PROJECT REPORT

(Project Semester January-June 2018)

(CONTRACT MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING)

Submitted by

Priyam Chhabra
Student ID 15104064

Under the Guidance of

Mrs. Rintu Khanna

Akshaye Raj Aggarwal
Associate Professor
Director
Electrical Department
Disha
PEC University of Technology
unit of CIZ Educational Visions)
PEC University of Technology
Pvt Limited

1
 Department of Electrical Engineering

PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh

January to June, 2018

2
 Punjab Engineering College

Chandigarh

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “Contract Management in Electrical

Engineering” submitted by Priyam Chhabra is a bonafide work done under the
guidance of Mr. Akshaye Raj Aggarwal for fulfilment of the internship project.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in this project has

not been submitted to any other institute/university.

Date: Mr. AKSHAYE RAJ AGGARWAL

Place: Chandigarh DIRECTOR
CIZ DISHA
(A UNIT OF CIZ EDUCATIONAL VISIONS
PVT. LTD.)

3
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “Contract Management In

Electrical Engineering” is an authentic record of my own work carried out at
“CIZ DISHA (A Unit of CIZ Educational Pvt. Ltd.)” as requirements of six
months project semester for the award of degree of B.E. in “Electrical
Engineering”, PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, under the guidance
of Mr. Akshaye Raj Aggarwal and Associate Prof. Mrs. Rintu Khanna, during
January to June, 2018.

Priyam
Chhabra
15104064

Date: 17 July 2018

Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our
knowledge and belief.

Mrs. Rintu Khanna

Akshaye Raj Aggarwal

Director
Electrical Department
Disha

unit of CIZ Educational Visions)

PEC
Pvt Limited

4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Tejinder Singh Saggu (Head, TPO)
for giving me a chance to take training at this organization CIZ DISHA (A UNIT
OF CIZ EDUCATIONAL PRIVATE LIMITED) Sector 25 D, Chandigarh.

I am very much thankful to Mr. Akshaye Raj Aggarwal, Director cum

Industry coordinator for their valuable guidance, keen interest and
encouragement at various stages of my training period.

I acknowledge with thanks the kind of patronage, loving inspiration and timely
guidance, which I have received from my faculty coordinator Associate Prof.
Mrs. Rintu Khanna.

I would also thank my institution and my faculty members without whom this
project would have been a distant reality. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to
my friends and colleagues for their help and support in training.

5
Abstract
E-procurement is the latest way for bidding. It is mostly used in all Centre and State
government department. It is very useful as all the information can be accessed from any
part of the country .It removes all the hectic procedures. It increases the transparency in
the bidding, hence it reduces the corruption in bidding and saves public wealth.Using
internet or intranet based information systems software to coordinate the buying, shipping,
inventory management, supplier selection, and approval process of vital business
acquisitions within the organizations core competency.

There is need to overcome the energy crisis to provide a good standard of living for the
people. So the renewable energy sources are used extensively to harness energy from
natural source like solar and wind. Much attention is given to harnessing of solar energy as
wind energy is mostly available in coastal regions. The growth and development in solar
PV technologies increasing rapidly due to technological improvement, cost reductions in
materials and governments support for renewable energy based electricity production.
Thin-film flexible photovoltaics are paving the way to low-cost electricity. Organic, inorganic
and organic-inorganic solar cells are deposited over flexible substrates by high-throughput
(often roll-to-roll printing) technologies to afford lightweight, economic solar modules that
can be integrated into, not installed on, various surfaces. Current conversion efficiencies
under standard conditions are in the 3
– 15 %range, but in real applications the overall productivity is high. These new
photovoltaic technologies are ready to provide cheap, clean electricity to the billions of
people who lack access to the grid as well as to energy-eager companies and families
in the developed world facing the increasing costs of electricity generated using fossil
fuel resources. This paper includes the performance analysis of a Thin-film flexible 68
Watt solar PV on Roof-top and Facade condition in a hazy day

Compact Fluorescent Lamps or CFL’s are increasingly grabbing the attention of wide
range of people ranging from scientists to environment agencies and everyone in
between. It can be expected that this lamp in the form of a “ice cream cone swirl” can
be the successor of lighting apparatus all over the world with its advantages of power
saving, eco-friendly technology and limited disadvantages. Here we discuss the
advent, advantages and applications of CFL’s in daily household purposes of lighting.

6
Organisation profile
“CIZ Disha” is a training platform provided by Compete India Zone – An
engineering enterprise by IITians, the target of which is to provide free practical
training to the engineering students pursuing B.E./B.Tech in renowned
colleges/universities of India. As a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of CIZ,
the training provided to the engineers is either free of cost or at very subsidized
rates. The top management of CIZ Disha includes the core team of Compete India
Zone, and various other top professionals having vast industrial experience.

Work of my project was completed at three different locations.

Amson Transformers, Phase VIII B, Mohali.

It is a very old private LTD. Company for Design, manufacturing and repairing of
transformers. It provides transformers to various state electricity board.

Azure Power, Punjab Mandi board, Mohali.

It was a 2 MW power plant at the location which provides electricity to the nearby grid.

Philips, Mohali, Punjab

It is a leading manufacturer, exporter and supplier of cfl lights, led lights distributor,
trader of home lighting accessories, cfl, ecomoods, luminair and energy.

7
 Table of contents
S.NO. TITLE

1 e-Procurement
PAGE
NO.
10-12

2 Transformer 10
11
13-64

13
15
23
26
29
3 Solar Power plant 45
63
65-71

65
66
68
4 Manufacturing of CFL
69
70
72-84

72
75
78
5 Conclusion 79
6 Difficulties Faced 83
85
7References
86

87

8
 List of figures
S.No.
2.1.1 Distribution transform
2.1.2 Power system networ
2.2.1 Core type transformer
2.2.2 Shell type transformer
2.2.3 Yoke of transformer
2.2.4 Buchholz Relay with t
2.2.5 Practical Buchholz Re
2.2.6 Buchholz Relay
2.2.7 Conservator tank
2.2.8 Oil level indicator
2.2.9 Breather
2.2.10 Breather connected to
2.2.11 Winding temperature
2.2.12 Drain valve of distribu
2.3.1 Assembled core of tra
2.3.2 Winding designing
2.3.3 Designed windings
2.3.4 Core coil assembly
2.3.5 Tanking
2.3.6 Tank
2.6.1 Digital megger with a
2.6.2 Transformer oil is filled
2.6.3 Schematic diagram
Transformer
2.6.4 Switching impulse tes
2.6.6 100 Hz generator set
2.6.7 Back to back test sche
2.6.8 Wound core and stack
2.7.1 Circuit breaker
3.2.1 Solar panel
3.2.2 Solar panel symmetric
3.4.1 Solar power plant key
4.1.1 CFL
4.1.2 CFL internal structure
4.1.3 CFL circuit diagram
4.1.4 Gases in CFL
9
 4.4.1 Cutting machine
4.4.2 Bending machine
4.4.3 Coating machine
4.4.4 Sealing machine
4.4.5 Fusion machine
4.4.6 Aging machine

List of tables
S.No. Title
2.4.1 Distribution transformer operate under
conditions
2.4.2 Voltage level can be specified as415-24
per requirements of purchaser
2.4.3 Specification of audible sound levels as
2.5.1 Insulation level as per rating
2.5.2 Maximum allowable losses at rated volt
upto 200kVA transformer
2.5.3 Maximum allowable losses at rated volt
for any rating transformer at 75 degree
2.5.4 Permanent deflection as per according t
2.5.5 Requirements for dry film thickness of p
used in transformer
2.5.6 Minimum external phase to phase and p
of bushing terminals as per voltage rati
2.5.7 Clearance in case of cable box as per v
2.5.8 Tank design for vacuum tested at an inte
2.6.1 Selection of IR tester as per according
2.6.2 Measurement range of megger
2.6.3 Comparison between theoretical resista
resistance of insulation
2.6.4 Values of test voltage for different fully
2.6.5 Equipment highest voltage
3.4.1 Solar Energy data
4.5.1 Electrical power equivalents for differin

10
 e-Procurement
1.1 Introduction
e-Procurement means procurement of goods and services online using the internet.
Ideally, it covers the full ‘life cycle of procurement’.

