The Communication Transaction
Groupthink may occur, in which a
Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings
with other people and having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood
by the people we are talking with. When we communicate, we speak, listen,
and observe.
The Communication Process
The communication process is a simple model that demonstrates
all the factors that can affect communication. Communication is effective if
the message that is received is the same one that is sent.
A. Sender – The communicator or sender is the person who is sending
the message.
B. Message – A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals.
C. Receiver – The receiver is simply the person receiving the
message, making sense of it, or understanding and translating it
into meaning.
D. Feedback – Feedback is the response of the receiver.
Communication is only successful when the reaction of the
receiver is that which the communicator intended.
The 3 Components Of Communication
It was concluded that a person’s message is perceived in 3 main ways.
55% Visually. This includes body language, and how you look.
38% Vocally. How you sound, and how you speak.
7% Verbally. The actual words you speak.
Communication as Part of Group Structure
Communication may also occur in small groups, such as families, clubs,
religious groups, friendship groups, or work groups. Most small-group
interaction involves fewer than ten people, and the communicators need the
same communication skills as in a dyadic conversation. However,
additional factors called group dynamics come into play in a small group. A
group may try to work toward a consensus, a general sense of understanding
or agreement with others in the group.
group reaches consensus so quickly that its members mistakenly ignore
other good ideas. Small-group members may experience disagreement or
even conflict. Some members may be more persuasive than others and form
sides, or cliques, within the group.
Interpersonal communication occurs with larger groups as well, such as
when a speaker gives a talk to a large crowd (a political candidate giving a
speech at a campaign rally, or a teacher lecturing to a large class). However,
the audience can respond in only limited ways (such as with applause,
nodding, whistles, boos, or silence). The speaker usually wants to be
persuasive or informative, so the words chosen and the style of delivery or
performance are very important. A speaker who wants to reach an even
larger audience than the people who can physically hear the speech in one
place must use communication technology or media to get the message
across distance and even time.
Verbal and Non-verbal Signals of Communication
Verbal communication is organized by language; non-verbal
communication is not. Non-verbal communication includes facial
expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions, and
positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our clothes
or the silence we keep. NVC can be communicated through object
communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, symbols
and infographics. Dance is also considered as a non-verbal communication.
Ways in which verbal and non-verbal signals may interact
*Repeating, as in when directions to some locations are
accompanied by pointing.
*Contradicting
*Substituting, instead of words, non-verbal cues were used.
*Complimenting
*Accenting, a grip on the shoulder, tone of voice, etc.
Categories and Features. G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication
into four broad categories:
 Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes
facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body
motions.
Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place
through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting
and sculpturing.
Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which
includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of
religious, status, or ego-building symbols.
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of
nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:
• Express emotions
• Express interpersonal attitudes
• To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction
between speakers and listeners
• Self-presentation of one’s personality
• Rituals (greetings)
Features of nonverbal communication that provide information
Static Features
*Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently
conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction,
while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.
*Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways:
face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating
people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one
another.
*Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing.
These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we
slouched or erect? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded? Such postures
convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the
communication exchange.
*Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing,
pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an
element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.
Dynamic Features
*Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and
sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during
interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient.
*Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least
understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements
regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have
universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and
idiosyncratic.
*Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact.
It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The
frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.
Features, Non-linguistic Ways
Kinesics is the study of the ways in which people use body
movements such as shrugging to communicate without speaking. Lamb has
analysed some of these movements and gestures.
*Forward and Backward Movements. If you extend a hand
straight forward during an interview or tend to lean forward, Lamb
considers you to be an "operator"- good for an organization requiring an
infusion of energy or dramatic change of course.
*Vertical Movements. If you tend to draw yourself up to your
tallest during the handshake, Lamb considers you to be a "presenter." You
are a master at selling yourself or the organization in which you are
employed.
*Side-to-Side Movements. Lamb believes there is a relationship
between positioning of the body and movements of the limbs and facial
expressions. He has observed harmony between the two. On the other hand,
if certain gestures are rehearsed, such as those made to impress others, there
is a tendency to separate the posture and the movements. Then, the harmony
disappears.
*Facial Expressions. Facial expressions usually communicate
emotions. The expressions tell the attitudes of the communicator.
*Eye Contact. Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-
verbal communication.
*Tactile Communication. Communication through touch is
obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can create a more direct message
than dozens of words; used improperly it can build barriers and cause
mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this type of
communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used
reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not only
facilitates the sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the
message as well.
*Personal Space. Personal space is your "bubble" - the space you
place between yourself and others. This invisible boundary becomes
apparent only when someone bumps or tries to enter your bubble.
*Environment. The design of your office, according to
researchers, can greatly affect the communications within it.
*Paralanguage. Researchers have found that the tone, pitch,
quality of voice, and rate of speaking convey emotions that can be
accurately judged regardless of the content of the message.
*Silence and Time. Silence can be a positive or negative
influence in the communications process. It can provide a link between
messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and uneasiness or
create a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating
favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.
Culture, Gender, and Communication
In North America, for instance, they commonly use their arms and hands to
say good-bye, point, count, express excitement, beckon, warn away,
threaten, insult etc. In fact, they learn many subtle variations of each of
these gestures and use them situationally. They use our head to say yes or
no, to smile, frown, and wink acknowledgement or flirtation. Their head
and shoulder in combination may shrug to indicate that they do not know
something.
While the meaning of some gestures, such as a smile, may be the same
throughout the world, the meaning of others may be completely different.
For example, spitting on another person is a sign of utmost contempt in
Europe and North America but can be an affectionate blessing if done in a
certain way among the Masai of Kenya.
In Latin America, the comfortable (ideal) interaction distance for talking
about personal topics is often significantly closer than among non-Hispanics
in the U.S. and Canada.
Comfort in interaction distance mostly has to do with the distance between
faces that are looking directly at each other. Most people do not have the
same feeling about physical closeness if they do not have eye contact. In a
crowd or an elevator, people usually choose not to look at anyone in order
to avoid feeling uncomfortably close.
In addition to specifying comfortable interaction distances, culture tells us
when and how it is acceptable to touch other individuals. In North
America, culture generally discourages touching by adults except in
moments of intimacy or formal greeting (hand shaking or hugging). This
informal rule is most rigidly applied to men. If they hold hands or kiss in
public, they run the risk of being labeled homosexual and subsequently
marginalized socially. Similar culturally defined patterns of physical
contact avoidance are found in most of the cultures of Asia and Northern
Europe. In Southern Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America, much
more physical contact usually is expected and desired.
Cultural Use of Space
Culture also tells us how to organize space in such a way as to control the
nature of interaction. In North American corporate offices, for instance, the
boss is usually physically isolated in a very separate private room. This
tends to minimize his or her personal contact with ordinary workers. In
contrast, Japanese offices commonly are set up with the boss's desk at the
end of a row of pushed together desks used by subordinate employees. This
maximizes his interaction with them.
Typical North American Office Typical Japanese Office
Culture also guides our perception of space by defining units of it. In the
industrial world, space is divided into standardized segments with sides and
position. Acres and city lots with uniform dimensions are examples of this
in the United States. Our property boundaries are referenced to such
segments of space. As the density of population increases, the importance
of defined spatial boundaries grows. Land owners in densely occupied
neighborhoods have been known to get angry enough to kill each other over
disputed fence lines between their properties. In less dense rural areas of
the American West, where people own ranches of hundreds and even
thousands of acres, the movement of a fence three feet one way or another
is rarely of consequence.
Cultural Use of Time
Culture tells us how to manipulate time in order to communicate different
messages. When people appear for an appointment varies with the custom,
social situation, and their relative status. In North America, if you have a
business meeting scheduled, the time you should arrive largely depends on
the power relationship between you and the person who you are meeting.
People who are lower in status are expected to arrive on time, if not early.
Higher status individuals can expect that others will wait for them if they
are late. For instance, most people who have medical appointments are
expected to arrive early and to wait patiently for their doctor to see them
rather than the other way around. An invitation to a party is an entirely
different matter. It is often expected that most guests will arrive
"fashionably late."
early age. The vocabulary of dress that we learn includes not only items of
clothing but also hair styles, jewelry, makeup, and other body decoration
such as tattoos. In most cultures, however, the same style of dress
communicates different messages depending on the age, gender, and
physical appearance of the individual wearing it.
Gender Differences in Paralanguage
When travelling to other societies, it is important to understand that there
are likely to be significant gender differences in paralanguage in addition to
distinctions in clothes and adornment. In North America, for instance, men
generally prefer face to face conversations and maintain direct eye contact
longer. In contrast, women often converse standing side by side but closer
together than is typical of men. Male hand shakes tend to be firmer. North
American women usually are more restrained in their use of bold gestures
but use more facial expressions (especially smiles) and are more skilled in
interpreting them.

