ST2451

Overview of P I D Controller
ST2451
Learning Material
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ST2451
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ST2451

ST2451
Table of Contents
1. Safety Instructions 5
2. Introduction 6
3. Features 7
4. Technical Specifications 8
5. Theory 9
6. Experiments
• Experiment 1 17
Study of ‘On/Off’ controller
• Experiment 2 18
Study of open loop system
• Experiment 3 19
Study of close loop system
• Experiment 4 21
Study of close loop system with disturbance
• Experiment 5 22
Study of steady state error
• Experiment 6 24
Study of proportional controller
• Experiment 7 25
Study of Integrator controller
• Experiment 8 26
Study of Derivative controller
• Experiment 9 27
Study of proportional + integrator (PI) controller
• Experiment 10 28
Study of proportional + derivative (PD) controller
Study of proportional + integrator + derivative (PID) controller
Study of proportional + integrator + derivative (PID) in close Loop
Study of proportional + integrator + derivative (PID) with first order
system
Study of proportional + integrator + derivative (PID) with Second order
system
7. Warranty 36
8. List of Accessories 37

ST2451
Safety Instructions
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To
avoid any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to it.
Do not operate the instrument if you suspect any damage within.
The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.
For your safety:

Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument.
Ensure that the mains cord is suitable for your
country.
Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective
earth conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric
shock the grounding conductor must be connected to
the earth ground. Before making connections to the
input terminals, ensure that the instrument is properly
grounded.
Observe Terminal Ratings : To avoid fire or shock hazards, observe all ratings and
marks on the instrument.
Use only the proper Fuse : Use the fuse type and rating specified for this
instrument.
Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the
manual.
1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.
2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
3. Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

ST2451
Introduction
The PID is the most popular controller used in the Process industries. It has been
successfully used for over 50 years. A robust easily understood algorithm can provide
excellent control Performance despite the varied dynamic characteristics of process
plant.
In control system, there are different types of controller. Study of two-position mode,
as ‘On/Off’ controller and continuous controller modes as PID controller is a very
important part of control engineering. To have a basic idea and practical hands on
controllers our PID has been designed to be used by student to investigate the
fundamental principles of PID by applying different signals to it.
With ST2451, Overview of P I D controller student can study two-position mode as
‘On/Off’ controller and continuous controller modes as P-control mode, I-control
mode, D-control mode, PI-control mode, PD-control mode and PID control mode.
These modes of controller can be performed individually and with different
combinations in open loop and close loop system. With this user can easily
understand the difference between the different modes of controllers used.
Square wave, triangular wave generator and variable DC supply as set point is given
on board and disturbance generator is provided.
Effect of PID can be seen on first order system and second order system in open loop
and close loop system, which is given on the board

ST2451
Features
• Proportional, Integral and Derivative functions can be checked on same Board

(configurable as P, I, D, PI, PD, PID)
• Open loop and close loop system
• ‘On/Off’ controller
• Square and triangular wave with variable frequency for testing P I D
• Variable DC for set point
• Error detector
• Ist order system & IInd order system
• In built power supply
• Effect of Dead zone & disturbances
• Digital Voltmeter

ST2451
Technical Specification
Proportional Band : 5% to 55%.

Integrator : 10msec to 110msec
Derivative : 1msec to 11msec
‘On/Off’ controller : ‘On’ = 12V, ‘Off’ = -12V
On board Generator : Square wave & triangular wave Generator of
0-156Hz,
Two Variables DC +6V & +10V.
Power Consumption : 1.6VA (approximately)
Interconnections : 2 mm socket
Power Supply : 230V ± 10%, 50Hz
Dimensions (mm) : W 340 x H 104 x D 240
Weight : 1Kg (approximately)

