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Behaviors
Author(s): Pam Scholder Ellen, Joshua Lyle Wiener and Cathy Cobb-Walgren
Source: Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 10, No. 2, Environmental Problems and
Marketing (Fall, 1991), pp. 102-117
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30000238
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing
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The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness in
Motivating Environmentally Conscious Behaviors
While perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) has consistently been linked to socially con-
scious attitudes, the concept appears to have been confounded with other related constructs
in the empirical studies measuring its effects on behavior. In addition, the few studies which
have considered the effects of PCE on reported behavior have done so only in aggregate.
This research demonstrates that PCE is distinct from environmental concern and contributes
uniquely to the prediction of certain pro-ecological behaviors. In addition, differences in
PCE are shown to be associated with differences in demographics and political affiliation.
The results suggest that motivating consumers to express their concern through actual behav-
ior is to some extent a function of increasing their perception that individual actions do make
a difference.
PAM SCHOLDER ELLEN is an Assis- When the environmental movement surfaced in the late 1960s, the majority
tant Professor of Marketing and of the U.S. population had to be convinced that environmental laws and pro-
CATHY COBB-WALGREN is Associ-
tection were inadequate [Schwartz 1990]. Today, three-quarters of Ameri-
ate Professor of Marketing at
Georgia State University, At-
cans loosely call themselves "environmentalists" [Goldman 1991]. Their
lanta. JOSHUA LYLE WIENER is an mutual concern for the environment notwithstanding, this vast group is by
Associate Professor of Market- no means a homogeneous one. Instead, it is made up of individuals with
ing at Oklahoma State Univer- highly diverse personality traits, values, attitudes, and behaviors.
sity, Stillwater.
Fifteen years ago, Henion and Wilson [1976] correctly predicted that, as
the size of the environmental movement increased, the uniformity of the
group would dissipate. They went on to suggest that the challenge facing
marketers in the future would not be to encourage everyone in the segment
to engage in some pro-ecological activity but to identify the specific attitu-
dinal and personality traits associated with a consumer's willingness to en-
gage in a specific class of actions and then link those attitudes and behav-
iors through targeted messages. More recently, scholars such as Gill,
Crosby, and Taylor [1986]; Vining and Ebreo [1990]; and Wiener and Does-
cher [1991] issued the same message: Ecological marketers must get people
who are aware of environmental problems and who place a high priority on
solving these problems to act on their concerns.
The question then arises: What factors, beyond simple concern for the en-
vironment, might influence an individual's willingness to engage in environ-
mentally friendly behaviors? One factor which in the past has received con-
siderable attention in marketing is perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE).
When first advanced by Kinnear, Taylor, and Ahmed [1974], PCE was con-
ceptualized and measured as the extent to which the consumer believes that
the efforts of an individual acting alone can make a difference. Subsequent
studies, however, approached the construct from alternate perspectives so
that, over time, PCE lost some of its original meaning (See Table 1 for a sum-
mary).
Researchers combined PCE with constructs such as perceived change in
JPP & M, Vol. 10 (2) consumption [Antil 1984; Webster 1975], concern [Allen and Dillon 1979;
Fall 1991, 102-117 Allen 1982; Allen, Calantone, and Schewe 1982], and responsibility [Selig-
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 103
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104 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
Webster (1975) Original PCE and Per- Socially Conscious Con- PCE was significant pre
ceived Change in Con- sumer Index index of 8 behavioral items (use of
sumption (PCC) Use/nonuse of recy- low-phosphate detergent; use of re-
cling service turnable bottles; boycott products
in labor dispute) as well as use/non-
use of recycling service.
Henion and Wilson Original PCE construct Internal/External Locus PCE was positively correlated with
(1976) of Control internal locus of control
Good (1979) Original PCE construct Group differences PCE was higher for persons request-
ing energy saving booklet.
Seligman et al. (1979) PCE and Responsibility Actual energy usage More energy was used by those
households which perceived that in-
dividuals were not responsible for
the energy crisis and could not alle-
viate the crisis.
Allen and Dillon Two factors: Original Evaluation of Energy Factor analysis revealed two dimen-
(1979) PCE and Concern; Per- Efficiency Labeling Pro- sions: PCE-Concern factor and Per-
ceived Change in Con- gram (EELP) ceived Change in Consumption fac-
sumption (PCC) tor. Using canonical, most recep-
tive group to EELP was higher on
PCE-Concern; two negative group
expressed either negative PCC or
low PCE-Concern.
Allen (1982) Same as above Importance of energy- PCE-Concern and PCC were posi-
efficiency tively related to importance of en-
Relative evaluation of ergy use attribute. Only PCC was re-
efficient model lated to higher evaluation of energy-
Choice of model in lot- efficient model and choice of that
tery model in lottery.
Antil (1984) Original PCE and Per- Socially Responsible PCE was positively related to
ceived Change in Con- Consumption Behavior index of 40 attitudinal items
sumption (SRCB) reflecting a range of environmental
issues.
