1.

Compare the properties of copper and copper alloy (physical, mechanical, durability) and
explain and example of applications in constructions. Which type of strengthening methods
can be applied to copper and alloys respectively?

Copper is an excellent electrical conductor. Most of its uses are based on this property or the fact
that it is also a good thermal conductor. However, many of its applications also rely on one or more
of its other properties. For example, it wouldn't make very good water and gas pipes if it were highly
reactive. On this page, we look at these other properties:
a good electrical conductor
a good thermal conductor
corrosion resistant
antibacterial
easily joined
ductile
tough
non magnetic
attractive colour
easy to alloy
recyclable
catalytic
Corrosion resistant
Copper is low in the reactivity series. This means that it doesn't tend to corrode. Again, this is
important for its use for pipes, electrical cables, saucepans and radiators. Copper can be joined
easily by soldering or brazing. This is useful for pipework and for making sealed copper vessels.
Copper is a ductile metal. This means that it can easily be shaped into pipes and drawn into
wires.Copper pipes are lightweight because they can have thin walls. They don't corrode and they
can be bent to fit around corners. The pipes can be joined by soldering and they are safe in fires
because they don't burn or support combustion.Copper and copper alloys are tough.The property of
toughness is vital for copper and copper alloys in the modern world. They do not shatter when they
are dropped or become brittle when cooled below 0 °C. Copper is non magnetic and non sparking.
Copper can be combined with other metals to make alloys. The most well known are brass and
bronze. Although copper has excellent electrical and thermal properties, it needs to be hardened
and strengthened for many industrial applications. It is therefore mixed with other metals and
melted. The liquid metals form a solution which, when they solidify, are called alloys. Some copper
alloys are:
brass: copper + zinc
bronze: copper + tin
cupro nickel: copper + nickel
The alloys are harder, stronger and tougher than pure copper. They can be made even harder by
hammering them - a process called work hardening. Copper can be recycled without any loss of
quality. Copper can act as a catalyst.
Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable, corrosion resistant, and weatherproof
architectural material.[78][79][80][81] Roofs, flashings, rain gutters, downspouts, domes, spires,
vaults, and doors have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years. Copper▫s
architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding,
building expansion joints, radio frequency shielding, and antimicrobial indoor products, such as
attractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some of copper▫s other important
benefits as an architectural material include its low thermal movement, light weight, lightning
protection, and its recyclability.
The metal▫s distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers. The
final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby
protecting the underlying metal against further weathering. It can be a mixture of carbonate and
sulfate compounds in various amounts, depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-
containing acid rain. Architectural copper and its alloys can also be 'finished' to embark a particular
look, feel, and/or color. Finishes include mechanical surface treatments, chemical coloring, and
coatings.

Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can be welded; the best results are
obtained with gas metal arc welding.
Strength: Solid solution strengthening of copper is a common procedure. Small amounts of an
alloying element added to molten copper will completely dissolve and form a homogeneous
microstructure (a single phase).Another copper strengthening method is precipitation hardening.
The process involves quenching a supersaturated solid solution from an elevated temperature, then
reheating to a lower temperature (aging) to allow the excess solute to precipitate out and form a
second phase. This process is often used for copper alloys containing beryllium, chromium, nickel,
or zirconium. Precipitation hardening offers distinct advantages. Fabrication is relatively easy using
the soft solution-annealed form of the quenched metal. The subsequent aging process of the
fabricated part can be performed using relatively inexpensive and unsophisticated furnaces. Often
the heat treatment can be performed in air, at moderate furnace temperatures, and with little or no
controlled cooling. Many combinations of ductility, impact resistance, hardness, conductivity, and
strength can be obtained by varying the heat treatment times and temperatures.

2. Describe the applications of titanium in constructions and correlate to the material

properties. Show the advantages and drawback.

Titanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a lustrous transition
metal with a silver color, low density and high strength. It is highly resistant to corrosion in sea
water, aqua regia and chlorine. Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and
molybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys. The two most useful
properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-density ratio of any
metallic element.[5] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but 45% less
dense. A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.[7] It is a
strong metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free environment),[2]
lustrous, and metallic-white in color.[9] The relatively high melting point (more than 1,650 °C or
3,000 °F) makes it useful as a refractory metal. It is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and
thermal conductivity.[2]

Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa
(63,000 psi), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are 45% less dense. Titanium is
60% more dense than aluminium, but more than twice as strong[6] as the most commonly used
6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 1400
MPa (200000 psi).[10] However, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (806 °F).[11]