ST2451
Theory
‘On/Off’ Controller:
The ‘On/Off’ or two position controller is the most widely used. It is the kind used in
domestic heating systems, refrigerators, and water tanks. When the controller is below
the set point, the controller is on and the o/p signal has the maximum values. When
the measured value is above the set point, the controller is off and the o/p is zero. Due
to mechanical friction or arcing at electrical contacts, the controller actually goes ON
slightly below the Set Point and ‘Off’ slightly above the set point. This differential
gap in the controller output may deliberately increased to give decreased frequency of
operation and reduce wear
Open Loop Systems:
Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open
loop control systems. In other words, in an open loop control system the output is
neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input. Thus, to each reference
input there corresponds a fixed operating condition; as a result, accuracy of the system
depends upon calibration. In the presence of disturbances, an open loop control
system will not perform desired task. Open loop system can be used only if the
relationship between input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor
external disturbances. Note that any system that operates on time basis is open loop.
Figure 1
Closed-loop systems:
Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed loop control systems. In
practice, the terms feedback control and close loop control are used interchangeable.
Let us start with the concept of a closed-loop feedback system. An amplifier is
presented with signals from a summing junction. Output voltage is modified by a
factor B, subtracted from the input voltage, and the result is the signal that the
amplifier is given to amplify.
Figure 2

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Then:
V2= AV1
V1=Vin - BV2
Substituting,
V2= A (Vin - BV2)
Rearranging,
V2 (1+BA) = Avin
A
V2 = Vin
BA + 1
Or
V2 A
=
V10 BA + 1
or
Op amp gains (A) are typically 50,000 to 100,000, at least at DC. Note, therefore, that
the gain of this block is quite insensitive to A. For B = .01,
V1 10000 V
A=10,000 = = 99.01 If A=100,000, 1 = 99.90 The term A (which
Vin 100 + 1 Vin
could include other terms in addition to the gain of the amplifier as will be shown)
changed by a factor of 10 but the overall gain changed by 0.9%
This is the fundamental relationship for feedback control systems, and it's very
powerful. Note that in general, A and B are differential equations or LaPlace
transforms that describe the behavior of these functions with frequency and time.
Because the transfer function above is a ratio of polynomials, (A could be in series
with some function G rather than just a gain block) and since the time and frequency
nature of networks can similarly be described as ratios of polynomials in s (LaPlace
transforms), many functions can be realized with this structure. Oscillators, filters,
amplifiers, impedance changers, negative-impedance blocks comprise just a few. For
now we'll confine ourselves to a simple DC case.
Because A is large and BA is therefore large compared to 1, the transfer function can
often be simplified to
V1 1
≈
Vin B
Note that if other functions are in series with A, their transfer functions could be
lumped with A and would cancel out as they did above. This means that you can
cancel or minimize the effects of functions you cannot control simply by including
them "inside the loop" - i.e., in series with A.

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The Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID):

PID stands for Proportional, Integral, and Derivative. Controllers are designed to
eliminate the need for continuous operator attention. Cruise control in a car and a
house thermostat are common examples of how controllers are used to automatically
adjust some variable to hold the measurement (or process variable) at the set point.
The set point is where you would like the measurement to be. Error is defined as the
difference between set point and measurement.
(Error) = (set-point) - (measurement) The variable being adjusted is called the
manipulated variable, which usually is equal to the output of the controller. The
output of PID controllers will change in response to a change in measurement or set
point. Manufacturers of PID controllers use different names to identify the three
modes
Proportional Band:
With proportional band, the controller output is proportional to the error or a
change in measurement (depending on the controller).
(Controller output) = (error)*100/ (proportional band)
With a proportional controller offset (deviation from set point) is present. Increasing
the controller gain will make the loop go unstable. To reduce un-stability integral
action included in controllers to eliminate this offset.
The mathematical representation is,
mv
= k c (Laplace domain)
e(s)
Or
mv(t) mvss k ce(t ) (time domain)
The proportional mode adjusts the output signal in direct proportion to the controller
input (which is the error signal, e). The adjustable parameter to be specified is the
controller gain, kc. This is not to be confused with the process gain, Kp. The larger kc
the more the controller output will change for a given error. For instance, with a gain
of 1 an error of 10% of scale will change the controller output by 10% of scale. Many
instrument manufacturers use Proportional Band (PB) instead of kc.1