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 105
Prior Research on PCE The different approaches to studying PCE can be tied to both conc
and measurement grounds. As first delineated by Kinnear, Taylor, an
Ahmed [1974], PCE was consistent with the definition advocated prev
ously. They found empirical support for consumer effectiveness as a pred
tor of ecological concern. Subsequently, Webster [1975] operationaliz
PCE using measures by Kinnear, Taylor, and Ahmed and another that as-
sessed the degree to which the consumer had changed his or her consum
tion behavior.
Later research by Allen and Dillon [1979] clearly implies that these are
separate constructs. Factor analysis of a set of energy relevant attitudes (i
cluding items measuring PCE, concern, and perceived change in consump
tion) revealed two separate dimensions: (1) a perceived change dimensi
and (2) a combined PCE and concern factor. Subsequent studies [All
1982; Allen, Calantone, and Schewe 1982] found the same factor structur
therefore, these conceptualizations of PCE continued. A similar approach b
Seligman et al. [1979] resulted in PCE being combined with the extent to
which consumers were responsible for the energy crisis. Perceptions of ef
fectiveness and responsibility are conceptually distinct; i.e., one can thin
he or she is guilty of contributing to the problem without thinking he or she
has the power to solve the problem [Allen and Dillon 1979; Seminik, Belk
and Painter 1982].
Objectives This study's objectives are predicated on the belief that PCE and envi
mental concern are distinct constructs; this belief will be empirically teste
Given that they are distinct, our primary objective is to identify the types of
behaviors which are and are not influenced by PCE. The set of behaviors
under consideration range from those which reflect solely the effort of th
individual to those which often effect change through the joint efforts o
many individuals (i.e., either as a group member or in combination with ot
ers). Social dilemma theory can be used to predict how PCE will influenc
these types of behaviors, because the problem of saving the environment
a social dilemma (i.e., a situation where the collective good can be achieve
if almost all community members sacrifice) [Wiener and Doescher 1991]. S
cial dilemma theory predicts that the degree to which the individual feels h
or her efforts make a difference affects his or her performance of individ
ally oriented activities (such as recycling), as opposed to politic
behaviors.
On the other hand, there is no basis for predicting that high levels of PC
will be associated with a willingness to try to solve the problem through th
political process, i.e., through collective action. To the contrary, political (co
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106 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 107
Perceived Knowledge
How would you rate your knowledge of environmental issues? Excellent...Poor.
Assessing The research by Allen et al. [1979, 1982] relied on factor analysis to incor-
Discrimination Between porate both concern and effectiveness measures into a single index of effec-
PCE and Concern tiveness. Consistent with that research, a single factor solution was also
found in this study, indicating the degree of correlation between the two ef-
fectiveness and four concern indicators. However, a more appropriate test of
whether these indicators are distinct is provided by confirmatory factor anal-
ysis [Gerbing and Anderson 1988]. Using LISREL VII, a two-factor model
was estimated twice, once with the phi paths between the perceived effec-
tiveness and concern constructs fixed to 1.0 and once with it free. For the
fixed model (i.e., indicating the constructs are the same), the chi-square of
34.14 was significant (p < .01; GFI = .97, AGFI = .93; RMSR = .049). The
model with the path free resulted in a nonsignificant chi-square of 14.28 (p
- .08; GFI = .99; AGFI = .97; RMSR = .031). The difference between the
two chi-squares is significant (Xdifference2 = 19.86, p < .01). In addition, the
95 percent confidence interval around the estimated phi (-.66, s.e. = .075)
for the free model does not include one. These results all indicate the appro-
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108 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
priateness of treating
Measures of perceived
ming the items. Coeff
respectively. Although
these are very similar
[1982]. It is also possib
therefore, coefficient
of the measures.
Univariate
Purchase environmentally
safe products -- 8.48a -- 4.04a -- -- -- 2.41
Recycle newspapers, etc. -- 6.94a -- 8.78a -- -- -- .47
Contribute to
environmental groups -- 5.97a -- 12.49a -- -- -- 10.49a
Member of env. groups -- 1.39 -- 10.96a -- -- -- 6.50a
Telephone/write public -- .66 -- 19.74a -- -- -- .49
officials
Attend public hearings -- 3.03 -- 13.15a -- -- -- .19
Multivariate .97 4.61a .97 3.86a .97 3.54a .96 2.37a
Univariate
Need for government
regulation -- 1.42a -- 4.32a -- 5.04a -- 3.36a
Others not making
sacrifice -- 7.67a -- 3.37 -- 1.76 -- 1.13
Perceived knowledge -- 5.43a -- 5.87a -- 3.77a -- 1.31
a p 0.05
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 109
Concern
Low High
Low Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
Purchase 2.01 2.15
Recycle 2.23 2.44
Contribute .11 .32
Member .08 .18
Telephone/Write 1.09 1.29
Attend 1.05 1.24
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110 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
Effects on Attitudes and The next step was to assess the relationship of effectiveness and concern to
Perceived Knowledge other attitudes and knowledge. Specifically, it was expected that differences
in perceptions of the government's role, the efforts of others, and perceived
knowledge of the environment would vary with the levels of the predictor
variables. Age and political outlook were used as covariates; again, results
indicated a significant overall effect on the dependent variables (F = 2.37, p
< 0.03) and no significant interaction with the factors. The observed covar-
iate effect, in this case, was the result of the relationship of age to percep-
tions of the government's role (t = 2.22, p < 0.03). Specifically, age was neg-
atively related to the need for government regulations. That is, younger peo-
ple were more likely to feel that greater governmental intervention was
needed than were older persons.