The intention is to automate, possibly, the entire procurement process, along

with tender bid submission and payments by suppliers, in an online web-based
real-time environment.

e-Procurement could resolve many of the constraints/ delays of traditional

procurement. Objectives of automating procurement processes are to:-

Reduce cycle times of procurement

Increase supplier access to ensure wider participation
Reduce costs of procurement through competitive bidding and Reverse
Auctioning
Remove cartelisation by supplier groups (Reverse Auctioning)
Increase visibility of procurement spend, for effective decision
making Increase transparency in the procurement process
Almost complete elimination of paperwork, for speedy and efficient functioning.

What is e-Publishing module?

The process of uploading the details of tender enquiry, its

contract details on to the C.P.P. portal
ID and password. Digital Signature Ce
at this stage.e-Procurement is the c
online publishing of Tender Enquiries, Online bid submission by the bidders, online
bid opening, Online bid evaluation and publication of award of contract on the CPP
Portal. Digital Signature Certificate is mandatory for e-Procurement module.

e-Procurement solution Functionalities

Online Supplier Registration (Portal

Registration) Creation of Tender
Approval of Tender
Publishing of Tender
Corrigendum
Online Bid submission by suppliers/contractors

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 Online payment of Tender Fees &
EMD Online Bid opening
Evaluation of bids (Technical and Financial)
Generation of Comparative Statement (Technical & Financial)

Creating the tender

Publishing the tender

Bid submission

Technical bid opening

Technical bid evaluation

Financial bid opening

Financial bid evaluation

Award of contract

Flow chart

12
1.2Whole process of e-Procurement

Online notification from department

Requirement with given specification

If firm is ready to manufacture the transformer then he can

apply for online bidding

For online bidding person have to make valid ID with

having all important details.

In online bidding various bidders send their proposals of

rates for given specification of transformer.

Now department choose the best suitable firm for

manufacture of transformers

Firm has to complete the tender within the specified time

period and specified performance parameters

If the firm does not meet the requirements. Firm gets

blacklisted for three years or more for bidding

13
 Transformer
2.1Introduction
Transformer is an electrical machine that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another by the principle of electromagnetic induction. While transferring electrical
energy, its frequency does not change. When the transformer raises the voltage i.e.
when the output voltage of transformer is higher than input voltage, it is called step up
transformer and when its output is lower than input, then it is called step down
transformer. The distribution transformer is the step down transformer that reduces the
voltage to domestic use. Since, its basic construction requires no moving parts, so it is
often called static transformer and it is very rugged machine requiring the minimum
amount of repair and maintenance. Owing to the lack of rotating parts there is no
friction or winding losses. Further, the losses are relatively low, so that the efficiency of
a transformer is high. Typical transformer efficiencies at full load lie between 96% and
97% and with extremely large capacity of transformers the efficiencies are as high as
99%. A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an
iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so
that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

14
Fig.2.1.1

Fig.2.1.2
15
2.2 Types of transformer and its parts
Core type transformer

Fig.2.2.1

In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the

core. The coils used for this transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical
type. Such a type of transformer can be applicable for small sized and large
sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be rectangular in shape
and the coils used are cylindrical. In the case of circular cylindrical coils, they
have a fair advantage of having good mechanical strength. The cylindrical coils
will have different layers and each layer will be insulated from the other with the
help of materials like paper, cloth, mica board and so on.

SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

In shell-type transformers the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings.

The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of
pancakes. Paper is used to insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs.

Fig.2.2.2

16
ACTIVE PARTS OF TRANSFORMER

Process to Manufacture Transformer

1. Core cutting

2. Core laying

3. Winding (HV & LV)

4. Semi Assembly

5. Final Assembly

6. Testing

Flow chart of Manufacturing

17
Outer Parts of Transformer
Yoke-It is use to protect the transformer inner part to bad environment condition.

Fig.2.2.3

Buchholz Relay-It is a very sensitive gas and oil operated instrument which
safely detect the formation of gas or sudden pressure inside the oil
transformer. It is a electrical and mechanical both type operated device.
Electrical type relay is vary accurate as compare to mechanical type relay.

Fig.2.2.4

18
 Fig.2.2.5

Fig.2.2.6

Conservator Tank-This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure

on the roof of the transformer's main tank. When transformer is loaded,
the temperature of oil increases and consequently the volume of oil in
the transformer get increased. Again, when ambient temperature is
increased, the volume of oil is also increased. The conservator tank of a
transformer provides adequate space for expansion of oil. Conservator
tank of transformer also acts as a reservoir of oil.

19
 Fig.2.2.7

OIL LEVEL INDICATOR

Fig.2.2.8

Oil Level Indicator-It is used to show the oil level in the transformer.
Breather-When the temperature changes occur in transformer insulating oil, the
oil expands or contracts and there an exchange of air also occurs when
transformer is fully loaded. When transformer gets cooled, the oil level goes
down and air gets absorbed within. This process is called breathing and the
apparatus that pass through the air is called breather. Actually, a silica gel
breather controls the level of moisture, entering electrical equipment during the
change in volume of the cooling medium and airspace caused by temperature

20
 increasing. So it sucks the moisture from the air which is taken by transforme .

Fig.2.2.9

Fig.2.2.10

Winding Temperature Indicator-Used to show the temperature of

transformer winding.

21
 Fig.2.2.11
Cooling Fans/Radiator - These are used for cooling of the transformer oil. The
capacity of the transformer is dependent to its temperature that is why it
is imperative for it to have a cooling mechanism for better performance
and higher efficiency.
Drain Valve- It can be usually found in the bottom part of the transformer tank.
Drain valves are used whenever oil replacement is necessary. Through
this valve, the replacement of oil in an oil-filled transformer can be easily
done simply by opening this valve like that of a faucet.