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Integral:
With integral action, the controller output is proportional to the amount of time the
error is present. Integral action eliminates offset.
Controller Output = (1/Integral) (Integral of) e (t) d (t)
Notice that the offset (deviation from set-point) in the time response plots is now
gone. Integral action has eliminated the offset. The response is somewhat oscillatory
and can be stabilized some by adding derivative action.
Integral action gives the controller a large gain at low frequencies that results in
eliminating offset and "beating down" load disturbances. The controller phase starts
out at –90° and increases to near 0 ° at the break frequency. This additional phase lag
is what you give up by adding integral action. Derivative action adds phase lead and
used to compensate for the lag introduced by integral action.
Derivative:
With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of
the measurement or error. The controller output is calculated by the rate of change of
the measurement with time.
Controller Output = Derivative dm / dt
Where m is the measurement at time t.
Some manufacturers use the term rate or pre-act instead of derivative. Derivative,
rate, and pre-act are the same thing.
Derivative = Rate = PRE ACT
Derivative action can compensate for a changing measurement. Thus, derivative takes
action to inhibit more rapid changes of the measurement than proportional action.
When a load or set point change occurs, the derivative action causes the controller
gain to move the "wrong" way when the measurement gets near the set point.
Derivative is often used to avoid overshoot.
Derivative action can stabilize loops since it adds phase lead. Generally, if you use
derivative action, more controller gain and reset can be used.

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A proportional + integral:
The integral action corrects for the offset that characterizes the proportional action.
The effective result of the composite P+I action is equivalent to manual adjustment or
resetting of set point after each load change.
mv(s)  1   1 
e(s)
= k c 1 +  or mv(t) mvss + k c e(t) +
 Ti s   Ti ∫ e(t )dt 

The additional integral mode (often referred to as reset) corrects for any offset (error)
that may occur between the desired value (set point) and the process output
automatically over time2. The adjustable parameter to be specified is the integral time
(Ti) of the controller.
Where does the term reset come from?
Reset is often used to describe the integral mode. Reset is the time it takes for the
integral action to produce the same change in mv as the P modes initial (static)
change. Consider the following Figure.
The response of a PI algorithm to a step in error

Figure 3
(Figure 3) shows the output that would be obtained from a PI controller given a step
change in error. The output immediately steps due to the P mode. The magnitude of
the step up is Kce . The integral mode then causes the mv to ‘ramp’. Over the period
'time 0 to time TI' the mv again increases by Kce.

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Integral wind-up:
When a controller that possesses integral action receives an error signal for significant
periods of time the integral term of the controller will increase at a rate governed by
the integral time of the controller. This will eventually cause the manipulated variable
to reach 100% (or 0%) of its scale, i.e. its maximum or minimum limits. This is
known as integral wind-up. A sustained error can occur due to a number of scenarios,
one of the more common being control system ‘override’. Override occurs when
another controller takes over control of a particular loop, e.g. because of safety
reasons. The original controller is not switched off, so it still receives an error signal,
which through time, ‘winds-up’ the integral component unless something is done to
stop this occurring. There are many techniques that may be used to stop this
happening. One method is known as ‘external reset feedback. Here, the signal of the
control valve is also sent to the controller. The controller possesses logic that enables
it to integrate the error when its signal is going to the control value, but breaks the
loop if the override controller is manipulating the valve.
Proportional + Derivative:
Proportional Integral Derivative algorithm
mv(s)  1   1 de(t) 
e(s)
= k c 1+
 Tis
+ TD s  or mv(t) mvss + k c  e(t) +
  Ti ∫ e(t)dt + TD
dt 

Derivative action (also called rate or pre-act) anticipates where the process is heading
by looking at the time rate of change of the controlled variable (its derivative). TD is
the ‘rate time’ and this characterizes the derivative action (with units of minutes). In
theory, derivative action should always improve dynamic response and it does in
many loops. In others, however, the problem of noisy signals makes the use of
derivative action undesirable (differentiating noisy signals can translate into excessive
mv movement).
Derivative action depends on the slope of the error, unlike P and I. If the error is
constant, derivative action has no effect.
PID algorithms can be different:
Not all manufactures produce PID’s that conform to the ideal 'textbook' structure. So
before commencing tuning it is important to know the configuration of the PID
algorithm! The majority of ‘text-book’ tuning rules are only valid for the ideal
architecture. If the algorithm is different then the controller parameters suggested by a
particular tuning methodology will have to be altered.

