ENGINEERING PHYSICS

LASERS
Introduction:

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on
the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser" originated as an
acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation".

Einstein gave the theoretical basis for the development of laser in 1916, when he
predicted the possibility of stimulated emission. But practically the first laser was invented
by T.H.Mainman in 1960.

A laser differs from other sources of light because it emits light coherently. Spatial
coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications like laser cutting
and lithography.

Lasers have many important applications. They are used in common consumer
devices such as optical disk drives, laser printers, and barcode scanners. They are used in
medicine for laser surgery and various skin treatments. In Industry for cutting and welding
materials. They are used in military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and
measuring range and speed. Laser lighting displays use laser light as an entertainment
medium.

Principle of Absorption, Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated

Emission of Radiation

Introduction:

According to the quantum theory, every atom can have energies only in certain
discrete states or energy levels. Normally, the atoms are in the lowest energy state or ground
state.

When light from a powerful source like a flash lamp or a mercury arc falls on a
substance, the atoms in the ground state can be excited to one of the higher levels. This
process is called absorption.

After staying in that level for a very short duration (of the order of 10 -8 second),
the atom returns to its initial ground state, emitting a photon in the process, this process is
called spontaneous emission.

Under the action of external light radiation, three different processes occur namely,
Stimulated Absorption:

In this process, a photon is allowed to fall on the atom which is in the ground state.

 The atoms in the lowest level (E1) moves to excited level (E2) with the help of incident
photon having energyE= hγ.
 This process is calledstimulatedabsorption.

Spontaneous Emission:

 In this process, atoms in the excited state(E 2), after completing its life time
spontaneously moves down, by emitting single photon having energyE= hγ
 This process is called Spontaneous emission

Stimulated Emission:

 In this process, a radiation is allowed to fall on atoms in the excited state (E2).
 This radiation triggers atoms in the excited state(E2),so atoms moves down by
emitting two photons having energyE= hγ.
 This process is called Stimulated emission.
Differences between spontaneous and stimulated emission:

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

S.No

An atom in the excited state is induced to

The atom in the excited state returns
return to ground state thereby resulting
1 to ground state thereby emitting single
in two photons of same frequency and
photon
energy.

It emits photon without any external It emits photon with external

2
inducement. inducement.

The emitted photons can move The emitted photons move in same
3
randomly. direction and are highly directional.

The radiation given out is of less The radiation is highly intense,

4
intense and is incoherent. monochromatic and coherent.

5 The photons are not in phase. The photons are in phase.

Components of laser:

Active medium:

A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known as active medium.

Pumping:

It is the process of raising more number of atoms to the excited state than in the
ground state.
Optical resonator:

 It consists of central medium as active medium and in two sides two mirrors are
there.One is partially reflecting mirror (M 1) and another one is 100% reflecting mirror
(M2).
 Light is produced in the active medium by the process simulated emission
 The produced light is moving in between the two mirrors.
  After getting plane polarized, finally it comes out through the partially reflecting
mirror

Population Inversion
The number of atoms in higher energy state is more than the number of atoms in lower
energy state is known as Population Inversion.N2 > N1

Conditions for population inversion:

1. There must be at least two energy levels. (E2 and E1)

2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
3. The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.

Characteristics of laser:

Laser is basically a light source and it has the following important properties:

1. High directionality
2. High intensity
3. Extraordinary monochromaticity
4. High degree of coherence

Difference between ordinary light and laser light:

 S.No Ordinary light Laser light

1 Light emitted is not monochromatic Light emitted is highly

2 Emits light in all directions
3 Light is not intense
4 Light emitted does not have high
degree of coherence
monochromatic
Emits light only in one direction
Laser light is more intense
Light emitted has high degree of
coherence

Types of Lasers

 Lasers are classified in to five major categories based on the type of active medium.

 Solid state laser – Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser

 Gas laser - He – Ne laser, CO2 laser
 Liquid laser - SeOCl2 laser
 Semiconductor laser - GaAs laser
 Chemical laser - hydrogen fluoride laser

CO2 LASER

Introduction:

It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born American scientist prof.
C.K.N patel.

In CO2 molecule, transition takes place between the vibrational states of CO 2 molecule.
It is a very efficient laser.

Principle:

It is a four level molecular gas laser. It is very efficient laser.

The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2,N2 and He.
The laser transition takes place between the vibrational states of CO2 molecules.

Energy States of CO2 Molecules:

A Carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the centre with two oxygen atoms
attached, one at each side.
Such a molecule exhibits 3 independent modes of vibrations.
They are,
1. Symmetric stretching mode
2. Bending mode
3. Asymmetric stretching mode

Symmetric stretching mode:

 In this mode of vibration carbon atom is at rest and both oxygen atoms vibrate
simultaneously along the axis of the molecule departing (or) approaching fixed carbon
atom.

Bending mode:

In this mode of vibration, two oxygen atoms &one carbon atom vibrate perpendicular to
molecular axis.

Asymmetric stretching mode:

In this mode of vibration, two oxygen atoms move in one direction and the carbon atom
move in the opposite direction.

Construction:

It consists of a quartz discharge tube 5m long and 2.5 cm in diameter. This discharge tube
is filled with the gaseous mixture of CO2 molecules, (active medium) helium and
nitrogen with suitable partial pressures.
The terminals of discharge tubes are connected to D.C. supply.
The ends of this tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser light
generated will be polarized.
The optical resonator is formed with two concave mirrors

Working:

When the electrical discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with nitrogen molecules
and they are raised to excited states.This process is represented by the equations,

N2+e* = N2*+e

Where,
 N2 --- Nitrogen molecule in ground state
e* -- Electron with kinetic energy
N2*- Nitrogen molecule in excited state
e - Same electron with lesser energy
Now the N2 molecules in excited state collide with CO 2 atoms in ground state and
excite them to higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.This process is
represented by the equation,

N2* + CO2 = CO2*+N2

Where,
CO2--- carbon di oxide molecule in ground state
CO2* -- carbon di oxide molecule in excited state
N2* - Nitrogen molecule in excited state
N2 - Nitrogen molecule in ground state

Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to E5 level of CO2 atom, population in E5
level increased.
As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the spontaneously emitted photon will
trigger laser action in the tube.

There are two possible types of laser transition.

Transition E5-E4:

This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6µm.

Transition E5-E3:

This transition will produce a laser beam of wave length 9.6 µm

Normally 10.6µm transition is more intense than 9.6 µm transition.

The helium gas is used to conduct heat generated in the central region of the discharge tube to
the walls of the discharge tube.

Energy level diagram:

Characteristics:

Type : Gas laser

Active medium : CO2 Gas
Pumping method : Electrical discharge
Optical resonator : A concave mirrors
Nature of output : pulsed
Output wavelength : 10.6µm
Output power : 10kw

Advantages:

1. Greater power density

2. Low heat input to the work piece, hence low distortion or warping of the cut
components

Disadvantage:

1. Difficult-to-cut materials, including very soft material, such as foam rubber, and very
hard material, such as ceramics, can be cut.

Applications:

1. It is used in material processing

2. It is used in bloodless surgery in medicine
3. It is used in remote sensing and pollution monitoring

Nd-YAG laser

Introduction:

 Nd-YAG laser is a neodium based laser.

 Nd- Stands for neodium (rare earth element) and YAG- stand for yttrium aluminum
garnet (Y3Al5O12).
  It is a four level solid state laser.
 Laser operation was first demonstrated by J. E. Geusic.atBell Laboratories in 1964.

Principle:

 Nd-YAGlasers are optically pumped using a flashtube or laser diodes. These are one of
the most common types of laser, and are used for many different applications.
 Nd-YAG lasers typically emit light with a wavelength of 1064nm, in the infrared.
 Yttrium aluminium garnet, Y3Al5O12 commonly called YAG is an isotropic crystal.
 Some of the Y 3+ ions in the crystal are replaced by neodiyum ions (Nd3+).
 When the optical source krypton flash tube is used, neodium ions are excited. During
the transition from metastable state to ground state, a laser beam wave length
1.0646µm is emitted

Construction:

 A small amount of yttrium ions(Y 3+ ions) is replaced by neodium ions (Nd3+) in the
active element of Nd-YAG crystal.
 This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod. The ends of the rod are highly
polished and they are optically flat and parallel.
 This cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a pumping source (flash tube) are placed inside an
elliptical reflector cavity.
 The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting mirrors. One mirror
(M1) is 100% reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is partially reflecting.

Diagram:

Working:

 When a krypton flash lamp is switched ON.

 The (Nd3+) ions are excited to the upper energy bands E4 and E5.
 The (Nd3+) ions make a transition from these energy levels to E3 by non radiative
transition.
 E3 is a metastable state.
  The population inversion is achieved between the E3 and E2 level.
 A photon is produced when an Nd3+ ions makes a spontaneous transition from E3
to E2 level.
 This spontaneous photon stimulates another excited atom to make a downward
transition.
 Thus stimulated photon and the initial photon trigger many excited atoms to emit
photons.
 This photon generated, travel back and forth between the two end mirrors and gain in
strength very rapidly.
 Hence laser occurs in infrared region at a wavelength of 1.06 µm
 Then non radiative transitions take place from E2 to E1 level.

Energy level:

Characteristics:

Type : solid state laser

Active medium : Nd3+ ions as deponds in YAG laser.
Pumping method : Optical pumping
Optical resonator : Polished end faces Nd-YAG rod with mirrors.
Nature of output : pulsed
Output wavelength : 1.06µm

Applications:

 It is used in material processing

 It is used in surgery
 Semiconductor laser

Introduction:

 Laser action can also be produced in semiconductors.

 The most compact of all the lasers is a semi conductor diode laser.
 It is also called injection laser.
 They are classified in to homo junction semiconductor laser and hetero junction
semiconductor laser.

Homo junction semiconductor laser:

A simple diode laser which makes use of the same semi conductor material on the
sides of the junction is known as a homo junction diode laser.Example: - Gallium arsenide
(GaAs) Laser

Principle:

When a P-N junction of homo junction semi conductorGaAs is forward biased, boles
are injected from p-region to n-region and electrons from n-region to p-region. The e -ns and
hole’s recombine and release of energy take place hear the junction region.

Construction:

In GaAs diode laser, the active medium is a P-N junction diode made from crystalline
Gallium Arsenide. The P-N junction laser is very thin. Electric current is applied to the crystal
platelet through a strip electrode fixed to its upper surface. At the junction, the sides through
which emitted light is coming out are well polished.

Working:

1. A population inversion is obtained by injecting electrons across the junction from

the n-region to the p-region by means of a forward bias voltage.
2. Stimulated emission takes place and the emitted photons are made to move back
and forth in the place of junction by reflection.
3. These photons produce a reaction of stimulated emission.
 4. The emission becomes more and more coherent and the intensity of radiation
increases.
5. The wave length of the emitted radiation depends upon the concentration of donor
and acceptor atoms in GaAs.
6. The efficiency of laser beam increases when we cool the GaAs diode.
7. When cooled to 20k, GaAs laser has delivered as ouput of more than 2 watts of
continuous Power.

Calculation of wavelength:

Band gap of GaAs = 1.44 Ev, Eg = hγ, Eg = 8626 Ao

Characteristics:

Type : semi conductor laser

Active medium : p-n junction in semi conductor diode
Active center : Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method : Direct conversion
Optical resonator : Polished end faces of p-n junction.
Nature of output : Pulsed (or) continuous wave
Output wave length: 1mW

Applications:

1. It is mostly used in fiber- optic communication.

2. It is used in laser printers & writing and reading CD.
3. It is used as pain killer.

Energy level:

Hetero junction semiconductor laser

 A diode laser which makes use of different semiconductor materials on the two sides
of the junction is known as a hetero junction diode laser.

Example: A junction laser hawing GaAs on one side and GaAlAs on the other side.

Principle

Hetero junction is formed between GaAs and GaAlAs.

In active medium, the recombination of holes and electrons occurs.
Due to this, the emitted photon will stimulate further recombination which results in
the emission of intense laser beam.

Construction:

 It consists of five layers. A layer of GaAs p-type (3 rd layer), will act as the active
medium.
 This layer is placed between two layers having wider band gap, GaAlAs, p-type
(2ndlayer) &GaAlAs n-type (4th layer).The electrodes are fixed on the top & bottom
layer.
 The end faces to the junctions of 3rd and 4th layer are well polished and parallel to
each other.They act as an optical resonator.

Working:

 When p-n junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected into the
junction region.
 The region around the junction contains large amount of electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band.
 During the population inversion, some of the injected charge carries recombine and
produce photons.
 When the forward biased voltage is increased more and more light photons are
emitted and the light intensity is more.
 These photons can trigger a chain of stimulated emission.
 The photons having at plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection
between two sides and grow it’s strength
 A coherent beam of laser having wavelength nearly 8000Ao emerge out from the
junction

Diagram:
Energy level:

Characteristics:

Type : semi conductor laser

Active medium : p-n junction mode from different layer
Active center : Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method : Direct conversion
Optical resonator : Polished end faces of p-n junction.
Nature of output : continuous wave
Output wave length : 8000Ao
Output power : l0 mw

Advantages:

1. It is easy to manufacture the diode

2. It produces continuous wave output
3. Diodes are highly stable and has longer lifetime.

Disadvantages:
 1. It produces low power output
2. They have high threshold current density
3. Cost is higher than homojunction semiconductor laser
4. Practical difficulties arises while growing different layers

Applications:

1. It is used in optical communications.

2. It is widely used in computer especially on CD-ROM.

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF LASER

MATERIAL PROCESSING: LASER HEAT TREATMENT

Laser is a light beam of very high intensity, directionality and coherence. So when laser light
is focused on a particular area, even of micrometer size, for a very longer time, then that
particular area alone will be heated and the other area will remain as such. This is called
Thermal effect (or) Laser heat treatment. In this process the light energy is converted into
heat energy.

Instrumentation Technique:

Principle:

The technique of laser heat treatment is used in engineering applications like coating,
alloying, cutting, welding, drilling and perforating holes in the materials and hence this
process is called material processing.

Instrumentation:

It consists of a laser source to produce laser beam, shutter to control the intensity of
the laser beam and an assembly of lenses to effectively focus the laser onto the specimen.
Apart from this instrumentation, separate control arrangements are made for removing the
molten materials, smokes etc., with the help of a shielding gas jet, which consist of the
assisting gases such as air,N2,O2,Ar etc. The powder feeder is used to feed the metal powder.

Processing:

Laser source is switched ON. The light reflected by the plane mirror is made to pass
through the shutter. The intensity of the laser beam is controlled by the shutter and the
controlled laser beam is allowed to fall on the focusing lens assembly. This lens assembly
focuses the light effectively onto the window and is made to incident on the specimen.

Now the specimen gets heated, giving rise to smokes, fumes and molten materials.
These smokes, fumes and the molten materials are removed immediately by blowing the
assisting gas from the shielding gas jet and this in turn makes the laser beam to continuously
fall on the specimen, thereby increasing the cutting rate. Thus the materials can be drilled,
cut, put holes etc., using this technique.

Processing diagrams:Laser heat treatment:

Welding: joining of two or more metal pieces in to a single unit

Applications:

1. It is used in communications, to transmit thousands of programs.

2. It is used in under water communication between the submarines, which is very useful
for military.
3. It is useful to blast holes in diamonds and hard steels.
4. It is used in drilling minute holes in cell walls of human body.
5. It is used to destroy tumors.

Laser cutting:
 Laser cutting is mainly a thermal process in which a focused laser beam is used to
melt material in a localized area. A co-axial gas jet is used to eject the molten material and
create a kerf. A continuous cut is produced by moving the laser beam or work piece under
CNC control. There are three major varieties of laser cutting: fusion cutting, flame cutting
and remote cutting.

In fusion laser cutting, an inert gas (typically nitrogen) is used to expel molten
material out of the kerf. Nitrogen gas does not exothermically react with the molten material
and thus does not contribute to the energy input.

In flame laser cutting, oxygen is used as the assist gas. In addition to exerting
mechanical force on the molten material, this creates an exothermic reaction which increases
the energy input to the process.

In remote laser cutting, the material is partially evaporated (ablated) by a high-

intensity laser beam; allowing thin sheets to be cut with no assist gas.

The laser cutting process lends itself to automation with offline CAD/CAM systems
controlling either three-axis flatbed systems or six-axis robots for three-dimensional laser
cutting.

Improvements in accuracy, edge squareness and heat input control means that laser
cutting is increasingly replacing other profiling cutting techniques, such as plasma and oxy-
fuel.
 HOLOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION:

Holography is a technique for recording optical images was developed by Gabor in

the year 1947.The term holo means whole or complete and graphy means recording.
Holography literally means complete recording.
Holography records both amplitude and phase of light waves to produce a three –
dimensional effect.

BASIC PRINCIPLE:

In holography, the image of an object is not directly recorded but the light waves
reflected from the object after interference with direct ray are recorded. This photographic
record is called a hologram.

It should be noted that a hologram has no resemblance to the original object but it
contains all information’s about the object. When the hologram is illuminated by coherence
source of light, a three dimensional image of the original object is formed. This process of
image formation from hologram is known as reconstruction process.

Steps in Holography: Holography is a two-step process,

(a)Transformation of the object into hologram

An object illuminated by coherent light is made to produce interference fringes in a

photographic plate.

(b)Reconstruction of hologram into an image of the object

Re-illumination of the developed interference pattern by light of same wavelength to

produce a three dimensional image of the original object.

CONSTRUCTION OF A HOLOGRAM:

The process of making a hologram is called construction of hologram. A beam from

Helium – Neon laser is divided into two beams A and B by means of a beam splitter ‘S’. The
transmitted beam B called object beam, illuminates the object whose hologram is to be
recorded. A part of this light scatters from the object and falls on a photographic plate P.
The reflected beam called reference beam also falls on the photographic plate. These two
beams interfere with each other and they produce interference pattern which is recorded on
the plate. When the plate is developed we get a hologram, which appears transparent.
 Construction of a Hologram

RECONSTRUCTION OF A HOLOGRAPHIC IMAGE:

The method of displaying a hologram is called Reconstruction. The object is recreated

from the hologram by directing a beam of light at the plate. The laser beam now known as
readout beam, interacts with the interference pattern on the plate. It produces two images
from the diffracted beams emerging from the hologram.
One of them appears at the original position occupied by the object called virtual
image and the other is the real image can be photographed directly without using a lens. The
virtual image which can be seen by looking through the hologram appears in complete three
dimensional forms. If we move our eye from the viewing position, the perspective of the
picture changes and it is possible to see the other side of the object.

Reconstruction of a Hologram

APPLICATIONS OF HOLOGRAPHY:

1. Holography is one of the best methods of data storage

2. Holographic nondestructive testing is used to find stresses in pipe fitting, stress points
on a wheel and vibration pattern of guitar.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHOTOGRAPHY AND HOLOGRAPHY:

S.No Photography Holography

1 It is a 2D recording process
2 Ordinary light can be used for recording
3 It is based on lens systems
4 Amplitude alone can be recorded
FIBRE OPTICS
It is a 3D recording process
Only laser light should be used for
recording
It is a lens less system
Both amplitude and phase can be
recorded

INTRODUCTION:

To have an efficient communication system, the information carried by the light

waves should need a guiding medium through which it can be transmitted safely. This
guiding medium is optical fiber.
The communication through optical fiber is known as light – wave communication
(or) optical communication.
Currently in most part of the world, fiber optics is used to transmit voice, video and
digital data signals using light waves from one place to other place.

OPTICAL FIBER:

The optical fiber is a wave guide. It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or
plastic called core. The core has high refractive index n 1. This core is surrounded by a
cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called cladding.

The cladding has low refractive index n 2.This cladding is covered by a jacket. It
protects the fiber from the moisture .The light is transmitted through this fiber by total
internal reflection. The fiber guides light waves to travel over long distance without much
loss of energy.
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE:

A bundle of optical fibers consists of thousands of individual fiber wires as thin as human
hair; measuring 0.004mm in diameter is called optical fiber cable.

GUIDING MECHANISM:

The light which enters from one end of the fiber strikes on the interface of core and
cladding at greater angles of incidence. The light beam undergoes total internal reflection and
it passes along the length of the fiber. Most of the light propagates along the length of fiber
and it comes out at the other end of the fiber. Thus optical fiber acts as a waveguide.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION IN OPTICAL FIBER:

A light ray travelling in a medium of refractive index n1 incident on another medium

of lower refractive index n2 at the boundary. The light ray is reflected back into the first
medium or refracted through second medium. The reflection or refraction of the light at the
interface depends on the difference in the speed of light in two materials having different
refractive indices and angle of incidence.

Case 1:

The incident ray AO makes an angle 1 with normal in the medium of refractive index
n1(core).This incident ray is refracted into the medium of refractive index n2(cladding).The
refracted ray bends away from the normal because the refractive index of first medium n 1 is
greater than the refractive index of second medium n2.
Case 2:

If the angle of incidence  1 is increased for a certain value equal to critical angle  c,
then  2is 900.
0
 1 =  cthen  2 = 90

In this case the incident ray along is refracted at the interface and it just emerges along
the boundary of separation.