Titanium is fairly hard (although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel), non-magnetic
and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions, as the material will
soften and gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those made from steel,
titanium structures have a fatigue limit which guarantees longevity in some applications.[9] Titanium
alloys have lower specific stiffnesses than in many other structural materials such as aluminium
alloys and carbon fiber.
All titanium sheets and coils that are used as building materials are made of commercially pure
titanium.
Features and advantages:

Excellent corrosion resistance- Titanium is more resistant than any other metal to common
atmospheric environments such as marine and acid rain environments. As a building material,
titanium is free from pitting corrosion crevice corrosion or stress corrosion cracking.
Environmental Protection- Titanium is used as a material for surgical implants and dental plates
attesting to the non-toxicity of titanium of the metal to humans and animals. The non-toxicity of
titanium is a result of its excellent corrosion resistance. As a result, there is no risk that is will
contaminate rainwater.
Lightweight- Titaniums specific gravity is 4.5, or around %50 that of copper and %60 that of iron
making titanium suitable for use in structural frames.
Suitability as a building material- Titanium has officially been recognized as a non-combustable
material. Titanium has a smaller thermal expansion and shrinkage that stainless steel. Titanium has a
linear coefficient of thermal expansion approximately %50 that of stainless steel.

3. Discuss the applications of aluminium and alloys in buildings related to the material
properties. (mechanical, physical, durability)

Aluminium is a product with unique properties, making it a natural partner for the building industry.
Thanks to its strength, durability, corrosion resistance and recyclability, it has become an essential
product for the building industry and over the past 50 years its use in building applications has
shown continuous and consistent growth.

Applications of Aluminium in Construction and Building

Aluminium extruded, rolled, and cast products are commonly used for window frames and other
glazed structures ranging from shop fronts to large roof superstructures for shopping centres and
stadiums; for roofing, siding, and curtain walling, as well as for cast door handles, catches for
windows, staircases, heating and air-conditioning systems. Most recently, aluminium has played a
significant role in the renovation of historic buildings. The characteristics and properties of
aluminium as a material have lead to revolutionary and innovative changes in building techniques
and architectural and engineering projects. Aluminium is leading the way into the future of the
construction industry.

3.1 Properties
1. Durability:
Aluminium building products are made from alloys, which are weather-proof, corrosion-resistant
and immune to the harmful effects of UV rays, ensuring optimal performance over a very long
serviceable lifetime.

2. Design flexibility:
The extrusion process offers an almost infinite range of forms and sections, allowing designers to
integrate numerous functions into one profile. Rolled products may be manufactured flat, curved,
shaped into cassettes, or sandwiched with other materials. In addition, aluminium can be sawed,
drilled, riveted, screwed, bent, welded and soldered in the workshop or on the building site.

3. Hundreds of surface finishes:

Aluminium can be anodized or painted in any colour, to any optical effect, using any number of
surface touches, in order to meet a designer▫s decorative needs. Such processes also serve to
enhance the material▫s durability and corrosion resistance, as well as providing an easy-to-clean
surface.

4. High reflectivity:
This characteristic feature makes aluminium a very efficient material for light management.
Aluminium solar collectors can be installed to lower energy consumption for artificial lighting and
heating in winter, while aluminium shading devices can be used to reduce the need for air
conditioning in summer.

5. Fire safety:
Aluminium does not burn and is therefore classed as a non-combustible construction material.
Aluminium alloys will nevertheless melt at around 650°C, but without releasing harmful gases.
Industrial roofs and external walls are increasingly made of thin aluminium cladding panels, intended
to melt during a major fire, allowing heat and smoke to escape and thereby minimizing damage.

6. Optimal security:
Where high security is required, specially designed, strengthened aluminium frames can be used.
While the glass for such applications may well be heavy, the overall weight of the structure remains
manageable thanks to the light weight of the aluminium frame.

3.2 Advantages
1. Lightweight
Aluminium is one of the lightest available commercial metals with a density approximately one third
that of steel or copper.

2. Excellent Corrosion Resistance

Aluminium has excellent resistance to corrosion due to the thin layer of aluminium oxide that forms
on the surface of aluminium when it is exposed to air

3. Strong at Low Temperatures

Where as steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminium increases in tensile strength and
retains excellent toughness.

4. Easy to Work
Aluminium can be easily fabricated into various forms such as foil, sheets, geometric shapes, rod,
tube and wire.

5. Easy Surface Treatment

For many applications, aluminium requires no protective or decorative coating; the surface supplied
is entirely adequate without further finishing

3.3 Disadvantages:
1. Thermal insulation was almost definitely insufficient: aluminium being a good thermal conductor.
2. Poor water proofing due to the inadequately designed/executed joints between the roof
aluminium sheets
3. General noise caused by rain or hail falling on aluminium roof and wall sheets.

