BACK TO BASICS

GRAMMAR REFERENCE

Use these notes and your grammar book to

complete this module.

Unit 2 1 Module 1
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS - the assistants

Adjectives and adverbs make language more interesting. They allow us to express
things in detail. What did it/they look like, how was it done?

Adjectives assist nouns and include words such as, big, small, beautiful. They also
include colours, numbers and nationalities.

 What did the cake taste like? It was delicious cake.

 What colour was the car? It was metallic blue.

Compound adjectives: Hyphenated words which, when

skilfully used, can avoid an otherwise
lengthy description.
eg Twenty-year-old John ……..

A string of adjectives:
eg It was a wet windy night. If using three or
more use a comma after all, except the last
eg It was a cold, wet, windy night.

Comparative adjectives: Regular: add 'er' eg old, older

Irregular: eg good, better

Superlative adjectives: Add 'est' or 'most' eg oldest, the most

beautiful.

Adverbs assist verbs

A verb tells us what is being or was/will be done and the adverb tells us how.

Most adverbs are adjectives + 'ly'. eg quickly - He ran quickly.

beautifully - She sang beautifully.

Not all adverbs end in 'ly' He ran as fast as he could

You will have to work hard to gain your
TEFL certificate.

Spelling When the adjective ends in 'y' change the 'y'

to 'i' and add '-ly' (exceptions shy, shyly; sly,
slyly)

When the adjective ends in '-ly', the same

rule applies, sometimes with rather alarming
results, eg ugly becomes uglily. In such cases
it's usually better to find another word or
construction

Unit 2 2 Module 1
How and well are adverbs. How do you do?
Very well, thank you.

Some words can be both an adjective and an adverb

How come?
It depends on the sentence. eg He drove a fast car.
‘Fast’ describes the car (noun),
therefore it is an adjective.
He drove the car fast.
This time ‘fast’ describes the manner in
which he was driving (verb), therefore it
is an adverb.

Adverbs can qualify adjectives

eg It was an extremely expensive restaurant.

Adverbs can qualify adverbs

eg He ran amazingly quickly to break the record.

Adverbs can be formed by adding '-ly' to the present/past participle

eg hurried(ly) supposed(ly)
undoubted(ly) joking(ly)
loving(ly)

Comparative adverbs more quickly, more gently

Superlative adverbs most quickly, most gently

Unit 2 3 Module 1
The aim of the self-check exercises in this unit is to give you the opportunity to put the
theory explained in each chapter into practice. Some of the exercises are open-ended
and they can have multiple answers. These come without answer keys. Other
exercises do have correct answers. The answer keys to these are found at the end of
the unit. (Please note that our tutors do not comment on self-check exercises).

SELF-CHECK 1. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Find as many adjectives as you can to describe the weather.

Find as many adverbs as you can to describe someone's attempts at

speaking another language.

Use an adjective and an adverb together to describe the weather.

Use two adverbs together to describe someone's attempts at speaking

another language.

Unit 2 4 Module 1
ARTICLES

The indefinite article - a/an

an is used before a singular word/letter beginning with a vowel or vowel

sound: an apple, an egg, an island, an opal, an umbrella, an
Yves St Laurent dress, an e-mail, an F.A. Cup match

before a silent h: an hour; half an hour; an hour and a half

a is used before ALL consonants except silent h: a bank, a cow, a door, etc

before vowels which begin with the sound of a consonant: a unit,

a university, a one-bedroomed flat

a/an is used before a singular countable noun: I need a ticket for the concert.
It’s time you had a holiday.

before expressions of quantity: a lot of, a couple, a great many.

with certain numbers/fractions: a hundred, a thousand, a third

(one third is also acceptable)

before half, when half follows a whole number: one and a half
kilos, a half-share.

when quoting a price: 5p a kilo, Ј1 a metre.

to mean ‘one’: Did you buy or rent a house? I bought one.

In exclamations before singular, countable nouns: Such an

exciting match.

omit a/an before plural nouns

Unit 2 5 Module 1
The definite article - the

the is used When the object is unique or considered to be so: the earth, the
equator.

Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being

mentioned a second time: He scored a goal seconds before the
final whistle. It was probably the most important goal of his career.

Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:

The car in the showroom.

Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one

thing: The boys are playing football in the park. Please set the
video to record the Manchester United match.

Before superlatives: the best, the worst.

The + singular noun can represent a class of animals, people or

things: The Giant Panda is close to extinction. The hotelier has
suffered during the foot and mouth crisis. (not just one but many
hoteliers throughout the country)

Before certain proper names: the Atlantic, the Netherlands, the

Sahara; and names consisting of noun + of + noun: the Gulf of
Mexico, the Tower of London.

When referring to a family: the Smiths (ie Mr & Mrs Smith and
possibly their children as well)

Before Titles containing of: The Duke of Liverpool, The King of Spain.

Unit 2 6 Module 1
USE OF CAPITALS

Whilst there are some rules for the employment of capitals, in many instances it is a
matter of taste; but in all instances consistency is important.

 Always start a sentence with a capital letter.

 If the sentence starts with a number, write the number in words.