Case 3:

If the angle of incidence  1 is greater than the critical angle of incidence  c,then the
incident light ray is reflected back into the same medium by total internal reflection.
EXPRESSION FOR CRITICAL ANGLE ΘC:

A relation between the angle of incidence  1 and angle of refraction  2 is

given by snell’s law,

n1sin  1 = n2sin  2

For total internal reflection,

 1 =  c then  2 = 900

n1sin  c = n2sin900

n2
sin  c = sin900
n1

n2
sin  c =
n1

 n2 
 c = sin-1  
 n1 

CONDITIONS FOR TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

1. The core material should have higher refractive index (n1) than that of the cladding
material (n2).

2. The light should incident at an angle greater than the critical angle  c.

PRINCIPLE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBER

INTRODUCTION:

Let us consider the propagation of light in an optical fiber. The incident ray AO enters
into the core at an angle  0 to the fiber axis. This incident ray is refracted along OB at an
angle  1 in the core. The refracted ray falls on the interface of core and cladding at the
critical angle of incidence (90 -  1) and it moves along BC.
Any light ray that enters into core at an angle of incidence less than  0 have
refraction angle less than  1.Therefore the angle of incidence at the interface is more than the
critical angle of incidence. Thus the light ray is totally reflected back into the core.

The light ray that enters at an angle of incidence greater than  0 at O incident at B at an
angle less than the critical angle.Due to this, it is refracted into the cladding region and it is
absorbed.Let n1 and n2 be the refractive index of the core and cladding and n0be the refractive
index of the surroundings.

DERIVATION:

Applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point of incidence of the ray AO into the
core, we have

n0sin  0 = n1sin  1--------------------- (1)

n1
sin  0 = sin  1
n0
 n1
sin  0 = 1  cos 21 ---------------------- (2)
n0

At the point B on the interface of core and cladding, angle of incidence  c = 90 -  1

Applying Snell’s law of refraction again we have

n1sin(90-  1) = n2sin900

n1cos  1 = n2

n2
cos  1= ----------------------(3)
n1

Substituting for cos  1 from equ (3) in equ(2), we get

n n2
sin 0 = 1 1 2
n0 n12

n1 n12  n2
2
sin 0 =
n0 n12

n1
sin 0 = n12  n22
n0n1

sin 0 = n12  n2
2
----------------(4)

 0 = sin-1 n12  n2
2
------------------ (5)

The angle 0 is called acceptance angle. If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then
n0= 1.
 0 = sin-1 n12  n22

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE:

The maximum angle at which a ray of light can enter through one end of the fiber and
still be totally internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fiber.

NUMERICAL APERTURE:
 The sine of the acceptance angle of the fiber is known as numerical aperture. It denotes
the light gathering capability of the optical fiber.

NA = sin  0

Substituting for sin  0 from equ. (4) We have,

n12  n2
2
NA =

FRACTIONAL INDEX CHANGE:

It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core and cladding to the refractive index
of core.

n1  n2

n1

CONDITION FOR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT:

Let i be the angle of incidence of an incident ray. Then the light ray will propagate
onlyif
i  0
sin  i sin  0
 i<  0
sin  i  n1 n 2
2 2

sin  i NA

This is the condition for propagation of light within the fiber.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

The optical fibers are classified into three major types based on
1. Material
2. Number of modes and
3. Refractive index profile

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIAL:

Based on material it is classified into glass fiber and plastic fiber

Glass Fiber: If the optical fiber is made from the mixture of silica glasses and metal oxides it
is known as glass fiber.
Plastic Fiber: If the fiber is made up of plastics then it is called plastic fiber.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF MODES:

Depending on the number of modes of propagation the optical fibers are classified into
 1. Single mode fiber
2. Multimode fiber

SINGLE MODE FIBER:

1. If only one mode is transmitted through an optical fiber, then the fiber is called
single –mode fiber.
2. Its core diameter is small.
3. They have small refractive index difference between the core and cladding.

MULTIMODE FIBER:

1. If more than one mode is transmitted through an optical fiberhen the fiber is called
Multimodefiber.
2. Its core diameter is large.
3. The refractive index difference between the core and cladding is large.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON REFRACTIVE INDEX PROFILE:

In any optical fiber, the cladding has a uniform refractive index. The refractive index of
the core either remains constant or varies in a particular way.

The curve which denotes the variation of refractive index with respect to the radial
distance from the axis of the fiber is called refractive index profile.

Based on the variation of refractive index the optical fibers are classified into

1. Step –index fiber

2. Graded – index fiber

STEP – INDEX FIBER:

 In step index fiber the variation in refractive indices of air, cladding, and core vary
step by step.

GRADED – INDEX FIBER:

The refractive index of the core is maximum along the fiber axis and it gradually
decreases towards core –cladding interface.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF MODES AND REFRACTIVE INDEX

PROFILE:

Based on the refractive index and the number of modes, further step – index fiber is
classified into two types as,
1. Step index single mode fiber and
2. Step index multimode fiber

STEP INDEX SINGLE MODE FIBER:

It consists of thin core of uniform refractive index of a higher value. This core is
surrounded by a cladding of uniform refractive index lesser than that of the core. A step index
single mode fiber has a core diameter of 5 to 10m and an external diameter of cladding of 50
to 125 m.
The refractive index changes in step at the core – cladding boundary, its refractive
index profile takes the shape of a step.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. It has a very small core diameter.

2. Its numerical aperture is very small.
3. It supports only one mode to propagate.
4. Because of a single mode of propagation of light, the modal dispersion loss is
completely eliminated.
5. Light is passed into single mode fiber through laser diodes.

ADVANTAGES:

1. It has a very high capacity.

2. About 80% of optical fibers manufactured are of this type.

DISADVANTAGES:
 The manufacturing and handling of this type of fiber is very expensive.

USES:

1. This type of fiber is used as under - sea cable.

2. It is used for long distance telephone system.
3. It finds particular application in submarine cable system.

STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER:

Its core has a much larger diameter which makes it easier to support propagation of a large
number of modes.
A typical step – index multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 to 200 and cladding diameter
of 125 to 300.
It has a core material with uniform refractive index and a cladding material of lesser
refractive index than that of the core. There is a sudden increase in the value of refractive
index from cladding to core. Thus its refractive index profile takes the shape of a step.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Light is passed into a multimode fiber using a light emitting diode.

2. It has large core diameter.
3. It has low bandwidth.
4. It has high numerical aperture.
5. It has high attenuation.

ADVANTAGES:

1. LED’s have longer life than laser diodes.

2. They are less expensive.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. They suffer from intermodal dispersion loss.

APPLICATION :

1. They are widely used in data links which require low bandwidth.

GRADED INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER:

 A typical graded index multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 m to 200 m and a
cladding diameter of 125 m to 300 m .
The refractive index of the core is maximum at the axis of the fiber and it gradually
decreases towards the cladding. If the diameter of the core is high, the intermodal dispersion
loss must be high. Because of the gradual decrease in the refractive index of the core, the
intermodal dispersion loss is minimized.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. It has intermediate bandwidth.

2. It has low attenuation.
3. It has a small numerical aperture.
4. The source of light is either Laser or LED.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Intermodal dispersion loss can be minimized.

2. It is a high quality fiber.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. It is most expensive of all types of fibers.

2. Its splicing is difficult.

APPLICATIONS:

1. It is used in medium distance applications.

LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS

INTRODUCTION:

When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is lost. The
loss of optical power is measured in terms of decibels per kilometer for attenuation losses.
ATTENUATION:

It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output from a fiber of length L to the
power input.

 10 p
Attenuation (α) = log out db / km
l pin
Since attenuation plays a major role in determining the transmission distance, the
following attenuation mechanisms are to be considered in designing an optical fiber.

1) Absorption

2)Scattering and

3)Radiativelosses

ABSORPTION:

Absorption of light occurs due to imperfections of the atomic structure such as

missing molecules, hydroxylions, high density cluster of atoms etc., which absorbs light.

Absorption also depends on the wavelength of the light used. The three bands of
wavelength at which the absorption increases drastically is 950 nm, 1250 nm and 1380 nm.

SCATTERING:

Scattering is also a wavelength dependent loss, which occurs inside the fibers. The
glass is used in fabrication of fibers; the disordered structure of glass will make some
variations in the refractive index inside the fiber. As a result, if light is passed through the
atoms in the fiber, a portion of the light is scattered. This type of scattering is called Rayleigh
scattering.

1
Rayleigh scattering loss α
4

RADIATIVE LOSSES:

Radiative loss occurs in fibers, due to bending of finite radius of curvature in optical
fibers. The types of bends are macroscopic bend and Microscopic bend.

MACROSCOPIC BENDS:

If the radius of core is large compared to fiber diameter, it may cause large – curvature
at the position where the fiber cable turns at the corner. At these corners the light will not
satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence it escapes out from the fiber. This
is called as macroscopic bending losses. This loss is negligible for small bends.
MICROSCOPIC BENDS:

Micro - bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities inside the fiber. This micro-
bends in fiber appears due to non-uniform pressures created during the cabling of the fiber
(or) even during the manufacturing itself. This leads to loss of light by leakage through the
fiber.

SPLICING

INTRODUCTION:

To carry the information’s for a longer distance, and then we have to connect one fiber
with the other so that the losses can be minimized. The process of joining two fibers is called
splicing.
Before connecting one fiber with the other fiber one must decide whether the joint is a
permanent or temporary. Based on this, we have two types of joints,

Splices – for permanent joints

Connectors – for temporary joints

SPLICES:

TYPES OF SPLICES:

Fiber splices are classified in to two types

1. Mechanical splices
2. Fusion splices.

MECHANICAL SPLICES:

ELASTOMERIC SPLICE:

It consists of an elastomer (Rubber like material).A hole is cut in to it,so has to insert
the fibers. The elastomeric is covered by a glass sleeve with ends in such a way that it aligns
the fibers in to the elastomeric splice. The aligned fiber can be connected well in to the splice
with an adhesive that may serve as an index matching gel. Thus the fibers are connected.
FOUR ROD SPLICE:

This setup consists of four glass rods, to hold the fibers firmly. These rods curve
outward slightly at the ends so that fibers can be easily inserted into it. These glass rods are
holded by a steel sleeve.

While connecting the fibers say fiber – 1 and fiber -2,the fibers are inserted into the
gap between the four rods and are pressed over the silicon pieces.

Thus the fibers are connected. An adhesive or matching gel provides more grip to
hold the fibers into the splice.

FUSION SPLICES:

The two ends of the fiber is fused together with the help of a special equipment,using
a high voltage electric arc .Hence these splices are called Fusion splices.

FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION

A Fiber optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the
form of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not electrical in nature.
A basic fiber optic system consists of a transmitting device that converts an electrical signal
into a light signal, an optical fiber cable that carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the
light signal and converts it back into an electrical signal. The complexity of a fiber optic
system can range from very simple (i.e., local area network) to extremely sophisticated and
expensive (i.e., long distance telephone or cable television trunking).

INFORMATION SIGNAL SOURCE:

It may be voice music; video signal etc which is in analog from to be transmitted is
converted from analog signal.

TRANSMITTER:

The transmitter consists of a device circuit and a light source. The device circuit
transfers the electric input signal into digital pulses and the light source converts that into
optical pulses. The light source is focused into the optical fiber .Optical fiber transmission
uses wavelengths that are in the near-infrared portion of the spectrum, just above the visible,
and thus undetectable to the unaided eye. Typical optical transmission wavelengths are 850
nm, 1310 nm, and 1550 nm. Both lasers and LEDs are used to transmit light through optical
fiber. Lasers are usually used for 1310 nm or 1550 nm single-mode applications. LEDs are
used for 850 nm or 1300 nm multimode applications.
There are ranges of wavelengths at which the fiber operates best.

OPTICAL FIBER:

It acts as a waveguide and transmits the optical pulse towards, the receiver by the
principal of total internal reflection.

RECEIVER:

The photo detector is a receiver which receives the optical pulses and converts into
electrical pulses. Further the signals are amplified by an amplifier. These electrical signals are
converted from digital to analog signals. Thus the original electrical signal is obtained in
analog form with the same information. In thus way information is transmitted from one end
to another end.
 LIGHT SOURCE FOR FIBER OPTICS

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

INTRODUCTION:

LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which converts
electrical energy to light energy under forward biasing.

PRINCIPLE:

The diode is forward biased. Due to forward bias, the majority carriers from ‘n’ and
‘p’ regions cross the junction and become minority carriers in the other junction (i.e.)
Electrons, which are majority carriers in ‘n’ region cross the junction and go to ‘p’ region and
become minority carriers in p-region
Similarly, holes which are majority carries in ‘p’ region cross the junction and go to
‘n’ region and become minority carriers in ‘n’ region and this phenomenon is called minority
carrier injection.
It is the P-N junction semi-conductor diode emits light when it is forward bias.
It emits light in both visible & IR region.
Now if the biasing voltage is further increased, these excess minority carriers diffuse
away from the junction and they directly recombine with the majority carriers. (i.e.) the
electrons, which are excess minority carriers in p-region recombine with the holes which are
the majority carriers in ‘p’ region and emit light. Similarly, the holes which are excess
minority carriers in ‘n’ region recombine with the electrons which are majority carriers in ‘n’
region and emit light.

CONSTRUCTION:

1. LEDs can be designed as either surface or edge emitters. Surface emitting LEDs can
be made such that the bottom edge reflects light back towards the top surface to
enhance the output intensity.
2. The main advantage of edge emitter LEDs is the emitted radiation is relatively direct.
3. Although the internal quantum efficiency of LEDs is 100%, the external efficiencies
are much lower. The main reason is that most of the emitted light radiation strikes the
material interface at greater than critical angle and hence trapped within the device.
 4. Here the p-n junction is formed by diffusion technique.P-n junction is made by doping
Sio2 with GaAs crystal.Therefore a shallow p-n junction is formed on GaAs substrate.
5. Ohmic contacts are made at the top and bottom with the help of aluminium.the top
layer of p material is uncovered for the emission of light.Biasing can be applied at the
ohmic contacts.
6. The whole p-n junction is surrounded by plastic material so that losses due to
reflection can be minimised.

WORKING:

1. Current is passed through P-N junction diode by applying forward bias.

2. Due to forward bias the majority carriers (electrons) from n region are injected into
the p region and become minority charge carriers. Similarly in the p-region.
3. By increasing the biasing voltage, excess of minority carriers are injected in both p
and n regions and this phenomenon is called minority carrier injection.
4. Now suppose if we increase the biasing voltage ,the excess minority carriers directly
recombine with the majority carriers and light is generated
5. Therefore electron –hole recombination process occurs more and more and thereby
light is emitted from p-n junction and comes out through the top layer of the p
material which is left uncovered.
Eg = h

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM:

ADVANTAGES:

1. Construction is very simple

2. Its cost is low
3. It can be operated at very low voltage
4. Response time is very fast,in the order of 10-9Seconds
5. The emitted light intensity can be controlled easily.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Power output is low

2. The emitted light cannot travel through longer distances.
3. Light output is incoherent and is not in phase.
4. Light will not have directionality.

DETECTORS

INTRODUCTION:

For processing the light signal at the receiving end of the fiber, it requires a device to
convert the light signal that comes out from the fiber into electrical signal. The device is
called detectors. Several types of photo detectors are in use ,among those semiconductor
based photo detectors is exclusively for fiber optic system because of its smaller size, high
sensitivity and fast response time.

PIN PHOTO DIODE

PRINCIPLE:

1. The principle behind photo detector using semiconductor is optical absorption.

2. This diode works under reverse bias.
3. When light is incident on a semiconductor, the light may or may not get absorbed
depending on its wavelength.If the energy of the incident photon is greater than the
bandgap energy of the semiconductor,then it can be absorbed.
4. When light is made to fall on the material (or) intrinsic region ‘i’ electron hole pair are
generated.
5. These electron & holes are accelerated by external electric field which results in
photo-current. Thus light is converted into electrical signal.
6. The ‘i’ region is neutral region and hence it can be adopted either by ‘P’ or ‘N’. Since
the P-N region is separated by an intrinsic negative (P-i-P) photo diode.

CONSTRUCTION:

1. The p and n regions are made up of silicon or germanium. The p and n regions are
heavily doped and i region is lightly doped with n type semiconductor material called
intrinsic region.
2. The upper and lower metallization is fixed at the top and bottom which helps for the
flow of current.
3. The intrinsic region is made as large as possible in order to receive more incident
photons.
4. Since the p-n region is separated by an intrinsic region it is called as positive-intrinsic-
negative photo diode.

WORKING:

1. The PIN photo detectors given by very high reverse bias voltage
2. When a photon of energy equal and greater than the band gap enters the device and
falls on the intrinsic material.
3. The electron-hole pair is created in intrinsic region due to the absorption of photon.
4. By increasing reverse voltage the electrons are accelerated towards p region and holes
towards n region, which produces photo current in the external circuit.
5. The PIN diode acts as a linear device because the photo current generated is directly
proportional to the optical power incident on the PIN diode.

FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

 Fiber optical sensors are devices that sense a physical quantity (temperature, pressure,
strain, strain) and give the magnitude as its output.

There are two types of sensors

1. Active sensor (or) direct sensor.

2. Passive sensor (or) indirect sensor.

ACTIVE SENSOR:

If the physical parameter that is to be measured acts directly over the optical fiber and
modulates the optical signal passing through the fiber is known as active sensor.
Ex: temperature sensor

PASSIVE SENSOR:

If the physical parameter that is to be measured modulates the signal outside the fiber,
then it is known as passive sensor
Ex: Displacement sensor

TEMPERATURE SENSORS:

PRINCIPLE:
It is based on the principle of variation of intensity between two beams.

DESCRIPTION:

It consists of laser source to emit light, two fibers to transmit light,reflecting silicon
coating material (which is placed in an environment whose temperature is to be measured)
and shown in the figure

WORKING:

Case: 1
1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.
2. The output of laser is passed through the fiber 1 and strikes the reflecting silicon
Coating material.
3. The reflected light from the reflecting silicon coating material (fig 1) is passed
through the fiber fiber2 and strikes the detector. Finally detector output is
measured.
Case2:

1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.

2. The output of laser is passed through the fiber2 and strikes and strikes the reflecting
silicon coating material. Let the silicon coating material is now subjected in a room
whose temperature is to be measured.
3. The reflected light from the reflecting silicon coating material (fig b) is passed
through the fiber2 and strikes the detector. Finally detector output is measured.

CONCLUSION:

1. Absorption of light at the reflecting silicon coating material varies with temperature
and hence the intensity of light received at the detector varies.
2. Thus the temperature can be measured from the intensity of light received at the
detector.

SUMMARY:

1
Absorption of light α temperature α intensity of light

DISPLACEMENT SENSOR:

PRINCIPLE:

Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made of fall on a moving target. a
detector senses light from the target. With respect to intensity of light reflected from the
target, the displacement of the target is measured.

DESCRIPTION:

It consist of a laser source to emit light, two fibers to transmit and receive light, a
detector and moving object whose displacement is to be measured, as shown in fig(1)
WORKING:

1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.

2. The output of laser is passed through the fiber 1 and strikes the object at reference
position.
3. The reflected light from the object is passed through the fiber2 and strikes the detector
and hence the intensity can be measured.
4. Now the object is moved to the distance ‘L’ and once again the above procedure can
be repeated.
5. The difference in the reflected intensities with respect to the reference position and the
new position gives the displacement (L) of the object.

SUMMARY:

Intensity of light of the reference position intensity of light of the new position =
Displacement(L).
QUANTUM MECHANICS

MATTER WAVES:

WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES:

The light radiation behaves like a wave in interference and diffraction experiments.
The same light radiation behaves like a particle in photo electric effect and compton effect.
So light radiations have two nature like wave and particle nature.

De- Broglie’s hypothesis:

i. De- Broglie made a very bold and novel suggestion that light radiations, matter or
material particles also possess dual characteristic particle-like & wave nature.
 ii. In other words the moving particle of matter like electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms
or molecules exhibit wave nature.
iii. Wave and particles are the only two modes through which energy can propagate in
nature.
iv. Our universe is fully composed of light radiation and matter.
v. Since nature loves symmetry, so matter and wave must be symmetry.

DE-BROGLIE’S WAVE AND ITS WAVELENGTH:

The wave associated with the particle or matter is called matter wave (or) De-
Broglie’s wave.

From Planck’s theory, the energy of a photon when frequency γ is given by

E=hγ …………………..(1)

where h- Planck’s constant.

According to Einsteins the mass– energy relation is given as ,

E = mc2 ………………….(2)

m – mass of the photon

c – velocity of photon.

Equating equations 1 and 2

h γ = mc2

c
h = mc2


h
λ= (mc = momentum of photon)
mc

h
λ=
P

according to De- Broglie’s hypothesis, the wavelength of the De- Broglie’s wave associated
with any particle of mass m with velocity v

h h
= =
p mv

This equation is known as De- Broglie’s wave equation.