DRAIN VALVE
Fig.2.2.12

Inner Parts of Transformer

Core - Core is used to support the windings in the transformer. It also provides
a low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. It is made up of laminated
soft iron core in order to reduce eddy current loss and Hysteresis loss. The
composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current,
22
 and frequency. Diameter of the transformer core is directly proportional to
copper loss and is inversely proportion to the iron loss. If diameter of the
core is decreased, the weight of the steel in the core is reduced which leads
to less core loss of transformer and the copper loss increase. The vice versa
happen when the diameter is increased. Generally the core is made by
many single strip (Width 0.5 to 0.6-mm).Because the eddy current loss. Strip
is made up of aluminium and silicon composite material.
The core, which provides the magnetic path to channel the flux, consists of thin
strips of high-grade steel, called laminations, which are electrically separated by
a thin coating of insulating material. The strips can be stacked or wound, with
the windings either built integrally around the core or built separately and
assembled around the core sections. Core steel can be hot- or cold-rolled,
grain-oriented or non-grain oriented, and even laser-scribed for additional
performance. Thickness ranges from 0.23 mm to upwards of 0.35 mm. The core
cross section can be circular or rectangular, with circular cores commonly
referred to as cruciform construction. Rectangular cores are used for smaller
ratings and as auxiliary transformers used within a power transformer.
Rectangular cores use different width of strip steel, while circular cores use a
combination of different strip widths to approximate a circular cross-section. The
type of steel and arrangement depends on the transformer rating as related to
cost factors such as labour and performance. The material that is used to in
core is called electrical steel (Si alloy) and is also known as CRGO (Cold-rolled
grain oriented). When voltage is applied to the exciting or primary winding of the
transformer, the magnetizing current flows in the primary winding to secondary
winding. This current produces the flux in the core. The flow of flux in magnetic
circuits is analogous to the flow of current in electrical circuits. When flux flows
in the steel core, losses occur in the steel. There are two components of this
loss, which are termed “eddy” and “hysteresis” losses. To reduce hysteresis loss
that occurs due to magnetizing & demagnetizing of the core, can be reduced by
adding silicon 3 to 4%. Only that material is used that has low area of hysteresis
loss. Eddy currents can be reduced by laminating the core and decreasing
thickness of a sheet of core. The thickness of a sheet that is taken in DT
(Distribution Transformer) and in PT (Power Transformer) is 0.23mm to 0.27mm
and 0.3mm to 0.35mm respectively.
The core consists of yoke, central leg and limb. Top & bottom sheets are called
yoke & the yoke has two holes. The central sheet is called central leg
and side sheets are called limbs.

Primary Winding (HV-Winding) - Generally in primary winding has low

current and high voltage winding. Primary Windings (HVWinding) are
made up of copper coil. The number of turns in it is the multiple of the
number of turns in the low voltage windings. It has copper coils thinner
than that of the low voltage windings. Primary Winding is placed on
secondary winding because of insulation purpose.
Secondary Winding (LV-Winding) - Generally the secondary winding has high
current and low voltage winding. Low voltage winding has lesser number of
turns than that of the high voltage windings. It is made up of the thick copper
23
 conductors. This is because the current in the low voltage windings is
higher than that of high voltage windings. The secondary winding are
placed between core and primary winding.
Transformer Oil- Transformer oil performs two important functions of
insulation as well as cooling for the core and coil assembly. Core and
windings of the transformer must be completely immersed in the oil.
Normally hydrocarbon mineral oils are used as transformer oil.

2.3Manufacturing Process of Transformer

Flow Chart

1) CORE ASSEMBLY: The transformers are built with fully annealed,

Cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) laminations. Fully mitred designs
are used to ensure low losses/low magnetising current & low noise
levels.

24
Fig.2.3.1 (a) Fig.2.3.1 (b)
1) WINDING: The windings are designed to optimise Thermal,
Mechanical & Electrical stresses depending upon the current & voltage
requirements. They can be of (a) Spiral Type, (b) Cross Over Type, (c)
Helical Type, (d) Continuous disc type. The coils are made from paper
covered or synthetic enamelled copper or aluminium conductors of EC
grade

Fig.2.3.2

Fig.2.3.3

25
2) CORE COIL ASSEMBLY: It is always ensured that all the HT & LT coils
are pre-shrunk, varnished and dried before assembly. Special care is taken to
make the core coil assembly mechanically and electrically strong. For this,
vertical and horizontal supports of PC Board of required strength & size,
suitably interlocked, are provided. Each HT coil section is separated by press
board rings. Yoke insulations are made of PC Board, permalli wood or Bakelite
sheets, depending upon the size and voltage class of the transformer. LT leads
are taken to the bushing terminals through proper bus bars/flexible jumpers. HT
tapping leads & line leads are taken to the respective terminals through SRBP
tubes-all suitability braced. Complete assembly is then dried in thermostatically
controlled oven at 90 C. At the end of the drying cycle, the core assembly is
further tightened to take care of the shrink.

Fig.2.3.4

3) TANKING: The tanks are made of mild steel and are of welded
type. Suitable stiffeners are provided for robust construction. Enough
cooling radiators made from elliptical tubes/pressed steel fins are
provided to maintain the temperature rise within specified limits

26
 Fig.2.3.5

TANK
Fig.2.3.6
4) TESTING: Each transformer is subjected to all the routine
tests as
recommended by IS: 2026. On specific agreement, transformers can
also be subjected to certain type tests/special purpose tests. Purchaser
may depute his representative to witness these tests.
5) SHIPPING TRANSFORMER

STANDARD RATINGS:

The standard ratings shall be 10, 16, 25, 63, 100, 160, 200, 250, 315, 400, 500,
630, 1000, 1250,1600, 2000 and 2500 kVA for 11 kV distribution transformers
and 100, 160, 200, 315, 400, 500, 630, 1000, 1250, 1600, 2000, 2500 kVA for
33 kV distribution transformers.

2.4Service Conditions
4.1 The Distribution Transformers to be supplied against this Specification shall
be suitable for satisfactory continuous operation under the following climatic
conditions as per IS 2026 (Part - I).

Location

Maximum ambient air temperature (0C)

Minimum ambient air temperature (0C)

27
Maximum average daily ambient air temperature (0C)

Maximum yearly weighted average ambient

temperature (0C)
Maximum altitude above mean sea level (Metres)

Table 2.4.1

Note:

1. The climatic conditions specified above are indicative and can be changed by
the user as per requirements.
2. The equipment shall generally be for use in moderately hot and humid tropical
climate, conducive to rust and fungus growth unless otherwise specified.

PRINCIPAL PARAMETERS:

The transformers shall be suitable for outdoor installation with three phase, 50
Hz, 11 kV or 33 kV system in which the neutral is effectively earthed and they
should be suitable for service with fluctuations in supply voltage up to plus
12.5% to minus 12.5%.

The transformers shall conform to the following specific parameters:

Table 2.4.2

The voltage level can be specified as 415-240 V/400-230 V volts as per the
requirements of the purchaser.

Audible sound levels (decibels) at rated voltage and frequency for liquid
immersed distribution transformers shall be as below (NEMA Standards):

28
Table 2.4.3

2.5 Technical requirements

Core Material - CRGO / Amorphous Metal

1) CRGO Material
The core shall be stack / wound type of high grade cold rolled grain oriented
annealed steel lamination having low loss and good grain properties, coated
with hot oil proof insulation, bolted together and to the frames firmly to
prevent vibration or noise. The core shall be stress relieved by annealing
under inert atmosphere if required. The complete design of core must
ensure permanency of the core loss with continuous working of the
transformers. The value of the maximum flux density allowed in the design
and grade of lamination used shall be clearly stated in the offer.
The bidder should offer the core for inspection and approval by the purchaser
during manufacturing stage.
The transformers core shall be suitable for over fluxing (due to combined effect
of voltage and frequency) up to 12.5% without injurious heating at full
load conditions and shall not get saturated. The bidder shall furnish
necessary design data in support of this situation.
No-load current shall not exceed 3% of full load current and will be measured by
energising the transformer at 433 volts, 50 Hz on the secondary. Increase of
voltage of 433 volts by 12.5% shall not increase the no-load current by 6%
(maximum) of full load current.
2) Amorphous metal:
29
 The core shall be high quality amorphous ribbons having very low loss formed
into wound cores of rectangular shape, bolted together to the frames firmly to
prevent vibration or noise. The complete design of core must ensure
permanency of the core loss with continuous working of the transformers. The
value of the flux density allowed in the design shall be clearly stated in the offer.
Curve showing the properties of the metal shall be attached with the offer.
The transformer core shall be suitable for over fluxing (due to combined effect
of voltage and frequency) upto 12.5% without injurious heating at full
load conditions and shall not get saturated. The bidder shall furnish
necessary design data in support of this situation.
No load current shall not exceed 2% of full load current and will be measured by
energising the transformer at 433 volts, 50 Hz on the secondary. For
increase of voltage of 433 volts by 12.5%, the no-load current shall not
increase beyond 5 % of the full load current.