 Initial capitals should be used for proper nouns eg The test will be held on the
last Saturday in July. They are going to live in North Yorkshire. We use a capital N
here because North Yorkshire is a specific place. If we are referring to an area in
general do not use capital letters eg Cornwall is in the south-west of England.

 Personal titles need a capital letter. Mrs Jones, His Grace the Duke of Tesolshire.

 Key words in titles of publications, stage productions and musical works etc. ‘A
Place in the Sun’, ‘Much Ado about Nothing’, ‘The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba’.

 Names of buildings, organisations etc. The House of Commons, The British

Broadcasting Corporation, Sir John Talbot’s Primary School.

 Acronyms (words formed from either the initial letters of other words or a mixture
of words and syllables) NATO, NUT, ROSPA, NIMBY.

 Only write whole words in capitals if you are requested to, ie when completing a
form you may be asked to ‘WRITE IN BLOCK CAPITALS’, or, if you wish to draw
attention to something important, ‘NO SMOKING’, ‘DANGER’, ‘FIRE EXIT’.

 Never write entirely in capitals. From the following short passage you will see
that it is (a) difficult to read and (b) confusing.

WHEN SHE HAD COMPLETED HER UNIVERSITY COURSE SHE DECIDED TO

APPLY FOR A JOB AS A TRAVEL CORRESPONDENT WITH THE BBC. SHE WAS
ASKED TO ATTEND AN INTERVIEW AT 3PM ON THE FOLLOWING TUESDAY. THEY
SENT HER DIRECTIONS PRINTED IN CAPITAL LETTERS THROUGHOUT. SHE
PLACED THESE ON THE SEAT BESIDE HER AND TRIED TO GLANCE AT THEM
EACH TIME SHE STOPPED AT TRAFFIC LIGHTS OR BECAUSE OF A HOLD-UP.
UNFORTUNATELY, BEING A STRANGER TO THE LONDON AREA, SHE MANAGED
TO GET INTO THE WRONG LANE OF THE M25 AND MISSED HER JUNCTION.
SEVERAL DAYS AND SOME 1500 MILES LATER SHE COULD STILL BE SEEN
DRIVING IN THE CLOCKWISE DIRECTION. SHE DIDN’T DARE STOP BECAUSE BY
NOW HER ROAD TAX HAD EXPIRED. NEEDLESS TO SAY SHE DIDN’T GET THE
JOB!

Unit 2 7 Module 1
PUNCTUATION
Full stops, commas, colons, semi-colons, dashes, brackets (round) and [square],
hyphens, question marks, exclamation marks, quotation marks (single and double).

Let's start with the easy ones

THE FULL STOP . (also known as 'period' or 'point').

It's used to

 indicate that a sentence has been completed

 denote an abbreviation, though the trend now is to omit the full stop.

Old method New method

Mr. and Mrs. Smith, Mr & Mrs Smith

12, New Rd., 12 New Rd
St. Ives, St Ives
Cornwall. Cornwall

4 a.m. 4 am

It is still used when abbreviating days and months eg Mon. 10 Sept. However,
unless space is limited, it is frowned upon to abbreviate in this way.

THE COMMA ,

Use

 When listing three or more items in a sentence. eg She won medals for swimming,
riding and playing hockey.

 When merging two sentences with a conjunction. eg You can gain an INTESOL
qualification not only by distance learning, but also by attending a two-week
residential course.

 When adding words to the beginning or end of a sentence. eg Unquestionably, EFL

teaching is a demanding but fun thing to do. eg We didn't have enough money for a
taxi, so we walked instead.

 When inserting some non-essential component into a sentence. eg A German

shepherd dog, also known as an Alsatian, won the top prize at Crufts.

 When introducing a quotation. eg As he hauled himself up from the hole in the

pavement, the man was heard to say, "I'll sue the person who left that manhole
cover off".

Unit 2 8 Module 1
THE COLON :

Use

 When introducing a list which has been preceded by an independent clause.

eg Companies which participated in the event included: ASBC, DEF and XYZ.

 To separate the result from that which precedes it. The trains were often late and
unreliable: he decided to look for a job nearer his home. The use of the colon
brings home to the reader the seriousness of the situation.

THE SEMI-COLON ;

Somewhere between a full stop and a comma. It is used

 to indicate a slight break in a sentence. No one was able to complete the test; there
was a misprint on the paper.

 when making lists such as invitees to an event. The guests included: Tom Smith,
General Secretary; James Brown, Accountant; etc

THE DASH -

Used as

 a pause, when the dash separates a part of the sentence which has a strong
connection with the other part of the sentence. It was not a daffodil - it was a
narcissus, dancing in the breeze.

 an indication of parenthesis. A pair of dashes (or commas) separate a non-essential

component. Brackets could do the same job.

 a link. If music be the food of love - W. Shakespeare.

THE HYPHEN -

Used to

 link separate words to make one compound word.

orange-box, without the hyphen this would mean an orange-coloured box.
paper-fastener, without it would mean a fastener made of paper.

 to form an adjective. well-dressed, 250-volt. Shakespeare's 'lily-liver'd loon'.