ST2451
Ideal PID:
The mathematical representation of this algorithm is:
mv(s)  1 
= k c 1+ + TDs 
e(s)  Ti s 
One disadvantage of this ideal 'textbook' configuration is that a sudden change in set
point (and hence e) will cause the derivative term to become very large and thus
provide a “derivative kick” to the final control element this is undesirable. An
alternative implementation is
 1 
mv(s) = k c 1+  e(s) + TDscv (s)
 Ti s 
The derivative mode acts on the measurement and not the error. After a change in set
point the output will move slowly avoiding "derivative kick" after set point changes.
This is therefore a standard feature of most commercial controllers.
Series (interacting) PID:
The mathematical representation of this algorithm is:
mv(s)  1 
= k c 1+  TDs
e(s)  Tis 
As with the ideal implementation, the series mode can include either derivative on the
error or derivative on the measurement. In which case, the mathematical
representation is,
mv(s)  1 
= k c 1+  where e(s) = SP - TD scv (s)
e(s)  Tis 
Parallel PID:
The mathematical description is,
1
mv(s) = k c e( s ) + e(s) + TDse (s)
Ti s
The proportional gain only acts on the error, whereas with the ideal algorithm it acts
on the integral and derivative modes as well.

ST2451
Controller Responses to Different Excitations

Table 1

ST2451
Experiment 1
Objective: Study of ‘On/Off’ controller.

Procedure:
• Connections for ‘On/Off’ controller are as shown in the figure 4
1. After making, all required connection on board switch on the power supply and
start the experiment.
2. Set 1V at Set Point +10V DC and apply it to SetPoint of ‘On/Off’ controller.
3. From disturbance block, apply to variable input of ‘On/Off’ controller and vary
the knob of disturbance block as required.
4. Now measure the voltage at variable input of ‘On/Off’ controller with digital
multimeter given on board.
5. When knob of ‘On/Off’ is at minimum position, you will find that LED will
glow when voltage of variable goes slightly above the set point voltage, which
means differential gap, is less when knob is at minimum position.
6. When you will move knob of ‘On/Off’ controller at maximum position you will
find the differential gap for ‘On’ and ‘Off’ is increased.
Figure 4

ST2451
Experiment 2
Objective: Study of open loop system

Procedure:
• Connections for open loop system are as shown in the figure 5
1. Here set voltage is given to error detector (ground the PV terminal) and the
error signal given to P block with Kp at minimum position, output of P block
given to adder with rest terminals grounded and measure the output of summer
block ∑ on digital voltmeter given on board.
2. Ground PV and inputs of summing block which are not in use.
3. After making, all required connection on board which on the power supply and
4. By controlling the knob of set point, we can set + 10V at its output, and can find
out relationship between output and input variables.
5. After finding the relationship between input & output amplitude of system
measure the overall gain of the system and gain of proportional block Kp.
6. Set +10V at output in such a manner so that the reading of the output is
comfortable value, for instance 1V with best possible accuracy.
7. Now note the value of + 10V at its output to which output at summer block ∑ is
1V, repeat the measurement varying input so that output is 2V.
8. Again, determine input voltage required for this second output.
9. The chain amplification defines the ratio of the output difference to input
difference.
10. Collect result for more values (+10 is saturation limit) in tabular form and find
out the relationship between input & output.
Conclusion: The output variables can be manually controlled by reading the
instrument connected to the output and varying the amplitude of input until the output
variable reaches the required value. With the above concept of open loop system can
be get cleared.
Figure 5