3.4 Applications
The best application can be obtained in some typical cases, which are characterised in getting profit
at least of one of the main basic properties: lightness, corrosion resistance and functionality. The
structural applications which best fit these properties in the field of civil engineering are the
following:

1. Long-span roof systems in which live loads are small compared with dead loads, as in the case of
reticular space structures and geodetic domes covering large span areas, like halls and auditoriums.

2. Structures located in inaccessible places far from the fabrication shop, for which transport
economy and ease of erection are of extreme importance, like for instance electrical transmission
towers, which can be carried by helicopter.

3. Structures situated in corrosive or humid environments such as swimming pool roofs, river
bridges, hydraulic structures and offshore super-structures.

4. Structures having moving parts, such as sewage plant crane bridges and moving bridges, where
lightness means economy of power under service.

5. Structures for special purposes, for which maintenance operations are particularly difficult and
must be limited, as in case of masts, lighting towers, antennas towers, sign motorway portals, and so
on.

4. Describe and explain at least two mechanism of metal strengthening. Suggest the possible
strengthening mechanism for austentic stainless steel. Justify the choice.

Methods have been devised to modify the yield strength, ductility, and toughness of both crystalline
and amorphous materials.

Work hardening:
The primary species responsible for work hardening are dislocations. Dislocations interact with each
other by generating stress fields in the material. The interaction between the stress fields of
dislocations can impede dislocation motion by repulsive or attractive interactions. Additionally, if
two dislocations cross, dislocation line entanglement occurs, causing the formation of a jog which
opposes dislocation motion. These entanglements and jogs act as pinning points, which oppose
dislocation motion. As both of these processes are more likely to occur when more dislocations are
present, there is a correlation between dislocation density and yield strength. Increasing the
dislocation density increases the yield strength which results in a higher shear stress required to
move the dislocations. This process is easily observed while working a material (in metals cold
working of process). Theoretically, the strength of a material with no dislocations will be extremely
high (τ=G/2) because plastic deformation would require the breaking of many bonds simultaneously.
However, at moderate dislocation density values of around 107-109 dislocations/m2, the material
will exhibit a significantly lower mechanical strength. Analogously, it is easier to move a rubber rug
across a surface by propagating a small ripple through it than by dragging the whole rug. At
dislocation densities of 1014 dislocations/m2 or higher, the strength of the material becomes high
once again. Also, the dislocation density cannot be infinitely high, because then the material would
lose its crystalline structure.

Precipitation hardening:
In most binary systems, alloying above a concentration given by the phase diagram will cause the
formation of a second phase. A second phase can also be created by mechanical or thermal
treatments. The particles that compose the second phase precipitates act as pinning points in a
similar manner to solutes, though the particles are not necessarily single atoms.

The dislocations in a material can interact with the precipitate atoms in one of two ways (see Figure
2). If the precipitate atoms are small, the dislocations would cut through them. As a result, new
surfaces (b in Figure 2) of the particle would get exposed to the matrix and the particle-matrix
interfacial energy would increase. For larger precipitate particles, looping or bowing of the
dislocations would occur and result in dislocations getting longer. Hence, at a critical radius of about
5 nm, dislocations will preferably cut across the obstacle, while for a radius of 30 nm, the
dislocations will readily bow or loop to overcome the obstacle.

STRENGTHENING: +- Austenitic (solid solution): Cold drawing;

+-ferritic (solid solution): cold drawing;
+- duplex (solid solution): cold drawing;
+-Martensitic: quenching and tempering

5. Explain the difference between primary and secondary metallurgy

Production of metallic materials

Processes are classified according to the original raw materials:
primary metallurgy, i.e. manufacturing of semi-finished products from minerals
secondary metallurgy, i.e. manufacturing of semi-finished products from scraps (industrial and
consumer waste) In Italy, 64% is secondary for iron and steel
Primary metallurgy (in steel making blast furnace) iron minerals, coke, limestone (blast furnace) =>
Cast iron + slag +scraps (oxygen converter) =>Steel
+Secondary metallurgy (in steel making Electric steel plants ) Steel scraps (electric arc furnace ) =>
Steel + slag
steel refining (ladle furnace) => steel

Primary metallurgy requires more energy consumption than secondary.

6. Describe the essential properties of steels for reinforcing bur: composition, mechanical
properties ... Why high carbon steel is not suitable for reinforcing bars?