Unit 2 9 Module 1
QUOTATION MARKS ' "

Single and double. Modern practice is to use single marks for all quotations unless
there is a quotation within a quotation.

THE EXCLAMATION MARK !

Limit its use to exclamatory sentences and phrases. Get out! What a beautiful baby!

THE QUESTION MARK ?

The only real problem here is not using it when it is required or using it when it is not
needed.

Will you please complete the enclosed application form?

I wonder if you could call into this office next week. This is not a question it's a
statement.

BRACKETS (round) [square]

Round brackets enclose a word, clause or phrase inserted in a sentence which is

grammatically complete without it.

The students (from all parts of the world) who study with INTESOL have to work very
hard to gain their qualification.

Square brackets are generally used to enclose something extra, by way of

explanation, but not part of the sentence. eg I walk [verb] to work each day.

Unit 2 10 Module 1
THE APOSTROPHE
Who would believe that such a little mark could be so universally misunderstood.
Indeed it is probably the most misunderstood and frequently misused punctuation mark
in the English language.
It really is quite simple.
Providing it is well taught, students should rarely have a problem with its use. To
someone who knows how to use it, its misuse can prove to be cause for real irritation
and concern. So here goes, let's make sure that in future everyone who learns English
becomes an expert in the use of the apostrophe. Many people live in fear and dread of
the apostrophe and either pretend it doesn't exist, or liberally splatter the page with
apostrophes on every 's'. However, to use the apostrophe incorrectly is more of a crime
than not to use one at all.

If in doubt leave it out

When you know, let it show.

IT'S USED TO
show that something has been omitted

Hello, I'm Jack, what's your name? The 'a' in 'am' has been substituted by an
apostrophe, also the 'i' in 'is'.

I'd = I had you've = you have don't = do not

Mornin' thro'

We're going to the cinema. Who'd like to join us?

indicate ownership

The dog owned by Jane won the 'Best of Breed' at Crufts.

Becomes

Jane's dog won ……..

This is fairly straightforward; the apostrophe shows that Jane owns the dog.

What happens if the name of the person who owns the dog ends in 's', eg. James or
Phyllis?

This would become James's dog or Phyllis's dog

Even though this is grammatically correct, it is more usual to omit the final 's' and
simply put the apostrophe at the end of the name; this automatically indicates
possession.

James' dog won …….. Phyllis' dog won ………….

Unit 2 11 Module 1
singular and plural

Mr Jones and Mrs Jones = The Joneses (this indicates more than one, nothing has
been omitted and as yet we have not mentioned anything belonging to them). However,
if we discuss the car belonging to Mr and Mrs Jones

this becomes

The Jones's car or The Jones' car.

One cake, ten cakes - it doesn’t matter how many there are, an apostrophe is not
required. However as soon as something belongs to the cake an apostrophe is
required eg The cake's stand was almost a metre high.

NB Please note that ‘its’ showing ownership does not follow the apostrophe rule.

eg The gate creaked on its hinges.

Unit 2 12 Module 1
 SELF-CHECK 2.

THE USE OF CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION AND THE APOSTROPHE

Read through the following passage and make the necessary corrections.
Look out for the misuse of capital letters and punctuation; apostrophes
either left out or put in the wrong place and there may be the odd spelling
error and grammatical error lurking around somewhere. See how many
you can find. Thirty-seven = excellent, below thirty = more revision!

Cheshires Deep South – Its Worth a Visit!

south Cheshire is an area of fasinating contrast’s and great beauty, It is

renowned for it’s Cheese, picturesque black and white ‘magpie’ houses,

Pastoral Countryside and canals.

It is regarded as one of the finest diary farming areas’ in the country and

has more cow’s to the acre than anywhere else in the World.

Most of the famous cheshire cheese is now made in creamery’s, but

some farms are still producing the top qwality ‘Farmhouse’ cheese.

From any vantage point, on the Peckforton and bickerton Hills, the

impression over the surrounding countryside is of an endless patchwork

quilt of hedges and fields’ with small copse’s and hedgerow trees. on a

Sunny day, hundreds of ponds (many of them old marl pits) glint and

shine, Well-managed hedges and ponds are excellent habitat’s for Wild

flowers and Birds.

Unit 2 13 Module 1
 The Town of nantwich as much to offer architecturally and historically.

The parish Church is known has the “cathedral of South Cheshire”.

Nantwich museum brings together various aspects, of the towns history

an gives fascinating glimpses of the life of people though the years.

There are also a permanent display of cheese making once a major

industry on local farms:

Unit 2 14 Module 1
COUNT AND MASS NOUNS

Also known as countable and uncountable/non-count nouns

Nouns are things - animate or inanimate, real or

imaginary, visible or invisible.

Proper nouns are names of people, places and trade names etc.

Countable nouns are things which can be singular or plural. In the

singular the noun must be preceded by an article.

eg I have a cat. I bought a house.

But in the plural this becomes:-

I have two cats. I sell houses for a living.

Mass (uncountable/ Something which is always singular, irrespective of

non-count nouns) quantity.

eg bread, air, petrol.

