the hip unit length calculation.
Hip rafter total length is:
18.76 x 10 unit runs = 206.36 inches or
Framing square 17'-2 1/4".
table

Figure 36.15  Hip rafters use a longer unit run (16.97″) for calculating the rafter’s unit length.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     593

23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 2
22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1

Figure 36.16  Using a framing square table and construction math to calculate a hip rafter length.

2. Multiply 17.69 × 14 (unit runs) = 247.66″.
3. Convert 247.66″ to feet by dividing by 12:
247.66>12 = 20.63′
Now convert this back to a workable fraction.
4. Set the 20′ aside and solve the decimal portion.
a.  Multiply the decimal 3 12 to get inches:
  .63 × 12 = 7.56″
  Set aside the 7″ and solve for the remaining decimal.
b.  Multiply the decimal by 16 to get sixteenths:
  .56 × 16 = 8.96, rounded to 9>16″. Combine everything
for the total.
5. Combine: 20′ + 7″ + 9>16″ = 20′@7 9>16″ theoretical line
length for the hip rafter.
Layout Components for a Hip Rafter
A hip rafter layout consists of the same plumb and level lines used
for common rafters. Because the hip connects at a 45° angle, a few
extra steps are required to lay out the unique cuts at each end. On
the ridge board end, the hip requires a cheek cut, sometimes called
a side cut. The lower end forms the corner of the eaves and has a
cut layout unique to hips that allows for attaching fascia boards.
Figure 36.17 illustrates the various cuts required with hip raft-
ers. These include the plumb and level lines with additional plumb
lines needed to create the beveled ends and shorten the hip at the
ridgeline. At the ridge, a hip rafter may use a single cheek cut or a
double cheek cut.
is longer than the common rafter which runs perpendicular (90°
angle) to the ridge board. Therefore, the unit run of the hip rafter
is 16.97″ instead of 12 ″. Remember the unit lengths for hip raft -
ers and common rafters is based on the roof slope and given on
framing square tables.
The rafter tables and calculations provide the theoretical line
length as shown in Figure 36.18. In the end, any necessary rafter rail
length (check the plan design) is added to the theoretical line length.
Using the basic steps that follow and Figure 36.18, calculate the the-
oretical line length of a hip rafter, answering this question: What is
the theoretical line length for a standard 45° hip rafter on a roof with
12
a common rafter total run of 12′ and a slope triangle of 8 ?
1. Use the framing square table under the 8 ″ column. The sec-
ond line gives the unit length per foot of run for a hip rafter,
which in this case is 18.76″.
2. Multiply the total run (same as the common rafter) by the
unit length from the rafter table on the framing square:
12 × 18.76 = 225.12″.
3. Convert to feet and inches.
a.  Divide by 12 to convert to feet: 225.12>12 = 18.76′.
b. Set the 18 ′ aside for now and multiply the .76 by 12 to
convert to inches: .76 × 12 = 9.12.
c. Set the 9 ″ aside and convert the remaining decimal to
a fractional inch (sixteenths): .12 × 16 = 1.92 or 2>16,
which reduces to 1>8.
d. Now combine: 18′@9 1>8″ is the final hip rafter theoretical
line length.

Hip Rafter Line Length Shortening the Hip Rafter at the

The line length for a hip rafter is calculated with the same for -
mula (Pythagorean Theorem) used to calculate common rafter
length. Remember, hip and common rafters have the same slope.
However, because the hip runs at a 45° angle to the ridge board it
Ridge Board
As with common rafters, the theoretical length of a hip rafter is
shortened at the ridgeline to account for the ridge board thickness.
However, the shortening distance is based on a 45° measurement

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 593 18/12/14 5:24 PM

 594    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

UPPER END

Single cheek or double cheek 1

cut (based on framing plan and
carpenter preference)

Figure 36.18  Calculating theoretical line length for a hip rafter. A

framing square can be used to determine the total theoretical length
of any rafter using the basic step-off method.
LOWER END
Double
Cheek Cut Layout Procedures
bevel cut Once the hip rafter is marked to shorten the length as Figure 36.19
shows, a single or double cheek cut must be marked so the rafter
Hip rafter will fit against the ridge board at the required 45° angle. The easi -
est method uses the framing square to make the required angle
for a single cheek cut. See the example in Figure 36.20. A detailed
1 method for measuring and marking both single and double cheek
cuts is shown in the Step-by-Step Procedures section of the chapter.
3