De- Broglie’s wavelength interms of energy:

1
We know kinetic energy E = mv2
2

Multiplying by m on both sides,

1 2 2
E m= m v
2

2 m E = m2 v2

mv = √ 2 E m

h h h
We know λ = = =
P mv 2 Em

De- Broglie’s wavelength associated with electron potential :

When an electron of charge e is accelerated by a potential difference of V volts the electron

gains a velocity v

Work done by the electron =eV ……………………(1)

1
We know kinetic energy E = mv2
2

Multiplying by m on both sides,

m2v2 = 2 meV …………………… (2)

Taking square root on both sides

√ m2v2 = √ 2 meV

mv = √ 2 meV …………………… (3)

h
From De- Broglie’s wavelength λ=
mv

h
λ=
2 meV

where h= 6.625 x 10-34 js m = 9.1 x 10-31 Kg , e = 1.6 x 10-19 c

λ = 12.25 / √V
PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:

1. If mass of particle is lighter, then the wavelength associated with that particle is
greater.
2. It velocity of particle is smaller, then the wavelength associated with that particle
is greater.
3. If v= 0, then λ = ∞, wave becomes indeterminate if v= ∞, then λ= 0 .This
indicates that the De- Broglie’s waves are generated only when material particles
are in motion
4. These waves are produced whether the particles are charged particles or
uncharged. This reveals that these waves are not electromagnetic waves but they
are a new kind of waves.
5. Velocity of De-Broglie’s wave depends on the velocity of matter particle ,it is not
a constant while the velocity electromagnetic wave is constant.
6. The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

In 1927 Heisenberg proposed a very interesting principle which is a direct

consequence of the dual nature of matter,Known as uncertainity principle.In classical
mechanics moving particle at any instant has a fixed position in space and a definite
momentum which can be determined if the initial values are known.However ,in wave
mechanics the particle is described in terms of a wave packet. When we represent a
particle as a wave packet ,the particle may be anywhere inside the wave packet.The
position of the particle becomes more definite as the wavepacket becomes smaller and
smaller.But the average value of wavelength in a smaller wavepacket becomes less
defined because smaller wavepacket contains less number of waves.In this case the
momentum is not well defined.So when the position of the particle is well defined then its
momentum becomes less defined and vice versa.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to measure

simultaneously both the exact position and momentum of a particle. So its product is
equal to a constant planck’s constant. xP  h

SCHRODINGER TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:

According to de-Broglie concept, a material particle is associated with a wave. So a
mathematical reformation using a wave function associated with matter waves is needed.
Such a mathematical formation was developed in1926 by Schrodinger . Schrodinger
described the amplitude of matter waves by a complex quantity  ( x , y , z ,t ) known as wave

function.
According to de-Broglie concept, a particle of mass m and velocity v is associated
with a wave, whose wavelength is given by
h

mv
The classical differential equation of wave system is

 2  2  2 1  2
+ + = v2
x 2 y 2 z 2 t 2

Where v = velocity of the wave

2 2 2
2 = + + (  2 being Laplacian operator,  = wave
x 2 y
2
z 2
function)

1 2
  ---------------- (1)
2  = v2
t 2

The wave function  is given by

 ( x, y , z , t ) =  ( x, y, z )e  it
0

Or
 =  o e  it ----------------- (2)
Where

 o is the amplitude at the point considered. It is a function of position and not of time t.
 = angular frequency.
Differentiating equation 2, twice with respect to time‘t’, we get
 
 i o e  it
t
 2
 ( i )( i ) o e  it
t 2

 2
 i 2 2 o e  it
t 2

 2 - ------------- (3) [since i2=-

  2
t 2

1]  
1  2
Substituting equation (3) in equation (1) ie  2  = 2
v t 2

1
 2  = v 2 (-   )
2

2
  2 0
2
--------------- (5)
v
 = 2
The angular velocity
  = angular frequency  = v for a particle


 2 4 2
 2
2 

Substituting this in equation (5), we get

4 2
 2   0 --------------- (6)
2

According to de-Broglie’s concept, the wavelength  is given by

h

mv

The equation (6) becomes,

4 2 m 2 v 2
 2   0 --------------- (7)
h2

If E is the total energy of the particle, V is the potential energy of the particle and the total
energy of the particle is given as

E = Potential Energy + Kinetic energy

1
E=V+ mv 2 -------------- (8)
2

1
E - V= mv 2
2

2(E – V) = mv 2
2m (E – V) = m 2 v 2 -------------- (9)
Substituting equation (9) in equation (7), we get

8 2 m
 2  ( E  V )  0
h2

-------------- (10)

Equation (10) is the three dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation.

If we consider one dimensional motion, the particle is restricted to move along x-direction
only,

Hence the Schrodinger equation (10) reduces to

  2 8 2 m
 ( E  V )  0 -------------- (11)
x 2 h2

Equation (11) is the one dimensional time – independent Schrodinger wave equation. We
know

h

2

Where  is a reduced Planck’s constant, the Equation (9) can be written as

2m
 2  ( E  V )  0 -------------- (12)
2

For a free particle, the potential energy V=0.So equation (12) becomes

2mE
 2   0
2
-------------- (13)

Equation (13) represents the Schrodinger time independent wave equation in one dimension
for free particle.

SCHRODINGER TIME-DEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

According to de-Broglie concept, a particle of mass m and velocity v is associated

with a wave, whose wavelength is given by
h

mv

The classical differential equation of wave system is

 2  2  2 1  2
+ 2 + = v2
x 2 y z 2 t 2

Where v = velocity of the wave


(  2 being Laplacian operator,  = wave
2 2
2

2 = + +
x 2 y
2
z 2
function)

1  2
2  = v2 - --------------- (1)
t 2

The wave function  is given by

 ( x, y , z , t ) =  ( x, y , z )e  it
0

Or
 =  o e  it ----------------- (2)
 Where

 o is the amplitude at the point considered. It is a function of position and not of time t.
 = angular frequency.
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’, we get

= - i (2πυ) Ψo ( ω=2 πυ)

= - i 2πυ Ψ

= - i 2π Ψ (E = hυ or υ = E / h)

  E
= -i Ψ
t 

EΨ = i ћ …..(14)

Substituting equation (14) in Schrödinger time independent wave equation (12) we get,

iћ

iћ

Multiplying LHS and RHS by and re-arranging

=iћ …….(15)

This equation (15) is known as Schrödinger time dependent wave equation.

The above equation can be rewritten as

( =iћ

HΨ=EΨ
Where H= ( is called the Hamiltonian operator, and hence is called the

energy operator.

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICATION (INTERPRETATION) OF WAVE

FUNCTION:
1. Wave function  is a variable quantity, which is associated with a moving particle at
any position (x,y,z) and at any time t.
2. The wave function  determines the variations in the matter waves and connects the
particle and its associated wave statistically.
3. Wave function  gives the information about the particle behavior.
4. The wave function  is a measure of the probability of finding a particle at a given
place at a given time. The probability of finding the particle in an interval dx is given
by
2
P dx
5. The probability ‘0’ corresponds to the certainty of not finding the particle and
probability ‘1’ corresponds to the certainty of finding the particle. If the particle can
be definitely found in the interval “x = 0 to L” then
L
P    dx
2

6. Wave function relates the particle and the wave statistically. ie  ( x, y, z , t ) =

Ae  i ( t  x v ) or  =  0 e
 it

7. The wave function is a complex quantity and cannot be measured.

8. The probability of finding a particle at a particular region must be real and positive
but the wave function  is a complex quantity.

PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL BOX:

There are many situations where a particle is restricted to move within certain limits.
To describe such a case, we assume that a single particle (electron or proton) to be confined
within a rectangular box and restricted to move along x- direction only. The particle can
move freely in the region 0<x<L. The particle inside the box has elastic collision with the
walls and therefore the potential energy of the electron inside the box is constant and can be
taken as zero. So inside the box the potential energy V = 0.
 Outside the box and on the wall of the box, the potential energy V of the particle is
infinity.
In this case, potential function V(x) can be written as,

V(x) = 0 when 0<x<L

V(x) = 0 when 0  x  L

Since the particle cannot exist outside the box, the wave function  = 0 when
0  x  L.
Such a particle can be described by the one dimensional Schrodinger Wave equation
for a free particle.
2mE ---------- (1)
 2  2   0


 2
Equation (1) can be written as,  k 2  0 ---------- (2)
x 2

2 mE
Where k2= ---------- (3)
2

The solution of equation (3) is

  A sin kx  B cos kx
---------- (4)

Since the probability of finding (P) the particle at the boundaries is zero, the boundary
conditions are at x=0, P=0 and at x=L, P=0
2
Since the probability P   , the boundary conditions can be written as

At x=0,  = 0 and

At x=L,  = 0

Applying the first boundary condition in equ (4)

 0  A sin 0  B cos 0
B=0
Hence the solution becomes,
  A sin kx ---------- (5)
Applying the second boundary condition in equ (5),
0  A sin kL
sin kL  0
Hence kL  n
Where n = 1, 2, 3……

n
Therefore k 
L

n 2 2
k2  ---------- (6)
L2

Then equ (5) becomes

nx
  A sin
L

Comparing equ (3) and (6),

8 2 m n 2 2
E =
h2 L2

n2h2
E ---------- (7)
8mL2

Equation (7) shows that the energy of the particle cannot take continuous values, but can have
only discrete values given by,

h2
When n=1, E1 
8mL2

4h 2
n = 2, E 2   4 E1 ---------- (8)
8mL2

9h 2
n = 3, E3   9 E1
8mL2

etc

Since E depends on ‘n’, we write,

n2h2
Energy of the particle (electron), E n  ---------- (9)
8mL2
The allowed energy values as given by equ(9) are known as Energy Eigen values. The wave
function is given by

 n 
  A sin   x
 L 

Since  depends on n,
 n 
 n  A sin   x
 L 

 n is also known as Eigen Function.

NORMALISATION OF WAVE FUNCTION:

Normalisation is the process by which the probability (P) of finding the particle inside the
box can be done.
The wave function is given by
 n 
 n  A sin   x
 L 
We know that, the particle is definitely found within the boundaries, x=0 and x=L. Within the
box, the total probability is equal to 1 and the wave function  n should satisfy the following
relation.
L
P    n dx  1
2
---------- (1)
0

 nx 
L

A dx  1
2
sin 2 
0  L 

 2nx 
1  cos L 
L
 1  cos 2 
A   dx  1 sin  
2

0 
2 2 


 


L
 sin 2nx 
2x 1 L 1
(or) A 
 2 2 2 n 
 L 0
The second term of the integrated expression becomes ‘0’ at both limits since, sin 2n ,
L
x
sin 0 = 0. Thus A 2    1
20

L
A2    1
2
 2
( or ) A 
L

Hence the Eigen function  n belonging to Eigen value En may be expressed as

2  n 
Normalized Wave Function  n  sin  x
L  L 

The above wave function is also known as Normalized Wave Function. The necessary, E n &
 n are given below in the figure.

CONDUCTING MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION:

Conducting materials are generally metals and their alloys. In the study of solid
materials, the metal occupy a special position, because of their variety of striking properties
such as high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity etc. These materials play a
vital role in engineering and Technology.

DRUDE LORENTZ THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

After the discovery of electron, Drude and Lorentz attempted for an explanation of
electrical and thermal conductivities based on the assumption that metal contains a certain
number of free electrons and hence called free electron theory.

POSTULATES
 1. In the absence of electric field the free electrons in the metals move freely in the
boundaries of the metal, similar to the gas molecules moving in a vessel
2. The forces b/n the conduction is and the ion core is neglected and the total energy
of the electron is assumed to be purely kinetic energy.
3. The free electrons move randomly in all directions. The free is collides with each
other and also with the lattice elastically, without any cors in the energy
4. In the presence of electric field, the free electron moves in the direction opposite
to that of the field direction as shown
5. Since the electrons re assumed to be a perfect gas they obey classical kinetic
theory of gases and the electron velocities in the metal obey the Maxwell-
Boltzman statistics .

Absence of Electric field

In presence of Electric field

DRIFT VELOCITY (Vd)

The average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction, due to the
application of electron field is called drift velocity.

RELAXATION TIME (τ)

It is the time taken by the free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its
disturbed position, in the presence of applied field.

COLLISION TIME

It is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive collision.
MEAN FREE PATH (λ)

The average distance travelled b/n two successive collision is called mean free path (i-
e)   cTC where cc is the root mean square of the velocity of the electron.

EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

We know in the absence of external electrical field , the motion of electrons in a metal
moves randomly in all directions . When an electric field (i-e) potential difference is
maintained between the two ends of a metallic rod, as shown below, the electrons will move
towards the positive field direction and produces the current in the metallic rod

If ‘n’ is the free electron density and ‘e’ is the charge of electron then the current
density (i-e) the current density (i-e) the current flowing through unit area is given by
J  nVd   e 

The   ve  sign implies that the conventional direction of current is in the opposite direction
to the electron movement.

Due to the electric field applied, the electron gains the acceleration ‘a’

driftvelocity (Vd )
Acceleration  a   Re laxation( )

Vd  a

If ‘E’ is the electric field intensity and ‘m’ is the mass of the electron, then

The force experienced by the electron is F  eE → (3)

From newton`s second law of motion,

The force on the electron F  ma → (4)

From (3) and (4)  eE  ma

 eE
a → (5)
m
  eE
Substituting (5) in (2) Vd   → (6)
m

  eE 
Sub (6) in (1) J (current Density)  n( e)  
 m 

ne 2 E → (7)
J
m

The number of electrons following per second through unit area (i-e) current density depends
on the field applied. Thus if ‘E’ is more, current density (J) will also be more.

 we can write JE

J  E → (8)

Where σ→ coefficient of electrical conductivity which is defined as the quantity of electricity

flowing per unit time maintained at unit potential gradient unit:  1 m 1

Comparing (7) and (8)

ne 2 E
E  → (9)
m

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

In metals the conduction takes place not only by thermal motion of free electrons
but also by thermal excited vibrations, called phonons.

 The total thermal conductivity

KTOTAL = KELECTRON + KPHENON

In metal thermal conductivity due to free electrons is predominantly

In insulators the thermal conductivity due to automic (or) molecular vibrations of the lattice is
more predominant  KTOTAL= KPHENON . In semiconductors both KELECTRON and KPHENON
will constitute for thermal conduction

 KTOTAL = KELECTRON + KPHENON

DEFINITION

Thermal conductivity of the material is defined as the amount of heat conducted

per unit time maintained at unit temperature gradient . Unit : Wm 1 K 1

EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

 Let us consider a uniform rod AB with the temperature T1 (Hot) at end ‘A’ and T2
(cold) at end ‘B’. Let us consider a cross sectional area ‘C’ which is at a distance equal to
the mean free path (λ) of the electron between the ends A and B of the rod as shown.

 The amount of heat (  ) conducted by the rod from the end A to B of length 2λ is given
by

A(T1  T2 )t

2

Or

KA(T1  T2 )t

2

Where, K→ coefficient of thermal conductivity,

A→ area of cross section of the rod ,

T1-T2→ Temperature difference b/n the ends A & B

t→ Time for conduction

2λ→Length of rod (A+B)

From (1)


Coefficient of thermal conductivity per unit area per unit, K= 2 → (2)
(T1  T2 )

Let’s assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the six
directions as shown in fig. since each electron travels with thermal velocity ‘v’. If ‘n’ is the
1
electron density, then on an average nv electrons will travel in any one direction.
6
 1
 The number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time at C
6
nv → (3)

According to kinetic Theory of gas,

3
The average K.E of an electron at hot end ‘A’ of temperature(T1)= K B T1
2

3
The average K.E of an electron at cold end ‘B’ of temperature(T2)= K B T2
2

KB→ Boltzman constant = 1.380×10-23J/K

 The heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from end A to B across C = No.of
electrons× Avg. K.E of electron moving from A to B

1 3
 nv. K B T1
6 2

1
 nvK B T1 → (4)
4

llly The heat transferred per unit area per unit time from end B to A across

1 3
C nv. K B T2
6 2

1
C nvK B T2 → (5)
4

 The net heat energy transferred from end A to B per unit area per unit time across ‘C’
can be got by subtracting (5) from (4)

1 1
(i-e)  nvK B T1  nvK B T2
4 4

1
 nvK B  T1  T2  → (6)
4
 1 nvK B  T1  T2 .2
Sub (6) in (2) K
4  T1  T2 
nvK B 
K → (7)
2

For metals Relaxation time    collision time  TC 

(i.e)


  TC 
V

V  

Sub (8) in (7) ,we have,

nvK Bv
K → (9)
2

nvK B
Thermal conducting K
2

WIEDEMANN-FRAZ LAW

The ratio between the thousand conductivity and electrical conductivity of metal is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal

K
T


K
 LT where ‘L’ is a constant called as Lorentz number whose value is

2.44 10 8 WK 2

DERIVATION

ne 2
Electrical conductivity  
m
 nv 2 K B
Thermal conductivity K 
2

K nv 2 K B / 2

 ne 2 / m

K v2KBm
 → (1)
 2e 2

1
We know kinetic energy of an electron = mv 2
2

1 3
mv 2  K B T
2 2

Sub the above in (1)

K KB 3
 . K BT
 2 2
2
K 3  KB 
   .T
 2 e 

2
K → (2) , where 3K 
 LT L  B 
 2 e 

Sub, Boltzman constant K B  1.3810 23 JK 1 and the charge of electron

e  1.602110 19 joules

2
3  1.3810  23 
Lorentz Number L   
2 1.602110 19 

L  1.1210 8 WK 2

Thus wiedemannfranz law is proved in equn( 2). The law is also verified experimentally and
it holds good at normal temperature where as the law fails at very low temperature.

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

INTRODUCTION

In 1928, Bloch started this theory in which the electrons move in a periodic field
provided by the lattice.The concept of band gap different classification of solids are the
special features of this band theory of solids. This theory has been developed to explain the
properties of certain materials as insulators and semiconductors.

In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete sharp energy
levels. When two identical atoms are brought together the energy levels of each atom which
are initially the same are split into two, one higher and one lower than the corresponding
levels of the separated atoms.

The splitting only becomes appreciable when the wave function of the electrons on
different atoms begin to overlap considerably ; at a given distance it is therefore greatest for
the outermost electrons and least for the inner electrons. If more atoms are brought together
more levels are formed and for a solid of N atoms, each of the energy levels of an atom splits
into N levels of energy. The levels are so close together that they form an almost continuous
band. The width of this band depends on the degree of overlap of electrons on adjacent
atoms and is again largest for the outermost atomic electrons.

To picture the energy spectra in atoms, molecules and solids let us consider a metal say
sodium, which consist of 11 electrons with electronic configuration of 1S²2S²2P 3S . The
energy spectrum of a single atom is as shown below.

When two sodium atoms are assembled to form a sodium molecule, the energy spectrum of
the molecule is shown below. It is found that for a sodium molecule each atomic level is split
into two closely spaced levels.
If ‘N’ no. of atoms are assembled to form a solid, then there are N no. of very closely
spaced sub levels so called as energy band as shown.

This energy band is separated by gaps called energy gaps or for bidden band gap energy. Thus
are can conclude that the electron moving in a periodic potential lattice will have
discontinuos energy values (i-e) they are separated as followed forbidden zones or bands.

The various energy bands available are divided into valence and conduction band.

VALENCE BAND AND CONDUCTION BAND

The atoms of a solid are arranged in a regular repeated geometric pattern and the
electrons of the atom revolve around the nucleus in certain permitted energy levels. A band
which is occupied by the valence electrons or a band having highest energy is defined as
valence band. The valence band may be partially or completely filled. This band can never be
empty.

In some materials, the valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus , even at
room temperature, some of the valence electrons can leave the valence band. These are
called free electrons and these are responsible for conduction and are called conduction
electrons. The band occupied by these electrons is called conduction band. This may be
empty or partially filled band.

CONDUCTORS

In conductors, the conduction band and valence band overlap and there is no band
gap. Hence the free electrons can easily move from the valence band to conduction band, and
are available for electrical conduction under the action of an electric field . Conductor or
metals have positive TCR (i-e) the resistance increases with increase in temperature.

SEMICONDUCTORS: eg silicon

In semiconductors, there is a small band gap of about 2 to 3Ev or less. Hence , the
electrons require some energy to jump from valence band to conduction band . This energy
may be in the form of heat or light. Even at room temperature, the thermal energy is sufficient
to transfer electrons from valence band to conduction band. But when the semiconductor is at
zero Kelvin, the thermal energy is not sufficient to transfer the electrons from the valence
band to conduction band.Semiconductor at OK behave like insulators. Semiconductors have
positive TCR (i-e) the resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

INSULATORS: eg Diamond

In insulators, there is a large band gap of more than 3eV . Therefore, they require
greater amount of thermal energy to transfer Electrons from valence band to conduction band.
Insulates also have negative TCR. In room temperature, thermal energy is not sufficient to
raise the electrons from VB to CB. Only at very high temperature, the thermal energy will be
sufficient to raise the electrons from valence band to conduction band. Therefore at high
temperature, even insulators can conduct current.

SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION:

A semiconductor is a solid which has the definite energy band. The gap of the semi
conductor is in between the conductor and insulator.

The semiconducting materials are of greater importance as their conductivity is based

on the band gap and concentration of impurity. It acts as an insulator at absolute temperature
and also as a conductor at high temperature and in the presence of impurities.

ELEMENTAL AND COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS:

Based on the composition of elements they are classified into two types. They are,

1. Elemental semiconductor and

2. Compound semiconductor

ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTOR:

The elemental semiconductor is made of single element like germanium and silicon.
They are also known as indirect band gap semiconductors

Here, electron from conduction band recombines with the hole in the valence band via
traps. In this process, the photons are emitted and they heat the lattice,

Eg: Germanium and Silicon.

COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTOR:

The compound semiconductors are made by combining the third and fifth column
elements.

Here, the recombination of electrons and holes take place directly and its energy
difference is emitted in the form of photons in the visible or infrared range.
 Since the life time of the charge carrier is so small , the current amplification is small.
Hence, they are not suitable for making transistors and IC s and they are used for making
LEDs and LASER diodes.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELEMENTS AND SEMICONDUCTORS:

ESC/ INDIRECT BAND GAP SC CSC/ DIRECT BAND GAP SC

They are made of single element They are made of compounds
They are called indirect band gap They are direct band gap
semiconductor ie electron hole semiconductors ie electron hole
recombination takes place through recombination takes place directly
traps, which are present in the band with each other
gap
Life time of charge carriers is more Life time of charge carriers is less due
due to indirect recombination to direct combination
Heat is produced due to Photons are emitted during
recombination recombination
Current amplification is more Current amplification is less
They are used for the manufacture of They are used for making LEDs,
diodes, transistors etc Laser, diodes, ICs etc
Eg: Ge , Si ,etc Eg: GaAs, GaP, CDS etc

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – ELECTRONS AND HOLES:

A semiconductor is an extremely pure form ,without addition of impurities is known

as an intrinsic semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor holes and electrons are created by
thermal excitation across the energy gap.