Serve on a slice of bread.

Use two slices of bread.

Abstract nouns Words such as, information, hope, fear.

These are generally regarded as uncountable.

eg He set out with boots on his feet, hope in his

heart and an almighty great rucksack on his back..

But not always.

eg Carrying a great rucksack like that one wonders
whether his hopes of crossing the USA on foot will
be achieved.

SELF-CHECK 3. COUNT AND MASS NOUNS

Put the following into the correct column: child, music, tennis, ice, money,
city, furniture, fear, knowledge, briefcase.

Countable Mass Counta

ble or
Mass
Singular Plural

Unit 2 15 Module 1
THE GERUND
The ‘ing’ form of the verb used rather like a noun, eg. jumping, walking, singing, speaking
etc.

Using the gerund

as the subject Singing in tune is not everyone’s forte.

of a sentence

Prohibitions No smoking. No riding on the grass verges.

after prepositions Are you interested in cooking?

How about studying for a TEFL qualification?

Verb + gerund They avoided skidding by attaching chains to the car

wheels.

She suggested jumping up and down to keep warm.

Most children dislike spelling.

The perfect gerund Used when referring to a past action.

He was praised for having helped so many students to

learn English.

The passive gerund Present: Her effort was rewarded by being given a
substantial pay rise.

Past: A substantial pay rise indicated her effort

having been acknowledged.

Take your pick Some verbs can take the infinitive or gerund without the meaning
being altered.

eg begin/start. I began (started) dieting last week.

I began (started) to diet last week.

Other verbs include: continue, cease, can/could bear, intend,

advise, allow, permit, recommend.

Regret, remember, Use these if the gerund is the first action.

Forget (negative) eg I remember dreaming about owning a house in France. ie The
dream came first, then I remembered.

I’ll never forget missing the flight; I was stranded for a week.

to express fear, He never exceeded the speed limit. He was afraid of

Unit 2 16 Module 1
sorrow or shame getting booked.

They were sorry for creating so much mess.

SELF-CHECK 4. THE GERUND

Put the correct forms of the verb(s) in the space(s) provided.

1. They entered by ……………the lock. (force)

2. By ……………hard they succeeded in ……………. the INTESOL

certificate. (work, gain)

3. I am looking forward to ………………. you. (meet)

4. Don’t forget ……………the cat out before ………….. to bed.

(put, go)

5. He hates ……………. up early so he had …………………. two alarm clocks.

(get, set)

6. When the skater felt the ice ………… ……………….. he hurried to the edge

of the lake …………………. himself from …………….. (begin, stop, drown,

crack)

Unit 2 17 Module 1
PREPOSITIONS
Words that help us to answer questions such as, when and where, and link elements
eg noun, pronoun or participles.

Position

Usually, but not always, written before (pre) the noun etc.

We are told to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition and whilst it is perhaps best
to conform in formal writing or speech, it is considered acceptable in informal language
to move the preposition to the end eg

Where is the shop from which you bought your dress? - Where's the shop you bought it
from?

With whom are you going? - Who are you going with?

Phrasal verbs

We frequently tag a preposition on to the end of a verb to convey a specific meaning eg

try out, add up, give up, cough up.

Prepositions and adjectives/participles

owing to confident of sorry for/about pleased with

Prepositions relating to:

Time Movement Place

at at above
before in below
by by beneath
in on over
on into under
from onto inside
since from outside
for of between
during out in front of
after to opposite
until, till down around
up across
past along
across among, amongst
towards amid
along

Unit 2 18 Module 1
 SELF-CHECK 5. PREPOSITIONS

Add a preposition or prepositions from the list below to the following to

form a phrasal verb.

ask break take

believe call run

hope come put

prepare die think

get turn sit

Prepositions: for, off, across, away, over, of, up, after, down, along, out,
back, into, in, to, about, through, on, up.

Write sentences to show how make up can be used in six different ways.

Unit 2 19 Module 1
SPELLING RULES

DOUBLE OR SINGLE CONSONANT?

Remember, a double consonant softens the vowel:

file fill pile pill

ei or ie?

We all know the rule ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’

Pronounced ‘ee’ Pronounced ‘ee’

or ‘eye’

ie ei after c ei exceptions
field ceiling counterfeit either
grief conceive seize neither
niece deceive weir
relief perceive weird
thief receive

CONSONANTS – TO DOUBLE OR NOT TO DOUBLE

verbs/nouns

If, in its basic form, the consonant is preceded by only one vowel, then double it for
the past tense/participles and related noun, if applicable.