ST2451
Experiment 3
Objective: Study of close loop system

Procedure:
• Connections for close loop system are as shown in the figure 6.
1. Here output of summer block ∑ is feedback to the error detector with feedback
block, so that if output variable varies about the required signal, due to any
change, the variation affects the input, through the feedback path. This gives
more stable output then open loop system.
2. Ground inputs of summing block which are not in use.
3. After making, all required connection on board switch on the power supply and
4. Adjust the reference signal so that an output signal is obtained that is far from
the saturation limits.
5. Measure closed loop gain, of the system for different values of the feedback
rate. The feedback rate changes by different position of the knob in the feedback
block.
6. To set the feedback rate first apply 2V at the input of feedback block and
measure the output of that block, set position of knob such that output should
give 1V, that means feedback rate is 0.5. Repeat the observation for different
feedback rate like 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.
7. Set 1V at set point +10V output and observe the output of summer block ∑ with
feedback rate of 0.25. Then note the changes for different feedback rate.
8. Calculate the value of the closed loop gain through the formula:
G = A/ (1 + BA)
Where: A - gain KP, B – V2/V1,
V1 is input voltage of feedback block & V2 is output voltage of feedback
block
9. With this, compare the calculated values with the measured values.

ST2451
Figure 6

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Experiment 4
Objective: Study of close loop system with disturbance

Procedure:
• Connections for close loop system with disturbance are as shown in the figure 7.
1. Here we are adding disturbances (E) in close loop system to find out the effect
of it.
4. As per the theory, the disturbances is present on the controlled variable with an
amplitude reduce by the feedback factor. this can be proved with few
mathematical calculations, therefore:
C= [SetPoint x A/ (1+BA)] + E/ (1+BA)
5. Now measure output values for different position of knob connected in the
feedback path.
6. Compare the output values with the directly measured values.
Figure 7

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Experiment 5
Objective: Study of steady state error

Procedure:
• Connections for steady state error are as shown in the Figure 8.
3. We can define the regulation error as the displacement of the controlled value
about the reference. From figure the equation relating the output to the input can
be calculated:
e = C – SP, where C = SP x A/ (1+A), since B = 1
Therefore, e = SP x 1/ (1+A)
From this equation if 1/ (1+A) tends to unity, the o/p variable tends to the set
value of the reference signal. In practical, stability normally obstruct in real
system to increase the loop gain above given limits. Therefore, they are always
affected by a steady state error which can be limited within a normally narrow
rang.
4. The purpose of his exercise is to experimentally check the relationship between
gain and steady state error in the regulated system.
5. Set the gain control Kp in any intermediate position and measure the control and
controlled quantities. Then open the feedback loop and measure the gain of the
direct path (without changing the position of Kp knob). From the measured open
loop gain value, calculate theoretical steady state error using previous formulas
and compare it to measured value.
6. Repeat the procedure for different values of loop gain, to determine the error
behavior when the gain is increased.

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Figure 8

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Experiment 6
Objective: Study of Proportional controller.

Procedure:
• Connections for Proportional controller are as shown in the figure 9.
3. Set +0.5V at test point +10V set point output.
4. Apply set point to proportional input.
5. Check the output of proportional block with digital voltmeter given on board.
6. Vary slowly the Kp value, observe the change in the output, and find out the
proportional band that is PB = 100/Kp.
7. In the same manner, we can check by applying square and triangular wave and
compare the output with table no.1 shown above.
Figure 9

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Experiment 7
Objective: Study of Integrator controller

Procedure:
• Connections for Integrator controller are as shown in the figure 10.
3. Apply square wave to the input of integrator.
4. Check the output of integrator block with CRO and compare with the table no.1
shown above.
5. Vary slowly the KI value and observe the changes in the output.
6. In the same manner can check by applying triangular wave.
Figure 10

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Experiment 8
Objective: Study of Derivative controller

Procedure:
• Connections for Derivative controller are as shown in the figure 11.
3. Apply square wave to the input of Derivative.
4. Check the output of Derivative block with CRO and compare with the table no.1
shown above.
5. Vary slowly the KD value and observe the changes in the output.
6. In the same manner, we can check by applying triangular wave
Figure 11

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Experiment 9
Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator (PI)