Eg: A pure crystal of silicon and germanium.

At OK, all the covalent bonds are intact in pure germanium semiconductor as shown
in below fig(a) . The covalent bonds have to be broken to provide conduction electrons, by
increasing crystal temperature above OK as shown in fig (b) .The energy required to break
such a covalent bond is about 0.72V for germanium and 1.1Ev for silicon.
 When an electron escapes the covalent bond, an empty space is left behind, which is
called a hole. In semiconductor, both holes and electrons are charge carriers and current
transport is effectively taking place by hole and electrons.

At OK, the valance band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty as shown in fig(a) above. Thus, intrinsic SC behaves as perfect elastic insulator.

When T > OK fig (b), the valence electrons are thermally excited and shifted to the
conduction band across the band gap. Thus, there are some free electrons in the conduction
band and an equal number of holes or vacant sites in valence band.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN AN INTRINSIC SC:

The pure semiconductor becomes conductor at elevated temperatures. At any

temperature T, above OK, the number of electrons generated in conduction band ‘n’ is equal
to the number or holes generated in valence band ‘p’ then,

n=p=ni , where ni is known as intrinsic carrier concentration.

DENSITY OF ELECTRONS (n)

The number of electrons available in conduction band is given by

E2

n=  F ( E ) N ( E )dE → (1)
E1

where, N(E) dE is the density of electrons in the energy interval E&E+De

F(E) is Fermi distribution function, the probability that a state of energy E is occupied.
 Under thermal equilibrium condition, the number of electrons is conduction band is
calculated by integrating equation (1) from minimum energy of conduction band E C to the
maximum energy of the conduction band.


n=  F ( E ) N ( E )dE →
EC
(2)

1
where F E = 1  exp E  E f  →(3)

 KT 
 

N  E  dE = 4  2me  1 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE →(4)
h3

If we consider, the minimum energy of the electrons in the conduction band as

EC ,then

4
N ( E )dE  3
 2me  E  EC  1 / 2 dE →(5)
h

Where, the quality  E  EC  represents the kinetic energy of the conduction electron at
*
higher energy levels, m is the effective mass of electron due to the movement of electron in
e

a periodic potential by a crystal lattice.

By substituting the value F (E ) and N ( E ) dE in equation (2), we have


4 ( E  E C )1 / 2

n  3 2me*  3/ 2
dE
h  E  E6 
EC
1  exp 
 KT  → (6)

E  E6
Since, E  E 6 is nearly 20 times greater than KT , 1
KT
 1 1

  E  E6
1  exp


 E  E6 
exp 
 KT   KT 

Since 1 is negligible

 Ef  E 
 exp 

 KT 

Thus eg (6) becomes,


4 E  E
n 3
 2 m 
e   E  EC 
 1/ 2
exp  6  dE
→ (7)
h EC  KT 

The integral in eg (7) is of the standard form which has a solution of the following form as,

 1
x e  ax dx  , where a 
1/ 2

0 2a a KT

4  E f  EC   
n  2me  3/ 2
exp   KT  3 / 2 
h3  KT  2 

Re- arrangement the terms, we get

3/ 2
 2me KT   E f  EC 
n  2 2  exp   → (8)
 h   KT 

DENSITY OF HOLES:

If F (E ) is the probability of electron occupancy in the energy state E, Then the

probability of vacant state is given by 1  F ( E ) . Since, a hole represents the unoccupied
state in valance band, probability is equal to 1  F ( E )

Therefore, the number of hole or vacancies in valence band is given by,

E2

P  N ( E )(1  F ( E ))dE
E1

Substituting the values of N (E ) and F (E ) in the above equation and taking effective
mass of hole as m h we have,

  exp  E KT
E 
EU
4
P 3
2mh
3/ 2
E 6
V  E
1/ 2
dE → (9)
h 
 Where, EU represents the maximum energy of valance band,  is the minimum energy
of valence band and  EV  E  represents the kinetic energy of a hole at higher energy level.

After integration by using the standard mathematical equation,

3/ 2
 2m h KT   EV  E f 
P  2 2  exp  →(10)
 h   KT 

Equation (10) represents the number of holes or vacancies in the valence band.

DENSITY OF INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION (ni) :

The law of mass action states that in the case of any semiconductors in thermal
equilibrium the product of number of holes and number of electrons is a constant. In intrinsic
semiconductor, the number of free electrons is equal to number of vacancy or holes,

(ie) n  p  ni the intrinsic carrier concentration

Therefore,

3/2 3/ 2
 2me KT   E f  E C   2m h KT   Ev  E f 
n  n p  
2
i 2  exp    2 2  exp 
 h   KT   h   KT 

3/ 2
 2KT   E  EC 
n  4 2 
2
i m m  
e
 3/ 2
h exp  V 
 h   KT 

Or

3/ 2
 2KT    Eg 
ni  2  2  m m 

e
 3/ 4
h exp  → (11)
 h   2 KT 

Where, Eg is the energy gap and is equal to  E C  EV  . Eg (11) represents the density of
intrinsic carrier concentration.

FERMI ENERGY LEVEL  E f 

We know that in an intrinsic semiconductor, the number electrons is equal to number
of holes. Therefore, n  p . Substituting the values of n and p , we have,
3/ 2
 2me KT   E f  EC   2m h KT   EV  E f 
2 2  exp    2  2  exp  
 h   KT   h   KT 

By rearrangement the terms, we have,

  E f  EC   EV  E f 
m 
 3/ 2
e exp   

  mh
3/ 2
exp 
 KT   KT 

3/ 2
 mh   E f  E C  EV  E f 
   exp 
 me   KT 
3/ 2
 mh   2 E f  E C  EV 
   exp  
 me   KT 

Taking logarithms on both side, we have,

3  m h   2 E f  E C  EV 
log     
2  me   KT 

3  m h 
KT log    = 2 E f  E C  EV
2  me 

3  m 
2 E f  KT log  h   E C  EV
2  me 

3  m    E  EV 
E f  KT log  h    C  → (12)
4  me   2 

 m h 
If m  m , log     log 1  0 . Therefore, equation (12) becomes,

e

h
 me 

E C  EV
Ef  → (13)
2

Equation (13) denotes the Fermi energy level at T=OK and m e  m h . Under this condition,
the Fermi level E f is located half way between the valance band and the conduction band as
shown in figure below, represented by the letter (a). Its position is independent of
temperature. But at high temperature, m h  me . Therefore, the Fermi energy level is a
function of temperature and is raised with temperature as shown in the fig below represented
by letter (b).
DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

We know, the electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor  i is given by,

  Eg 
 i  A exp 
 2 KT 

Therefore, the resistivity of the intrinsic is written as,

1  Eg 
pi  exp  
A  2 KT 

Ri a 1  Eg 
 exp  
L A  2 KT 

L  Eg 
Ri  exp   → (16)
aA  2 KT 

Where, Ri is the intrinsic resistance

a is the area of cross section of intrinsic semiconductor

L is the length of intrinsic semiconductor
Since, A and L are constants, we can rewrite equation (16) as,

 Eg 
Ri  C exp  
 2 KT 

L
Where, C  a constant
aA

Taking logarithms on both sites of the equation we have,

 Eg 
log Ri   log C   → (17)
 2 KT 

The above equation (17) suggests that a method of determining the energy gap of an intrinsic
SC. For the calculation of the resistance of an intrinsic SC by using post office box or carey
1
foster Bridge at various temperature, we can plot a graph between log Ri and .
T

dy Eg
Then the slope of that graph will give the value of  . Therefore, the formula used for
dx 2 K
the calculation of band gap, Eg is given as

dy
Eg  2 K Joules
dx

2. As the temperature increases, the Fermi level is shifted towards the intrinsic Fermi level or
the middle band gap.
3. At very high temperature, Fermi level is shifted to intrinsic Fermi level and the P-type
semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.

4. Further when the concentration of acceptor increases, the extrinsic behavior also extends
upto very high temperatures and the Fermi level reaches intrinsic Fermi level at very high
temperatures.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

Impure semiconductor in which the charge carriers are produced due to impurity
atoms are called extrinsic semiconductor. They are obtained by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with impurity atoms.

Based on the type of impurity added they are classified into,

1.n-type semiconductor

2.p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor:

n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with pentavalent

impurity atoms like phosphorus,arsenic,antimony,etc.These four valence electrons of the
impurity atoms bond with 4 valence electrons of the semiconductor atom and the 1e- of
impurity atom is left free as shown below.

Therefore number of free e-s increases. As the electrons are produced in excess, they
are the majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductors and holes are minority charge
carriers. Therefore electrons are donated in this type of semiconductor the energy level of
these donated electrons is called donor energy level(Ed) as shown.

is very close to CB and hence even at room temperature the electrons,are easily excited to
CB.The current flow in this type of semiconductor is due to electrons.

P type semiconductor:
 P type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent
impurity atoms like boron, gallium, indium etc.

The three valence electrons of the impurity atom pair with three valence electrons of
semiconductor atom and one position of the impurity atom remains vacant,this is called hole
as shown below.

Therefore the number of holes are increased with the impurity atoms added to it.Since
holes are produced in excess ,they are the majority charge carriers in p type semiconductor
and electrons are the minority chargecarriers.since the impurity can accept the electrons this
energy level is called acceptor energy level ( ) and is present just above the valence band as
shown in fig(b).Here the current conduction is mainly due to holes.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN ‘N’ TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

The energy band structure of n type semiconductor is shown below.

 At 0k, Ef will lie exactly between Ec and Ed, but even at low temperature some
electrons may go from Ed to Ec. Let us assume that( .Then the density
ofelectrons in CB can be written as

=2 (1)

Let be the no. of donor energy levels per (i.e) density of state Z( )dE,which has

energy below the CB. If some electrons are denoted from donar energy level to CB,for eg

if 2e-s goes to CB then two vacant sites will be created in level as shown in the fig.

In general we can write the density of holes in donor energy level as

N( )dE=Z( )dE =(1-F( )

Here the electrons in the CB are mainly donated electrons from the donor level.At
equilibrium e- density =hole density

Taking logarithm and rearranging, we get

(or)

At T=0K; which shows that Fermi level lies exactly halfway between

donor level and bottom of CB at 0K.

Putting the value of into exp ,we get

exp exp

sub the above in (1)

therefore

(Ionisation energy of donors)

RESULTS:

1.The density of electrons in the CB is directly proportinal to the square root of the donor
concentration.This equation is valid at only low temperature.

2.But at high temperature we must take the intrinsic carrier concentration along with this.

3.At very high temperature intrinsic carrier concentration over takes electrons due to donor
conentration.Thatis,at very high temperatures, the N-type semiconductor behaves like an
intrinsic semiconductor.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

Referring to the figure above, the valence band there are acceptor levels per with
energy E . At low temperatures the density of holes in the VB can be obtained exactly in the
same way as in the case of density electrons in n-type semiconductors. At low temperatures
small fraction of acceptors will be conised and practically all acceptor levels will be filled

with the holes. Let us assume that ( 4 ; thus in that case, the density of holes in

VB will be given by

(1)

If lies more than few k below the acceptor level, the density of ionised acceptors is given

by

(2)

At very low temperatures practically there is very small excitation to acceptor level.
Therefore the density of filled acceptors should be the same as the density of the holes in the
VB.Therefore,

Taking logarithm on both sides and rearranging.

 (or) (3)

At 0K,

(4)

which shows that fermi level lies exactly half way between acceptor level and top of the VB.

substituting the value of into exp

exp

therefore (1) becomes

then the density of holes,

* Variation of fermi level with temperature and impurity:

1. At 0 k, the fermi level lies exactly midway between of the acceptor level and topof the
valence band.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:

We know, generally the electrical conductivity for semiconductors,

  ne e  ne h

Where, n is number of free electrons

p is number of holes

 e is the mobility of electrons

 h is the mobility of holes

Generally, mobility is defined as extra velocity acquire by the electron or hole under unit
potential gradient. In case of intrinsic semiconductors,

 i  n i e  e   h 

3/ 2
 2KT 
2e  e   h   2  m m 

e
 3/ 4
h e  Eg / 2 KT → (14)
 h 

So, the electrical conductivity depends on the negative exponential of the band on the
mobility of both electrons and holes. Therefore, the electrical conductivity  i for the
intrinsic semiconductor can be written as,

  Eg 
 i  A exp   → (15)
 2 KT 
 3/ 2
 2KT 
Where, A  2e  e   h   2  m 
e , mh  , a constant fig below shows that the plot b/10
 h 
the conductivity and temperature . From the graph, we know the conductivity increases with
increase in temperature.

DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP IN INTRINSIC SC:

We know, the electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor  i is given by,

  Eg 
 i  A exp  
 2 KT 

Therefore, the resistivity of the intrinsic is written as,

1  Eg 
pi  exp  
A  2 KT 

Ri a 1  Eg 
 exp  
L A  2 KT 

L  Eg 
Ri  exp   → (16)
aA  2 KT 

Where, Ri is the intrinsic resistance

a is the area of cross section of intrinsic semiconductor

L is the length of intrinsic semiconductor

Since, A and L are constants, we can rewrite equation (16) as,

 Eg 
Ri  C exp  
 2 KT 
 L
Where, C  a constant
aA

Taking logarithms on both sites of the equation we have,

 Eg 
log Ri   log C   → (17)
 2 KT 

The above equation (17) suggests that a method of determining the energy gap of an intrinsic
SC. For the calculation of the resistance of an intrinsic SC by using post office box or carey
1
foster Bridge at various temperature, we can plot a graph between log Ri and .
T

dy Eg

1.Then the slope of that graph will give the value of dx 2 K . Therefore, the formula used
for the calculation of band gap, Eg is given as

dy
Eg  2 K joules
dx

2. As the temperature increases, the Fermi level is shifted towards the intrinsic Fermi level or
the middle band gap.

3. At very high temperature, Fermi level is shifted to intrinsic Fermi level and the P-type
semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.

4.Further when the concentration of acceptor increases, the extrinsic behavior also extends
upto very high temperatures and the Fermi level reaches intrinsic Fermi level at very high
temperatures.

HALL EFFECT:

Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is due to

electrons or holes and therefore will not distinguish between p-type and n-type
semiconductors. Therefore hall effect is used to determine the mobility of charge carriers.
 When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric
field is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as hall effect and the generated voltage is called
hall voltage.

HALL CO-EFFICIENT IN TERMS OF HALL VOLTAGE:

Consider a sample of thickness ‘t’ and the voltage developed across is VH ,then

Hall Voltage VH = EH * t

Substituting EH = RH* JX*B

VH = (RH* JX*B)*t --------------------------------------------- (1)

If ‘b’ is the width of the sample, then

Area of the sample = bt

Therefore Current density JX = IX/ (bt) --------------------------------------------- (2)

Sub (2) in(1)

VH = RH*IXBt/(bt)

Therefore RH = VHb/( IXB)

The sign for VH will be opposite for n and p type semiconductors.

HALL EFFECT IN n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR :

Consider an n-type material to which the current is allowed to pass along x-direction
from left to right and the magnetic field is applied in z- direcftion, as a result hall voltage is
produced in y- direction as shown below.
Since the direction of current is from left to right, the electron moves from right to left below
as shown.

Now due to the magnetic field applied, the electrons move towards the downward direction
with the velocity v and cause the negative charge to accumulate at face (1) of the material as
shown above. Therefore a potential difference is established between face (2) and face(1) of
the specimen which gives rise to field EH in the negative y- direction as in (a).

Here, the force due to potential difference = -e EH --------------------------------------------- (1)

force due to magnetic field = -BeV --------------------------------------------- (2)

At Equilibrium -e EH = -BeV

EH = BV --------------------------------------------- (3)

The current density JX in x- direction is JX = -ne eV

V = - JX / (-nee) -------------------------------- (4)

Sub (4) in (3), EH = - JX B/ (-nee) -------------------------------- (5)

EH = RHJXB -------------------------------- (6)

Where RH = -(1/ ne e), the negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative y-
direction.

HALL EFFECT IN p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR :

Consider an p-type material to which the current is allowed to pass along x-direction
from left to right and the magnetic field is applied in z- direction, as shown below. The
direction of current is from left to right, the holes will also move in the same direction.
Now due to the applied magnetic field, the holes move towards the downward direction with
the velocity ‘V’ and accumulates at the face(1) as shown in the figure. A potential difference
is established between face (2) and face(1) of the specimen in the positive y- direction.

force due to potential difference = e EH --------------------------------------------- (7)

force due to magnetic field = BeV ---------------------------------------------(8)

At Equilibrium e EH = BeV

EH = BV --------------------------------------------- (9)

current density JX = -nheV

V = JX / (nhe) -------------------------------- (10)

Sub (10) in (9), EH= JX B/ (-nhe)

EH = RHJXB

RH = (1/ nhe) -------------------------------- (11)

the positive sign indicates that the field is developed in the positive y- direction.

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

Any material that can be magnetized by an applied external magnetic field is called a
Magnetic material. Magnetic materials can be easily magnetized because they have
permanent or induced magnetic moment in the presence of applied magnetic moment or
magnetic dipole of the magnetic materials.
 Among the different eleven types of magnetic materials, only five magnetic material
are the most important for the practical applications. They are

 Diamagnetic materials
 Paramagnetic materials
 Ferromagnetic materials
 Antiferromagnetic materials
 Ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:

MAGNETIC DIPOLE:

Magnetic dipole is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic pole
separated by a small distance ‘l’

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT(μm)

Magnetic moment associated with a magnetic dipole or a bar magnet in the product of
its pole strength ‘m’ and the length ‘l’

Magnetic moment (  m )  ml

Magnetic moment ‘μm’ is also defined as when an electric current `i` amperes flows
through a circular wire of one turn having an area of cross section am², it is said to have a
magnetic moment,  m  iaamp / m 2

The magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION (or) MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B)

In any material, magnetic induction is the number of magnetic force(ϕ) passing

through unit area (A) perpendicularly.

Unit= wb or Telsa
m2
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H)

Magnetic field intensity(H) at any point in the magnetic field is equal to the
magnetic force experienced by an unit north pole placed on that point`

It is also defined as the ratio between the magnetic induction and the
permeability of the medium in which the magnetic field axis

B
H=  UNIT= A / m
MAGNETIZATION (or) INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION (M)

Magnetization (M) of a sample is defined as the magnetic moment per unit

volume.χ

Unit= A
m

MAGNETIC PERMIABILITY (μ)

The magnetic permeability is a measure of the amount of magnetic lines of forces

penetrating through a material. It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux density (B) in the
sample to the applied magnetic field intensity (H).

ie μ= B Unit= Henry/m
H

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY( χ )

The magnetic susceptibility (χ ) is defined as the ratio between the density of

magnetization (M) produced in the sample to the intensity of the magnetic field (H).

M
ie  =
H

It has no unit. Thus, it measures the amount of magnetization produced in the

sample during the application of magnetic field.

RATIO BETWEEN χ and μ

We know, B= μH

This equation can be written in other way as B=μₒ (M+H)

Where , μₒ is the permeability of free space. The relative permeability,

 B/H
μᵣ = = B /( H  M )


M H
μᵣ =
H

M
μₒ = 1+
H

μᵣ = 1+ 
where, χ is the susceptibility of the medium . The relative permeability has no unit.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGNECTIC MATERIALS:

Magnetic materials are generally classified into various types of magnetic materials
in terms of magnetic properties of the atomic dipoles and the interaction between them.
Depending on the interaction between the induced dipoles, the magnetic materials may be
called as paramagnetic , ferromagnetic, anti ferromagnetic and ferri magnetic materials.

MATERIALS NOT HAVING PERMANENT MOMENT MATERIALS HAVING PERMANENT MAGNETIC MOMENT

BOHR MAGNETON:

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton

eh
Bohr magneton   B  9.27 10  27 Am 2
2m

ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT:

Whenever a charged particle has an angular momentum, in contributes to the

permanent dipole moment. The magnetic moment originates from the orbital motion as well
as spinning motion of electrons in an atom.

In generally, there are three types of contributions to the angular momentum of an

atom.

ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF THE ELECTRONS:

e
This corresponds to a permanent orbital magnetic dipole moment μₒ= - 2m Ma

ELECTRON SPIN ANGULAR MOMENTUM:

e
This corresponds to electron spin magnetic moment  0   Mas
2m

NUCLEAR SPIN ANGULAR MOMENTUM:

 This corresponds to nuclear magnetic moment.

“By quantum theory, the orbital magnetic moment of an electron in an atom is expressed in
bohrmagneton”.

e

1 Bohr MagnetonμB = 2m

1.6 * 10 19 * 6.625 * 10 34

 31
μB = 2 * 9.1 * 10 * 2 * 3.14

μB= 9.27* 10-24 Ampere m2

FERROMAGNETISM:

EXPLANATION:

The materials which have finite values of magnetization even if the external magnetic
field is absent are called ferromagnetic materials. This phenomenon is called ferromagnetism.
The ferromagnetic materials exhibit high degree of magnetization.

THEORY:

In a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic interactio between any two dipoles align
themselves parallel to each other. Ferromagnetism arises due to the special form of
interaction called exchange coupling is favorable for spin alignment and they couple their
magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism.

A ferromagnetic material exhibit ferromagnetic property below a particular temperature

called ferromagnetic curie temperature.  f Above  f it behaves as paramagnetic material.

DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM:

 The domain theory of ferromagnetism is the explanation of the structure and hysteresis
property of the ferromagnetic materials based on the concept of domains proposal by weirs.

According to weirs, ferromagnetic material consists of a number of small regions called

domains. The size of a domain varies from 10-6m to entire size of the crystal.

A magnetic domain is completely magnetized in which all the spin magnetic moment in
only one direction. A domain acts as a single magnetic of spontaneous magnetization varies
from domain to domain.