Verb Past tense and Present Noun

past participle participle
occur occurred occurring occurrence
cancel cancelled cancelling cancellation
travel travelled travelling travel
rob robbed robbing robber

two vowels use a single consonant

sail sailed sailing sailor

feel Felt feeling feeling
need needed needing

Unit 2 20 Module 1
a vowel sound + a consonant
single 'l'

crawl crawled crawling crawl

trawl trawled trawling trawl
Double 'l'
cull culled culling cull

*Exceptions - verbs ending in 'en' - open, sharpen

'er' - offer

verbs ending in 'e'

Basic verb Past tense + d Present participle drop

'e' add 'ing'
elope eloped eloping
rule ruled ruling
decide decided deciding

if 'y' follows a consonant

Basic Verb Past tense drop 'y' add Present participle add
'ied' 'ing'
cry cried crying
lobby lobbied lobbying

if 'y' follows a vowel, the 'y' remains

Basic verb Past tense Present participle

play played playing

verbs ending in 'c' are given a 'k'

panic - panicking mimic - mimicking

Unit 2 21 Module 1
PLURALS

Most English nouns form plurals by adding 's' or 'es'

books flowers plates businesses kisses

Exceptions

Singular Plural Singular Plural

um A a ae
maximum maxima formula formulae
is Es on a
analysis analyses criterion criteria
us I
bacillus bacilli
cactus cacti
radius radii
en
brother brethren
child children
man men
woman women

'y' becomes 'ies'

city - cities beauty - beauties

ending with 'o' add 'es' potato(es) tomato(es) veto(es)

or 's' radio(s) folio(s) auto(s)

Nouns ending in 'f' or 'fe' are inconsistent. Some take 'fs' others 'ves'

Singular Plural Singular Plural

chef chefs half halves
roof roofs knife knives

Nouns ending in 'ch' 'sh' 'ss' or 'x' take 'es'

churches flashes masses coxes

Most nouns ending in 's' take 'es'

Unit 2 22 Module 1
PROBLEM AREAS

The following are consistently mis-spelled or mis-used.

practise (verb) practice (noun)

license (verb) licence (noun)
accept (verb) except (preposition)
affect (verb) effect (verb or noun)
all right always two words
aural, oral sound similar but aural refers to the ear and
oral refers to the mouth

biannual twice a year

biennial once every two years

compliment a courteous expression

complement something that goes well with something else

dependent (adjective) relying on something or someone

dependant (noun) something or someone which or who relies on something
or someone else

disinterested unbiased, impartial

uninterested not interested

elicit extract ie information

illicit unlawful

ensure to make sure

insure to protect something against misfortune

its possessive never has an apostrophe

it's abbreviation for 'it is'

their possessive pronoun

there at or in that place - adverb

who's who is or who has

whose the one belonging to a person or an inanimate object
eg the person whose car has broken down
the club whose secretary was arrested last week

less applies to things measured by amount not size,

quality or number
eg The sale price was less than half the normal price.

fewer answers the question 'how many?'

eg Fewer people attended than had been expected.

Unit 2 23 Module 1
TENSES
The word ‘tense’ is a grammatical term for time. In all European languages we can
communicate in various forms of the Present, Past or Future Tense. We can say what
we do, what we did or what we will do.

1. The Present Tenses

There are two core present tenses

a) The Present Simple, so called as it consists of one verb component,

underlined below in the examples:

They speak
She replies (add -s or -es for the third person singular)
We hear

When do we use it?

- To express thoughts and feelings.
eg I think he is married.

- For repeated and routine actions.

eg She gets up at 7 o’clock.

- To describe permanent situations.

eg They live in Bristol.

NB The Present Simple can also be used to refer to future time

eg The bus leaves at 10 o’clock on Saturday morning.

John’s plane lands later this afternoon.

b) The Present Continuous/Progressive is a compound tense containing

two verb components:

the present tense of the verb ‘to be’ plus the present participle or gerund
of the main verb, indicated below:

to be gerund
They are speaking
Nobody is listening
I am studying

Usually when the verb infinitive ends in -e this will be omitted before
adding -ing and often when the infinitive is monosyllabic and ending in a
consonant the latter is doubled.

eg verb infinitive gerund

rise rising
hit hitting
sip sipping

Unit 2 24 Module 1
 When do we use it?
- To say what is happening now
(the action has already started and has not ended: this would include
comments about the weather and what people are wearing)
eg At the moment they are sitting in front of the television.

- To describe temporary situations

eg Sheila is living with some friends until she can find a flat of her
own.

- To express regrettable actions

eg I am always losing my keys.

NB The Present Continuous/Progressive can also be used when talking about plans
for the future

eg Our neighbours are emigrating early next year

We’re travelling to Italy by train in the summer

c) The Present Perfect (Simple) and Present Perfect

Continuous/Progressive

These are two tenses that join the past to the present

Present Perfect (Simple)

eg I’ve lost my keys [therefore I cannot open the door now]

We have lived in Bath for ten years [and we still do]

With the Present Perfect Continuous/Progressive there is no sense of

the action being completely finished

eg A: Look at your hands! What have you been doing?

B: I’ve been mending my bicycle [The job is not complete. B
is in the middle of doing it and he’s probably taking a
break]

Contrast this with the Present Perfect Simple:

I’ve mended my bicycle [ie the job is done and the bike is now
available for use].

NB When using verbs such as work or live there is no difference in meaning between
continuous and simple.

eg Dawn has been working in the Slough office for two years.
has worked

I ‘ve lived in Rochdale for some time.

have been living

Unit 2 25 Module 1
Both of the above are compound tenses. The Simple tense has two components: the
Present tense of the verb ‘to have’ and the past participle of the main verb

eg He has walked the Pennine Way.

