Elements of Academic / Scholarly Papers

Front Matter

 Title and Title Page

 Abstract
 Table of Contents
 List of Figures
 List of Tables
 List of Terms
 Acknowledgments

Body

 Introduction
 Problem Statement
 Purpose
 Scope
 Authorization
 Background
 Theory
 Design and Decision Criteria
 Materials and Apparatus
 Procedure
 Work Plan
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Recommendations

End Matter

 References
 Appendixes
 Indexes
 Abstract

An abstract is a brief summarizing statement, usually between 75 and 250 words

long. It gives the reader a synopsis of the problem, method, results, and

conclusions of your document. An abstract presents a brief summary of your

research. The aim of the abstract is to briefly provide the reader with the most

important information from the entire text. The abstract takes the form of a

paragraph, usually with 5-10 sentences. It appears at the top of a journal article,

just under the title, or on the page following the title page of a report. In the latter

instance, the abstract appears on a page by itself.

Abstracts are often collected into volumes and must be able to stand alone. They

are read by parties who are trying to decide whether or not to read the main

document. Sometimes they are read by people who want to get the big picture

before reading the main document. Abstracts can save readers an immense amount

of time.

An abstract includes these elements:

 Problem. Note the key topic or problem of your document.

 Method. State your main approach to solving the problem.

 Results. Provide one or two important results.

 Conclusion. Note your main conclusion.

Introduction

The introduction to your document should lead your readers into your paper and give them an
idea of what to expect. It should not be simply a restatement of the abstract even though it will
contain some of the same material.

This is where you provide an introduction to the topic of your thesis/paper: you give the context
in terms of content of the research project.

The introduction begins by introducing the broad overall topic and providing basic background
information. It then narrows down to the specific research question relating to this topic. It
provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper and sets up the justification for the
research.

Introductions often do the following:

• State the subject of your document as clearly as possible

• Define the problem you are addressing, your approach to the problem, and why this
problem is important

• State the purpose of your document

• Define the scope of your document

• Provide necessary and relevant background information

Because the introduction leads your reader into your document, try to begin with a general
statement about the topic before moving on to specific issues. This strategy will help make the
topic accessible to your readers, especially those who are not specialists in the field.

Literature Review

The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and it relate it
specifically to the research problem. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the
new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to
date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as
academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles.

A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars
and researchers. A good literature review expands upon the reasons behind selecting a particular
research question.

Provide enough information in an academic document to allow your reader to understand the
specific problem being addressed and to provide a context for your own document. This
background information may include
(1) a historical summary of the problem being addressed;

(2) a brief summary of previous work on the topic, including, if appropriate, relevant theory; and

(3) the specific reasons the document is being written.

In short documents, include background information in the introduction. In longer documents,

however, putting some or all of the background information in a separate section with a heading
may be more effective.

A literature review must do these things:

 be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are
developing
 synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
 identify areas of controversy in the literature
 formulate questions that need further research

Methodology

The methods section will describe the research design and methodology used to complete to the
study. The general rule of thumb is that readers should be provided with enough detail to
replicate the study.

Include:

 How your data were collected.

 Who the participants are.
 Your corpus or materials.
 The type of analysis you carried out (e.g., quantitative or qualitative) and your procedure.
 How you analyzed or coded your data.

Results

In this section, the results of the analysis are presented. How the results are presented will
depend upon whether the research study was quantitative or qualitative in nature. This section
should focus only on results that are directly related to the research or the problem. Graphs and
tables should only be used when there is too much data to efficiently include it within the text.
This section should present the results, but not discuss their significance.

In the results section of a report, describe all appropriate information produced by the research
procedures. Simply present data and estimates of their accuracy. Save the explanation and
interpretation of these findings for the discussion section, which usually follows the results
section. In short documents, however, the results and discussion sections may be combined into a
single section.

Results sections make extensive use of graphs and figures to present data effectively. Order
information by its importance to your audience's purpose in reading the document. State all
significant findings in the text, referring to tables and graphs displaying all significant data. If the
study has produced a large amount of raw data, do not present all of it in the results section.
Instead, present only the information most appropriate to your audience's purpose in reading the
document, summarizing other key information in graphs and figures. If appropriate, include your
raw data in an appendix, referring to them within your text.