Windings:

Material:

HV and LV windings shall be wound from Super Enamel covered /Double

Paper covered, aluminium /copper conductor/ foil 100 kVA and below.

HV and LV windings shall be wound from Super Enamel covered / Double

Paper covered copper conductor/foil winding for ratings above 100 kVA.
LV winding shall be such that neutral formation will be at top.
The winding construction of single HV coil wound over LV coil is preferable.
Inter layer insulation shall be Nomex /Epoxy dotted Kraft Paper.
Proper bonding of inter layer insulation with the conductor shall be
ensured. Test for bonding strength shall be conducted
Dimensions of winding coils are very critical. Dimensional tolerances for
winding coils shall be within limits as specified in Guaranteed Technical
Particulars.
Current density for HV and LV winding should not be more than 2.8 Ampere per
sq. mm for copper and 1.6 Ampere per sq. mm for Aluminium Conductor.
The core/coil assembly shall be securely held in position to avoid any
movement under short circuit conditions.
Joints in the winding shall be avoided. However, if jointing is necessary
the joints shall be properly brazed and the resistance of the joints shall
be less than that of parent conductor. In case of foil windings, welding of
leads to foil can be done within the winding.

30
TAPS:

No tapping shall be provided for transformers up to 100 kVA rating.

For ratings above 100 kVA and up to 200 kVA, tapping shall be provided, if
required by the purchaser, on the higher voltage winding for variation of
HV voltage within range of (+) 5.0 % to (-) 7.5% in steps of 2.5%.
For ratings higher than 200 kVA, tapping shall be provided on the higher voltage
winding for variation of HV voltage within range of (+) 5.0 % to (-) 15.0 %
in steps of 2.5%.
Tap changing shall be carried out by means of an externally operated self-
position switch and when the transformer is in de-energised condition. Switch
position No.1 shall correspond to the maximum plus tapping. Each tap change
shall result in variation of 2.5% in voltage. Provision shall be made for locking
the taping switch handle in position. Suitable aluminium anodised plate shall be
fixed for tap changing switch to know the position number of tap.

OIL:

Use of recycled oil is not acceptable. The specific resistance of the oil shall not
be less than 2.5 X1012 ohm-cm at 27 0C when tested.
Oil shall be filtered and tested for break down voltage (BDV) and moisture
content before filling.
The oil shall be filled under vacuum.
The design and all materials and processes used in the manufacture of the
transformer, shall be such as to reduce to a minimum the risk of the
development of acidity in the oil.

Insulation levels :

Table 2.5.1

LOSSES:

The bidder shall guarantee individually the no-load loss and load loss without
any positive tolerance. The bidder shall also guarantee the total losses at 50%
and 100% load condition (at rated voltage and frequency and at 75 0C).
The maximum allowable losses at rated voltage and rated frequency permitted at
75 0C for 11/0.433 kV transformers can be chosen by the utility from the
values of 3 star, 4 star or 5 star rating for transformers up to rating of 200
kVA as indicated below:
31
 Table 2.5.2

For transformers of other ratings the following maximum allowable losses at

rated voltage and frequency and at 75 degree Celsius shall be taken:

32
 Table 2.5.3

TOLERANCES:

No positive tolerance shall be allowed on the maximum losses displayed on

the label for both 50% and 100% loading values.

PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE:

The value of impedance of transformers at 75 degree Celsius shall be 4.5% for

transformers up to and 200 kVA and for ratings above 200 kVA shall be
in accordance with IS 2026.

Temperature rise: The temperatures rise over ambient shall not exceed the
limits given below:

Top oil temperature rise measured by thermometer : 35 degree Celsius

Winding temperature rise measured by resistance method : 40 degree Celsius

Bids not meeting the above limits of temperature rise will be treated as non-responsive.

33
 The transformer shall be capable of giving continuous rated output
without exceeding the specified temperature rise. Bidder shall submit the
calculation sheet in this regard.

INSULATION MATERIAL:

Electrical grade insulation epoxy dotted Kraft Paper/Nomex and pressboard of

standard make or any other superior material subject to approval of the
purchaser shall be used.
All spacers, axial wedges / runners used in windings shall be made of
precompressed Pressboard-solid, conforming to type B 3.1 of IEC 641-3-
2. In case of cross-over coil winding of HV all spacers shall be properly
sheared 10 and dovetail punched to ensure proper locking. All axial
wedges / runners shall be properly milled to dovetail shape so that they
pass through the designed spacers freely. Insulation shearing, cutting,
milling and punching operations shall be carried out in such a way, that
there should not be any burr and dimensional variations.

TANK:

The internal clearance of tank shall be such, that it shall facilitate easy lifting of
core with coils from the tank without dismantling LV bushings.
All joints of tank and fittings shall be oil tight and no bulging should occur
duringservice.
Inside of tank shall be painted with varnish/hot oil resistant paint.
The top cover of the tank shall be slightly sloping to drain rain water.
The tank plate and the lifting lugs shall be of such strength that the complete
transformer filled with oil may be lifted by means of lifting shackle.
Manufacturer should carry out all welding operations as per the relevant ASME
standards and submit a copy of the welding procedure and welder
performance qualification certificates to the customer.
PLAIN TANK:

The transformer tank shall be of robust construction

rectangular/octagonal/round/
elliptical in shape and shall be built up of electrically tested welded mild steel
plates of thickness of 3.15 mm for the bottom and top and not less than 2.5 mm
for the sides for distribution transformers upto and including 25 kVA, 5.0 mm
and 3.15 mm respectively for transformers of more than 25 kVA and up to
and including 100 kVA and 6 mm and 4 mm respectively above 100 kVA.
In case of rectangular tanks above 100 kVA the corners shall be fully welded at
the corners from inside and outside of the tank to withstand a pressure of 0.8
kg/cm2 for 30 minutes. In case of transformers of 100 kVA and below, there
shall be no joints at corners and there shall not be more than 2 joints in total.
Under operating conditions the pressure generated inside the tank should not
exceed 0.4 kg/ sq. cm positive or negative. There must be sufficient space from
34
 the core to the top cover to take care of oil expansion. The space above
oil level in the tank shall be filled with dry air or nitrogen.
The tank shall be reinforced by welded flats on all the outside walls on
the edge of the tank.
Permanent deflection: The permanent deflection, when the tank without oil is
subjected to a vacuum of 525 mm of mercury for rectangular tank and 760 mm
of mercury for round tank, shall not be more than the values as given below:

Table 2.5.4

The tank shall further be capable of withstanding a pressure of 0.8 kg/sq.cm (g)
and a vacuum of 0.7kg/sq.cm (g) without any deformation.
The radiators can be tube type or fin type or pressed steel type to
achieve the desired cooling to limit the specified temperature rise.

CORRUGATED TANK:

The bidder may offer corrugated tanks for transformers of all ratings.
The transformer tank shall be of robust construction corrugated in shape and
shall be built up of tested sheets.
Corrugation panel shall be used for cooling. The transformer shall be capable of
giving continuous rated output without exceeding the specified
temperature rise. Bidder shall submit the calculation sheet in this regard.
Tanks with corrugations shall be tested for leakage test at a pressure of
0.25kg/sq. cm measured at the top of the tank.
The transformers with corrugation should be provided with a pallet for
transportation, the dimensions of which should be more than the length
and width of the transformer tank with corrugations.