Marking the Bird’s Mouth and

4 Dropping the Hip
The bird’s mouth layout for a hip rafter is the same process used for
common rafters with a couple of exceptions. The hip rafter bird’s
mouth level line is always a little longer than a common rafter level
line because the hip rafter sits at an angle across the corner of the
building and requires the same full bearing for structural strength as
common rafters. After the theoretical line length of the hip rafter has
2 been marked on the lower end, use the framing square to mark the
5 plumb line and level lines required for the bird’s mouth. See Figure
36.21 for the basic process of creating a bird’s mouth based on the
simple steps that follow. Always start from the theoretical line length,
6 which should be calculated and marked on the rafter at this point.
1. Theoretical ridge 10
plumb cut 1. Align the framing square along the edge of the rafter at the
2. Adjustment of 1 1/6" mark for the roof rise on the tongue (8 ″) and the hip rafter
to second plumb line to unit run (16.97″) on the blade.
shorten hip 7 2. Shift the framing square to align the plumb line with the the-
3. Actual cut plumb line oretical line length mark. Confirm the 16.97 ″ on the blade is
to shorten the hip
still aligned along the edge of the rafter and mark the plumb
4. Bevel cut line at ridge line on the side of the rafter by tracing along the tongue of the
8
5. Seat cut plumb line framing square as shown in Figure 36.21.
6. Seat cut level line 3. Measure down the plumb line made in step two the same dis-
9
7. Raised seat cut line tance as the common rafters. Now set the level line to com -
plete the basic bird’s mouth or seat cut.
8. Fascia cut line
9. Soffit cut line A hip rafter will also require dropping the hip. Dropping the
10. Tail end bevel cut hip is required because the top corners of a hip rafter will sit slightly
higher than the plane of the roof and might interfere with sheathing.
Figure 36.17  Hip rafters require additional steps to create the spe-
cial 45° angled cuts known as bevel cuts. Professional Tip
Instead of dropping the hip rafter, another method called
backing the hip can be used. This process requires cutting
of the ridge and not the 90° square measurement used for com - a bevel line along the length of the hip rafter. Because this
mon rafters. Because the ridge board is measured at a 45° angle, method takes more time and is tricky to cut, most carpenters
half this distance is slightly over 1″, or 1 1>16″ to be exact. See the drop the hip as shown in Figure 36.21.
layout example in Figure 36.19.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     595

DOUBLE CHEEK CUT SINGLE CHEEK CUT

Ridge board

Ridge board
Shorten the hip by 1/2 the
45° thickness of the hip
rafter (11/16" for standard
dimensional lumber)
Common rafter

Common rafter

Common rafter
r
r

te
te

f
f

ra
ra

ip
ip

H
H

Figure 36.19  Hip rafters are shortened the same amount with a single or double cheek cut.

Dropping the hip starts from the bird’s mouth and covers sev
eral additional steps as follows and shown in Figure 36.21. See the
Step by Step Procedure section of the chapter for detailed descrip-
tions of the entire hip rafter process. With a little practice, these
rafters will become as easy as common rafters to lay out and cut.
1. Measure along the original plumb line back toward the ridge
board half the thickness of the hip rafter, 3>4″ in most cases.
2. Use the framing square and make another plumb line mark
at this location.
- 3. Measure down this plumb line and make a level line mark.
Remember, this depth is the same with hip and common
rafters as shown.
4. Set the framing square and mark the new level line. Carry this
line all the way over to the original plumb line made earlier
creating the bird’s mouth.
5. Cut the rafter along this new level line and the original
plumb line to complete the bird’s mouth and dropping the
hip combination.

Step 1) Look under the 8" mark on the

framing square and the last line of the rafter
table for hip side cuts shows 10 7/8".

Step 2) Set the framing square on the top

the hip rafter with the tongue at the 10 7/8"
mark and the blade on the 12" mark.

Step 3) Mark the angle of the cheek cut

along the blade of the framing square.

23
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Tongue
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

22 24
21 23
20 22
19 21
18 20
17 19
16 18
Rafter
15 14
16

15 17
14 13

14 16
13 12

13 15
12 11

12 14
10 7/8"

11 10

11 13
10 12
10 9

9 11
9 8

2 Square gauge 3 8 10
8 7

7 9
7 6

6 8
6 5

Blade
5 7
5 4

4
12"
6
4 3

3 5
3 2

2 4
1 2

2 1 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 1
2 1

3
3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 2
1
1

Figure 36.20  The framing square can be used to mark the proper angle of the cheek cut based on the roof slope and the framing square tables.

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 596    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

BIRD’S MOUTH LAYOUT

Common rafter
Distance
A

2a
Hip rafter 1 Align square

24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Distance A

1 2
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

2b

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Plumb line 2 Seat cut 3

DROPPING THE HIP

1/
1 2 thickness
of hip rafter

Distance A 2

5 Bird’s
Second mouth cut
3 4
plumb line Hip rafter viewed
from below

The distance between the

two seat cut level lines above
is the depth of the bevel cut
Figure 36.21  Dropping the hip is much easier than backing the hip and is the process used by most carpenters.

Hip Rafter Tail Section Hip Roof Assembly Basics

Determining the length of a hip rafter tail section is similar to the The hip roof assembly follows a series of steps just like with com-
process used for a common rafter with the exception that the unit mon rafters. The exact method depends on crewmember avail -
run is now 16.97 ″ (rounded to 17 ″) instead of 12 ″ for common ability, carpenter preference, and attachment design. Before
rafters. Because some plan details provide only the rafter pro- assembly begins, the ridge board theoretical length is adjusted
jection and, in many cases, only the common rafter projection, based on the method of hip rafter attachment. See Figure 36.24
the projection of the hip rafter must be calculated to create the for a basic method to determine the theoretical ridge board length
proper overhang length. Figure 36.22 shows how to calculate to begin the process. The Step by Step Procedure, Assembling the
the hip rafter projection based on common rafter projection. See Hip Roof, shows the details for assembling the system.
the Step by Step Procedures for each step to create the tail section
of a hip rafter.
Valley Rafters
Professional Tip
Valley rafters form the intersection or valley between roof sections
Working with the common rafter projections from a plan set, moving in different directions. From the basic L or T roof shape
a framing square can be used to determine the length of hip shown in Figure 36.25 to more complex designs, most roofs will
rafter overhangs. See the illustration in Figure 36.23. form valleys. The main roof section and the secondary roof sections
may have gable ends, hip ends, or a combination as illustrated.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     597