In the absence of the field, the dipole moments of each and every domain are in random
directions and hence, the net magnetization is zero. All the domains by the domain wall or
bloch wall

In the presence of magnetic field, the spin of all the domains are rotated and aligned
towards the applied field with increase in size. The size of the domains which are not parallel
to the applied field decreases. The change in domains during the absence and presence of a
magnetic field is as shown below.

DOMAIN MAGNETIZATION:

There are two possible ways to align a random domain structure by applying an external
magnetic field.

BY MOTION OF DOMAIN WALL:

Fig (a) shows the arrangement of domains in a ferromagnetic material without any
external field. Under the external magnetic field, the volume of the domains those are
favorably oriented with respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost of those that are
unfavorably oriented as shown in fig (b)

BY ROTATION OF DOMAIN:
 When the strong external magnetic field is applied, rotation of the direction of
magnetization of domains occur in the direction of the field as shown in fig(C)

If the applied field is weak , the magnetization of the specimen is due to the motion
of domain wall and for strong field, the magnetization is due to the rotations of the domains
in the ferromagnetic materials.

EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS BASED ON DOMAIN THEORY:

“The hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials refers to the lag of magnetization or

magnetic induction behind the magnetizing field. Thus, irreversible B-H characteristic of
ferromagnetic materials are known as hysteresis. The domain theory is very useful to
understand the phenomenon of hysteresis of ferromagnetic material. The increase in
magnitude of magnetic moment of the ferromagnetic material under the influence of external
magnetic field can be attributed to

 The motion of domain walls

 Rotation of domains

The crystal hysteresis (B-H) curve of the ferromagnetic material is as shown below.

REVERSIBLE WALL DISPLACEMENT:

 When a weak magnetic field is applied, the domains are aligned to the field direction at
a small angle and in the energy direction of magnetization grow in size at the expense of less
favorably oriented ones. So, the boundary between domains is displaced. When the weak
field is removed, the domains go back to their original state. This reversible wall
displacement is indicated by ‘OA’ of the magnetization curve.

IRREVERSIBLE WALL DISPLACEMENT:

When the applied field is stronger, the domain wall movement continuous and it
changes from reversible wall displacement to irreversible wall displacement. This is indicated
by the path ‘AB’ in the B-H curve. The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to this irreversibility.

DOMAIN ROTATION:

All the domains are magnetized along their easy direction at the point B. Further, if we
increase the magnetic field, domains get rotations into the field direction which may be away
from the easy direction there by strong anisotropy energy. After the completion of domain
rotation, the specimen is saturated, that is denoted by ‘C’ as shown in the figure.

REMOVABLE OF FIELD:

On the removable of the field, the specimen tries to attain its original configuration by
the movement of domain walls. To come back hits original configuration, more energy is
required to overcome the opposing forces. “The negative field that is supplied to reduce the
magnetization of the specimen to zero is called COERCIVE FORCE’. The amount of energy
in ferromagnetic material through a complete of magnetization and this loss is represented by
the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop”.

The random motion of the domains, the domains growth in weak field, and the strong
field and the rotation of the domains under very high magnetic field are as shown below.

HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

Depending upon the direction of magnetization by external field, and the area of the
hysteresis, magnetic materials can be classified into two types as,
  Hard magnetic materials
 Soft magnetic materials

HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

“Hard magnetic materials are the materials which are very difficult to magnetize and
demagnetize.” The hard magnetic materials are prepared by heating the magnetic materials to
a particular temperature and then suddenly cooling them by dipping in a cold liquid. This
type of magnetic materials, become hard by introducing the impurities.

PROPERTIES:

The properties of hard magnetic material are as follows:

1) The hysteresis curve is very broad and has a large area as shown below.
2) Since the area of the hysteresis curve in large , the hysteresis loss is also large

3) The coercivity and retentivity values are large.

4) These materials have large amount of impurities and lattice defects.
5) The magneto static energy is large.
6) The eddy current loss is very high.
7) These materials have low value of susceptibility and permeability.
Eg: Tungsten steel, Carbon steel, chromium steel etc.

APPLICATIONS:

1. Magnets made by carbon steel are used for manufacturing the toys, compass needle
and some types of meters.
2. Tungsten steel is used in dc meter magnets,
3. Chromium steel is used as the permanent magnet.

SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

 Soft magnetic material are the materials which are easily magnetized and
demagnetized. In soft magnetic material, for the small changes in the magnetic field, the
magnetization changes by large amounts. This is because of easy movement of domain walls
and movement is also reversible.

The soft magnetic materials are prepared by heating the pure material to a particular
temperature at which the sufficient movement of the atoms is possible and also to settle into
an ordered lattice by slow cooling.

PROPERTIES:

The properties of soft magnetic materials are listed as follow:

1. In soft magnetic materials, the hysteresis loop is very sharp as shown.

2. The hysteresis area is very small and hence the loss is also small
3. These materials are free from irregularities like impurities.
4. Their magnetostatic energy is very small.
5. These materials have large values of susceptibility and permeability.
6. The resistivity of these materials is very high and hence they have low addy current
loss.
7. The coercivity and retentivity values are small.
Eg: Iron- silicon alloys , Nickel-iron alloys and Iron – cobalt alloys.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

S.
HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
No
They have large hysteresis loop area They have small hysteresis loop and hence
1
and hence large hysteresis loss small hysteresis loss
The eddy current loss is more due to its The eddy current loss is low due to its
2
small resistivity higher resistivity
They have small values of permeability These materials have large values of
3
and susceptibility permeability and susceptibility
Domain wall movement is difficult and Domains wall move easily and it is
4
it is irreversible in nature reversible
5 The coercivity and retentivity are large The coercivity and retentivity are small
 The irregularities like mechanical strain Free from irregularities .Its magnetostatic
6 will be more. Its magnetostatic energy energy is very small
is large
These are produced by heating the These are produced by heating the material
7 materials and plunging suddenly into to a sufficient temperature followed by
the cold liquid slow cooling
Eg: Tungsten steel, carbon steel Eg: Iron – silicon alloy, Nickel- iron alloy
8

FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS – FERRITES

Ferimagnetic materials are also known as ferrites. The general formula of a ferrite
molecule is A2+ Fe23+ O42-, where A2+ represents a divalent metal ion. It may be Zn 2+ , Cd2+ ,
Fe2+ , Mg2+ , Mn2+ , etc.

Eg: Manganese ferrite, Cadmium ferrite, Zinc ferrite etc.

STRUCTURE OF FERRITES:

All the ferrite system has in the form of a cubic structure. Each and every corner atom
of a ferrite unit cell consists of aferrite molecules. Therefore, in a ferrite unit cell, there are
eight ferrite molecules. Hence, in a ferrous ferrite unit cell, there are 8 ferrous ions, 16 ferric
ions and 32 oxygen ions. In a ferrite unit cell, there are 16 octahedral sites surrounded by six
O2- ions 4 eight tetrahedral sites surrounded by four O 2- ions. Therefore, the number of
octahedral sites is two times of the tetrahedral sites in the ferrite systems. Generally the ferrite
structure has two types:

 Inverse Spinel
 Regular spinel

INVERSE SPINEL:

The arrangement of dipoles and the structure of Fe 2+ and Fe3+ ions of a Single ferrous
ferrite molecule are given in the figure below. The tetrahedral sites are represented as A sites
where as the octahedral sites are represented as B sites. Thus the octahedral sub-lattice has
twice as many sites as the tetrahedral one. There are two Fe 3+ ions and one ion per molecule
of ferrite Fe3+ magnetic moments just cancel each other in the system, and hence the net
moment per molecule is 4μB . Such an arrangement is known as an inverse spiral
arrangement.
REGULAR SPINEL :

The structural arrangement of regular spinel is shown above. The antiparallel

alignment of a ferrite molecule is explained by its magnetic moment. Consider a ferrite
molecule, it consist of one ferrous ion and two ferric ions. There are four unpaired electrons
in a ferrous ion and five unpaired electrons in a ferric ion .If one ferrous ion and one ferric
ion is in the opposite direction, then the total dipole moment is 4μ B . This confirm the anti
parallel alignment of dipole inferrites.

PREPARATION:

They have the general chemical composition A 2+ Fe23+ O42- , where A2+ represent a
divalent metal ion like Zn2+ , Mg2+ , Mn2+ etc. Ferrites are prepared by sintering a mixture of
various metallic oxides as follows.

1. Suitable of A2+ and Fe23+ O42- in proper proposition are mixed using water or
kerosene.
2. The mixing is done in a blender for several hours. Then it is filtered.
3. The filtered material is dried in a hot oven and is crushed.
 4. Next, the mixture is pre- sintered in a furnace at 900 oC to 1100oC for a period of
there to fifteen hours, in an air atmosphere or nitrogen atmosphere
5. The pre sintered material is then ground into a fine powder and mixed with a bindu
such as parafin wax and a solvent such as water.
6. The mixture is then pressed into the desired shapes by using dies.
7. The last step in the process is to place the ferrite in proper vassel in a furnace and heat
it to about 1100oC and 1400oC . The birdur then evaporates. It is cooled in a controlled
manner.

PROPERTIES:

1. They are characterized by their high resistivity and high permeability. Because of
their high resistivity , loss due to eddy current is minimized.
2. Certain ferrites exhibit square hysteresis loop and hence when a magnetic field is
greater than the coercive field applied, they acquired the saturation magnetization
instantaneously.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Electrical insulator materials which will prevent the flow of current in an

electrical circuit are being used since from the beginning of the science and technology
of electrical phenomena. Dielectrics are insulating materials that exhibit the property of
electrical polarization, thereby they modify the dielectric function of the vacuum.

ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND PERMITTIVITY:

It was Michael Faraday who first noticed that when a capacitor of value C0 under
vacuum is filled with a dielectric material, its charge storage capacity (capacitance)
increases to a value of C. The ratio χ’ of the increase of capacitance ΔC =C-C0 to its
initial capacitance- C0,

C  C0 C
 ' 
C C0

χ’ is called the electrical susceptibility of the dielectric. The most often used
terminology is the dielectric permittivity or dielectric constant instead of susceptibility,
which is defined as the ratio of the capacitance C of the capacitor filled with a dielectric
to the value C0 of the same capacitor under vaccum.

C
r 
C0

From the above equations the relationship between the electric susceptibility and
the dielectric permittivity is given as:
  ' r  1

Thus, by definition, the electric susceptibility and permittivity are non-

dimensional real quantities. The dielectric constant or permittivity of a material is a
measure of the extent to which the electric charge distribution in the material can be
distorted or polarized by the application of an electric field.

MECHANISM OF ELECTRIC POLARIZATION

At the atomic level, all matter consists ultimately of positively and negatively
charged particles whose charges balance each other macroscopically in the absence of an
electric field giving rise to overall charge neutrality. Once the electric field is applied, the
balances of charges are perturbed by the following four basic polarization mechanisms

ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION:

It occurs in neutral atoms when an electric field displaces the nucleus with
respect to the negative charge. Thus electronic polarization is an induced polarization
effect.

ATOMIC/IONIC POLARIZATION:

It is observed when different atoms that comprise a molecule share their electrons
asymmetrically, and cause the electron cloud to be shifted towards the stronger binding
atom, the atoms acquire charges of opposite polarity and an external field acting on these
net charges will tend to change the equilibrium positions of the atoms themselves,
leading to the atomic polarization.

DIPOLAR/ ORIENTATIONAL POLARIZATION:

When an ionic bond is formed between two molecules by the transfer of some
valence electrons, a permanent dipole moment will originate in them. This permanent
dipole moment is equal to the product of the charges of the transferred valence electrons
and the inter-atomic distance between them. In the presence of an electric field E, the
molecules carrying a permanent dipole moment will orient to align along the direction of
the electric field E. This process is called the dipolar or orientation polarization. This
occurs only in dipolar materials possessing permanent dipole moments.

SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION:

It is present in dielectric materials which contain charge carriers that can migrate
for some distance through the bulk of the material (via diffusion, fast ionic conduction or
hopping, etc.) thus creating a macroscopic field distortion. Such a distortion appears to
an outside observer as an increase in the capacitance of the sample and may be
indistinguishable from the real rise of the dielectric permittivity. Space charge
polarization is the only type of electrical polarization that is accompanied by
macroscopic charge transport (and in the case when the migrating charge carriers are
ions a macroscopic mass transport as well). In general, the space charge polarization can
be grouped into hopping polarization and interfacial polarization. In dielectric materials,
localized charges (ions and vacancies, or electrons and holes) can hop from one site to
another site, which creates the hopping polarization. Similarly the separation of the
mobile positive and negative charges under an electric field can produce an interfacial
polarization.

TYPES OF POLARIZATION:
ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION:
Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus
and negatively charged electrons in opposite directions, when an external electric field is
applied, and thereby creates a dipole moment in the dielectric.

The induced dipole moment µ=αeE

Where αe- electronic polarizability.

Monoatomic gases exhibit this kind of polarization. Electronic polarizability is proportional

to the volume of the atoms and independent of temperature.

Calculation of electric polarizability:

Let us consider a classical model of an atom. Assume charge of nucleus of atom is Ze. The
nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge –Ze, which is distributed in a sphere of
radius R is shown in figure.

The charge density of charged sphere =- Ze/ πR3

or charge density= - Ze/ πR3……………………………..(1)

With Field:

When a dielectric is placed in a d.c electric field E, two phenomenon occurs.

(i) Lorentz force due to electric field tends to separate the nucleus and the electron
cloud from their equilibrium position.
(ii) After separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and
electron cloud which tries to maintain the original equilibrium position.
Let x be the displacement made by the electron cloud from the positive core.
Since the core is heavy, it will not move when compared to the movement of
electron cloud. Here x<<R, R is radius of the atom.
Since Lorentz and coulomb forces are equal and opposite in nature, equilibrium is
reached.

At equilibrium

Lorentz force= Coulomb force

Lorentz force = Charge x Field

= -ZeE ……………………. (2)

Coulomb force = charge x Total negative charge enclosed in the sphere of radius X/4 ε0x2
…………… (3)

Here, total number of negative charges enclosed in the sphere of radius X = Charge density of
electrons x Volume of the sphere.

Substituting the charge density from equation (1), we get

Total number of negative charges enclosed in the sphere of radius X = - Ze/ πR3 x πx3

= - Zex3/R3……………………………. (4)

Substituting equation (4) in (3) we get,

Coulomb force = Ze/4π ε0x2 (-Zex3/ R3)

=- Z2e2x/4 ε0R3………………………….. (5)

At the equilibrium position, equation (2) = equation (5)

-ZeE = -Z2e2x/4 ε0R3

E = Zex / 4 ε0R3

X = 4 ε0R3E / Ze …………………………… (6)

Therefore, the displacement of electron cloud (x) is proportional to applied electric field E.

Now the two electric charges +Ze and –Ze are displaced by a distance x under the influence
of the field and form an induced dipole moment which is given by

Induce dipole moment

µe = Magnitude of charge x Displacement

= Zex

Substituting the value of x from the equation (6), we have

µe = Ze4π ε0R3E / Ze

µe = 4π ε0R3E

(Or) µe α E

µe = αe E

where αe = 4π ε0R3E (Farad-m2) is called electronic polarization which is proportional to

volume of atom.

IONIC POLARIZATION:

Ionic polarization arise due to the displacement of cations (- ve ions) and anions (+ ve ions)
in opposite directions and it occurs in ionic solids, in the presence of electric field as shown
in figure.
Let us assume that there are one cation and one anion present in each unit cell of the ionic
crystal.(NaCl).when the electric field is applied, let x1 and x2 be the distance to which positive
and negative ions move from their equilibrium positions. The resultant dipole moment per
unit cell, due to ionic displacement is given by,

µi = e(x1 + x2) ……………………. (1)

where x1- is the shift of +ve ion and x2 is the shift of –ve ion, from their equilibrium positions.

When the field is applied, the restoring force produced is proportional to the displacements.

For + ve ion,

Restoring force F α x1 of F=β1x1………………….. (2)

For – ve ion

Restoring force F α x2 of F=β2x2…………………….. (3)

Here, β1 and β2 are restoring force constants, which depend on the masses of the ions and the
angular frequency of the molecule in which ions are present.

If m is the mass of + ve and – ve ion and M is the mass of –ve ion and ωo is the angular
frequency, then

β1 = m ωo2 ……………………….. (4)

β2= M ωo2……………………… (5)

where ωo – angular frequency.

Substituting for β1 in equations (2), the restoring force for +ve ion can be written as

F=m ωo2 x1 ……………………. (6)

we know F=Ee…………………(7)

equating equation (6) and (7), we get

eE =m ωo2 x1

x1 = eE / m ωo2……………………..(8)
similarly for the negative ion we can write

x2 = eE / Mωo2…………………………(9)

adding equation (8) and (9) we get

x1 + x2 = eE/ ωo2 ( )……………………..(10)

substituting equation (10) in (1), we get

µi = e2E/ωo2 ( )

or µi = αi E

where αi- ionic polarizability, given by

αi = e2/ωo2( )

so the ionic polarization (αi) is inversely proportional to the square of the natural frequency of

the ionic molecule and directly proportional to its reduced mass which is given by ( )

ORIENTATION POLARIZATION:

Polar molecules are the molecules which have permanent dipole moments even in the
absence of an electric field as shown in figure.

The orientation polarization arises due to the presence of polar molecule in the dielectric
medium. When a dielectric which consists of polar molecules is kept in a electric field, the
molecule align themselves along the field directions. So there is a resultant diploe moment
along the field direction, as shown in figure
In the case of a CH 3Cl molecule, the +ve and –ve charges do not coincide. The cl - has more
electronegativity than hydrogen. Therefore the chlorine atom pull the bonded electron
towards it more strongly than hydrogen atoms. Therefore, even in the absence of field, there
exists a net dipole moment.

Now, when the field is applied, positive portion align along the direction of field and negative
portion align in opposite direction of the field. This kind of polarization is called orientation
polarization. This depends on temperature. When temperature is increased, the thermal
energy tends to randomize the alignment.

From langevins theory of paramagnetism, net intensity of magnetization.

= Nµ2B/3KBT.

Since, the same principle can be applied to the application of electric field, we can write,

Electric moment, µo = Nµ2E/3KBT.

µo = αoE

αo = Nµ2/3KBT.

Orientation polarization Po = Nµ2E/3KBT.

where N is the number of atoms

(or) Po = NαoE

αo – orientation polarizability

αo = µ2/3KBT.

Therefore orientation polarization is inversely proportional to the temperature of the material.

SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION:

The space charge polarization occurs due to diffusion of ions, along the field direction and
giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics, as shown in figure.
Without the application of external field, the ions are orderly arranged as shown.

Now, when the field is applied, the ions diffuses with respect to the direction of applied field.
Thus the polarization occurs, known as space charge polarization.

Normally,this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and will be very
small.

INTERNAL FIELD OR LOCAL FIELD

Consider a dielectric material and is subjected to external field of intensity E1.

The charges are induced on the dielectric plate and the induced electric field intensity is
taken as E2. Let E3 be the field at the center of the material. E4 be the induced field due
to the charges on the the spherical cavity. The total internal field of the material is

E i  E1  E 2  E 3  E 4

Now consider the Electric field intensity applied E1

 D
E1 
0

DE 0 P

Substituting the Electric flux density D in E1, we get

E 0  P
E1 
0

P
E1 E 
0

E2 is the Electric field intensity due to induced or polarized charges

D
E2 
0

Here the charge is induced due to the induced field so that the electric flux density D
changes to the electric polarization P

P
E2 
0

Since we have considered that the specimen is non polar dielectric material, at the
center of the specimen the dipole moment is zero and hence the electric field intensity at
the center is zero due to symmetric structure.

E3  0

Now consider a circle from the center of the dielectric material. In order to
calculate the electric field intensity E4 on the surface of spherical cavity, the polarization
should be calculated by resolving it into two components. As we know the polarization P
is the induced charge per unit area

q/
P 
A

Here the polarization changes to its component we have divide in the figure and
the charge changes to dq where the area of cross section changes to ds

P cos   dq
ds

dq  P cos  ds
 Now this equation can be solved by finding out the values of the charge dq in the
surface are ds. We know the Electric field intensity E

1 q
E
4 0 r 2

Multiplying with the cosine angle on both the sides we get

1 q cos 
E 4 cos   X
4 0 r2

Now by applying all the present condition for the above equation we

1 dq cos 
E4  X
4 0 r2

Now substituting the charge dq in the above equation we get

1 P cos  ds X cos 
E4  X
4 0 r2

ds  2 X ( RQ ) X (QS )

Length of the arc (l )

We know that the angle of the sector  
Radius of the circle ( r )

RQ
d 
r

RQ  rd 

Now consider the right angled triangle OQS from the figure

QS
sin  
OQ
QS  r sin 

Now substituting the values RQ and QS in the surface area we get,

ds  2 ( rd  )( r sin  )
ds  2r 2 sin  d
Now substituting all the values in the electric field intensity on the spherical cavity E4
we get,

1 P cos  ds X cos 
E4  X
4 0 r2

1 P cos 
E4  X 2r 2 sin  d cos 
4 0 r 2

P
E4  sin  cos 2  d
2 0

Integrating within the limits 0 to π


P
E4   sin  cos 2  d
0
2 0


P
E4 
2 0 
0
sin  cos 2  d

On solving the integration we get,

P 2
E4  X
2 0 3

P
E4 
30

So the total electric field

E i  E1  E 2  E 3  E 4

P P P
Ei  E   0
0 0 3 0

Hence the Internal field obtained is

P
Ei  E 
30
CLAUSIUSMOSSOTTI'S EQUATION

It gives the relation between the dielectric constant and the ionic polarizability of
atoms in dielectric material. If there are N number of atoms, the dipole moment per unit
volume which is called Polarization is given by,

P  N e E i

we know internal field

P
Ei  E 
30

From above equations

P
P  N e ( E  )
3 0

N e
P (3E 0  P )
3 0

N e P

3 0 (3E 0  P )

we know polarization from the relation between polarization and dielectric constant

P  E 0 (r 1)

from the above two equations we get,

N e E 0 (r 1)

3 0 3E 0  E 0 (r 1)

N e E 0 (r 1)

3 0 E 0 (r 2)
 N e (r 1)

3 0 (r 2)

DIELECTRIC LOSS

The permittivity of a dielectric material has both real and imaginary

mathematical representations. The imaginary part of permittivity is represented in
mathematical equations as ε‫׀׀‬. This imaginary part of permittivity describes the energy
loss from an AC signal as it passes through the dielectric. The real part of permittivity, εr
is also called the dielectric constant and relative permittivity. The permittivity of a
material describes the relationship between an AC signal’s transmission speed and the
dielectric material’s capacitance. When the word “relative” is used in front of
permittivity, the implication is that the number is reported relative to the dielectric
properties of a vacuum. The imaginary part of the dielectric permittivity which is a
measure of how much field is lost as heat during the polarization of a material by an
applied alternating electric field is also termed as dielectric loss. The characteristic
orientation of the dipoles in an electric field results in a frequency variation of dielectric
constant and loss over a broad band of frequencies. The typical behavior of real and
imaginary part of the permittivity as a function of frequency is show in Figure

Frequency dependence of dielectric permittivity for an ideal dielectric material.