CONSERVATOR:

The conservator shall be provided on transformers of rating 63 kVA and above

for plain tank and 200 kVA and above for corrugated tank. For other ratings
transformers manufacturer may adopt their standard practice or follow utility’s
requirement. For sealed type transformers conservator is not required.

35
 When a conservator is provided, oil gauge and the plain or dehydrating
breathing device shall be fitted to the conservator which shall also be
provided with a drain plug and a filling hole [32 mm (1¼”)] normal size
thread with cover. In addition, the cover of the main tank shall be
provided with an air release plug.
The dehydrating agent shall be silica gel. The moisture absorption shall be
indicated by a change in the colour of the silica gel crystals which should
be easily visible from a distance. Volume of breather shall be suitable for
500g of silica gel conforming to IS 3401 for transformers upto 200 kVA
and 1 kg for transformers above 200 kVA.
The capacity of a conservator tank shall be designed keeping in view the total
quantity of oil and its contraction and expansion due to temperature variations.
The total volume of conservator shall be such as to contain10% quantity of the
oil. Normally 3% quantity the oil shall be contained in the conservator.
The cover of main tank shall be provided with an air release plug to enable air
trapped within to be released, unless the conservator is so located as to
eliminate the possibility of air being trapped within the main tank.
The inside diameter of the pipe connecting the conservator to the main tank
should be within 20 to 50 mm and it should be projected into the conservator so
that its end is approximately 20 mm above the bottom of the conservator so as
to create a sump for collection of impurities. The minimum oil level
(corresponding to -5 degree Celsius) should be above the sump level.

CLEANING AND SURFACE PREPARATION:

After all machining, forming and welding has been completed, all steel work
surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale, welding slag or
spatter and other contamination prior to any painting.
Steel surfaces shall be prepared by shot blast cleaning (IS9954) to grade Sq.2.5
of ISO 8501-1 or chemical cleaning including phosphating of the
appropriate quality (IS 3618).
Chipping, scraping and steel wire brushing using manual or power driven tools
cannot remove firmly adherent mill-scale. These methods shall only be
used where blast cleaning is impractical. Manufacturer to clearly explain
such areas in his technical offer.

PROTECTIVE COATING:

As soon as all items have been cleaned and within four hours of the
subsequent drying, they shall be given suitable anti-corrosion protection.
PAINT MATERIAL:

Following are the types of paint which may be suitably used for the items to be
painted at shop and supply of matching paint to site: Heat resistant paint
(Hot oil proof) for inside surface

36
 For external surfaces one coat of thermosetting powder paint or one coat of
epoxy primer followed by two coats of synthetic enamel/polyurethene
base paint. These paints can be either air drying or stoving.
For highly polluted areas, chemical atmosphere or for places very near to the sea
coast, paint as above with one coat of high build micaceous iron oxide
(MIO) as an intermediate coat may be used.

PAINTING PROCEDURE:

All prepared steel surfaces should be primed before visible re-rusting occurs or
within 4 hours, whichever is sooner. Chemical treated steel surfaces shall
be primed as soon as the surface is dry and while the surface is still warm.
Where the quality of film is impaired by excess film thickness (wrinkling, mud
cracking or general softness) the supplier shall remove the unsatisfactory paint
coating and apply another coating. As a general rule, dry film thickness should
not exceed the specified minimum dry film thickens by more than 25%.

DAMAGED PAINTWORK:

Any damage occurring to any part of a painting scheme shall be made good to
the same standard of corrosion protection and appearance as that was
originally applied.
Any damaged paint work shall be made good as follows:
The damaged area, together with an area extending 25 mm around its boundary,
shall be cleaned down to bare metal.
A priming coat shall be immediately applied, followed by a full paint finish
equal to that originally applied and extending 50 mm around the
perimeter of the original damage.
The repainted surface shall present a smooth surface. This shall be
obtained by carefully chamfering the paint edges before and after priming.

DRY FILM THICKNESS:

To the maximum extent practicable the coats shall be applied as acontinuous

film of uniform thickness and free of pores. Overspray, skips,runs, sags
and drips should be avoided. The different coats may or maynot be of
the same colour.
Each coat of paint shall be allowed to harden before the next is applied as per
manufacturer’s recommendation.
Particular attention must be paid to full film thickness at the edges.

37
 The requirements for the dry film thickness (DFT) of paint and the materials to
be used shall be as given below:

Table 2.5.5

TESTS FOR PAINTED SURFACE:

The painted surface shall be tested for paint thickness.

The painted surface shall pass the cross hatch adhesion test and impact test as
acceptance tests and Salt spray test and Hardness test as type test as
per the relevant ASTM standards.

Note: Supplier shall guarantee the painting performance requirement for a

period of not less than 5 years

BUSHINGS:

The bushings shall conform to the relevant standards specified and shall be of
outdoor type. The bushing rods and nuts shall be made of brass material 12
mm diameter for both HT and LT bushings. The bushings shall be fixed to
the transformers on side with straight pockets and in the same plane or the
top cover for transformers above 100 kVA. For transformers of 100 kVA and
below the bushing can be mounted on pipes. The tests as per latest IS 2099
and IS 7421 shall be conducted on the transformer bushings.
For 33 kV, 52 kV class bushings shall be used for transformers of ratings 500
kVA and above. And for transformers below 500 KVA, 33 kV class
bushings, for 11 kV, 17.5 kV class bushings and for 0.433 kV, 1.1 kV
class bushings shall be used.
Bushing can be of porcelain/epoxy material. Polymer insulator bushings
conforming with relevant IEC can also be used.
Bushings of plain shades as per IS 3347 shall be mounted on the side of
the Tank and not on top cover.
38
 Dimensions of the bushings of the voltage class shall conform to the Standards
specified and dimension of clamping arrangement shall be as per IS
4257 20.6 Minimum external phase to phase and phase to earth
clearances of bushing terminals shall be as follows:

Table 2.5.6

The clearances in case of cable box shall be as below:

Table 2.5.7

Arcing horns shall be provided on HV bushings.

Brazing of all inter connections, jumpers from winding to bushing shall have
cross section larger than the winding conductor. All the Brazes shall be
qualified as per ASME, section – IX.
The bushings shall be of reputed make supplied by those manufacturers who are
having manufacturing and testing facilities for insulators.
The terminal arrangement shall not require a separate oil chamber not
connected to oil in the main tank.

TERMINAL MARKINGS:
High voltage phase windings shall be marked both in the terminal boards inside
the tank and on the outside with capital letter 1U, 1V, 1W and low voltage winding
for the same phase marked by corresponding small letter 2u, 2v, 2w. The neutral
point terminal shall be indicated by the letter 2n. Neutral terminal is to be brought
out and connected to local grounding terminal by an earthing strip.