Common rafter
Hip jack rafters have
same projection as
common rafters

Pr

Projection
34 ctio
oj

" n
e

24"
24"
Projection
Hip rafter
The plan detail calls for a common rafter projection of
24"; complete this simple math procedure to calculate
the hip rafter projection.

Step 1) Divide the projection by 12" to find the units of

run. Remember the unit run is the same for common
and hip rafters. 24" / 12" = 2 unit runs.

Step 2) Since the hip unit length is 17" inches instead

of 12" as with common rafters, multiply the unit runs
by 17". Calculate 17" × 2 (unit runs) = 34". This is the
projection of the hip rafter.

See the Step by Step Procedures for layout of the hip

rafter tail.

Figure 36.22  Calculating a hip rafter projection.

The span of the roof determines the type of valley rafter re -
quired. For roofs with equal spans, valley rafters start on the wall
plates and intersect at the main ridge board. When the end of the
main roof is a hip, these valley rafters also run parallel to the hip
rafters and are the same length as shown in Figure 36.26.
24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
When the spans of the roofs are unequal, a supporting valley
rafter runs from the wall plate up to the ridge board. On the other
side, a shortened valley rafter runs from the wall plate to the support-
ing valley rafter. The rest of the roof system is a series of various jack
rafters discussed in Chapter 37. See the illustrations in Figure 36.27.

Common rafter Blade

"
5/8
22
16"
Projection C2 = A2 + B2
7
8

C2 = 162 + 162
6
7
5
6

C2 = 512
5
4

C2 = 512
4

Tongue
3
2 1
3 2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
C = 22.62".
We now have 22" plus the decimal
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 2

convert the decimal: .62 x 16 = 9.92

round to 10/16, reduced to 5/8 for a total hip tail length of
22 5/8". Same as measured across the framing square in
the illustration.

Figure 36.23  Understanding the framing square and the right triangle are important skills for carpenters who build roof systems.

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 598    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

THEORETICAL RIDGE BOARD LENGTH FOR HIP ROOFS

Subtract the total span of the roof from the

total length of the roof. 52' – 26' = 26'
This is the theoretical ridge board length.
Theoretical
rafter line

Total spa
Theoretical n 26'
hip rafter line

Run of
rafter 1
3' Building
Square length 52'
13' × 13'
Building
width 26'

RIDGE BOARD ADJUSTMENT WITH RIDGE BOARD ADJUSTMENT WITHOUT

COMMON RAFTERS ON THE END COMMON RAFTERS ON THE END

Theoretical length r Theoretical length

H

fte
ip

ra
ra

ip
fte

H
r

Ridge board Ridge board

45°
3/ " 3/ "
4 4

3/ 3/
Actual length 3/
4"
3/
4" 4" 4"
Common

Common

Actual length
rafter

rafter

When common rafters are on the end of the ridge board, When only the hip rafters are on the ridge board end,
the ridge must be extended 1/2 the thickness of the extend the ridge board by 1/2 the thickness of the
common rafter, usually 3/4". ridge board plus 1/2 the 45° thickness of the hip rafter.

Figure 36.24  Determining the ridge board length for basic hip roof designs.

T-SHAPE
Professional Tip
The cheek cuts described for hip rafters work with valley raft-
ers and jack rafters. Jack rafters are shortened versions of
common rafters and are calculated with the same technique.

Valley Rafter Layout Procedures

L-SHAPE With equal span roofs, valley rafters have the same unit run (16.97 ″)
as hip rafters; therefore they are marked and measured in the same
way. The total run is also the same: for standard 45° hip and val -
ley rafters the total run is always one-half the total span of the
roof. Note the spans for an equal span roof in Figure 36.27. Only
the seat cut and the tail section is different for valley rafters on
equal span roofs. With supporting valley rafters, calculating the
theoretical line length is also the same process (unit length3 run).

Figure 36.25  Roof design is limited only by owner preference, Calculating a Valley Rafter Theoretical Length
design characteristics to support the load, and the purpose of the
building. When valleys are formed, valley rafters and jack rafters are Remember that the span is the base of the right triangle, called
required to tie-in and complete the roof framing. the total run. With intersecting roofs of equal spans, the total rise

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 598 18/12/14 5:24 PM

 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     599

2. Multiply the total run (same as hip rafters on equal

span roofs) by the unit length found in step one (18.76 ″):
12 × 18.76 = 225.12″

Span B (hip)
3. Divide by 12 to convert to feet: 225.12>12 = 18.76′, which con-
verts to 18′@9 1>8″ as the valley rafter total theoretical length.
Understanding the simple relationship of the rafters to the
right triangle is essential to efficient, safe, and faster roof framing.
As this section shows, the lengths of hip and valley rafters are the
same on equal span roofs. Only the seat cut and tail, discussed in
the following sections, are different.