The relative permittivity of material is related to a variety of physical phenomena

that contribute to the polarization of the dielectric material. In the low frequency range
the ε11 is dominated by the influence of ion conductivity. The variation of permittivity in
the microwave range is mainly caused by dipolar relaxation, and the absorption peaks in
the infrared region and above, are mainly due to atomic and electronic polarizations. The
dielectric properties of solid dielectrics at microwave and radio frequencies are highly
influenced by the ionic positions and changes caused by the lattice vibrations. Two types
of dielectric losses are identified in crystalline solids at high frequencies, namely
intrinsic losses and extrinsic losses. The dielectric dispersion in solids depends on the
factors such as ionic masses, electric charge/valence state of the ions, spring constant of
the bond, lattice imperfections etc. The dielectric losses close to the lattice vibration
frequencies are generally estimated in terms of the anharmonicity of lattice vibrations.
The low frequency phonons are responsible for the intrinsic dielectric losses in solid
dielectrics. The intrinsic loss mechanism occurs due to the interaction between the
phonons and the microwave field or due to the relaxation of the phonon distribution
function. The lattice phonon modes will determine intrinsic limits of the high frequency
dielectric losses in crystalline solids. The extrinsic losses are occurred due to the
interaction between the charged defects and the microwave fields.

DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

The breakdown of Solid and liquid dielectric materials subjected to strong

electric fields is a problem of great practical importance which has received considerable
theoretical attention. Only recently, however, has theory been developed to the point
where the breakdown field can be predicted even approximately from fundamental
physical constants. Experimental data on the breakdown and timelag of liquid carbon
tetrachloride is given here and the applicability of various theories discussed.

Above a certain temperature breakdown is caused by thermal instability. An

electric field of constant strength established in a dielectric leads to dielectric losses
which, after some time, raise the temperature and produce a tempera- ture gradient
extending from the "hot-spot" through the dielectric and electrodes to the surrounding
ambient. The system is stable thermally so long as the rate'of heat dissipa- tion is greater
than the rate of generation. A sufficient increase in the field strength leads to instability
and the hot- spot temperature continues to rise until the dielectric is punctured,
whereupon the electrode voltage drops to zero almost instantaneously. Still higher fields
simply accelerate the process. The breakdown field strength is the maximum value
which can be applied continuously without producing instability anti breakdown, and, as
indicated in Fig. I, must fall off rapidly with an increase in the ambient temperature.
 The thermal breakdown process is an essentially slow one since a field exceeding
the breakdown value by a small amount may require hours to produce puncture. Finally
it may be noted that this type of breakdown does not yield a true measure of dielectric
strength since the electrodes and the ambient play an important part in the process.

The requirements of good dielectric:

 Low dielectric loss,

 High mechanical strength,
 Free from gaseous inclusions, and moisture,
 Resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.

Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strength compared to liquids and gases.
When breakdown occurs, solids get permanently damaged while gases fully and liquids
partly recover their dielectric strength.

Breakdown mechanism varies depending on the time of application of voltage as

shown in Figure 1 and can be classified as follows:

1. Intrinsic or ionic breakdown

2. Electromechanical breakdown
3. Thermal breakdown
4. Electrochemical breakdown
5. Treeing and tracking
6. Internal discharges
INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN:

When voltage is applied only for short durations of the order 10-8Sec, the
dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very rapidly to an upper limit called the
intrinsic electric strength.

Maximum strength usually obtainable ranges from 5 - 10 MV/cm.

Intrinsic breakdown depends upon the presence of free electron which capable of
migration through the lattice of the dielectric. Usually small numbers of conduction
electrons are present, with some structural imperfections and small amounts of
impurities. The impurity atoms or molecules act as traps for the conduction electrons up
to certain ranges of electric fields and temperatures. When these ranges are exceeded,
additional electrons and trapped are released and participate in the conduction process.

Two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanisms:

i) Electronic breakdown:

1. Assumed to be electronic in nature (occurs in time 10-8 s)

2. Initial density of conduction (free) electrons assumed to be large and electron-
electron collisions occurs.
3. When electric field is applied, electrons gain energy and cross the forbidden gap
from the valency to the conduction band. This process repeated, more and more
electrons available in conduction band, eventually leading to breakdown.

ii) Avalanche or streamer breakdown:

1. Similar to breakdown in gases due to cummulative ionization.

2. Conduction electrons gain sufficient energy above a certain critical electric field
and cause liberation of electrons from the lattice atom by collisions.
3. Motion of electron from cathode to anode will gain energy from the field and
losses it during collisions. When the energy gained by an electron exceeds the
ionization potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to collision of the
first electron. This process repeats itself resulting in the formation of an electron
 avalanche, and breakdown will occur when the avalanche exceeds a certain
critical size.
4. In practice, breakdown does not occur by the formation of a single avalanche, but
occurs as a result of many avalanches formed and extending step by step through
the entire thickness of the material as shown in Figure 2.

ELECROMECHANICAL BREAKDOWN:

1. Failure occurs due to electrostatic compressive forces, which can exceed the
mechanical compressive strength.
2. If the thickness of specimen, d0 and is compressed to a thickness d under an
applied voltage V, the highest apparent electric stress before breakdown is:
V Y
E max   0 .6
d0 0 r
where, Y - Young’s modulus
3. Mechanical instability occurs when d/d0 = 0.6
4. The above equation is only approximate as Y depends on the mechanical stress.
Also when the material is subjected to high stresses the theory of elasticity does
not hold good and plastic deformation has to be considered.

THERMAL BREAKDOWN:

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current flows thru the
material. Current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.

Heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction and

radiation.

Equilibrium is reached when the heat generated (Wdc or Wac) is equal to heat
dissipated (WT). Breakdown occurs when Wdc or Wac exceeds WT.

W dc  E 2  W / cm 3

where, σ :d.c. conductivity of specimen

E 2 f r tan  W
Wac 
1.8 X 1012 cm 3

where,

f : frequency in Hz.

δ : loss angle of the dielectric material

E :rms value
 dT
WT  C v  div( K grad T )
dt

where,

CV : specific heat of the specimen

T : temperature of the specimen

K : thermal conductivity of the specimen

t : time over which the heat is dissipated

The thermal instability condition is shown in Figure

Thermal breakdown sets-up an upper limit for increasing the breakdown voltage
when the thickness of insulation is increased.

Heat generated is proportional to the frequency and hence thermal breakdown is

more serious at high frequency.

Thermal breakdown stresses (MV/cm) are lower under a.c. condition then under
d.c.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Dielectric materials can be classified into two major categories: Linear (normal
dielectric) materials and non linear dielectric materials. The linear dielectric materials
can be again subdivided into three classes based on the mechanism of electric
polarization as non polar and dipolar materials.

LINEAR DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

The dielectric materials which are exhibiting a linear relationship between the
polarization and applied electric field are known as linear dielectrics. This class of
materials gets polarized with the application of the field and gets depolarized on the
removal of field. Based on the nature of the polarization mechanism, the linear
dielectrics can be grouped as follows

Non polar materials:

In materials of this class, an electric field can cause only elastic displacement of
the electron cloud (mainly the valence electron cloud). So they have only electronic
polarization. Such materials are generally referred to as elemental materials.

Polar materials:

In materials of this class an electric field can cause only elastic displacement of
electron clouds as well as elastic displacement of the relative positions of ions. These
materials have both electronic and ionic polarization. The material may be composed of
molecules and each of the molecules is made of more than one kind of atom without any
permanent dipole moment. Examples of such materials are ionic crystals; in this case the
total polarizability is the sum of the ionic and electronic polarizabilities.

α =αe +αi

Dipolar materials:

The materials of this class have all three fundamental polarizations: electronic,
ionic and orientation. Thus the total polarizbility for them is

α =αe +αi +αo

FERROELECTRIC MATERIALS:

A ferroelectric material is a non-linear dielectric that exhibits a remanent

polarization in the absence of an external electric field and its direction can be switched
by an applied electric field [30]. The name ferroelectricity comes from the similarities
between polarizations of ferroelectric materials with the magnetization of ferromagnetic
materials. Ferroelectric materials display a hysteresis effect of polarization with an
applied field. The hysteresis loop is caused by the existence of permanent electric
dipoles in the material. When the external electric field is initially increased from zero
value, the polarization increases as more of the dipoles are lined up along the direction of
the field. When the field is strong enough, all dipoles are lined up with the field, so the
material is in a saturation state. If the applied electric field decreases from the saturation
point, the polarization also decreases. However, when the external electric field reaches
zero, the polarization does not reach zero. The polarization at the zero fields is called the
remanent polarization. When the direction of the electric field is reversed, the
polarization decreases. When the reverse field reaches a certain value, called the
coercive field, the polarization becomes zero. By further increasing the field in this
reverse direction, the reverse saturation can be reached. When the field is decreased from
this saturation point, the sequence just reverses itself.

In a ferroelectric material a transition occurs from a centro symmetric to

aoncentro symmetric unit cell at the Curie point Tc. The shift in structural symmetry
affects both the structural and physical properties of the crystal. Ferroelectricity can be
maintained only below the Curie temperature. When the temperature is higher than Tc, a
ferroelectric material is in its paraelectric state. Ferroelectric materials have great
application potential in developing smart electromagnetic materials, structures, and
devices, including miniature capacitors, electrically tunable capacitors, filters and phase
shifters in recent years. Their application in the microwave frequencies are still under
intensive investigations.

PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIAL

The materials which produce piezo electric effect are called piezo electric materials.
(e.g) Quartz crystal, Tourmaline, Rochelle salts

PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT:

Whenever mechanical pressure is applied along the mechanical axis, equal and
opposite charges are developed along the electrical axis. This effect is known as Piezo
electric effect and this effect is a reversible one.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION:

Crystals can be found everywhere in nature. They are particularly abundant in rock
formations as minerals (gemstones, graphite, etc.) but can also be found elsewhere, examples
being snowflakes, ice and grains of salt. Since ancient times, scholars have been intrigued by
the beauty of crystals, their symmetrical shape and variety of colours. These early
crystallographers used geometry to study the shape of crystals in the natural world. In the
early 20th century, it was realized that X-rays could be used to ‘see’ the structure of matter in
a non-intrusive manner. This marks the dawn of modern crystallography. Crystallographers
discovered that crystals, because of their regular arrangement of atoms, scattered the rays in
just a few specific directions. By measuring these directions and the intensity of the scattered
beams, scientists were able to produce a three-dimensional picture of the crystal’s atomic
structure.

Thus the study of geometric form and macroscopic properties of the solid in terms of
the microscopic properties of the crystal in the solid by using X-rays and electron beams is
called crystallography or crystal physics.
 Solids have definite mass, volume and shape due to the fixed positions of their
constituent particles. Amorphous and crystalline are two types of solids. Amorphous and
crystalline solids differ in the properties such as cleavage property, melting point, shape,
anisotropy etc.

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

1. There is only a short range order in amorphous solids

2. Amorphous solids do not have a sharp melting point; they
are softened in a range of temperature.
3. Amorphous solids undergo irregular or conchoidal
breakage
4. Amorphous solids are isotrophic-the properties will be
independent of the direction in which they are measured.
5. Less rigid.
Examples of Amorphous solids: Fibre glass, Cellophane, Teflon, Polyurethane,
Napthalene, Polyvinyl chloride

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

1. There is a long range order in crystals.

2. Melt at a sharp temperature.
3. Crystalline solids can be cleaved along definite planes.
4. Crystalline solids, in general are anisotrophic (It means
that, their properties such as electrical conductivity,
refractive index, thermal expansion etc. will be
different in different directions).
5. More rigid.
Examples of Crystalline solids: Copper, Potassium nitrate, Benzoic acid

BASIC TERMS INVOLVED IN CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The crystal structure of a material (the arrangement of atoms within a given type of
crystal) can be described in terms of its unit cell. The unit cell is a small box containing one
or more atoms arranged in 3-dimensions. The unit cells stacked in three-dimensional space
describes the bulk arrangement of atoms of the crystal. The unit cell is represented in terms of
its lattice parameters, which are the lengths of the cell edges (a, b and c) and the angles
between them (alpha, beta and gamma).
UNIT CELL

The smallest building block of a crystal, consisting of atoms, ions, or molecules,

whose geometric arrangement defines a crystal's characteristic symmetry and whose
repetition in space produces a crystal lattice.

SPACE LATTICE

The three dimensional design of a crystal is composed of identical points(i.e. atoms or

molecules) forming a 3D network in space. These points with identical surroundings are
called lattice points. The 3D array of lattice points in space is called space lattices.
It is otherwise defined as infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array.

BASIS

To represent a crystal structure we associate every lattice point with one or more
atoms called the basis. When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all directions, it
gives the actual crystal structure. The basis is identical in composition, arrangement and
orientation.

SPACE LATTICE +
BASIS à CRYSTAL
STRUCTURE

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC AXES

The lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any 3 faces of the unit cell,
which do not lie in the same plane are known as crystallographic axes.

INTERAXIAL ANGLES

The angles between the three crystallographic axes are known as interaxial angles.

PRIMITIVES

The intercepts a, b and c define the dimensions of a unit cell are known as its
primitives.

LATTICE PARAMETER
 The intercepts along three axis of a unit cell (a,b,c) and interfacial angles (, b, ) are
called lattice parameters and this determines the crystal structure.

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

By assigning specific values for axial length and interaxial angles, unit cells of
different types can be constructed. Crystallographers have shown that only seven different
types of unit cells are necessary to represent existing crystalline solids. The most stable
arrangement in the crystal will be that for which the energy per unit volume is minimum.
Thus, the seven crystal systems are as follows.

BRAVAIS LATTICE

‘Bravais introduced the idea of space lattice in 1880. According to his theory, there
are only 14 possible types of space lattices in the seven basic crystal systems.
 The fourteen independent ways of arranging points in three dimensional space such
that, each arrangement confirms to the definition of a space lattice are called as Bravais
Lattice.

COORDINATION NUMBER

It is defined as the number of nearest neighbouring atoms to a particular atom.

NUMBER OF ATOMS PER UNIT CELL

It is defined as the total number of atoms present in an unit cell.

ATOMIC RADIUS

It is defined as half the distance between nearest neighbours in a crystal of a pure

element.

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of atoms per unit cell to the total volume
occupied by the unit cell.

APF = volume of atoms per unit cell

volume of the unit cell
ATOMIC PACKING DENSITY DERIVATIONS

SIMPLE CUBIC

Simple cubic unit cell consists of eight corner atoms. Its

structure is shown in figure aside.

Co-ordination Number

Consider a corner atom as shown in the figure, there

are 4 nearest neighbours in its own plane. There is another
nearest neighbour in a plane which lie just above this atom
and yet another nearest neighbour in another plane which lie
just below this atom.
CN=4 + 1 + 1
CN = 6.

No. of atoms/unit cell

In this case, there are 8 atoms one at each corner of the cell. All the atoms are shared
by surrounding 8 unit cells.

Total number of atoms/unit cell = 1/8 X8 = 1.

Atomic Radius

In this structure, the atoms touch each other only along the lattice.
a = 2r; r = a/2.

Atomic packing factor

APF = volume of atoms per unit cell

volume of the unit cell

Volume of one atom = 4/3 r3 x 1

= 4/3 (a/2)3

= a3/6
Volume of the unit cell = a3

APF = ( a3/6) / a3 =
 Therefore, 52% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 48% volume is
vacant. Thus the packing density is 52%.

BODY CENTERED CUBIC

This system consists of eight corner atoms and one

atom at the center of the unit cell.

Its structure is shown in figure aside.

Co-ordination Number

The body centered atom is in contact with all the eight corner atoms. Each corner
atom is shared by eight unit cells and hence, each of these atoms is in touch with eight body
centered atoms.

No. of atoms/unit cell

Total number of atoms/unit cell = 8 x 1/8 + 1 = 2

Atomic Radius

Here, the atoms touch each other along the diagonal of the cube.
From the figures, it is clear that the relation between’ r’ and’ a’ is
given as

Atomic packing factor

APF = volume of atoms per unit cell

volume of the unit cell

Therefore, 68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 32% volume is
vacant. Thus the packing density is 68%.
FACE CENTERED CUBIC

This system consists of eight corner atoms and six atoms at their
six faces of the unit cell. Its structure is shown in figure aside.

Co-ordination Number

The face centered atom in the front face is in contact with four corner
atoms and four other face-centered atoms behind it (two sides, top and bottom) and is also
touching four face-centered atoms of the unit cell in front of it.

No. of atoms/unit cell

Total number of atoms/unit cell = 8 corner atoms x (1/8) (each atom is shared by 8 unit cells)
+ 6 face centered atoms x1/2 (each shared by two unit cells)

Total number of atoms/unit cell = 4

Atomic Radius

Here, the Atoms are assumed to touch along face diagonals.

From the figures, it is clear that the relation between’ r’ and’ a’
is given as

Atomic packing factor

APF = volume of atoms per unit cell

volume of the unit cell

Therefore, 74% of the volume is occupied by atoms and remaining 26% volume is vacant.
Thus the packing density is 74%.
HEXAGONAL CLOSED PACKED SYSTEM

Cell of an HCP lattice is visualized as a top and bottom plane of

7 atoms, forming a regular hexagon around a central atom. In between
these planes is a half-hexagon of 3 atoms. There are two lattice
parameters in HCP, a and c, representing the basal and height parameters
respectively.

Co-ordination Number

The HCP structure is represented as an atom at each of

12 corners of a hexagonal prism, 2 atoms at top and bottom face
and 3 atoms in between top and bottom face.

No. of atoms/unit cell

Total number of atoms = 12 corner atoms x 1/6 (shared by six unit cells) +
2 (face atoms) x 1/2 + 3 interior
Total number of atoms/unit cell = 6.

Atomic Radius

At maximum packing when the adjacent atoms touch each other along the edge of the
hexagonal cell
i.e., a = 2 r; r = a/2

Atomic packing factor

APF = volume of atoms per unit cell

volume of the unit cell

V Atom = 6 x 4/3 r3

V Unit cell = (6 x ½ x a x h) x c = (3 x a x a sin60) x c = 3a2 c sin60 =3a2 c x √3/2

APF = V Atom
V Unit cell
Atomic packing factor is 74% as like FCC. So both HCP and FCC are known as closest
packing structures.

Relation between ‘c’ and ‘a’ : (Axial ratio)

Let ‘c’ be the height of the unit cell and ‘a’ be its edge. The three body atoms lie in a
horizontal plane at c/2 from the orthocenters of alternate triangles at the top of the bottom
plane. These three atoms just rest on the three atoms at the corners of the triangle.

Thus the above equation gives the axial ratios (c/a) for an HCP structure.

MILLER INDICES

Miller indices are certain numbers which are used to represent crystal directions and
planes. The miller indices are also defined as the reciprocals of the intercepts made by the
plane on the crystallographic axes when reduced to smallest numbers. They are always whole
number. A set of parallel planes are represented by the same miller indices. They are
commonly written as (hkl).

Procedure to find the Miller indices of a plane.

1. Identify the coordinate intersects of the plane, if plane is parallel to one of the axes,
this intercept is taken to be infinite.
2. Take the reciprocal of the intercept.
3. Clear fractions, but do not reduce to lowest integers.
4. Cite in (h k l) parentheses.
5. Negative integer values are indicated with a bar over the integer
(h k l) is the same plane as (h k l) , just its back side
Example:
Plane A a b c
Step 1: Intercepts 1 1 1

Step 2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/1

1 1 1
Step 3. Reduction No fractions to clear

Step 4. Miller Indices (111)

Some important crystal planes of cubic system

Important parameters to describe the crystal structure

ADVANCED MATERIALS

Advancement in day today life leads to the discovery of many new engineering
materials such as metallic glasses, nano-phase materials, non-linear materials, shape memory
alloys etc.