The interaction between the factors was significant (F = 3.54, p < 0.02)
and primarily a function of their joint effect on need for government involve-
ment' (F = 5.04, p < 0.03) and perceived knowledge (F = 3.77, p < 0.05).
The interaction on perceived need for government regulation was the result
of significant differences between groups that were high on perceived effec-
tiveness. As shown in Figure 1, the need for government involvement was
substantially lower for persons with high perceived effectiveness/low con-
cern (x = 3.58) and substantially higher for those with high effectiveness/
high concern (x = 4.13).
The joint effects on the perceived level of knowledge about environ-
mental issues (shown in Figure 2) was a function of persons high on both
PCE and concern and those low on both factors. For persons expressing
high concern and high PCE, there was a significantly higher level of per-
ceived knowledge (x = 2.57), compared to those with low concern and low
PCE (x = 2.23). While there was no significant interaction between the fac-
tors on the perceived effort of others, there was a significant main effect for
effectiveness (F = 7.67, p < 0.01). The adjusted means indicate that persons
with high perceived effectiveness are less likely to feel that others are doing
their share (x = 3.65) than are persons with low perceived effectiveness (x
= 3.95).
4.5
I I
Low High Perceived Consumer
Effectiveness
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 111
Assessing Demographic
Several authors have suggested that racial and political party differences
and Political Differences may exist. Using one-way ANOVA, these differences in effectiveness and
concern were examined, along with attitudes toward government regulation
and the sacrifices of others. There was no significant interaction between
race and party affiliation for any of the variables. The results for the main
effects are shown in Table 6. Differences between blacks and whites were
apparent for perceived effectiveness, need for government regulation, and
perceived sacrifices of others but not for level of expressed concern. Black
respondents perceived their own efforts as less effective compared to
whites. They also reported a greater need for government regulation and
were more likely than whites to believe that others were not making sacri-
fices to protect the environment.
Differences based on political party affiliation were found for level of per-
ceived effectiveness and need for government intervention. Democrats re-
ported significantly less perceived effectiveness than did Republicans (t =
-2.29, p = 0.02) and marginally less than Independents (t = 1.84, p = .07).
As expected, Democrats suggested a greater need for government regulation
than did Republicans (t = 2.89 p < .01) or Independents (t = -2.28, p =
0.02). No significant differences were found for level of concern or per-
ceived efforts of others along party lines.
Discussion and This study produced several interesting findings. As anticipated, the most im-
Marketing Implications
portant finding concerned the relationship between the original PCE con-
struct and the willingness of consumers to make individual sacrifices. Our
study suggests that both public and private policymakers who seek to encour-
age voluntary behavior on behalf of the environment should try to enhance
consumer perceptions that their own actions will improve the environment.
A second finding of interest was the interaction of PCE and concern on
perceived knowledge. This result may reflect in some part the growing skep-
ticism among many consumers about "green" marketing claims [Garfield
1991; Goldman 1991]. Consumers recognize that environmental claims are
often exaggerated and/or opportunistic, making it more difficult for them to
make "good" choices. Exaggerated claims, in particular, require the atten-
tion of public and/or private concerns to reduce the use of phrases which are
Perceived
Knowledge
3.0
High Concern
Low Concern
2.5
2.0
I I
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112 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
D=4.21
1=7.59 -- --
1=3.85
a p < 0.05.
1 B=Black; W=White.
2 R=Republican; D=Democrat; I=Independent. For effectiveness, Republicans are significantly different from Democrats (p<0.05), and Democrats
are marginally different from Independents (p=0.06). For others, both contrasts are significant at p < 0.05.
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 113
Public Policy Since an individual's level of PCE will strongly influence his or her
Implications willingness to make a voluntary sacrifice for the environment, the specific
public policy options suggested by our study are those which encourage
voluntary "green" behaviors. In addition to the communication strategies
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114 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
Future Research The present study suggests that there are important differences in the
Directions factors which affect various forms of "green" behaviors. Marketers need to
target their messages so that they focus on the barriers which are inhibiting
the performance of specific behaviors. Future research should better define
what the influences are and how they may be altered.
If the widespread attitudinal shifts which took place in America during
the late 1980s are going to result in behavioral changes during the 1990s,
then ecological marketers and public policy researchers should reexamine
PCE. Our results support the value of further research into the causes of
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Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 115
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116 The Role of Perceived Consumer Effectiveness
Notes 1. Interview with Pete Booth, president of Booth Research Services, Atlanta, Ga., June 6,
1990.
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