Span A and
span B are equal Math Tip
When calculating total length for equal span and supporting
Span A (gable) valley rafters, the framing square table provides the unit length
per foot of run. Use the procedure illustrated in Figure 36.28.
Figure 36.26  Equal span roofs have the same total span for each
section, creating equal lengths for hip and valley rafters.

is also the same. Therefore, the diagonal (length of hip and valley
rafters) for this roof style are the same. The theoretical line length
math procedure works for equal span rafters or supporting val -
ley rafters. Compare the following math example, illustrated in
Figure 36.28, with the hip rafter that was calculated in the text for
Figure 36.18 (p.594) and confirm that the calculation methods
are the same.
In this example we have a roof with a total span of 24′, so the
12
total run (half the total span) is 12′. Use a roof slope of 8 and
follow these steps to calculate valley rafter theoretical length. See
the Step by Step Procedures section of the chapter for marking a
valley rafter on the ridge board end.
1. Look under the 8″ mark on the second line of the framing
square table; this is for hip and valley rafters. This line shows
18.76″ per foot of run.
Valley Rafter Seat Cuts
The seat cut for valley rafters (Figure 36.29) is a unique cut with
a double cheek cut on the bottom so the rafter will sit against
the inside corner of the intersection wall plates. The seat cut is
also longer because the rafter sits on the wall plates at a 45° an -
gle, lengthening the effective support area (just like hip rafters).
Remember, with all rafter types, the bird’s mouth must have full
support from the wall plates below. See the Step by Step Procedure
for making a valley rafter tail reverse cheek cut.
Valley Rafter Tail Section
The length of a valley rafter tail is calculated by the same proce -
dure used for hip rafters. See the description of the Hip Rafter Tail
Section and Figures 36.22 and 36.23 as examples. The outward end
of a valley rafter has a reverse cheek cut to allow the corner of the

EQUAL SPAN ROOFS UNEQUAL SPAN ROOFS

Major span
Major span
Span B

Span B

Hip Jack Rafter Major ridge

Hip rafter Valley jack rafter
Common rafter Supporting valley
Shortened valley rafter rafter
Cripple jack rafter Minor ridge
Span A Span A
Major span Minor span

Figure 36.27  Roofs with major and minor spans have valley rafters and jacks as typical framing components.

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 600    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

24' Total span

Hip rafter and valley rafter
total theoretical length =
18' 9 1/8"

gth Framing square

en
linel table
al
tic
eore 12
Th
8
Supporting
valley rafter
12' Total run Hip rafter
24' Total span
Shortened
valley rafter

Figure 36.28  Valley rafter length is calculated in the same way as hip rafter length.

finished fascia to remain in line with the rest of the fascia and soffit 1. At the theoretical line length, draw a plumb line.
assembly, as shown in Figure 36.30. See the Step by Step Procedure 2. Measure half the thickness of the supporting valley rafter
at the end of the chapter for making this type of tail cut. (3>4″ usually) perpendicular to the first plumb line. In other
words, measure down the rafter 3>4″.
Shortened Valley Rafter 3. Make a second plumb line mark at the mark made in step two.
4. Cut the shortened valley rafter along the second plumb line
When building an intersecting roof where the major and minor as the actual length.
spans are not equal, a supporting and a shortened valley rafter are
required. The length of a shortened valley rafter is calculated based Valley jack rafter
on the run of the minor span. Use the framing square table for hip
Valley rafter
and valley rafters to get the unit length and make the calculations
Common rafter
as in previous sections of this chapter.
The shortened valley rafter intersects the supporting valley
rafter at a 90° angle as shown in Figure 36.31. This is a square cut
designed to mate flush with the side of the supporting rafter. After
the theoretical line length is calculated, shorten the valley rafter
with the following easy steps:

View from outside View from inside

top plate Valley rafter

of wall

Reverse cheek cut

Seat cut (Bird's Mouth)

Cheek cut Top plate

Fascia board
Dashed line represents
bottom edge of rafter
Figure 36.30  The tail end of a valley rafter has a reverse cheek cut
Figure 36.29  Seat cuts for valley rafters are designed to fit against so the overhang fascia meets properly and square at the inside corner
the corner of intersecting wall plates. of the building.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     601

UPPER END

1 Plumb
gth Theoretical
en line
el line length
90º lin
al
tic
e ore
Th 3/
4" 2

Second
Shortened plumb line 3
valley rafter (actual length)

Figure 36.31  Shortened valley rafters are cut square at the upper end to mate 90° to the supporting valley rafter.