All these materials are composite materials which are prepared by grouping one type
of material with the other. Eg: Metals mixed with polymers, ceramics mixed with metals.
The resultant material have some peculiar property, because of their peculiar property,
these materials are used in high-tech applications. Metallic glasses are also known as MET
GLASSES. Metals in solid state exhibit amorphous property. Metallic glasses are new type of
materials which possess both the properties of metals and glasses. Metallic glasses are
amorphous metallic solids which have high strength, good magnetic properties and better
corrosion resistance and will possess both the properties of metals and glasses.
Eg: alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu mixed with metalloids of Si, Ge, As, B, C, P.
In liquid state the atoms of any material are moving around in a disordered way. If the
material cools slowly, the atoms have enough time to find each other and form chemical
bonds in an orderly way. If the material is quenched (cooled) rapidly, then the atoms do not
have enough time to fix into an orderly arrangement. Thus they simply stop where they are
and form whatever bonds they can.

Generally liquids can be made into glassy state by increasing the rate of cooling to a
very high level of 2 x 106  C/S.
GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE:

The temperature at which the metal in molten liquid form, transforms into glassy state
is known as glass transition temperature. Tg for metallic glasses vary from 20  to 30 
Celsius.

PROPERTIES:

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES:

1. They have tetrahedral closely packed structure rather than hexagonal closely paced
structures.
2. They do not have any crystal defects.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

1. Strong in nature.
2. Have very high corrosion resistance due to random ordering.
3. Have high elasticity.
4. Highly ductile.
5. They are work-soften.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:

1. Electrical resistivity is high and it does not vary much with temperature.
2. The temperature coefficient may be zero or negative in which resistivity decreases
with increasing temperature.
 3. Due to its high resistivity, the eddy current loss is very small.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES:

1. They have both soft and hard magnetic properties.

2. They can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
3. They exhibit high saturation magnetization.
4. They have very narrow hysteresis loop.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

1. Highly resistant to corrosion due to random ordering.

2. Highly reactive and stable.
3. They can act as catalyst.

APPLICATIONS OF METALLIC GLASSES:

1. Because of their tensile strength they are used as reinforcing element in concrete and
plastic.
2. Due to their good strength, high ductility and goo corrosion resistance, they are used
to make razor blades and different kinds of springs.
3. Due to its soft magnetic property, they are used in tape recorder heads, cores of high
power transformers and magnetic shields.
4. The use of metallic glasses in motors can reduce core loss very much.
5. Super conducting metallic glasses are used to produce high magnetic fields and
magnetic levitation effect.
6. The magnetic properties of metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and so they
are useful in preparing containers for nuclear waste disposal and magnets for fusion
reactors.
7. Because of its high corrosion resistance, they are used in inner surfaces of reactor
vessels.
8. Metallic glasses are ideal for cutting and making surgical instruments.

PREPARATION OF METALLIC GLASSES – MELT SPINNING

Principle:

The principle used in the preparation of metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of
the molten alloy. The technique is called rapid quenching. In the melt spinning system, the
molten alloy jet impinges on a fast rotating roller.

A metal spinner consists of a disc made

up of copper. The disc is rotated at a high speed to
generate a rim velocity of more than 50m/sec. The
required quantity of metal – metal or metal – metalloid
is taken in a quartz tube. A set of heater coil surround
the quartz tube.
WORKING

1. Switch on the heater.

2. The temperature of the heater coil should be more than the melting temperature of the
alloy.
3. Alloy gets melted under the inert “He” gas pressure.
4. The melted alloy is kept for some time until a homogeneous mix is obtained.
5. The ejection of the melt is obtained by increasing the gas pressure.
6. The dynamic melt puddle impinging on the moving substrate by is solidified and
thrown out of the wheel by centrifugal force after travelling with it over a short
distance.

A continuous ribbon of metallic glass of 0.0025cm thick and 15cm width is obtained.
The ribbon produced by this process has a smooth and shinning upper surface but the lower
one which is in contact with the substrate contains a large number of small irregularities due
to the trapped gas bubbles.
1
Thickness of the ribbon  speed of the disc
Width of the ribbon  diameter of the orifice
Keeping the disc speed constant, if the ejection pressure is increased, both the width
and the thickness of the ribbon are increased. Increasing the disc speed and keeping the
pressure constant, decreases the thickness and also increases the width.

Variables affecting the properties of the ribbon

1. Temperature of alloy
2. Jet velocity
3. Angle of ejection
4. Dimension and shape of the orifice
5. Speed of the disc
6. Distance between the orifice and the surface of the disc.
7. Atmosphere

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS (SMAS):

Shape memory alloys (SMA's) are metals, which exhibit two very unique properties,
pseudo-elasticity, and the shape memory effect. Arne Olander first observed these unusual
properties in 1938 (Oksuta and Wayman 1998), but not until the 1960's were any serious
research advances made in the field of shape memory alloys. The most effective and widely
used alloys include NiTi (Nickel - Titanium), CuZnAl, and CuAlNi.
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are novel materials that have the ability to return to a
predetermined shape when heated. When a SMA is cold or below its transformation
temperature, it has a very low yield strength ant can be deformed quite easily into any shape.
However, when a SMA is heated above its transformation temperature it undergoes a change
in crystal structure which causes it to return to its original shape.
SMAs are also called smart materials since they can function as sensors and actuators
simultaneously.

PHASE OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS:

The two phases of SMAs are martensite and austenite.

Martensite is relatively soft and easily deformed phase of shape

memory alloys, which exists at lower temperature.

Austenite is the stronger phase of shape memory

alloys that occurs at higher temperatures.

Macroscopic view

Microscopic view

The molecular structure of martenite is the twinned matensite. Upon deformation this
phase takes on the form deformed martensite. The un-deformed martensite phase is the same
size and shape as the cubic austenite phase on a macroscopic scale, so that no change in size
or shape is visible in shape memory alloys until the martensite is deformed.
 SMAs have a special feature that at lower temperatures, they have a plastic nature and
they can be deformed with the application of force. At high temperatures they behave like
metals.

TYPES OF SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT:

There are two types

1. One way shape memory alloy

2. Two way shape memory alloy

A material which exhibit shape memory effect only upon heating is known as one-
way shape memory alloy. A material which shows a shape memory effect during both heating
and cooling is called two- way shape memory alloy.

Eg of SMAs: Ag-Cd, Cu-Zn, Cu-Al, Cu-Sn, Ni-Al, Ti-Ni

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS:

Structural Change – Shape Memory Effect (SME)

The shape memory effect existing in shape memory alloys due to the change in
crystalline structure by the temperature and stress. The change in the structure of materials is
due to the existence of two phases namely, martensite and austenite. The martensite structure
is a low temperature phase, and is soft. The austenite is a high temperature phase and is hard.
1. The SME can be explained considering a simple bar of SMA in high temperature
austenite phase structure.
2. The bar is allowed to cool well below the phase transition temperature.
3. The high temperature austenite structure of the bar will be changed into low
temperature martensite structure.
4. At this low temperature, the bar is plastically deformed say by bending the bar.
5. Then by reheating the bar well above the phase transition temperature, the bar will
return to its original configuration. The above phenomena can be represented by a
simple two dimensional representation of the crystalline arrangement in materials
The temperatures at which each of these phases begin and finish forming are represented by
the following variables: Ms, Mf, As, Af. The amount of loading placed on a piece of shape
memory alloy increases the values of these four variables as shown in Figure below. The
initial values of these four variables are also dramatically affected by the composition of the
wire (i.e. what amounts of each element are present).

The Shape memory effect is currently being implemented in:

1. Coffeepots
2. The space shuttle
3. Thermostats
4. Vascular Stents
5. Hydraulic Fittings (for Airplanes)

THERMAL HYSTERESIS:

The phase transformation of SMA is a function of alloy type, composition, and also
the applied thermomechanical treatments. The temperature range for the martensite to
austenite transformation is higher than that for the reverse transformation upon cooling. The
difference between the transition temperatures upon heating and cooling is called hysteresis.

Hysteresis is generally defined as the difference

between the temperature at which the material is 50%
transformed to austenite upon heating and 50%
transformed to martensite upon cooling. The difference
can be upto 20  – 30  C.

SUPER ELASTICITY OR PSEUDOELASTICITY:

The ability of the SMA to return to its original shape upon unloading after a substantial
deformation is known as super elasticity or pseudo elasticity.

In SMA, the super elasticity occurs when the temperature

is greater than the Af (ie) in the austenite state. During the
occurrence of super elasticity the temperature remains
same. The application of load, lead to a change in the
austenite to martensite state. At the martensite state the
applied load is absorbed, and then it is transferred back to
austenite when the load is removed. The alloy brings back
to its original shape because during the above process, the
material is above Af.
Some examples of applications in which pseudo-elasticity is used are:

1. Eyeglass Frames
2. Medical Tools
3. Cellular Phone Antennae
4. Orthodontic Arches

NICKEL TITANIUM ALLOY: (NITINOL)

Nitinol alloys exhibit two closely related and unique properties: shape memory and
super elasticity (also called pseudo elasticity). Shape memory is the ability of nitinol to
undergo deformation at one temperature, and then recover its original, undeformed shape
upon heating above its "transformation temperature". Super elasticity occurs at a narrow
temperature range just above its transformation temperature; in this case, no heating is
necessary to cause the underformed shape to recover, and the material exhibits enormous
elasticity, some 10-30 times that of ordinary metal.

PROPERTIES OF NI-TI ALLOY:

The properties of Nitinol alloys are dictated by their composition. Other factors such
as heat treatments can also play a part in affecting properties of Nitinol alloys. However, for
most Nitonol alloys, their density is approximately 6.5 g/cm3 and will have a melting
temperature in the range 1240 to 1310°C. The transformation temperature can be modified
from less than –100°C to over 100°C.

Key properties of Nitinol alloys include:

1. Large forces that can be generated due to the shape memory effect
2. Excellent damping properties below the transition temperature
3. Excellent corrosion resistance
4. Nonmagnetic
5. High fatigue strength
6. Moderate impact resistance
7. Moderate heat resistance
8. Biocompatible

APPLICATIONS OF NI –TI ALLOYS:

1. Aerospace and naval applications - Nitinol fluid fittings or coupling have are being
used in military aircraft and naval craft.
2. Medical Applications - Tweezers for removing foreign objects via small incisions,
anchors for tendon fixation and stents for cardiovascular applications
3. Dentistry - Orthodontic wires, which do not need to be retightened and adjusted
4. Safety devices - Safety valves/actuators to control water temperature and fire
sprinklers

OTHER USES INCLUDE:

 1. Spectacle frames.
2. Household appliances and deep fryers.
3. Clothing including underwire brassieres.
4. Vibration control in the form of engine mounts and actuators for buildings.
5. Fasteners, seals, connectors and clamps.
6. Mobile telephone antennas.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SMA’s:

Some of the main advantages of shape memory alloys include:

1. Bio-compatibility
2. Diverse Fields of Application
3. Good Mechanical Properties (strong, corrosion resistant)

There are still some difficulties with shape memory alloys that must be overcome
before they can live up to their full potential. These alloys are still relatively expensive to
manufacture and machine compared to other materials such as steel and aluminum. Most
SMA's have poor fatigue properties; this means that while under the same loading conditions
(i.e. twisting, bending, compressing) a steel component may survive for more than one
hundred times more cycles than an SMA element.

CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE: (SEM)

Scanning electron microscope is an improved model of an electron microscope. SEM

is used to study the three dimensional image of the specimen.

PRINCIPLE:

When the accelerated primary electrons strike the sample, it produces secondary
electrons. These secondary electrons are collected by a positively charged electron detector,
which in turn gives a 3D image of the sample.

CONSTRUCTION:

It consists of an electron gun to produce high energy electron beam. A magnetic

condensing lens is used to condense the electron beam and a scanning coil is arranged in
between the magnetic condensing lens and the sample.
The electron detector (Scintilator) is used to collect the secondary electrons and can
be converted to electrical signals. These signals can be fed into CRO through video amplifier
as shown in the figure.

WORKING:
 1. Stream of electrons are produced by the electron gun and these primary electrons are
accelerated by anode.
2. These accelerated primary electrons are made to incident on the sample through
condensing lenses and scanning coil.
3. These high speed primary electrons on falling over the samples produce low energy
secondary electrons. The collection of secondary electrons is very difficult because of
their low energy. Therefore to collect these secondary electrons, a very high voltage is
applied to the collector.

4. These collected electrons produce scintillations on photo-multiplier tube (detector) and

are converted into electrical signals.
5. These signals are amplified by a video amplifier and are fed to the CRO.
6. By similar procedure the electron beam scans the sample from left to right and again
from left to right etc. Similar to how we read a book as shown below, and the whole
picture of the sample is obtained in the CRO screen.

ADVANTAGES:

1. It can be used to examine specimens of large thickness.

2. It has large depth of focus.
3. It can be used to get a 3D image of the object.
 4. Since the image can be viewed directly on the screen, structural characteristics
can be resolved precisely.
5. The magnification may be up to 3, 00,000 times greater than the size of the
object.

DISADVANTAGE:

1. The resolution of the image is limited to about 10-20nm, hence it is very poor.

APPLICATIONS:

1. It is used to examine the structure of very large specimens in a 3D view.

2. Similar to the application of electron microscope, this scanning electron
microscope also has applications over various fields such as biology,
industries, engineering, physics, chemistry etc.

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE: (TEM)

We know in SEM, the resolution of the image is limited only upto 10-20nm. This will
not be useful to view the internal features of an atom (or) the morphology of the sample of
size say 0.2nm. Thus to examine the sample of size upto 0.2 nm, TEM can be used. In this
microscope the image is obtained by transmitting the electrons through the specimen.

PRINCIPLE:

Electrons are made to pass through the specimen and the image is formed in the
fluorescent screen, either by using transmitted beam (bright field image) or by using
diffracted beam (dark field image)

CONSTRUCTION:

It consists of an electron gun to produce electron. Magnetic condensing lens is used to

condense the electrons and is also used to adjust the size of the electron that falls onto the
specimen. The specimen is placed in between the condensing lens and the objective lens as
shown below. The magnetic objective lens is used to block the high angle diffracted beams
and the aperture is used to eliminate the diffracted beam (if any) and in turn it increases the
contrast of the image.
The magnetic projector lens is placed above the fluorescent screen in order to achieve
higher magnification. The image cam be recorded by using a fluorescent (phosphor) screen or
(CCD) (Charge Coupled Device) also.
WORKING:

1. Stream of electrons are produced by the electron gun and is made to fall over
the specimen using the magnetic condensing lens.
2. Based on the angle of incidence, the beam is partly transmitted and party
diffracted as shown in fig (a) below.
3. Both the transmitted beam and the diffracted beams are recombined at the E-
Wald sphere (sphere of reflection which encloses all the possible reflection
from the crystal / specimen, satisfying Bragg’s law), to form the image as
shown below in fig (a). The combined image is called the phase contrast
image.

4. In order to increase the intensity and contrast of the image, an amplitude

contrast image has to be obtained. This can be achieved only by using the
transmitted beam, and thus the diffracted beam has to be eliminated.
5. Now in order to eliminate the diffracted beam, the resultant beam is passed
through the magnetic objective lens and the aperture as shown in fig(a).
6. The aperture is adjusted in such a way that the diffracted image is eliminated.
Thus the final image obtained due to the transmitted beam alone is passed
through the projector lens for further magnification.
7. The magnified image is recorded in the fluorescent screen (or) CCD. This high
contrast image is called BRIGHT FIELD IMAGE. Also, it has to be noted that
 the bright field image obtained is purely due to the elastic scattering (no
energy exchange) ie due to transmitted beam alone.

ADVANTAGES:

1. It can be used to examine specimen of size up to 0.2nm.

2. The magnification is 1, 00, 000 times greater than the size of the object.
3. It has high resolution.
o o
4. The resolving power is 1  to 2 
5. We can get high contrasted image due to both transmitted beam (bright field)
and diffracted beam (dark field).

DISADVANTAGES:

1. The specimen should be very thin. It is not suitable for thick samples.
2. There are chances for structural change during sample preparation.
3. 3D image cannot be obtained.
4. In case of biological samples, the electrons may interact with the sample
which may even damage the samples.

APPLICATIONS:
1. The main application of TEM is in nano-sciences (nano-tubes, micro machines
etc) used to find the internal structure of nano – materials.
2. It is used to find the 2D image of very small biological cells, virus, bacteria
etc.
3. It is used in thin film technology, metallurgy, bio-chemistry, micro-biology
etc.
4. It is used to study the composition of paints, papers, fibers, composite
materials, alloys etc.

THE DEBYE-SCHERRER POWDER METHOD/ XRD METHOD

This X-ray diffraction technique is used to determine the crystal structure of the given
sample.

PRINCIPLE

A monochromatic beam of X-rays strikes a finely powdered sample that ideally has
crystals randomly arranged in every possible orientation. In such a powder sample, at least
some crystals are oriented at Bragg angle to the incident beam and thus diffraction occurs for
these crystals and planes. The diffracted beam may be detected by photographic film or
movable detector.

WORKING
 The basic prerequisite for this approach is the availability of a monochromatic X-
radiation of known wavelength (λ). Such radiation can be conveniently obtained by using a
crystal (i.e., its diffracting property) as a filter or monochromator. Filter action is achieved by
positioning the crystal in such a way that the unfiltered radiation emitted by the X-ray tube
becomes incident at an angle, θ, on a set of low index planes which satisfy Bragg’s law for
the highest intensity radiation (Kα) emitted. The condition of a fixed λ and variable θ is
experimentally used in two techniques. Using a diffractometer, we place a sample (ground to
a powder) into the center of a rotating stage and expose it to a monochromatic X-ray beam.
The sample is rotated into diffraction condition and the diffraction angle determined. The
glancing angles corresponding to the rings on the films can be calculated by measuring the
ring diameters (s) and knowing the camera radius (R = 2.877 cm)

In the Debye-Scherrer method the sample is ground to a powder and placed (in an
ampoule) into the center of a Debye-Scherrer camera. Exposed to monochromatic X-rays, in
this way a large number of diffracted cone-shaped beams are generated such that the semi
angles of the cones measure 2θ, or twice the Bragg angle for the particular diffracting
crystallographic planes. The reason diffracted beams are cone-shaped is that the planes in
question (within the multitude of randomly oriented grains) give rise to diffraction for any
orientation around the incident beam as long as the incident beam forms the appropriate
Bragg angle with these planes – thus there is a rotational symmetry of the diffracted beams
about the direction of the incident beam. Those planes with the largest interplanar spacing
have the smallest Bragg angle, θ.
In a Debye–Scherrer arrangement, after exposing a powder of a crystalline material to
monochromatic X-rays, the developed film strip will exhibit diffraction patterns such as
indicated in figure. Each diffraction peak (dark line) on the film strip corresponds to
constructive interference at planes of a particular interplanar spacing [d(hkl)].
Substitution and rearrangement of above yields:

Accordingly, we find that for all lines (θ values) of a given pattern, the relationship holds.
Since the sum (h2 + k2 + l2) is always integral and λ2/4a2 is a constant, the problem of indexing
the pattern of a cubic system is one of finding a set of integers (h 2 + k2 + l2) which will yield a
constant quotient when divided one by one into the observed sin2θ values.

Thus the lattice constant of the unit cell is subsequently obtained, knowing the wavelength of
the incident radiation.

NANO MATERIALS

Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is
less than approximately 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one millionth of a millimeter -
approximately 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Nanomaterials are of
interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge.
These emergent properties have the potential for great impacts in electronics, medicine, and
other fields.

Some nanomaterials occur naturally, but of particular interest are engineered

nanomaterials (EN), which are designed for, and already being used in many commercial
products and processes. They can be found in such things as sunscreens, cosmetics, sporting
goods, stain-resistant clothing, tires, electronics, as well as many other everyday items, and
are used in medicine for purposes of diagnosis, imaging and drug delivery.

CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS:
 Nanomaterials have extremely small size which having at least one dimension 100 nm
or less. Nanomaterials can be Nanoscale in one dimension (eg. surface films), two
dimensions (eg. strands or fibres), or three dimensions (eg. particles). They can exist in
single, fused, aggregated or agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes.
Common types of nanomaterials include nanotubes, dendrimers, quantum dots and fullerenes.
Nanomaterials have applications in the field of nano technology, and displays different
physical chemical characteristics from normal chemicals (i.e., silver nano, carbon nanotubes,
fullerene, photo catalyst, carbon nano, silica).

Nanostructured materials are classified as Zero dimensional, one dimensional, two

dimensional, three dimensional nanostructures.

Classification of Nanomaterials (a) 0D spheres and clusters, (b) 1D nanofibers, wires,

and rods, (c) 2D films, plates, and networks, (d) 3D nanomaterials.

PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS:

Nanomaterials have the structural features in between of those of atoms and the bulk
materials. While most micro structured materials have similar properties to the corresponding
bulk materials, the properties of materials with nanometer dimensions are significantly
different from those of atoms and bulks materials. This is mainly due to the nanometer size of
the materials which render them: (i) large fraction of surface atoms; (ii) high surface energy;
(iii) spatial confinement; (iv) reduced imperfections, which do not exist in the corresponding
bulk materials.

Due to their small dimensions, nanomaterials have extremely large surface area to
volume ratio, which makes a large to be the surface or interfacial atoms, resulting in more
“surface” dependent material properties. Especially when the sizes of nanomaterials are
comparable to length, the entire material will be affected by the surface properties of
nanomaterials. This in turn may enhance or modify the properties of the bulk materials.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES:

One of the most fascinating and useful aspects of nanomaterials is their optical
properties. Spectral shift of optical absorption and fluorescence properties, increased quantum
efficiency of semiconducting crystal are the optical properties of nanomaterials. Applications
based on optical properties of nanomaterials include optical detector, laser, sensor, imaging,
phosphor, display, solar cell, photocatalysis, photoelectrochemistry and biomedicine.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:

Electrical Properties of Nanoparticles discuss about fundamentals of electrical

conductivity in nanotubes and nanorods, carbon nanotubes, photoconductivity of nanorods,
electrical conductivity of nanocomposites.