[completed]

The Continuous tense has three components:

1) the Present tense of ‘to have’

2) been (the present participle of ‘to be’)
3) the gerund of the main verb

eg He has been walking the Pennine Way.

[not necessarily completed]

The regular form of the Past Simple ends in -ed and this will be the same as the past
participle in such tenses as the Present Perfect and the Past Perfect. However with
irregular forms this is not always the case. Note a few common examples below.

verb infinitive past simple past participle

to begin began begun

to swim swam swum
to bite bit bitten

. . . and there are many more!

As teachers of English we must ensure that we use these correctly ourselves.

2. The Past Tenses

a) The Past Simple is the only past tense with one component.
Non-native speakers often confuse it with the Present Perfect. The Past
Simple is used to describe actions that finished in the past. The inclusion
of a time phrase reminds us that this is the case.
eg We visited the Channel Islands last summer.
She lost her camera whilst on holiday.
The shooting party left two hours ago.

b) The Past Continuous

Whereas the Past Simple is used for complete actions in the past, the
Past Continuous (Past Simple of ‘to be’ plus the gerund of the main verb)
is used to describe incomplete actions going on in the past. A single
complete action can occur whilst a continuous action goes on in the
background.
eg It was raining when I stepped outside

past continuous past simple

Unit 2 26 Module 1
The Past Continuous can also be used as a descriptive tense, particularly with people
and weather.
eg He was wearing short grey trousers.
The moon and stars were shining brightly.

c) The Past Perfect

This is a compound tense (Past Simple of ‘to have’ plus past participle of
the main verb) which native speakers often avoid using.

eg ‘He said he had forgotten his dinner money’ is the correct version of
‘He said he forgot his dinner money’

Plainly the forgetting occurred before the saying. The Past Perfect is the
past tense you use to say what happened earlier than a certain point of
time in the past.

eg They asked me if I had seen the doctor on time.

By 11 o’clock all the chocolate cake had disappeared.
The car we had paid for in cash proved to be unreliable.

d) The Past Perfect Continuous

This tense is ‘had been’ plus the gerund of the main verb.
Imagine a continuous action leading up to a single event in the past.

eg Peter had been waiting for the bus for a good half hour when it
suddenly appeared.

Jean experienced blurred vision as she had been working on the

computer for most of the evening.

e) Used to (do)

‘Used to’ plus infinitive means that something happened on a regular

basis in the past.

eg We used to go to church on Sunday [but we don’t go any more]

We normally use didn’t use to in negatives

eg We didn’t use to take calculators into examinations.

or We never used to take calculators into examinations.

We normally use did . . . use to in questions

eg Which medicine did she use to take?

Did you use to watch that awful situation comedy?

Unit 2 27 Module 1
 Was/were going to is used to express an intention in the past which
frequently does not translate into action.

eg I was going to paint the ceiling at the weekend but I just didn’t have
the time.

He was going to catch the early train but was prevented from doing
so because he had to stay behind at work.

3. The Future Tense

a) Going to

This is used to talk about something we have decided to do in the near

future (an intention).

eg James is going to take a holiday in Malta.

We’re not going to listen to that sort of music.
[can be taken as a refusal]

b) Will/shall

Will is commonly identified as a modal auxiliary that forms part of the

future tense. It is accompanied by the infinitive of the main verb and
together they form the neutral future.

eg She will visit us in the new year

(She’ll)
Which is usually well expressed as :
She’s visiting us in the new year
[see notes on Present Continuous]

Both will and shall are often used as the first word in a sentence to
express a function.
Will, for example, is used to make a request

eg Will you open the window, please?

or to give an order

eg Will you be quiet!

Shall is used to make a suggestion

eg Shall we go to the theatre tonight?

or when the speaker is volunteering to do something

eg Shall I fix the clock?

Unit 2 28 Module 1
 Will, however, tends to be the more versatile of the two. In addition it can
be used:

a.i. to predict
eg It’ll rain tomorrow
(It will)

a.ii. to show determination

eg I will win that race even if I have to train day and night.

a.iii. to make a promise

eg If you pass that examination I’ll buy you a car.
(I will)

a.iv. to express supposition and an instant decision

eg (There’s a knock at the door)
That’ll be the postman. I’ll get it.

c) The Future Continuous

Will/shall and the verb ‘to be’ plus the gerund are used to describe an
action over a period of time in the future.

eg This time next week we will be celebrating Dad’s birthday.