Common Rafter and Hip Rafter Theoretical Line Lengths

Step by Step Procedures

1. Calculate these common rafter theoretical line lengths EXAMPLE A) 5:12

22'-
12 12 12 12 8" t
heo
(LL) for roof slopes of 5 ,9 , and 16 . Each building retic

total rise
5 al li

8'-1"
ne le
has a total span of 42 feet. Notice the LL is actually the ngt
h
hypotenuse of a right triangle; in other words, C of the 21' total run
right triangle formula C2 5 A2 1 B2.
EXAMPLE B) 9:12 26
12 '-3
a.  5 : LL2 5 unit rise2 1 unit run2 "t
he
or

15'-9" total rise

2 12 et
  LL 5 25 1 144 ica
l li
9 ne
2 len
  LL 5 √169 gt
h
  LL 5 13″
  13″ 3 21 unit runs 5 273″ 21' total run

  Reduce to feet and inches: 273>12 5 22.75 or 22′@8″. EXAMPLE C) 16:12

12 2 2 2
b.  9 : LL 5 unit rise 1 unit run
35
'-0

  LL2 5 81 1 144
"t
he
28'-0" total rise

LL2 5 √225 5 15″ 12

or

 
et
ic

16
al

  15″ × 21 unit runs 5 315″

lin
el
en

  Reduce to feet and inches: 315>12 5 26.25 or 26′@3″.

gt
h

12
c.  16 : LL2 5 unit rise2 1 unit run2
  LL2 5 256 1 144 21' total run
  LL2 5 √400 5 20″
EXAMPLE D) 7:12
  20″ × 21 unit runs 5 420″
th
ng
  Reduce to feet and inches: 420>12 5 35′. ine le
al l
total rise

ic 12
ret
7'-0"

   or example c, what product could you use to create

F theo 7
3 / 8"
this rafter? '-1
32
12' tota
l run
2. Calculate the hip rafter theoretical line length (LL) for a roof
12
slope of 7 . The total span of the building end is 24 feet.

(continued)

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 602    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

(continued)
Remember, the unit run for a hip rafter is 16.97″; when  educe to feet and inches: 385.35>12 = 32.11′ or
  R
calculating, some carpenters may round this up to 17″. 32′@13>8 ″.
12
d.  7 : LL2 5 unit rise2 1 unit run2
  LL2 5 49 1 288
Math Tip
  LL2 5 √337 5 18.35″ For practical purposes, the unit run (16.97″) of a hip or
  18.35″ 3 21 unit runs 5 385.35″ valley rafter can be rounded up to 17″ for calculating.

Common Rafter Layout Using a Framing Square

Step Procedures

Follow this procedure for common rafter layout using a
framing square. Notice in step 4b how the framing square
can be used to lay out each unit of run (12) to develop
the theoretical line length without calculations. However,
the calculated and measured LL shown in the following
steps is typically more common and eliminates most
marking errors.
12
The roof system has a slope of 6 and a total span of
24′. Remember to check the rafter stock for any crowning
and make sure the crowned edge is the upper edge as you
begin marking the rafter. As always, the theoretical line
by
5. Take half the ridge board stock thickness (typically 3>4″)
and measure perpendicular (90°) to the plumb line made
in step 4 and make a new plumb line mark. This new
plumb line will be the actual cut line that takes into ac-
count the ridge thickness.
6. Align the framing square with the theoretical line length
marked in step 3. This becomes the bird’s mouth plumb line.
7. Simply slide the framing square down the bird’s mouth
plumb line, maintaining alignment, and then mark the

level line. Make the line no longer than the width of the
length must be calculated first. Use the formula in step 1. wall plate, which is usually 31>2 ″ for 2 3 4 wall stock or
51>2 ″ for 2 3 6 wall stock.
Step

1. Calculate the theoretical line length: slope unit length

3 unit runs. Half the total span is 12′, so you have Complete the tail section as illustrated in the Step by Step
12 units of run. Look at the rafter table under the 6″ Procedure: Calculating and Marking the Common Rafter Tail
12
mark to find the unit length for a 6 slope is 13.42″. Section.
Multiply 13.42″ 3 the unit runs: 13.42 3 12 5 161.04″.
Convert the fraction: .04 3 16 5 .64, and round to 1>16
13'
for a total of 1611>16 ″ or 1611>16 ″>12″ = 13′@51>16 ″ total 1 -5 1
/1 12
theoretical line length. 6" the
ore 6
tica
2. Using the 6″ mark on the framing square tongue and the l lin
e le
12″ mark on the blade, align the marks along the top ng
th
edge of the rafter stock. Do this close to the end of the
rafter to reduce waste.

3. When the square is in place, mark the plumb line along

the tongue of the framing square. This will become the
outward end of the rafter. 12' total run
4. Starting from the plumb line mark, measure along the
rafter stock the total theoretical line length calculated
in step 1, 13′@51>16 ″, and make a mark. This is the ridge
board end of the rafter. Framing square
table

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     603

3/
5 4"
12" on blade

24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Actual cut line

1 2
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Mark rafter

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
2-3 at 6" on
tongue
Measure
perpendicular

24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Me

1 2
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

asu

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
re

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 Draw plumb
3'-
5 1 6 line at mark
Mark rafter /1
6" from step 3
4A

4B Mark rafter

Square
Draw plumb
7 line at mark
from step 3
12" on blade

6" on tongue
Level line
Wall
width

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 604    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

Using a Speed Square (Rafter Square) to Lay Out a Common Rafter

Step Procedures

A rafter square or Speed Square is the triangular square 1 Pivot point

used by many carpenters because it is easy to carry
in a tool pouch. The technique for using these smaller
squares follows the same principles as using a full-size 6" mark (see square below)
framing square. The steps that follow illustrate how to
lay out a common rafter using a small rafter square. The
12
example roof system has a slope of 6 and a total span
of 24′. Because the total run of a rafter is always half the
total span, our example has a total run of 12′, as in the
preceding example using the traditional large framing
square.
by

12
2 Plumb line
Take the given roof slope of 6 and go to the respec-
Step

tive rafter table provided with the rafter square. These

tables calculate the total rafter length based on the total

2
1/
run of the common, hip, or valley rafter. A typical chart will
read, the total length for a 12′ total run is given as 13′@5″.