Resistivity in nanosized materials is in general larger than that in polycrystalline

materials. The electrons get scattered at the grain boundaries resulting into increase of
resistance. Therefore, resistance of nanosized materials is generally quite large.
One interesting method which can be used to demonstrate the steps in conductance is
the mechanical thinning of a nanowire and measurement of the electrical current at a constant
applied voltage. The important point here is that, with decreasing diameter of the wire, the
number of electron wave modes contributing to the electrical conductivity is becoming
increasingly smaller by well-defined quantized steps.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

“Mechanical Properties of Nanoparticles” deals with bulk metallic and ceramic

materials, influence of porosity, influence of grain size, superplasticity, filled polymer
composites, particle-filled polymers, polymer-based nanocomposites filled with platelets,
carbon nanotube-based composites. When the grain size is decreased, the strength of the
material is increased. This is because the movement of dislocation is impeded by grain
boundary. Hence, nano phase materials with their exceptionally small grain size are found to
be highly strong. Similarly the melting temperature of the material is reduced when the grain
size is decreased.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES:

Bulk gold and Pt are non-magnetic, but at the nano size they are magnetic. Surface
atoms are not only different to bulk atoms, but they can also be modified by interaction with
other chemical species, that is, by capping the nanoparticles. This phenomenon opens the
possibility to modify the physical properties of the nanoparticles by capping them with
appropriate molecules.

NANOMAETRIAL – SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING

Nanomaterials deal with very fine structures: a nanometer is a billionth of a meter.

This indeed allows us to think in both the ‘bottom up’ or the ‘top down’ approaches (Fig. 5)
to synthesize nanomaterials, i.e. either to assemble atoms together or to dis-assemble (break,
or dissociate) bulk solids into finer pieces until they are constituted of only a few atoms. This
domain is a pure example of interdisciplinary work encompassing physics, chemistry, and
engineering upto medicine.
 Schematic illustration of the preparative methods of nanoparticles

METHODS FOR CREATING NANOSTRUCTURES:

There are many different ways of creating nanostructures: of course, macromolecules

or nanoparticles or buckyballs or nanotubes and so on can be synthesized artificially for
certain specific materials. They can also be arranged by methods based on equilibrium or
near-equilibrium thermodynamics such as methods of self-organization and self-assembly
(sometimes also called bio-mimetic processes). Using these methods, synthesized materials
can be arranged into useful shapes so that finally the material can be applied to a certain
application.

MECHANICAL GRINDING – BALL MILLING

 Ball mill is an efficient tool to grind many kinds of mine and other materials into fine
powder. It is one of the simplest methods and widely used in building materials, chemical
field, industry etc.

PRINCIPLE:

Ball milling is a process that is used to produce a wide range of new light materials by
simply mixing two elemental powders and mechanically milling them as shown in fig below,
in a high energy environment such as a ball mill. The action of the ball mill generates
sufficient controllable heat to make super saturated and stable alloys that are economic to
produce in quantity.

Schematic representation of the principle of mechanical milling

CONSTRUCTION:

There are many types of ball mills available namely, planetary, vibratory, rod, tumpler
etc. usually one or more containers are used at a time to make fine particles.
Size of container depends upon the quantity of interest. Hard steel or tungsten carbide
(WC) balls are put into the container as shown in fig below along with the powder of
material. Initial material may be arbitrary size and shape. Container is closed with tight lids.
Usually 2:1 mass ratio is advisable.

Schematic Diagram of Ball Mill Vessel

 If the container is more than half filled, the efficiency of milling is reduced. The
container may be filled with gasses like O2, N2 or inert gas. It can add some additional
impurity into the powder, if proper precaution is not taken. A temperature rise in the range of

100–1100 C is expected to take place during the collisions. Lower temperatures favour
amorphous particle formation. Low temperature cooling is used some times to dissipate the
generated heat.

WORKING:

The containers are rotated at high speed from 300 to 600 rpm around their own axis.
Additionally, they may rotate around the central axis. When the containers are rotating around
the central axis, the material is forced to the walls and is pressed against the walls. But due to
the motion of the containers around their own axis, the material is forced to other region of
the container, as illustrated in the fig below. The fig shows the material thrown against the
wall during the rotation of a single container. Dark regions are illustrating the powdered
material, while the rest is empty.

Heavy milling balls increase the impact energy on collision. Larger balls used for
milling, produce small grain size and larger defects in the particles. The process may add
some impurities from balls. By controlling the speed of rotation of the central axis and
container as well as duration of milling, it is possible to ground the material to fine nano sized
powder and it can be quite uniform. Few milligrams to several kilograms of nanoparticles can
be synthesized in short time of a few minutes to a few hours.
Exanple : CO, Cr, W, Ni-Ti, Al-Fe, Ag-Fe are made nanocrystalline using this technique.

ADVANTAGES:

1. This process is simple.

2. It can be readily implemented commercially.
3. This technique produces ultrafine nanocrystalline materials with high homogeneity.
4. It is a high efficient technique to synthesize a large combination of materials.
5. It is inexpensive.
6. Few milligrams to several kilograms of nanoparticles can be synthesized in short time
of a few minutes to a few hours.
DISADVANTAGES:

1. The container may be filled with the gases like O2, N2 or inert gas. It can add some
additional impurity to the powder, if proper precaution is not taken.
2. The grinding balls contribute to impurities.
3. Larger defects in the particles may occur when heavy milling balls are used.
4. Micro structures and phases produced by this technique are thermodynamically
metastable.
5. Materials that are affected by metallic contamination are generally cannot be handled
in ball mill.

APPLICATIONS:

1. Ball mill is widely used for the cement, the silicate product, new type building
materials, fire proof materials, chemical fertilizer, black and non-ferrous metals, glass,
ceramics and etc.
2. It is a key equipment for regrinding.
3. It can grind any type of material that can be grinded either by wet process or by dry
process.

CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION:

Chemical vapour deposition involves the reaction and decomposition of vapour phase
species at elevated temperatures and subsequent deposition from a vapour by a chemical
reaction occurring on a heated substrate surface.

PRINCIPLE:

Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction chamber at elevated temperature
usually under vacuum. As they pass over or come into contact with the heated substrate, they
react or decompose forming a solid phase. They are deposited onto the substrate. The
substrate temperature is critical and can influence what reaction will take place.

DIFFERENT TYPES:

1. Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapour Deposition (APCVD)

2. Low Pressure Chemical Vapour Deposition (LPCVD)
3. Metal Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD)
4. Plasma Assisted Chemical Vapour Deposition (PACVD) or Plasma Enhanced
Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD).
5. Laser Chemical Vapour Deposition (LCVD)
6. Photo Chemical Vapour Deposition (PCVD)

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

Chemical Vapour Deposition processes are distinguished from PVD by the fact that
growth proceeds as a result of series of chemical reactions above the heated substrate. Further
CVD process can be considered as near equilibrium growth phenomenon while PVD is
clearly very far from an equilibrium process.
The below fig shows the apparatus used in the CVD process for a thin film single
crystal growth on the silicon wafer. The basic chemical reaction used to describe the epitaxial
growth of pure silicon is hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride.

1. Gas delivery system: For the supply of precursors to the reactor chamber.
2. Reactor chamber: Chamber within which deposition takes place.
3. Substrate loading mechanism: A system for introducing and removing substrates.
4. Energy source: Provides the energy / heat that is required to get the precursors to
react/decompose.
5. Vacuum system: A system for removal of all other gaseous species other than those
required for the reaction / deposition.
6. Exhaust system: System for removal of volatile by products from the reaction
chamber.

Schematic design of a thermal CVD system with a tube furnace

The following steps are involved in the chemical vapour deposition:

1. Vapourisation and transport of precursor molecules into reactor.

2. Diffusion of precursor molecules to the surface of particle.
3. Adsorption of precursor molecules to the surface of particle.
4. Decomposition of precursor molecules on the surface and incorporation into solid
films.

ADVANTAGES:

1. CVD coatings are typically fine grained, high purity and harder than other materials
produced using conventional ceramic fabrication processes.
2. CVD coatings are usually only a few microns thick and are generally deposited at
fairly slow rates, usually of the order of a few hundred microns per hour.
 3. CVD is an extremely versatile process that can be used to process almost any metallic
or ceramic compounds.

APPLICATIONS:

1. It is used to produce the nanomaterials like metals and alloys, carbides, nitrites,
borides, oxides and inter metallic compounds.
2. CVD has variety of applications across a wide range of industries.
3. Coatings for a variety of applications such as wear resistance, corrosion resistence,
high temperature protection, erosion protection and combinations thereof.
4. It can be used to produce the semiconductor and relate devices like integrated circuits,
sensors, opto-electronic devices.
5. CVD can be used to produce components that are difficult or uneconomical to
produce using conventional fabrication techniques.
6. Optical fibers - for telecommunications.
7. Powder production – production of novel powder and fibers, catalyst, nanomachines.

WET CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES:

In principle we can classify the wet chemical synthesis of nanomaterials into two broad
groups:
1. The top down method: where single crystals are etched in an aqueous solution for
producing nanomaterials, For example, the synthesis of porous silicon by electrochemical
etching.
2. The bottom up method: consisting of sol-gel method, precipitation etc. where
materials containing the desired precursors are mixed in a controlled fashion to form a
colloidal solution.

SOL – GEL PROCESS:

The sol-gel process, involves the evolution of inorganic networks through the
formation of a colloidal suspension (sol) and gelation of the sol to form a network in a
continuous liquid phase (gel). The precursors for synthesizing these colloids consist usually
of a metal or metalloid element surrounded by various reactive ligands. The starting material
is processed to form a dispersible oxide and forms a sol in contact with water or dilute acid.
Removal of the liquid from the sol yields the gel, and the sol/gel transition controls the
particle size and shape. Calcination of the gel produces the oxide.
Sol-gel processing refers to the hydrolysis and condensation of alkoxide-based
precursors such as Si(OEt) 4 (tetraethyl orthosilicate, or TEOS). The reactions involved in the
sol-gel chemistry based on the hydrolysis and condensation of metal alkoxides M(OR)z can
be described as follows:
MOR + H2O → MOH + ROH (hydrolysis)
MOH + ROM → M-O-M + ROH (condensation)
Sol-gel method of synthesizing nanomaterials is very popular amongst chemists and is
widely employed to prepare oxide materials. The sol-gel process can be characterized by a
series of distinct steps.
 Schematic representation of sol-gel process of synthesis of nanomaterials

1. Formation of different stable solutions of the alkoxide or solvated metal precursor.

2. Gelation resulting from the formation of an oxide- or alcohol- bridged network (the
gel) by a polycondensation reaction that results in a dramatic increase in the viscosity of the
solution.
3. Aging of the gel (Syneresis), during which the polycondensation reactions continue
until the gel transforms into a solid mass, accompanied by contraction of the gel network and
expulsion of solvent from gel pores. Ostwald ripening (also referred to as coarsening, is the
phenomenon by which smaller particles are consumed by larger particles during the growth
process) and phase transformations may occur concurrently with syneresis. The aging process
of gels can exceed 7 days and is critical to the prevention of cracks in gels that have been
cast.
4. Drying of the gel, when water and other volatile liquids are removed from the gel
network. This process is complicated due to fundamental changes in the structure of the gel.
The drying process has itself been broken into four distinct steps:
1. The constant rate period,
2. The critical point,
3. The falling rate period,
4. The second falling rate period.
If isolated by thermal evaporation, the resulting monolith is termed a xerogel. If the
solvent (such as water) is extracted under supercritical or near super critical conditions, the
product is an aerogel.
5. Dehydration, during which surface bound M-OH groups are removed, there by
stabilizing the gel against rehydration. This is normally achieved by calcining the monolith at

temperatures up to 800 C.
 
6. Densification and decomposition of the gels at high temperatures (T>800 C). The
pores of the gel network are collapsed, and remaining organic species are volatilized. The
typical steps that are involved in sol-gel processing are shown in the schematic diagram
below.
The interest in this synthesis method arises due to the possibility of synthesizing
nonmetallic inorganic materials like glasses, glass ceramics or ceramic materials at very low
temperatures compared to the high temperature process required by melting glass or firing
ceramics.
The major difficulties to overcome in developing a successful bottom-up approach is
controlling the growth of the particles and then stopping the newly formed particles from
agglomerating. Other technical issues are ensuring the reactions are complete so that no
unwanted reactant is left on the product and completely removing any growth aids that may
have been used in the process. Also production rates of nano powders are very low by this
process. The main advantage is one can get monosized nano particles by any bottom up
approach.

ADVANTAGES:

The following are the advantages of the sol-gel process:

1. It is economical.
2. It generates highly pure, well controlled ceramics compared to other techniques.
3. It is low temperature process i.e.. it has less energy consumption and low pollution.
4. The instrument processing is easy and synthesis almost all the materials.
5. It is possible to get the unique materials like zerogel, zeolites, ordered porous solids
by organic – inorganic hybridization.
6. It is also possible to synthesis nanoparticle, nanorods, nanotubes etc using this
technique.

APPLICATION:

The following are some of the applications of sol-gel process:

1. The nanomaterials produces by this technique are used for electronic thin film
devices, for wear, chemical or oxidation protection, as well as for their optical
properties (eg: anti reflection).
2. This method is used to produce the lightest materials.
3. Optical, protective and decorative coating can be done by this method.
4. Sol – gel routed ceramic fibers are used for fiber optic sensors and thermal insulation.
5. The ultra-fine particle prepared by this technique is used for dental and biomedical
applications.
6. Silicate sol is formed by this method.

APPLICATIONS OF NANOMATERIALS:

Nanomaterials are used in a variety of fields and devices such as electrical devices,
memory devices, fuel cells, defense field, aero-space industry, etc.
1. Electrical and electronic devices:

The nanoparticles are for fabricating nano transistors, multilayer capacitors, quantum
computing and display technologies, noise filters and stabilizers. The advantages of these
devices are low power loss and smaller in size.
Example: BaTiO3, ZnO etc.
The above materials are used for current controlling devices such as transistors.

Applications of nanomaterials

2. Memory devices:

i. These are used to produce very tiny permanent magnets with high energy product
value. The tiny magnets find applications in high density magnetic recording.
ii. Quantum well, quantum dots and quantum wires having quantum confinement are
produced from semiconductor nanomaterials which are acting as computer storage
materials with high density.
iii. The magnetic devices made of Cu, Fe alloys are used in RAM, Read/Write heads and
sensors.

3. Defense industry:

i. The nano particles are used in fuel cells and infrared windows which are effective in
defence applications. Eg: Nano ceramic Powders

4. Additives and Pastes:

Due to reduction in processing time, cost and higher productivity, the nano phase
materials such as BaTiO3, ZnO etc are used for additives and pastes which are used for screen
printing.

5. Optical devices:

i. These materials are used for fabrication of semiconductor laser which is smaller in
size. These lasers have high efficiency compared to lasers made by conventional
materials.
6. Cosmetics and Body care Products:

i. The nano ceramic powders such as CaO, TiO2, Al2O3, SnO2 etc are used for cosmetic
and body care products.

7. Communications:

Miniaturized microchip patch antenna which have large bandwidth are manufactured
using nano phase materials. The weight of this antenna is very much reduced compared to
conventional ones.

8. Energy:

Nanotechnology will play an important role in the field of energy.

i. Hydrogen is a good source of fuel for auto mobile and other transportation purposes.
Carbon nanotubes are used as hydrogen storage materials.
ii. Some metal hydride nanoparticles like Ni Hydrides and ultra light weight materials
like aerogels are found to be better options than the conventional materials in
improved batteries.

9. Automobiles:

i. Very powerful motors using nanoparticles like Ni-Ti alloys perform better and are less
power hungry than other motors.
ii. By using nanoparticles clay, better, lightweight and less rubber consuming thinner
tyres are possible.

10. Sports and Toys:

i. Good quality tennis rackets are made of carbon.

ii. Nanomaterials based motors are used by toy industry to make them very smooth and
soft.

11. Textile:

i. Special threads and dyes used in textile industry are the nanomaterials product. These
clothes do not require ironing and frequent cleaning.
ii. Some companies used silver nanoparticles in washing machine which will make
clothes germ free.

12.OTHER USES:

i. It is used in information storage, refrigeration, computer and solar cells.

ii. BIOMEMS are used in biofluidic chips for chemical and biochemical analysis in
medical diagnostics and implantable pharmaceutical drug delivery.
iii. Nanotube based bio sensors are used for cancer diagnostics.
iv. Nanomaterials are used as molecular switches, nanotube flat panel displays, fast logic
gates and nanoscopic lasers.
v. Zeolite, a special nanomaterial is used by petroleum industry as catalyst.
CARBON NANOTUBES

With an atomic number of 6, Carbon is the 4th most abundant element in the
Universe by mass after (Hydrogen Helium and Oxygen). It forms more compounds that any
other element, with almost 10 million pure organic compounds. Abundance, together with the
unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer forming ability at the
temperatures commonly encountered on Earth makes the element the chemical basis of all
known life.
Carbon Nanotubes, long, thin cylinders of carbon, were discovered in 1991 by Sumio
Iijima. These are large macromolecules that are unique for their size, shape, and remarkable
physical properties. They can be thought of as a sheet of graphite (a hexagonal lattice of
carbon) rolled into a cylinder. These intriguing structures have sparked much excitement in
recent years and a large amount of research has been dedicated to their understanding.
Currently, the physical properties are still being discovered and disputed. Nanotubes have a
very broad range of electronic, thermal, and structural properties that change depending on
the different kinds of nanotube (defined by its diameter, length, and chirality, or twist). To
make things more interesting, besides having a single cylindrical wall (SWNTs), Nanotubes
can have multiple walls (MWNTs)--cylinders inside the other cylinders.

KEY PROPERTIES OF CARBON NANOTUBES:

Carbon Nanotubes are an example of true nanotechnology: they are less than 100
nanometers in diameter and can be as thin as 1 or 2 nm. They are molecules that can be
manipulated chemically and physically in very useful ways. They open an incredible range of
applications in materials science, electronics, chemical processing, energy management, and
many other fields. Some properties include
• Extraordinary electrical conductivity, heat conductivity, and mechanical properties.
• They are probably the best electron field-emitter known, largely due to their high
length-to-diameter ratios
• As pure carbon polymers, they can be manipulated using the well-known and the
tremendously rich chemistry of that element.
Some of the above properties provide opportunity to modify their structure, and to
optimize their solubility and dispersion. These extraordinary characteristics give CNTs
potential in numerous applications. Key application areas
• Field Emitters/Emission:
• Conductive or reinforced plastics
• Molecular electronics: CNT based non volatile RAM
• CNT based transistors
• Energy Storage
• CNT based fibers and fabrics
• CNT based ceramics
• Biomedical applications etc ...

PROPERTIES OF CARBON NANOTUBES

 The structure of a carbon nanotube is formed by a layer of carbon atoms that are bonded
together in a hexagonal (honeycomb) mesh. This one-atom thick layer of carbon is called
graphene, and it is wrapped in the shape of a cylinder and bonded together to form a carbon
nanotube. Nanotubes can have a single outer wall of carbon, or they can be made of multiple
walls (cylinders inside other cylinders of carbon). Carbon nanotubes have a range of electric,
thermal, and structural properties that can change based on the physical design of the
nanotube.
 CNTs have High Electrical Conductivity
 CNTs have Very High Tensile Strength

 CNTs are Highly Flexible- can be bent considerably without damage

 CNTs are Very Elastic ~18% elongation to failure

 CNTs have High Thermal Conductivity

 CNTs have a Low Thermal Expansion Coefficient

 CNTs are Good Electron Field Emitters

 CNTs Aspect Ratio

APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUBES

Because of its remarkable electronic and mechanical properties, carbon nanotubes are one of
the best candidate materials for uses in various industrial applications. In this section, some
applications of carbon nanotubes that could become a reality in the near future are briefly
described in details.

Scanning Probe Tips: Carbon nanotubes can be used in scanning probe instruments due to
their flexibility. The flexibility of the nanotubes prevents damage to the sample surface and
the probe tip if the probe tip happens to crash into the surface. In addition, a better image
resolution is achieved compared with that observed using standard nanoprobes.

CNT cantilever tip

Field Effect Transistors: It is well-known that a carbon nanotube can be semiconducting or

metallic tube depending on the diameter of the cylinder. The semiconducting nanotubes can
be used to build molecular field-effect transistors (FETs) while metallic nanotubes can be
used to build single-electron transistors. The carbon nanotube FETs consist of a
semiconducting carbon nanotube about 1 nm in diameter bridging two closely separated
metal electrodes a top a silicon surface coated with SiO2. Applying an electric filed to the
silicon via the gate electrode turns on and off the flow of the current across the nanotube by
controlling the movement of charge carriers onto it.

Figure 2: Carbon nanotube-based field effect transistors

Field Emission Display: Carbon nanotubes can emit electrons from the end of them like a
small cannon when a nanotube is put into an electric field. If those electrons are allowed to
bombard a phosphor screen then an image can be created. The advantages of carbon naotube
screen over liquid crystal displays (LCD) are based upon a low power consumption, intense
brightness, wider viewing angle, fast rate response, and a wider operating temperature range.

3: CNT field emission lamps arrayed in a 5-by-7 matrix.

Figure Composite materials: Carbon nanotubes possess remarkable high tensile strength.
This is important one to make them valuable components for mechanically reinforced
composite materials. Furthermore, the high aspect ratio (length to radius ratio) and high
conductivity of carbon nanotubes makes them excellent for conducting composites. Nanotube
composites were first used for electrostatically applying paint onto car components. They
have a much better surface finish compared with the previously used carbon black or carbon
fiber composites.
Figure 4: A future spacecraft that has CNT composite material inside.