At noon I shall be enjoying this lovely weather in the garden.
It’s difficult to imagine what I’ll be doing in ten years’ time.

d) The Future Perfect

This takes the form of will have plus the past participle of the main verb
and is used to express a completed action in the future.

eg By the time you arrive at the port the boat will have set sail.
Will he have completed his thesis before he goes abroad?

e) The Future Perfect Continuous consists of four components:

will have been plus the gerund ( . . . ing)

The tense is used to predict how long something will last, viewed up to a
point in the future.

eg On 20th January I will have been working for this company for
thirty years.
[Action started before time of speaking]

This time next week he will have been travelling for

thirty-six hours.
[Action will start after time of speaking]

Unit 2 29 Module 1
 4. The Conditional Form

This is made up of ‘would’ plus the infinitive of the main verb. ‘Should’ is
possible instead of ‘would’ with the first person.
The Conditional occurs in the following cases:

a.i. In sentences with ’if’ and similar words

eg If I won the lottery I would first pay off all my debts.
[I’d]

Supposing/Imagine you were sent to a desert island, what

luxury item would you take with you?

a.ii. In a report about the past which looks forward to the

future
eg They assured us they would remove the eyesore the next day.
I explained I wouldn’t be able to do it on my own.
[or couldn’t]

a.iii. When making polite requests or offers

eg I should/would like some brandy with my coffee.
Would you prefer to go to the sea or the mountains?

NB ‘Would’ and ‘should’ are used in other contexts

eg When I was small our teacher would always give us sixpence

on our birthday. (meaning ‘used to give’)

People shouldn’t abuse the welfare state. (instead of ‘ought not

to abuse’)

If we examine ‘if’ clauses more closely we will see there are three types of Conditional.

The first type we can refer to as the probable condition

eg If you finish your work on time, we’ll pay a visit to the science
museum. (we will)

If we don’t score more points we’ll be soundly beaten.

(we shall)

The second type we can classify as the improbable condition

eg If Tim got up on time he wouldn’t be late for his lecture.

If I were you I’d cancel the policy now.
(I would)

Unit 2 30 Module 1
In the third type we find that the opposite really happened to what is expressed in the
‘if’ clause. It can be described as impossible because it has already taken place and
cannot be changed.

eg You would have passed your exams if you had devoted more
time to your studies.
[You didn’t devote more time and you didn’t pass]

If she hadn’t fallen asleep she would have seen the lunar eclipse.
[She did fall asleep and she didn’t see the eclipse]

Notice the sequences of tenses in each of the three types of Conditional:

‘If’ Clause Main Clause

First Condition Present Simple will

Second Condition Past Simple would

Third Condition Past Perfect would have

SELF-CHECK 6. TENSES

Construct three sentences of the type above with the following jumbled
words:

If the instructions follow on the tin you

get you results best the

Unit 2 31 Module 1
VERBS
When you use a verb you are focusing on the action that takes place within a sentence.
Without a verb you do not have a sentence.

STRUCTURE OF VERBS

In the section on tenses you will have observed there are simple and compound tenses
(ie composed of more than one part). In a simple tense you only have the main verb)

For example: in he speaks, speaks is the main verb of to speak

in they arrived, arrived is the main verb of to arrive

In a compound tense you will find, as well as the main verb, an auxiliary (or ‘helping’)
verb

For example: He has spoken They are arriving

auxiliary main verb: auxiliary main verb:

verb: past verb: present
present participle of present participle of
tense of ‘to ‘to speak’ tense of ‘to ‘to arrive’

Having studied the tenses of English already, can you say which other tenses make
use of the verb ‘to have’?

eg the past perfect (or pluperfect)

He had refused

auxiliary verb: main verb:

past simple of past
‘to have’ participle of
‘to refuse’

NB The past participle occurs only in compound tenses.

There is a third auxiliary verb: the verb ‘to do’ which is used to make questions and
negatives in simple tenses.

eg Does she take sugar? Did I leave my umbrella behind? She doesn’t take sugar

auxiliary main verb: auxiliary main verb: negativ main verb:

verb: infinitive verb: past infinitive e infinitive
present without ‘to’ simple of ‘to without ‘to’ auxiliary without ‘to’
tense of ‘to do’

Unit 2 32 Module 1
All three of the above verbs (have, be and do) can also be used as main verbs.

eg We have had an argument Look what the clown is doing

auxiliary main verb: auxiliary main verb:

verb: past
present verb: present
tense of ‘to participle of present participle of
have’ ‘to have’ tense of ‘to ‘to do’

eg He is being silly

auxiliary main verb:

verb: present
present participle of
tense of ‘to ‘to be’

There are occasions when you may have more than one auxiliary verb. This is usually
in a sentence where the passive voice is being used; here the subject of the sentence
is not responsible for the action described by the verb, but instead is on the receiving
end of that action.

eg The boy is being questioned by the police The artefacts have been stolen

auxiliary Auxiliary Past auxiliary auxiliary main verb:

verb verb: participle verb verb: past past
present of ‘to participle of participle of
participle question’ ‘to be’ ‘to steal’
of ‘to be’

SELF-CHECK 7. VERBS

Identify each of the underlined words saying whether they are main or
auxiliary verbs, giving any extra information necessary, as in the course
notes.

1. They are having a party.

2. We sell shrimps.
3. Do you take American Express?
4. We have had the most wonderful time.
5. My application has been rejected.
6. They are being watched by the Secret Service.
7. Have you read that story?

Unit 2 33 Module 1
 8. They don’t shoot rabbits, do they?