When people come together with very different cultural expectations about
time, there is a potential for misunderstanding, frustration, and hurt
feelings. This could occur, for instance, if a Brazilian businessman does not
arrive "on time" for a meeting with a potential North American customer in
New York and fails to give an apology when he arrives. For the Brazilian,
time may be relatively "elastic" and the pace-of-life a bit slower.
In Japan, women most often speak with an artificially high pitch, especially
when conversing with men in a business or official setting. This is part of
the general deference traditionally shown to men. However, recent research
indicates that the pitch of female voices has begun to lower. It has been
suggested that this change is connected with the increased economic and
political clout of Japanese women.

People in all cultures use clothing and other forms of bodily adornment to
communicate status, intentions, and other messages. In North America, we
dress differently for business and various recreational activities. Likewise
there are styles of clothes that are worn to sexually attract others. There can
be great subtlety, especially in women's clothing. It can communicate that a
woman wants to be considered sexually neutral. On the other hand, it may
be meant to be seductive, innocent but alluring, etc. Women in the Western
World usually are much more knowledgeable of and concerned with subtle
nuances in messages communicated by clothes than are men. At times, this
leads to awkward errors of interpretation of female intentions on the part of
men. Of course, clothing styles also are intended to communicate messages
to members of the same gender.

Long before we are physically near enough to talk to people, their

appearance announces their gender, age, economic class, and often even
intentions. We begin to recognize the important cultural clues for this at an