Procedure:
• Connections for Proportional + Integrator (PI) controller are as shown in the
figure 12.
3. Apply square wave to the set point (SP).
4. Check the output of summer block ∑ of summing block on CRO that will look
like as shown in figure 13.
5. Vary slowly the KP & KI value and observe the changes in the output.
6. In the same manner, we can check by applying triangular wave.
Figure 12
Figure 13

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Experiment 10
Objective: Study of Proportional + Derivative (PD)

Procedure:
• Connections for Proportional + Derivative (PD) controller are as shown in the
figure 14.
5. Vary slowly the KP & KD value and observe the changes in the output and
compare with table no.1 showing the.
Figure 14
Figure 15

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Experiment 11
Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID)

Procedure:
• Connections for Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) controller are as
shown in the figure 16.
5. Vary slowly the KP, KI & Kd value and observe the changes in the output.
Figure 16

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Figure 17

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Experiment 12
Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) in close loop

Procedure:
• Connections for Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) controller are as
shown in the figure 18.
4. Check output of summing block on CRO, you will find that after adjusting Kp,
Ki & Kd output signal will be same as input applied at SP of error detector .
Figure 18

ST2451
Experiment 13
Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) with first order

system
Procedure:
• First Apply 1V to the first order system block and observe the transient response
on Digital storage oscilloscope, you will observe the response as shown in figure
20.
1. Then do the Connections for Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) with
first order system are as shown in the figure 19.
4. Check the transient response of Ist order system output on Digital storage
oscilloscope; you will observe the response as shown in figure 21. You can
easily observe the effect of PID by adjusting Kp, Ki & Kd knobs.
Figure 19

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Figure 20 Figure 21

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Experiment 14
Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) with second order

system
Procedure:
• First Apply 2V to the first order system block and observe the transient response
on Digital storage oscilloscope, you will observe the response as shown in figure
23.
1. Then do the Connections for Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) with
second order system are as shown in the figure 22.
4. Check the transient response of IInd order system output on Digital storage
oscilloscope; you will observe the response as shown in figure 24. You can
easily observe the effect of PID by adjusting Kp, Ki & Kd knobs.
Figure 22

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Figure 23 Figure 24

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Warranty
1) We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are
not covered under warranty.
2) The guarantee will become void, if
a) The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the operating
manual.
b) The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
c) The customer resells the instrument to another party.
d) Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
3) The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving
full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
4) The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.

ST2451
List of Accessories
1. Patch Cord 8"......................................................................................... 14 Nos.

2. Patch Cord 12"......................................................................................... 6 Nos.
3. Mains Cord ................................................................................................ 1 No.
4. Learning Material (CD) ............................................................................. 1 No.
RoHS Compliance
Scientech Products are RoHS Complied.
RoHS Directive concerns with the restrictive use of Hazardous substances (Pb,
Cd, Cr, Hg, Br compounds) in electric and electronic equipments.
Scientech products are “Lead Free” and “Environment Friendly”.
It is mandatory that service engineers use lead free solder wire and use the
soldering irons upto (25 W) that reach a temperature of 450°C at the tip as the
melting temperature of the unleaded solder is higher than the leaded solder.
-------------------------------------------- The End---------------------------------------------

ST2451

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Overview of P I D Controller

An ISO 9001: 2008 company

94, Electronic Complex, Pardesipura

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We request you to use the Learning material in the CD form

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Your CD learning material has

detailed experiments with observation tables,

frequently asked questions, etc.

…….. and more so sometimes videos as well.

Scientech Eco Foundation

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For your safety:

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• Proportional, Integral and Derivative functions can be checked on same Board

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Proportional Band : 5% to 55%.

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The Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID):

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The response of a PI algorithm to a step in error

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Controller Responses to Different Excitations

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Objective: Study of ‘On/Off’ controller.

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Objective: Study of open loop system

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Objective: Study of close loop system

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Objective: Study of close loop system with disturbance

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Objective: Study of steady state error

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Objective: Study of Proportional controller.

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Objective: Study of Integrator controller

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Objective: Study of Derivative controller

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Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator (PI)

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Objective: Study of Proportional + Derivative (PD)

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Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID)

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Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) in close loop

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Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) with first order

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Objective: Study of Proportional + Integrator + Derivative (PID) with second order