2
1/
You may notice the table value is slightly different from the
calculated distance from the framing square method. This 3
variance will be minimal and should not affect roof design in
a meaningful way. 4
Always check the rafter stock for any crown and make 13'-5"
this the top edge before proceeding.

1. Place the pivot point of the rafter square on the top edge
(crown edge) and pivot the rafter square until the 6″

5
Plumb line 5

1
mark on the common line intersects with the edge of the 2 1

2
Pivot
6

rafter stock.
15
4 3

25 4 3
point
5
4
76 5

2. Mark along the ruler edge of the rafter square to make

3
5

2
7 6
10 8

the plumb line mark.

35
0 8

6" mark
4
18 1

12 1

3. To intersect with the plumb line marked in step 2, mark a

1

45
4

5
30 2

centerline along the ridge stock (1/2” total width). This is

18 1
55
2

the plumb line cut mark.

4
30 2
65
3

4. From the first plumb line marked in step 2, measure

down the top edge of the rafter stock the length found in
75
4

the rafter table from step 2. This is the line length of the
rafter, 13′@5″ in our example.
5

5. At the 13′@5″ mark, set the rafter square on the pivot

point and the 6″ common rafter slope line and make
another plumb line mark. This plumb line represents the
Plumb line
end of the rafter at the outer edge of the wall plane.

6. Line up the dashed line on the rafter square with the 6

r
fte
plumb mark. Make a mark along the edge opposite the Ra at
ruler for the seat cut level line. Make sure this mark does se
not extend up more than one-third the thickness of the
rafter stock. Pivot point
With the above steps complete, the tail section can be cal-
culated and marked. Use the same procedure shown next in
the “Calculating and Marking the Common Rafter Tail Sec-
tion”. The only difference is the tool used to mark the rafter.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     605

Calculating and Marking the Common Rafter Tail Section

Step Procedures

The tail section is marked according to the projection

provided in the plan set detail. Follow this procedure for a
12
given projection of 24″ on a 6 roof slope.

1. Calculate the overhang length based on the given projection.

a. Divide the 24″ projection by the 12″ unit run: 2
24″>12″ = 2 unit runs
12
b. Refer to the framing square for a 6 slope and note 26 13
a unit run is 13.42″ /1
6" ove
c. Multiply 13.42″ 3 2 units for an overhang length of rha
ng
by

26.84″
d. Convert the decimal of the 26.84″ calculated in step Mark
Step

c: .84 3 16 5 13.44, rounded to the closest whole

number gives 2613>16 ″ overhang length

2. Starting at the bird’s mouth plumb cut line, measure

down the rafter top edge 2613>16 ″ and make a mark. 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 2
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

3. Set the framing square on the 6″ tongue and 12″ blade,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
12
just like any other plumb cut for a 6 roof slope, and
mark a plumb line at the mark created in step 2. This is End
12" blade plumb
the rafter tail end plumb cut. cut
4. Use a level or the framing square, and make a level line 6" tongue
cut intersecting with the rafter tail plumb line. This
line should be long enough to allow full attachment of 3
the soffit material.

1 Rafter

Level
line
12
6
4

Bird’s
mouth

Level
24" projection

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 606    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

Making a Plumb Cut on Common Rafter Tails

Step Procedures

Some carpenters will allow each rafter tail to run wild and
make the final overhang plumb cut after all rafters are 2
installed. If any rafters are not exactly the same length or 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 02 12 22 32 42

61 51 4 1 31 21 11 01 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 02 12 22 32

41 31 21 11 01 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
the building has very long walls, this technique helps assure
the finished eave construction is very straight and true. Chalk
marks
First the carpenter must calculate the overhang length Mark
plumb
using the same method as the last example. Once the line
length of the rafter tail is known carpenters mark and cut all
Plumb
rafters with the following steps. lines

1. Mark the rafter on each end of the wall with the calcu-
by

lated length. Then pull a chalk line and snap the line to
all other rafters. This transfers the calculated overhang 1
Step

length to all rafter tails.

2. Take a framing square or level and working from the line

snapped in step 1, mark the plumb line on each rafter.

3. Use all necessary PPE and safety precautions when cut-

ting the rafter tails, typically from a ladder at this stage of
construction.

Measuring and Marking Single Cheek Cuts for a Hip Rafter

Step Procedures

1. Start by marking the second plumb line (actual cut line)

Hip rafter
described in the text under Shortening the Hip Rafter at
the Ridge Board (Figure 36.19).