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

This group of verbs has no infinitive - you cannot say ‘to must’ - and has no ‘s’ on the
3rd person singular. Questions are constructed by reversing the order of the subject and
the verb, and ‘do’ is not used to form a negative.
By doing the self-check you will be able to see which verbs are modals.
NB Most modal verbs have no past forms, could and would being the exceptions.
eg She must cancel her appointment
would become in the past:
She had to cancel her appointment
‘Must have cancelled’ means something completely different.

I may not visit the museum today (indicating possibility)

would become in the past:
I wasn’t sure if I was going to visit the museum on that day

I may not visit the museum today (indicating prohibition)

would become in the past:
I was not allowed to visit the museum on that day

SELF-CHECK 8. MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

Exercise 1(a)

Identify the modal auxiliary verbs from the following:

1. must 8. could
2. should 9. shall
3. would 10. find
4. swim 11. will
5. may 12. can
6. read 13. write

Unit 2 34 Module 1
 7. ought 14. might

Exercise 1(b)

Which four of the above are not modal verbs? Can you say why?

Exercise 2

Try placing another verb after each of the ten modal auxiliaries you have
identified above. Which modal is the exception to the rule given, and can
be followed by ‘to’?

Phrasal Verbs

There are thousands of phrasal verbs in the English language which for foreigners can
be quite difficult to learn and take some time getting used to.
These verbs consist of two or more parts: an ordinary verb (eg put, take, look) and a
small word or particle such as off, down, up, aside etc.

For example: What phrasal verb can you use instead of the underlined word in
the following sentence?

They have postponed the meeting until Friday.

Answer: put off

Some phrasal verbs have more than one particle, eg get on with, go through with,
snap out of

One final point to note about the particle is that it does not always come immediately
after the verb.

eg Are you going to give back the ladder you borrowed?

I’ll give it back as soon as possible.

If the object is a pronoun, the particle will come after.

Unit 2 35 Module 1
 SELF-CHECK 9. PHRASAL VERBS

Exercise 1

Find a phrasal verb from the list on the right for each of the single words on
the left.

1 continue a look over

2 reduce (prices) b set off
3 extinguish c look into
4 alight d give back
5 depart e put out
6 return f put down
7 inspect g carry on
8 criticise (someone) h back away
9 investigate (the matter) i get off
10 retreat j bring down

Exercise 2

Think of a synonym in the form of a phrasal verb for each of the

following words. Each phrasal verb will end in one of the particles
listed.

1. seek 6. demolish
2. wait 7. ridicule
3. maintain (payments) 8. remove
4. discover 9. withdraw (money)
5. inherit 10. enter

Particles

up down out in off

on into at for

Unit 2 36 Module 1
 (both lists can be used more than once)

ANSWER KEYS TO SELF-CHECK

Self-check 2:

Cheshire’s Deep South – It’s Worth a Visit!

South Cheshire is an area of fascinating contrasts and great beauty. It is

renowned for its cheese, picturesque black and white ‘magpie’ houses,

pastoral countryside and canals.

It is regarded as one of the finest dairy farming areas in the country and has

more cows to the acre than anywhere else in the world.

Most of the famous Cheshire cheese is now made in creameries, but some

farms are still producing the top quality ‘Farmhouse’ cheese.

From any vantage point (no comma here) on the Peckforton and Bickerton

Hills, the impression over the surrounding countryside is of an endless

patchwork quilt of hedges and fields with small copses and hedgerow trees.

On a sunny day, hundreds of ponds (many of them old marl pits)

glint and shine. Well-managed hedges and ponds are excellent habitats for

wild flowers and birds.

The Town of Nantwich has much to offer architecturally and historically. The

parish church is known as the “Cathedral of South Cheshire”. Nantwich

Museum brings together various aspects (no comma here) of the town’s

history and gives fascinating glimpses of the life of people through the years.

Unit 2 37 Module 1
 There is also a permanent display of cheese making, once a major industry

on local farms.

Self-check 3:

Countable Mass Counta

ble or
Mass
Singular Plural
Music Ice
Child Children
Tennis Money
City Cities
Furniture Fear
Briefcase Briefcases
Knowledge

Self-check 4:

1. forcing

2. working, gaining

3. meeting

4. to put, going

5. to get/getting, to set

6. beginning to crack, to stop, drowning

Self-check 7:

1) Are – auxiliary, having – main

2) Sell – main

3) Do – auxiliary, take – main

Unit 2 38 Module 1
4) Have – auxiliary, had – main

5) Has – auxiliary, been – auxiliary, rejected – main

6) Are – auxiliary, being – auxiliary, watched – main

7) Have – auxiliary, read – main

8) Don't – auxiliary, shoot – main, do – auxiliary

Self-check 8:

1a)

must, should, would, may, ought, could, shall, will, can, might

1b)

swim, read, find, write – these have tense forms and require another verb to form a

question or negative.

2)
ought

Self-check 9:
1)

1–g
2–j
3–e
4–i
5–b
6–d
7–a
8–f
9–c
10 – h

Unit 2 39 Module 1
 Copyright INTESOL Worldwide 2010

Unit 2 40 Module 1