FITTINGS:
The following standard fittings shall be provided:
i. Rating and terminal marking plates, non-detachable.
ii.Earthing terminals with lugs - 2 Nos.
39
 iii. Lifting lugs for main tank and top cover
iv. Terminal connectors on the HV/LV bushings (For bare terminations only).
v. Thermometer pocket with cap - 1 No.
vi. Air release device
vii. HV bushings - 3 Nos.
viii. LV bushings - 4 Nos.
ix. Pulling lugs
x. Stiffener
xi. Radiators - No. and length may be mentioned (as per heat dissipation
calculations)/ corrugations.
xii. Arcing horns or 9 kV, 5 kA lightning arrestors on HT side - 3 No.
xiii. Prismatic oil level gauge.
xiv. Drain cum sampling valve.
xv. Top filter valve
xvi. Oil filling hole having p. 1- ¼ ‘’ thread with plug and drain plug on the
conservator.
xvii. Silica gel breather
xviii. Base channel 75x40 mm for up to 100 kVA and 100 mmx50 mm above100 kVA,
460 mm long with holes to make them suitable for fixing on a platform or plinth.
xix. 4 No. rollers for transformers of 200 kVA and above.
xx. Pressure relief device or explosion vent.

LIGHTNING ARRESTORS:
9 kV, 5 kA metal oxide lightning arrestors Distribution class type of reputed
make as per relevant standard , one number per phase shall be provided to
be fitted under the HV bushing with GI earth strip 25x4 mm connected to the
body of the transformer with necessary clamping arrangement.

TESTS:

All the equipment offered shall be fully type tested by the bidder or his
collaborator as per the relevant standards including the additional type
tests. The type test must have been conducted on a transformer of same
design during the last five years at the time of bidding. The bidder shall
furnish four sets of type test reports along with the offer. Offers without
type test reports will be treated as non-responsive.
Special tests other than type and routine tests, as agreed between purchaser and
bidder shall also be carried out as per the relevant standards.
The requirements of site tests are also given in this clause.
The test certificates for all routine and type tests for the transformers and also for
the bushings and transformer oil shall be submitted with the bid.
The procedure for testing shall be in accordance with IS1180/2026 as the case
may be except for temperature rise test.
Before despatch each of the completely assembled transformers shall be
subjected to the routine tests at the manufacturer’s works.

ROUTINE TESTS:
Ratio, polarity, phase sequence and vector group.
No Load current and losses at service voltage and normal
frequency. Load losses at rated current and normal frequency.
40
 Impedance voltage test.
Resistance of windings at each tap, cold (at or near the test bed
temperature). Insulation resistance.
Induced over voltage withstand test.
Separate source voltage withstand test.
Neutral current measurement-The value of zero sequence current in the
neutral of the star winding shall not be more than 2% of the full load current.
Oil samples (one sample per lot) to comply with IS 1866.
Measurement of no load losses and magnetizing current at rated
frequency and 90%, 100% and 110% rated voltage.

TYPE TESTS TO BE CONDUCTED ON ONE UNIT:

In addition to the tests mentioned in clause 33 and 34 following tests
shall be conducted:
Temperature rise test for determining the maximum temperature rise
aftercontinuous full load run. The ambient temperature and time of test
should be stated in the test certificate.
Impulse voltage test: with chopped wave of IS 2026 part-III. BIL for 11
kV shallbe 95 kV peak instead of 75 kV
Short circuit withstand test: Thermal and dynamic ability.
Air Pressure Test: As per IS –
1180. Magnetic Balance Test.
Un-balanced current test: The value of unbalanced current indicated
by the Ammeter shall not be more than 2% of the full load current.
Noise-level measurement.
Measurement of zero-phase sequence impedance.
Measurement of Harmonics of no-load current.
Transformer tank shall be subjected to specified vacuum. The tank designed
for vacuum shall be tested at an internal pressure of 0.35 kg per sq. cm
absolute (250 of Hg) for one hour. The permanent deflection of flat plates after
the vacuum has been released shall not exceed the values specified below:

Table 2.5.8

Transformer tank together with its radiator and other fittings shall be subjected
to pressure corresponding to twice the normal pressure or 0.35 kg / sq.cm
whichever is lower, measured at the base of the tank and maintained for an
hour. The permanent deflection of the flat plates after the excess pressure
has been released, shall not exceed the figures for vacuum test.
41
 Pressure relief device test: The pressure relief device shall be subject to
increasing fluid pressure. It shall operate before reaching the test pressure
as specified in the above class. The operating pressure shall be recorded.
The device shall seal-off after the excess pressure has been released.
Short Circuit Test and Impulse Voltage Withstand Tests: The purchaser intends
to procure transformers designed and successfully tested for short circuit
and impulse test. In case the transformers proposed for supply against the
order are not exactly as per the tested design, the supplier shall be required
to carry out the short circuit test and impulse voltage withstand test at their
own cost in the presence of the representative of the purchaser.
The supply shall be accepted only after such test is done successfully, as it
confirms on successful withstand of short circuit and healthiness of the
active parts thereafter on un-tanking after a short circuit test.
Apart from dynamic ability test, the transformers shall also be required to
withstand thermal ability test or thermal withstand ability will have to be
established by way of calculations.
It may also be noted that the purchaser reserves the right to conduct short circuit
test and impulse voltage withstand test in accordance with the IS, afresh
on each ordered rating at purchaser cost, even if the transformers of the
same rating and similar design are already tested. This test shall be
carried out on a transformer to be selected by the purchaser either at the
manufacturer’s works when they are offered in a lot for supply or
randomly from the supplies already made to purchaser’s stores. The
findings and conclusions of these tests shall be binding on the supplier.
Type test certificates for the tests carried out on prototype of same specifications
shall be submitted along with the bid. The purchaser may select the
transformer for type tests randomly.

ACCEPTANCE TESTS:

At least 10% transformers of the offered lot (minimum of one) shall be

subjected to the following routine/ acceptance test in presence of
purchaser’srepresentative at the place of manufacture before
dispatch without any extracharges. The testing shall be carried
out in accordance with IS: 1180 and IS: 2026.
Checking of weights, dimensions, fitting and accessories, tank
sheetthickness, oil quality, material, finish and workmanship as
per GTP andcontract drawings.
Physical verification of core coil assembly and measurement of flux
density of one unit of each rating, in every inspection with
reference to short circuit test report
Temperature rise test on one unit of the total ordered quantity

TESTS AT SITE:

42
 The purchaser reserves the right to conduct all tests on
transformer after arrival at site and the manufacturer shall
guarantee test certificate figures under actual service conditions

INSPECTION:

In respect of raw material such as core stampings, winding conductors,

insulating paper and oil, supplier shall use materials
manufactured/supplied by standard manufacturers and furnish the
manufacturers’ test certificate as well as the proof of purchase
from these manufacturers (excise gate pass) for information of the
purchaser. The bidder shall furnish following documents along
with their offer in respect of the raw materials:
i. Invoice of supplier
ii. Mill’s certificate
iii. Packing list.
iv. Bill of landing.
v. Bill of entry certificate by custom.

INSPECTION AND TESTING OF TRANSFORMER OIL:

To ascertain the quality of the transformer oil, the original

manufacturer’s tests report should be submitted at the time of
inspection. Arrangements should also be made for testing of transformer
oil, after taking out the sample from the manufactured transformers and
tested in the presence of purchaser’s representative.

To ensure about the quality of transformers, the inspection shall be

carried out by the purchaser’s representative at following two stages:-
Online anytime during receipt of raw material and manufacture/
assembly whenever the purchaser desires.
At finished stage i.e. transformers are fully assembled and are
ready for despatch

After the main raw-material i.e. core and coil material and tanks are
arranged and transformers are taken for production on shop floor and a
few assembly have been completed, the firm shall intimate the
purchaser in this regard, so that an officer for carrying out such
inspection could be deputed, as far as possible within seven days from
the date of intimation. During the stage inspection a few assembled core
shall be dismantled (only in case of CRGO material) to ensure that the
CRGO laminations used are of good quality. Further, as and when the
transformers are ready for despatch, an offer intimating about the
readiness of transformers, for final inspection for carrying out tests as
per relevant IS shall be sent by the firm along with Routine Test
Certificates. The inspection shall normally be arranged by the purchaser
at the earliest after receipt of offer for pre-delivery inspection.