2. Use a square and make a square mark across the top Square
2
line
edge of the rafter at the actual cut plumb line.

3. Make another mark down the center of the hip rafter

from the edge to below the mark made in step 2. Mark from
theoretical
line length
4. From the cut line marked in step 1, measure perpen-
dicularly (square to the line) half the thickness of the hip
by

rafter stock, usually 3>4″, and make a mark.

1 Cut line
5. Draw a third plumb line that intersects the mark from
Step

step 4.

6. Draw a line that runs diagonally from the top edge at the 11/16"
third plumb line back through the centerline. This line is
the angle of the cheek cut.

7. Lay the rafter on the wide edge, set a circular saw to 45°,
and make the cheek cut.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     607

6 Diagonal line
3 Center line
Cheek cut 7

5 Plumb
line

3/
4" 4

Measuring and Marking Double Cheek Cuts for a Hip Rafter

Step Procedures

A double cheek cut is a continuation of the process for a
single cheek cut. This may be required by plans depend-
ing on where the closest common rafter intersects the
ridge board.
1. From the third plumb line marked in the preceding
single cheek cut procedure (steps 4 and 5), make a mark
square across the top edge of the rafter.
2. Draw a diagonal from the end of the line made in step 1
through the centerline of the rafter.
3. Use the framing square and draw another plumb line on
the other side of the rafter where the diagonal meets the
edge of the rafter as a guide for the saw when making
the cheek cut.
4. Set the saw base at 45° to make single and double cheek
cuts and follow the lines.

Hip rafter
by

Diagonal
1 2 line
Step

Square
line

Third plumb
line

(continued)

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 608    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

(continued)
Ridge board
3
Hip rafter

4 Double
cheek cut

Plumb line Common

rafter

Flip side
of rafter

Calculating and Marking the Tail of a Hip Rafter

Step Procedures

1. Determine the common rafter projection; in this example Hip rafter

the projection is 30″.

2. Divide the 30″ by 12 to find the projection units of run.

3
Remember the units of run for hips at 45° and common
rafters is the same: 30″>12″ = 2.5 units of run. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

3. Start at the plumb line marking the end of the hip rafter Plumb line
where the bird’s mouth is formed. Set the framing square
tongue in line with the bird’s mouth plumb line and the
Tongue

blade 17″ mark intersecting the edge of the rafter. Make 17"
4
by

a mark; this is one unit of run for a hip rafter.

4. Repeat step 3 for all full unit runs calculated. For the final
1 2

2 1 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
Step

1/2 unit run, see step 5. Blade

5. Now repeat the procedure for half a unit run because our
example has 21>2 unit runs for the 30″ projection. Half of
17″ is 81>2, so set the blade of the framing square on the
81>2 ″ line and make the final mark.

6. Plumb this line as the end of the hip rafter tail.

Common
rafter
17" mark
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

6 Plumb line at
end of rafter
One full unit and one
1/ unit shown
2
1 2

2 1 3 4 5 6 7 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9

30"
1-2 Projection
5 8 1/2"
30" / 12" =
2.5 units of run

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     609

Assembling the Hip Roof

Step Procedures

After the ridge board theoretical length is adjusted to its ac- Ridge board
tual length and all components are precut, the roof assem- 3 Common
rafters
bly can begin. The process involves the same steps from
Bracing
raising a common rafter roof system, keeping the ridge
board equally supported as the components are added.
The hip ends will be different than a straight gable roof, of
course, so follow these steps:

1. After the ridge board length is adjusted, set the board

against the wall plates and transfer the rafter on-center
marks to the ridge.
by

2. Use sheathing material to create a working platform.

Step

Never try to build a roof system while walking on ceiling

joists; this is very dangerous and may lead to serious Common rafters at
ends of ridge board
injuries.
4
3. Depending on the size of the crew, set the ridge board at
the total rise height either by using temporary braces or
by attaching common rafters to the ridge and nailing the
whole assembly in place.

4. Nail the common rafters that butt the ends of the ridge
board. Most hip roofs have one common rafter in the center.

5. Set and nail all hip rafters into place. Hip rafters may be Bracing removed as
frame becomes stable
on both ends or on one end of the building, depending
on the roof design.

6. Nail the remaining common rafters and hip jack rafters

to complete the process. Hip rafters

1 Transfer rafter marks from

top plate to ridge board

5
Ridge board

Ceiling joist

Top plate Framing on far side of roof

removed for clarity

Sheathing and boards

2 fastened to ceiling
joists for lateral support
and working platform

Common rafters

Hip jack rafter

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 610    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

Supporting Valley Rafter Layout Procedure

Step Procedures

Supporting Make single cheek cut

valley rafter on diagonal mark. Use
9 Diagonal two diagonals to make
lines a double cheek cut.

2 Center
line
Mark from
by

theoretical
line length 1
Step

4 Plumb
line Once the valley rafter theoretical line length has been calcu-
lated, the layout procedure can begin. Follow these steps to
3/ " 3
mark and cut the ridge board end of a supporting valley rafter.
4
Equal-span valley rafters use the same cheek cut procedures
shown in the Step by Step Procedures for hip rafters. Refer to
the procedures for single and double cheek cuts on hip raft-
ers and apply the technique to equal-span valley rafters.

1. Start from the plumb line representing the theoretical

line length of the rafter.