Rebar (short for reinforcing bar), also known as reinforcing steel and reinforcement steel, [1] is a
steel bar or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced
masonry structures, to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. The surface of the rebar may be
patterned to form a better bond with the concrete.

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this were not so, it
would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures
different from the temperature of the setting.[3] Although rebar has ribs that bind it mechanically to
the concrete, it can still be pulled out of the concrete under high stresses, an occurrence that often
accompanies a larger-scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply
embedded into adjacent structural members (40-60 times the diameter), or bent and hooked at the
ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking
the bar into place, while the second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.
Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the
concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction. Too little
concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt
penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths, which also compromises the
local guard. As rust takes up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes
severe internal pressure on the surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and ultimately,
structural failure. This phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a particular problem where the
concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter, or in
marine applications. Uncoated, corrosion-resistant low carbon/chromium (microcomposite), epoxy-
coated, galvanized or stainless steel rebars may be employed in these situations at greater initial
expense, but significantly lower expense over the service life of the project. Extra care is taken
during the transport, fabrication, handling, installation, and concrete placement process when
working with epoxy-coated rebar, because damage will reduce the long-term corrosion resistance of
these bars.[4] Even damaged bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars,
though issues from debonding of the epoxy coating from the bars and corrosion under the epoxy
film have been reported.

Fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in many

forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods, and meshes. Most commercially
available rebar is made from unidirectional glass fibre reinforced thermoset resins.

Reinforcing steel can also be displaced by impacts such as earthquakes, resulting in structural
failure.. The shaking of the earthquake caused rebars to burst from the concrete and buckle.
Updated building designs, including more circumferential rebar, can address this type of failure.
High carbon steel most likely to fracture or break because of extra brittleness. This style of steel
doesn't necessarily hold up to wear as well as other types of specialty steel.

7. Describe and discuss the applications of stainless steels in buildings related to material
properties (mechanical, physical, durability

What is Stainless Steel?

Stainless steel is essentially a low carbon steel which contains chromium at 10% or more by weight.
It is this addition of chromium that gives the steel its unique stainless, corrosion resisting properties.

The chromium content of the steel allows the formation of a rough, adherent, invisible,
corrosionresisting chromium oxide film on the steel surface. If damaged mechanically or chemically,
this film is self-healing, providing that oxygen, even in very small amounts, is present. The corrosion
resistance and other useful properties of the steel are enhanced by increased chromium content and
the addition of other elements such as molybdenum, nickel and nitrogen.
There are more than 60 grades of stainless steel. However, the entire group can be divided into five
classes. Each is identified by the alloying elements which affect their microstructure and for which
each is named.
Benefits of Stainless Steel

CORROSION RESISTANCE
Lower alloyed grades resist corrosion in atmospheric and pure water environments, while high-
alloyed grades can resist corrosion in most acids, alkaline solutions, and chlorine bearing
environments, properties which are utilized in process plants.
FIRE AND HEAT RESISTANCE
 Special high chromium and nickel-alloyed grades resist scaling and retain strength at high
temperatures.
HYGIENE
The easy cleaning ability of stainless makes it the first choice for strict hygiene conditions, such as
hospitals, kitchens, abattoirs and other food processing plants.
STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT ADVANTAGE
The work-hardening property of austenitic grades, that results in a significant strengthening of the
material from cold-working alone, and the high strength duplex grades, allow reduced material
thickness over conventional grades, therefor cost savings.

Properties

Stainless steel is defined as a ferrous alloy with a minimum of 10% chromium content. The name
originates from the fact that stainless steel does not stain, corrode or rust as easily as ordinary steel.
This material is also called corrosion resistant steel when it is not detailed exactly to its alloy type
and grade, particularly in the aviation industry.

Stainless steels have higher resistance to oxidation (rust) and corrosion in many natural and man
made environments; however, it is important to select the correct type and grade of stainless steel
for the particular application.

Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relative inexpense, and
familiar luster make it an ideal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over
150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most common. The alloy is milled into sheets,
plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major
appliances, industrial equipment, and building material in skyscrapers and large buildings. See "Use
in sculpture and building facades", below, for more.

Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. In fact, over 50% of new stainless steel is made from remelted
scrap metal, rendering it a somewhat eco-friendly material.