43
 In case of any defect/defective workmanship observed at any stage by
the purchaser’s Inspecting Officer, the same shall be pointed out to the
firm in writing for taking remedial measures. Further processing should
only be done after clearance from the Inspecting Officer/ purchaser.
All tests and inspection shall be carried out at the place of manufacture
unless otherwise specifically agreed upon by the manufacturer
and purchaser at the time of purchase. The manufacturer shall
offer the Inspector representing the Purchaser all reasonable
facilities, without charges, to satisfy him that the material is being
supplied in accordance with this specification. This will include
Stage Inspection during manufacturing stage as well as Active
PartInspection during Acceptance Tests.

The manufacturer shall provide all services to establish and maintain

quality of workman ship in his works and that of his sub-
contractors to ensure the mechanical /electrical performance of
components, compliance with drawings, identification and
acceptability of all materials, parts and equipment as per latest
quality standards of ISO 9000.
Purchaser shall have every right to appoint a third party inspection to
carry out the inspection process.
The purchaser has the right to have the test carried out at his own cost by
an independent agency wherever there is a dispute regarding the quality
supplied. Purchaser has right to test 1% of the supply selected either from
the stores or field to check the quality of the product. In case of any
deviation purchaser have every right to reject the entire lot or penalize the
manufacturer, which may lead to blacklisting, among other things.

QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN:

The bidder shall invariably furnish following information along with his bid,
failing which his bid shall be liable for rejection. Information shall be
separately given for individual type of equipment offered.
Statement giving list of important raw materials, names of sub-suppliers for the
raw materials, list of standards according to which the raw materials are
tested, list of tests normally carried out on raw materials in the presence
of bidder’s representative, copies of test certificates.
44
 Information and copies of test certificates as above in respect of bought out
accessories.
List of manufacturing facilities available.
Level of automation achieved and list of areas where manual processing exists.
List of areas in manufacturing process, where stage inspections are normally
carried out for quality control and details of such tests and inspection.
List of testing equipment available with the bidder for final testing of equipment
along with valid calibration reports. These shall be furnished with the bid.
Manufacturer shall possess 0.1 accuracy class instruments for
measurement of losses.

Quality Assurance Plan (QAP) withhold points for purchaser’s inspection.

The successful bidder shall within 30 days of placement of order, submit
following information to the purchaser :
List of raw materials as well as bought out accessories and the names
of sub-suppliers selected from those furnished along with offer.
Type test certificates of the raw materials and bought out accessories.
The successful bidder shall submit the routine test certificates of bought
out accessories and central excise passes for raw material at the time of
routine testing.

DOCUMENTATION:

The bidder shall furnish along with the bid the dimensional drawings of the
items offered indicating all the
fittings. Dimensional tolerances.
Weight of individual components and total weight.
An outline drawing front (both primary and secondary sides) and end elevation
and plan of the tank and terminal gear, wherein the principal dimensions
shall be given.
Typical general arrangement drawings of the windings with the details of the
insulation at each point and core construction of transformer.
Typical general arrangement drawing showing both primary and
secondary sides and end-elevation and plan of the transformer.
PACKING AND FORWARDING:-The packing shall be done as per the manufacturer’s
standard practice. However, it should be ensured that the packing is such that, the
material would not get damaged during transit by Rail / Road / Sea.

2.6 Testing of Transformer

According to IEEE standards, all tests on distribution transformers fall into one
of three categories:

(1) Routine tests, (2) Design tests, and (3) other tests.

The manufacturer may perform additional testing to ensure the quality of the transformer
at various stages of the production cycle. The main difficulties encountered
45
in testing of large transformers by direct loading are (i) wastage of large amount of
energy(ii) a stupendous (impossible for large transformer) task of arranging a load
large enough for direct loading. The performances characteristics of a transformer
can be conveniently computed through from the knowledge of its equivalent circuit
parameter which, in turn may be determined by conducting simple tests called the
open-circuit, no load test and short circuit or impedance test involving very little
power consumption (power needed to supply the losses incurred).

The sequence in which the various tests are performed is also specified. An
example of test sequence is as follows:

Tests before tanking

Transformer ratio and connection of the transformer

windings Core insulation tests

Tests after tanking (final tests)

Final ratio, polarity, and phase rotation

Insulation capacitance and dissipation
factor Insulation resistances
Applied-voltage tests
Induced-voltage tests
No-load-loss and excitation-current measurements
Winding-resistance measurements
Load-loss and impedance-voltage measurement

Transformer Ratio Test

The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of specific

turns or voltage ratio of transformer. So transformer ratio test is an essential
type test of transformer. This test also performed as routine test of transformer.
So for ensuring proper performance of electrical power transformer, voltage and
turn ratio test of transformer one of the vital tests.

PURPOSE: To verify the voltage ratio of each coil in the transformer under test
by checking the turns ratio of the HV and LV windings and (2) to verify that the
windings are connected correctly to provide the specified primary to secondary
vector relationship

SETUP: A ratio meter is used to perform this test. This equipment connects to
each phase of the HV and LV winding and via the application of a very low
voltage determines the ratio of the high voltage windings to the low voltage
windings. These values are compared to those supplied from Engineering.

Actually the no load voltage ratio of transformer is equal to the turn ratio. So
ratio test of transformer.

46
Procedure of Transformer Ratio Test

1. First, the tap changer of transformer is kept in the lowest position and LV
terminals are kept open.
2. Then apply 3-phase 415 V supply on HV terminals. Measure the voltages applied on
each phase (Phase-phase) on HV and induced voltages at LV terminals simultaneously.

3. After measuring the voltages at HV and LV terminals, the tap changer of

transformer should be raised by one position and repeat test.

4. Repeat the same for each of the tap position separately.

The above transformer ratio test can also be performed by portable transformer
turns ratio (TTR) meter. They have an in built power supply, with the voltages
commonly used being very low, such as 8-10 V and 50 Hz. The HV and LV
windings of one phase of a transformer are connected to the instrument, and the
internal bridge elements are varied to produce a null indication on the detector.

Let's have a discussion on transformer turns ratio (TTR) meter method of turn
ratio test of transformer.

A phase voltage is applied to the one of the windings by means of a bridge

circuit and the ratio of induced voltage is measured at the bridge. The accuracy
of the measuring instrument is < 0.1 %.

This theoretical turn ratio is adjusted on the transformer turn ratio tested or TTR by the
adjustable transformer as shown in the figure above and it should be changed until a
balance occurs in the percentage error indicator. The reading on this indicator implies
the deviation of measured turn ratio from expected turn ratio in percentage.

47
 Out-of-tolerance, ratio test of transformer can be due to shorted turns, especially if
there is an associated high excitation current. Open turns in HV winding will indicate
very low exciting current and no output voltage since open turns in HV winding causes
no excitation current in the winding means no flux hence no induced voltage. But open
turn in LV winding causes, low fluctuating LV but normal excitation current in HV
winding. Hence open turns in LV winding will be indicated by normal levels of exciting
current, but very low levels of unstable output voltage. The turn ratio test of transformer
also detects high resistance connections in the lead circuitry or high contact resistance
in tap changers by higher excitation current and a difficulty in balancing the bridge.

