2.

1 Antenna Separation

Is a measure of how tightly coupled antennas are. Typically, antenna

isolation is measured for antennas on the same product - that is, the isolation

between a smartphone GPS and Wi-Fi antenna, for instance. When specified in

this manner, the isolation should be as large as possible. Antenna separation is

given by the formula

(Equation 2.1)

where: – wavelength (meters)

Re - radius of the Earth (6370 x 103 m)

DT - Total distance (meters)

2.2 Reflection Loss

Reflection loss occurs on a line which results in part of the energy being

reflected back to the source. This can occur: At a discontinuity or impedance

mismatch, e.g., in a transmission line, the ratio of the incident power to the

reflected power.

(Equation 2.2.1)

( ) (Equation 2.2.2)

13
 (Equation 2.2.3)
√

where: DF - Divergence Factor

RC – Reflective Coefficient

0.3 = non-reflective medium

0.5 = shallow water

0.8 = deep bodies of water

RL - in dB

A1‟and H1‟ – in meters

k = (radius factor)

d1 = distance of the transmitter to the highest obstruction (meters)

d2 = distance of the receiver from the highest obstruction (meters)

2.3 Diffraction Loss

If the direct line-of-sight is obstructed by a single object ( of height hm),

such as a mountain or building, the attenuation caused by diffraction over such an

object can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife-edge.

14
 √ ( ) √ ( ) (Equation 2.4.6)
(Equation 2.3.1)
where: f = frequency (GHz)

d1 = distance of the transmitter to the highest obstruction (meters)

d2 = distance of the receiver from the highest obstruction (meters)

fo
(Equation 2.3.2)

fo
(Equation 2.3.3)

2.4 Rain Attenuation

Refers primarily to the absorption of a microwave radio frequency (RF)

signal by atmospheric rain, snow, or ice, and losses which are especially prevalent

at frequencies above 11 GHz. It also refers to the degradation of a signal caused

by the electromagnetic interference. Rain attenuation is given by the formula

(Equation 2.4.1)

(Equation 2.4.2)

(Equation 2.4.3)

(Equation 2.4.4)

(Equation 2.4.5)

15
 (Equation 2.4.6)

2.5 Oxygen Absorption

It is referred to as specific attenuation. Electromagnetic waves are

absorbed in the atmosphere according to wavelength. Two compounds are

responsible for the majority of signal absorption: oxygen (O2) and water vapor

(H2O). Oxygen absorption is defined by

(Equation 2.5.1)

Where: Pair = pressure of air at a certain altitude

Po = sea level standard atmosphere, 101325 Pa

(Equation 2.5.2)

Where: L= Temperature lapse rate for Dry Air = 0.0065 ⁄

To = Sea level standard temperature = 288.15 K

g = earth surface gravitational acceleration = 8.80665

M = molecular mass of dry air = 0.0289644

R = Universal gas constant = 8.314472

h = Altitude, m

16
2.6 Water Vapor Absorption Loss

Carbon dioxide gas absorbs energy in some small segments of the thermal

infrared spectrum that water vapor misses. This extra absorption within the

atmosphere causes the air to warm just a bit more and the warmer the atmosphere

the greater its capacity to hold more water vapour

* + (Equation 2.6.1)

Where: Ps = in hPa, 1kPa = 10hPa

T = in °C

(Equation 2.6.2)

* +
(Equation 2.6.3)

Where : 1 – 100 °C

A= 8.07131

B= 1730.63

C= 233.426

T= in °C

Whe e “RH%” is the elative humidity, “PH2O” is the wate vapou

pressure and is converted to kPa from mmHg from the given formula above and

“T” is tempe atu e in deg ees Celsius. Given a tempe atu e ange of 1 to 100 °C,

A is 8.07131, B is 1730.63 and, C is 233.426.

(Equation 2.6.4)

17
 Whe e “ρ” is the density of the wate vapou (kg/m2), “PH2O” is the wate

vapou p essu e and “T” is tempe atu e in deg ees Celsius.

2.7 Total Gas Attenuation

Is the totalled oxygen and water vapour absorption loss divided by the total

distance.

Total Gas Attenuation = [(Oxygen absorption Loss) + (Water Vapor Loss)] x Total
distance (Equation 2.7)

2.8 Free Space Path Loss

Is the loss in signal strength of an electromagnetic wave that would result

from a line-of-sight path through free space, with no obstacles nearby to cause

reflection or diffraction. Free space path loss is given by

(Equation 2.8)

where: f= frequency (GHz)

d= distance (km)

2.9 Received Signal Level

The signal level at a receiver input. The RSL is usually expressed in dB

(Decibel) with respect to 1 mW, i.e., 0 dBm.

(Equation 2.9)

18
 Where: Po = Power Output (dBm)

Ag= Antenna Gain

FSL= Free Space Path loss (dB)

CL, WL, TLL, RLL = Connector Losses (dB)

PL = Path Loss

2.10 Net Path Loss

Path loss (or path attenuation) is the reduction in power density

(attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. Path loss

is a major component in the analysis and design of the link budget of a

telecommunication system.

(Equation 2.10)

2.11 Fade Margin

It is the amount by which a received signal level may be reduced without

causing system performance to fall below a specified threshold value.

( ) ( )

(Equation 2.11)

where a = surface constant

b = weather constant

19
 f = frequency in GHz

2.12 System Gain

It is a proportional value that shows the relationship between the

magnitude of the input to the magnitude of the output signal at steady state.

(Equation 2.12)
Where: FM= Fade Margin (dB)

FSL= Free Space Path loss (dB)

AR = Receiver Gain( dB)

AT= Transmitter Gain (dB)

2.13 Fade Occurrence Factor

Fade Occurrence Factor for the Worst Month

( ) (Equation 2.13.1)

Where: d = Path length (mi)

f =frequency (GHz)

FM=Fade Margin (dB)

Fade Occurrence Factor over a Year

(Equation 2.13.2)

20
 a – Surface constant b – Weather Constant
4.0 – Very Smooth Terrain 0.5 – for Hot, Humid Coastal Areas
1.0 – Average Terrain 0.25 – for Normal, Sub-arctic Areas
0.25 – Mountainous, Very Rough and Dry 0.125 – for Mountainous and Non
Reflective Areas

2.14 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP), Power Flux Density, Electric Field

Intensity, Magnetic Field Intensity

(Equation 2.14.1)

owe lux ensity (Equation 2.14.2)

le t i ield ntensity √ ( /m) (Equation 2.14.3)

agneti ield ntensity √ ( /m) (Equation 2.14.4)

2.15 Reliability Calculations

(Equation 2.15.1)

[ ] (Equation 2.15.2)

Where: Undp is the Path Unavailability

a is the terrain constant

21
 b is the weather constant

f is the frequency in GHz

d is the distance in miles

FM is the Fade Margin

System Total Availability

(Equation 2.15.3)

22