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As a classifier, CART has the advantage of doing
implicit feature extraction during the process of tree
construction. In other words, only the features are relevant
with the decision making are contained in the tree. However,
the decision boundaries of CART are linear and typically
parallel to the coordinates, therefore, its performance under
some conditions is less optimal.
c. K Nearest Neighbor
Figure 2 Weights on the frequency and time domain.
K nearest neighbor (KNN) is a simple classifier that
assigns a label same as the majority label among K nearest Our analysis resulting in the following observations::
neighbors of the testing sample. The distance measure
between samples is application-specific and we used the 1 The support vector classifier outperforms the other two
correlation coefficient between two feature maps of two methods of CART and K Nearest Neighbor. Extracting
trials. features from time and frequency domains makes it an
effective BCI algorithm allowing for an effective
separation between the intent to generate shoulder
III. RESULTS
abduction versus elbow flexion torques using scalp
A. Results from Able-bodied Subjects EEG signals.
2 The reported recognition rate of 92.9% is among the
Experiments were conducted on two able-bodied male highest BCI performances among reports of EEG-based
subjects both with right hand dominance. Each subject motor classifications.
performed around 100 trials of torque generation in either 3 Figure 2 suggests that some frequency bands have
SABD or EF directions. higher weights than others. However, the physiological
The evaluation of the algorithms consisted of two parts: meaning of these differences in weights still requires
training and testing. The training procedure provided each further exploration.
time-frequency interval a weight w(t,f) [0, 1] proportional 4 This paper reports one of the few experiments that uses
to its contribution. It was calculated using the training as many as 163 electrodes in EEG-based BCI. The
recognition rate achieved by each classifier on the particular result confirms the feasibility and effectiveness of using
frequency/time grid. Following training, a testing procedure a large number of electrodes for signal collection. In
was performed using 17 fold cross-validation. We divided future work, we will seek to determine the optimal
the data into 17 sets with about equal numbers of trials per number of electrodes required to obtain the best
set for each movement type. In each fold, one set was used recognition rates.
for testing and all the other trials were used to train the
classifier. The reported result is an average on 17 folds. B. Results from Hemiparetic Stroke Subjects
LibSVM 2.6 [19] is used in our experiment with default
parameters. For each fold, we calculated the recognition rate Obligatory coupling between certain shoulder and
as Nc/N, where N is the number of total test trials and Nc is elbow torques is typically found in the moderately to
the number of correctly predicted test trials. severely impaired arm stroke patients and results in
The recognition rates for the two subjects are listed in discoordination during movement. If movement intentions
Table 1. Figure 2 depicts the weight distribution in the can be successfully separated using BCI, then in the long
frequency and time domains for the two subjects. run, we may apply the algorithms to drive rehabilitation
interventions for the treatment of upper limb
TABLE 1 discoordination. However, the associated challenge is the
RECOGNITION RATE OF THREE BCI ALGORITHMS ON TWO SUBJECTS TO
DISCRIMINATE SHOULDER ABDUCTION AND ELBOW FLEXION. expected brain reorganization following stroke [20], which
can make the separation between shoulder and elbow
Subjects\methods Nearest Classification Support movement intentions more difficult.
Neighbor and Vector
Classifier Regression Machine To investigate the effectiveness of our algorithms and
Tree the impact of an increased overlap in sensorimotor cortical
N1 89.1% 87.6% 94.7% areas used during elbow versus shoulder tasks following
N2 90.7% 82.1% 91.0% stroke, experiments were conducted on two hemiparetic
Mean 89.9% 84.9% 92.9% stroke subjects.. Features were extracted from EEG signals
as described in Section II(B). Torques were separated using
the support vector classifier. Information regarding the two
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subjects and preliminary results are listed in Table 2. The clinical applications, IEEE Trans Neural Syst. Eng. 11:177-
error rate is calculated as Ne/N, the recognition rate is 180, 2003
defined as Nc/N and the accuracy is defined as Nc/(N-Nr), [3] Blankertz B, et al.. The BCI Competition 2003: Progress and
where N is the number of total test trials, Nc is the number of perspective in detection and discrimination of EEG single
trials. IEEE Trans on Biomedical Eng 51:1044-1051, 2004
correctly predicted test trials, Ne is the number of incorrectly [4] Farwell LA and Donchin E. Talking off the top of your head:
predicted test trials, and Nr is the number of rejected trials. toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain
potentials. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 70(6):510-
TABLE 2 23. 1988.
INFORMATION OF STROKE SUBJECTS AND DISCRIMINATION RESULTS [5] Wolpaw JR, McFarland DJ, Neat GW, and Forneris CA. An
FOR SHOULDER ABDUCTION AND ELBOW FLEXION.
SMA = Supplementary Motor Area; PM = Primary Motor. The results on each EEG-based brain-computer interface for cursor control.
subject are averages of 17-fold cross validation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 78: 252-259, 1991
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Results\Subjects S1 S2 Mean primary sensorimotor area in humans. Neurosci Lett 239: 65-
68, 1997
Age 60 51 - [7] Birbaumer N, Kübler A, Ghanayim N, Hinterberger T,
Sex Male Female - Perelmouter J, Kaiser J, Iversen I, Kotchoubey B, Neumann
N, Flor H. The thought translation device (TTD) for
Dominant Hand Left Right - completely paralyzed patients. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng
Affected Hand Left Right - 8:190–3. 2000.
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Lesion Position R. L. dorsal - prosthesis: assessing the speed of a P300-based brain-
posterior lateral SMA computer interface. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng; 8(2):174–9.
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Rate imagery tasks by means of time–frequency synthesized spatial
Accuracy 82.8% 85.3% 84.1% patterns. Clinical Neurophysiology 115:2744–2753, 2004.
[11] Lal TN, Schrüder M, Hingerberger T, Weston J, Bogdan M,
Birbaumer N, and Schölkopf B. Support Vector Channel
As shown by Table 2, on one hand, the results show that Selection in BCI. IEEE Trans on Biomedical Eng 51(6):1003-
the reduced spatial resolution at sensorimotor cortices 1010, 2004
increased the difficulty of prediction since the average error [12] Garrett D, Peterson DA, Anderson CW, and Thaut MH.
Comparison of linear, nonlinear, and features selection
rate (11.4%) is higher than that of able-bodied subjects
methods for EEG signal classification. IEEE Trans on Neural
(7.1%); on the other hand, with the added rejection scheme, Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering 11(2):141-144, 2003
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IV. CONCLUSION Shoulder/Elbow Motor Tasks Using Time-frequency
Synthesized Spatial Patterns of Scalp EEG signals. In
In summary, this work demonstrates that support vector preparation.
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