Architectural/Civil Engineering - cladding, handrails, door and window fittings, street furniture,
structural sections, reinforcement bar, lighting columns, lintels, masonry supports

8. Describe the essential properties of prestressing steels: composition, mechanical properties.

Compare the properties of prestressing and reinforced steels

Pre-stressing raises both the quality and the resistance to tension and compression characteristics of
the steel; the technique actually manages to create a state of co-action in which the tensions and
deformations are opposed to those induced by the loads which will subsequently act upon the
structure. It also raises the resistance to tension of reinforced concrete which is, in fact, negligible.
Properties of Pre-stressing Steel
The steel in pre-stressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes:
1) High strength
2) Adequate ductility
3) Bendability, which is required at the harping points and near the anchorage
4) High bond, required for pre-tensioned members
5) Low relaxation to reduce losses
6) Minimum corrosion.
The development of pre-stressed concrete was influenced by the invention of high strength steel. It
is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and optional materials. In addition to pre-stressing steel,
conventional non-pre-stressed reinforcement is used for flexural capacity (optional), shear capacity,
temperature and shrinkage requirements.
PRESTRESSING STEELS: the main property is the high strength. they are classified according to: +-
Yield strength and tensile strength ; +-relaxation (i.e. decrease of stress when constant strain is
imposed) +-dimensions and surface. The standard does not specify minimum values of yield strength
and tensile strength. The composition is different: C content is higher (until 0.9%) vs reinforcing
steel. Weldability is not required.\

REINFORCING STEELS: classified according to type: yield strength fyk. Class: high ductility euk>5%
and (ft/fy)k>1.08; normal ductility euk>2.5% and (ft/fy)k>1.05. Normal diameter. Surface
characteristics: high bond ribbed rebars; smooth rebars (only for electrical welded mesh).
Weldability: limits on chemical composition (C 0.22%, S and P 0.05%, N 0.012%, Cu 0.8%. CE 0.50%)

9. Discuss the possible application of weathering steels (corten) in buildings and correlate to
the mareial properties (mechanical, physical, durability)

Weathering steel, best-known under the trademark COR-TEN steel.is a group of steel alloys which
were developed to eliminate the need for painting, and form a stable rust-like appearance if
exposed to the weather for several years. "Weathering" means that due to their chemical
compositions, these steels exhibit increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion compared to other
steels. This is because the steel forms a protective layer on its surface under the influence of the
weather. Weathering steel is a high strength low alloy steel that was originally developed by United
States Steel in the 1930s to resist corrosion and abrasion in their ore wagons. Weathering steel
describes structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance. These steels are high
strength low alloy steels that under normal atmospheric conditions give an enhanced resistance to
rusting compared with that of ordinary carbon manganese steels. The basic metallurgical difference
between weathering steel and ordinary structural steel is the addition of chromium, copper and
nickel alloying elements, which give the weathering steel its enhanced resistance to corrosion.
Comparison of the material standards for weathering steel and ordinary structural steel shows that
the specification requirements for all other elements in the steel chemistry are similar.

Benefits of using weathering steel

Conventional steel bridges that take advantage of the latest advances in automated fabrication and
construction techniques are able to provide economic solutions to the demands of safety, rapid
construction, attractive appearance, shallow construction depth, minimal maintenance, and
flexibility in future use. Weathering Steel bridges have all these qualities, plus the following further
benefits.

Very low maintenance

Periodic inspection and cleaning should be the only maintenance required to ensure the bridge
continues to perform satisfactorily. Hence, weathering Steel bridges are ideal where access for
future maintenance is difficult or dangerous, and where traffic disruption needs to be minimised,
such as over major roads or railways. Although weathering steel is slightly more expensive than
ordinary structural steel, savings from elimination of the paint system offsets the additional material
cost. Hence, the initial cost of a weathering steel bridge is very similar to that of a conventional
painted steel alternative. Exposure to high concentrations of chloride ions, originating from
seawater spray, salt fogs or coastal airborne salts, is detrimental. The hygroscopic nature of salt
adversely affects the ▫patina▫ as it maintains a continuously damp environment on the metal
surface. In general, weathering steel should not be used for bridges within 2km of coastal waters

The corrosion-retarding effect of the protective layer is produced by the particular distribution and
concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer protecting the surface develops and regenerates
continuously when subjected to the influence of the weather. In other words, the steel is allowed to
rust in order to form the 'protective' coating. The mechanical properties of weathering steels
depend on which alloy and how thick the material is.
Weathering steel is popularly used in outdoor facade covering, bridge and other large structural
applications. Using weathering steel in construction presents several challenges. Ensuring that weld-
points weather at the same rate as the other materials may require special welding techniques or
material. Weathering steel is not rustproof in itself. If water is allowed to accumulate in pockets,
those areas will experience higher corrosion rates, so provision for drainage must be made.
Weathering steel is sensitive to humid subtropical climates. In such environments, it is possible that
the protective patina may not stabilize but instead continue to corrode.