2. Draw a centerline down the top edge of the rafter stock.

5 Square line
3. Measure at 90° to the plumb line half the thickness of
the ridge board and make a mark. For a single thickness
7 Second square
line ridge board this is 3>4″.

4. Draw a second plumb line at the mark made in step 3.

5. Use a small square and draw a square line across the

top edge of the rafter at the intersection with the second
8 Opposite side
square line plumb line.

6. Measure 90° to the second plumb line, half the valley

6 Plumb rafter stock, and draw a third plumb line.
line
7. Draw a square line across the rafter edge at the third
plumb line.
3/
4"
8. Draw a fourth plumb line on the other side of the rafter
stock at the line drawn in step 7. This step creates cut
lines on both sides of the rafter stock as a guide.

9. From the top edge of the third and fourth plumb lines,
use a straightedge and draw a diagonal back that inter-
sects the square line drawn in step 5. This forms a small
triangle that represents the cut line for the cheek cuts.

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 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     611

Professional Tip Professional Tip

A supporting valley rafter must have one edge backed
(beveled) from the main ridge board down to the intersec-
tion of the shortened valley rafter. Otherwise, this edge
will be above the roof plane when sheathing is applied.
A centerline is easy to draw on the edge of rafter stock or
any other lumber using a try square as shown in the ac-
companying illustration. Some squares have indentations
in the end of the square to set the pencil and “slide” down
the lumber being marked.

45° angle from the center line outward,

10
cut with a circular saw set at 45°

12
Supporting valley rafter

1
2

11
Major ridge

2
11

10
3
45°

9
1
1 1/2" dressed dimension

4
8
1
12

5
7
6
nominal size 2×

6
7
A Cross

5
Section A Set rule to the 3/4" mark

8
4
Supporting and tighten the nut

9
valley rafter

3/ "
3

4
10
Minor ridge Shortened valley

2
rafter

11
1
12
Pencil mark
Notch for pencil

Valley Rafter Tail Reverse Cheek Cut

Step Procedures

The final cut for a valley rafter tail is essentially a reverse
cheek cut. The technique used for marking this cut is the
same as other cheek cuts. Follow these steps:
1. To calculate the tail length for a valley rafter, follow the
same procedure used for hip rafter tail lengths.
2. At the mark representing the length of the rafter tail,
make a plumb line mark.
5. Make a second plumb line mark at the location meas-
ured in step 4.
6. Take a small square and mark square lines across the
top of the rafter edge at each plumb line.
7. Take a straightedge and mark from the second plumb
line back through the centerline at the first plumb line,
forming a small pyramid.

3. Make a centerline mark down the rafter tail in this area. 8. Cut along the marks made in step 7 to complete the
reverse cheek cut.
4. Measure 90° from the first plumb line half the thickness
by

of the valley rafter (3>4″) and place a mark.

Step

(continued)

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 612    section Eleven  Roof Components, Framing, and Assembly

(continued)

View from
top

Diagonal lines
Reverse
cheek cut

7
3 Center
line

Plumb
line 2

Ta
il len
gt
h
as
ca
1 lcu
lat
ed
View from
top

6 Square
line
8

Plumb
line 5

Reverse
3/
4" 4 cheek cut

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 612 18/12/14 5:24 PM

 Chapter 36 Common, Hip, and Valley Rafters     613

KeyTerms
rafter tables closed soffit side cut supporting valley rafter
theoretical line lengths open soffit single cheek cut shortened valley rafter
bird’s mouth run wild double cheek cut
overhang gable end studs dropping the hip
projection hip rafters backing the hip

ReviewQuestions
1. Explain the difference between the theoretical line length and 9. How many hip rafters are found on the main roof system
the cut line length. when hips are designed for both ends of the roof?
2. What are the rafter tables on a framing square used for 10. Is there a difference between a single cheek cut and a side cut?
during framing? What is it?
3. How do the framing square rafter tables relate to the 11. How would you define an equal span intersecting roof?
Pythagorean Theorem and a right triangle? 12. For a total run of 13 ′, what is the length of a common rafter
12 12 12
4. Working with an 8 roof slope, what is the theoretical length with a 6 slope roof? With a 15 slope roof using a 13 ′
for a common rafter on a roof system with a 24′ total span? total run, what would be the length of a hip rafter?
5. Explain the difference between the overhang and the projection 13. Using a framing square, determine the total length for a rafter
12
of a common rafter. Draw and dimension an overhang of 12″ with a slope triangle of 6 and a total run of 12′. How about
12
and a projection of 12″; then compare the results visually. 8 slope and a total run of 9′?
6. What is the typical angle at which hip rafters and supporting 14. What is the overhang length for a rafter tail with a projection
12
valley rafters attach to the main ridge board on an intersect - of 20″ and a roof slope of 8 ?
ing roof system? 15. What is the maximum depth of cut for a bird’s mouth? Why
7. What does shortening a rafter mean? How much is a sup- is this important?
porting valley rafter shortened on the end that meets the 16. How can the overhang length affect overall operating efficiency
ridge board? of a home?
8. For conventional intersecting roofs that create 45° angles, what
relationship do the hip and valley rafters have with each other?

M36_POWE4171_01_SE_C36_582-613.indd 613 18/12/14 5:24 PM