Discussion

Explain in the discussion section of your document information presented in the results section,
commenting on significant data produced by the study. In writing a discussion section, keep the
following points in mind.

 Identify significant patterns in the data and relationships between variables. Offer
tentative explanations for these patterns and relationships.
 Compare the actual data produced with any predictions or questions posed in the
introduction or theory section of the document.
 If any of the results differ from the expected results, offer possible explanations for the
discrepancies. Present the most probable explanations first and the least probable last.
 Consider how well the data answer any questions posed in the document's introduction.
Do the results answer the questions completely? If not, explain what questions still need
to be addressed and give possible explanations why the results may be inconclusive.
 Qualify the scope of your explanations, discussing in what cases your explanations apply
and in what cases they may not.
 Organize your material in order of importance to your reader's purpose in using the
document.

Conclusion

Include a conclusion as the final part of the body of your document. Because some readers of
documents, particularly managers, will sometimes not read the entire document but, instead,
focus on the conclusion, this part of the document should summarize all essential information
necessary for your audience's purpose. In your conclusion:

 Relate your findings to the general problem and any specific objectives posed in your
introduction.
 Summarize clearly what the report does and does not demonstrate.
 Include specific recommendations for action or for further research. Sometimes these
recommendations will constitute a separate section of a document.
Recommendations

Include appropriate and specific recommendations as part of your conclusion or, in feasibility
and recommendation reports, as a separate section preceding the conclusion.

Many types of scientific and technical documents conclude by pointing to further action.
Research reports often recommend further studies to confirm tentative explanations or to answer
questions presented in the discussion section. Feasibility and recommendation reports always
have one or more specific recommendations as the principal aim of the document.

Recommendations should always be specific and appropriate to the document's audience.

Separate each specific recommendation. Often authors present recommendations in bulleted or
numbered lists. Organize recommendations either in the order of importance or in the logical
order of development.

References

The research paper is not complete without the list of references. This section should be an
alphabetized list of all the academic sources of information utilized in the paper. The format of
the references will match the format and style used in the paper. Common formats include APA,
MLA, Harvard and so forth.

Appendixes

In one or more appendixes, include materials that are not essential parts of your main text but
that will provide useful reference information to readers seeking more detail.

The following list presents some typical material that is often included in an appendix.

Detailed explanations and elaborations too technical for the main text

Additional diagrams

Additional tables summarizing data

Long lists

Experimental protocols or survey questions

Selected computer code directly relevant to discussions in the main body

Guidelines for Appendixes

 Avoid using appendixes as dumping grounds for raw data that you will be unable to
incorporate in the body of the paper.
  If you have more than one appendix, use letters to label them (Appendix A, Appendix B,
and so forth).
 Give each appendix an appropriate title.
 Place one specific kind of information in each appendix.
 Begin each appendix on a new page.
 If appropriate, identify and summarize the contexts of an appendix in a short summary
paragraph.
 Refer to each appendix in the body of the document.

Indexes

Use well-structured indexes to make material in long documents accessible to your audience.

Indexes are extremely useful tools for allowing a reader to retrieve all important information. Construct
an index that will be helpful for all your audience's purposes in using the document and that will be
appropriate for their level of expertise.

Guidelines for Constructing an Index

 When writing a document, use features available in most word processors to mark items that
should be included in an index.
 Include every important subject, topic, subtopic, and proper name in the index.
 Most indexes consist of two levels of entries, a main heading and a subheading.
 Executive Summaries

Executive summaries may be written to summarize the key questions and findings of documents,
mainly reports. They are directed to readers--generally managerial--who will not read further. An
executive summary, unlike an abstract, is a document in miniature that may be read in place of
the longer document. Executive summaries are placed immediately after the title page of a
report. They typically range between 10 and 25 percent of the original document.

Structure and Content

The structure of executive summaries is similar to that of abstracts

 Problem
 Method
 Results
 Recommendations

About 25 percent of the executive summary is devoted to the problem and method, and the
remaining 75 percent is given to the results and recommendations.

Format

Presentation of executive summaries is especially important, since speed and the convenience of
the reader are the main objects. The material should be organized into enumerated chunks, given
descriptive headings, and highlighted.