PASS CRITERIA:

Ratio: Compute ratio tolerances from nominal transformer rated voltages.

Maximum tolerances from calculated ratio = ±0.5%.
Vector Relationship: A correct ratio will verify the desired vector relationship, or
polarity. A test that yields no ratio at all or one that is far different than the
calculated ratio may indicate a connection problem in the transformer under test.

Note: A large difference between exciting current readings while ratioing different
coils of a transformer may indicate a problem such as a turn-to-turn short.

The specification of the transformer under test is as follows:

RATING: 3 Star Losses Cooling: ONAN

KVA: 100 kVA Vector Group: Dyn- 11

Voltage HV: 11000 Volts Frequency: 50 Hz.

Voltage LV: 433 Volts

Current LV: 133.34 Amps.

Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of Transformer

PURPOSE: Insulation resistance tests are made to determine the insulation

resistance from individual windings to ground or between individual windings.
This test will determine the condition of the insulation and that proper internal
clearances have been met and maintained. This test is performed as a routine
test on 501kVA and larger transformers.

SETUP: A digital megger with a maximum rating of 5 kV

Insulation resistance is the ratio of applied voltage to the resulting current at a specified
time after the voltage is applied. Direct voltage is used for measuring insulation

48
resistance values. Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This test is carried out to ensure the
healthiness of overall insulation system of an electrical power transformer. The insulation resistance (IR) test (also
commonly known as a Megger test) is a spot insulation test which uses an applied DC voltage (typically 250Vdc,
500Vdc or 1,000Vdc for low voltage equipment <600V and 2,500Vdc and 5,000Vdc for high voltage equipment) to
measure insulation resistance in either kΩ, MΩ or GΩ. The measured resistance is intended to indicate the
condition of the insulation or dielectric between two conductive parts, where the higher the resistance, the better the
condition of the insulation. Ideally, the insulation resistance would be infinite, but as no insulators are perfect,
leakage currents through the dielectric will ensure that a finite (though high) resistance value is measured. Because
IR testers are portable, the IR test is often used in the field as the final check of equipment insulation and also to
confirm the reliability of the circuit and that there are no leakage currents from unintended faults in the wiring (e.g.
a shorted connection would be obvious from the test results).

Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This test is carried out to ensure the healthiness of overall
insulation system of an electrical power transformer.

Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer:

i. Firstly the positive terminal of the megger is connected to primary side and negative terminal to ground.

ii. Then readings are recorded after application of voltage.

iii. Then again positive terminal of megger is connected to secondary side and negative terminal side to ground.

iv. Then we again apply the voltage and readings are recorded.

v. And at last again the positive terminal of megger is connected to primary side and negative terminal to secondary side.

vi. Then we record the readings after application of voltage.

49
 Fig.2.6.1

NB: It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per

phase wise in three phase transformer. IR values are taken between the
windings collectively as because all the windings on HV side are internally
connected together to form either star or delta and also all the windings on LV
side are internally connected together to form either star or delta.

Measurements are to be taken as follows:

For auto transformer: HV-IV to LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E.

For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E, LV to E.

Three winding transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV to E, LV to E.

Oil temperature should be noted at the time of insulation resistance test of transformer.
Since the IR value of transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature.

IR values to be recorded at intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes.

With the duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The increase in

IR is an indication of dryness of insulation.

Absorption coefficient = 1 minute value/ 15 secs.

value. Polarization index = 10 minutes value / 1

minute value Selection of IR Testers (Megger):

Insulation testers with test voltage of 500, 1000, 2500 and 5000 V are
available. The recommended ratings of the insulation testers are given below:

50
 Voltage level
650V
1.1Kv
3.3kV
66kv and above
Table 2.6.1

Measurement Range of Megger:

Test voltage
250V DC
500V DC
1KV DC
2.5KV DC
5KV DC
Table 2.6.2

Serial No

1
2
3
Table 2

Result: We know that when the value of megger resistance is above 1000 ohm the condition of the insulation of the
transformer is healthy. It has been found here practically and as well as theoretically that the value of Megger
resistance to be above 2000 so we can come to the conclusion that the condition of the transformer is healthy.

PASS CRITERIA:

Insulation resistance measurements shall not be less than the minimum limits specified by the transformer manufacturer

Transformer Oil Testing:

Several tests can be performed on transformer oil to determine its condition and many are particularly useful in
determining the condition oil that has been in service for a number of years. The most common test performed on
oil is the dielectric test. These specifications define the method of preparing a sample, the equipment to be used and
the test method. During factory tests it is useful to take oil samples before testing and again after testing in order to
perform a dissolved gas in oil analysis. This is particularly

51
useful for high voltage transformers and in cases when a temperature rise test
be performed. Oil tests are a useful indicator of the condition of the insulation
system and the oil and form important elements of any transformer preventative
maintenance program. Results taken after periods of service can be compared
to baseline measurements taken on the new transformer the insulation oil of
voltage- and current-transformers fulfils the purpose of insulating as well as
cooling. Thus, the dielectric quality of transformer oil is a matter of secure
operation of a transformer. As transformer oil deteriorates through aging and
moisture ingress, transformer oil should, depending on economics, transformer
duty and other factors, be tested periodically. A good transformer oil must have
the following Physical, chemical and electrical properties.

1) Physical

properties Oil density

The maximum value of density of transformer oil at 29.5 degree Celsius must
not be more than 0.89 gm/cc.

Flash point

It is the temperature at which oil gets vaporized and when this vapour mixes
with air, forms an ignitable mixture and may cause momentary flash. To prevent
the risk of fire the transformer oil must have a high flash point. The flash point
must be greater than 140 degree Celsius.

Moisture constant

It is the amount of dissolved present in oil expressed in ppm/kg. The insulating

property of the transformer oil will be degraded by the presence of moisture.
The maximum allowable moisture constant is 50 ppm.

Pour point

It is the temperature at which oil just commences its flow under prescribed conditions.
The specified pour point is -6 degree Celsius.

2) Chemical Properties

Neutralization value

It is the measure of acidity of oil. It is the measure of organic and inorganic

acids present in the oil. It is expressed in terms of milligrams of base required to
neutralize the total force acid present in one gram of oil. The recommended
maximum value of neutralization is 0.03 mg KOH/gm. Higher the neutralization
value, higher the acidity leading to higher sludge formation.

Corrosive Sulphur

52
The presence of chemicals in the transformer oil will lead to the formation of black
deposits over the copper parts of the transformer. Hence the heat dissipation is highly
affected. Since transformer oil is derived from petroleum it definitely contains traces of
sulphur. The presence corrosive of sulphur in the transformer oil is not recommended.

Oxidation stability

The neutralization value of transformer oil increases on getting oxidized. The

neutralization value must not go beyond 0.4 mg KOH/gm after oxidation and
total sludge after oxidation must not be more than 0.1% of weight of oil used.

Sediment and perceptible sludge

Sludge is poor conductor of heat. Sludge deposited over the transformer parts leads to
poor heat dissipation. It blocks the flow of oil in ducts and impairs cooling. Therefore
once sediments or perceptible sludge are detected oil is considered as not usable.

3) Electrical properties

Breakdown voltage (BDV)

It is the voltage is the voltage at which transformer oil losses its dielectric property
and starts conducting. It represents the electrical property of transformer oil. The
presence of moisture, sludge contaminating agents and sediments decreases the
dielectric property of oil. For a new sample of oil the breakdown voltage of
transformer oil is 30kV and for a sample after filtration must have BDV of 60kV.

Resistivity

It is one of the most sensitive properties of transformer oil. The resistivity of the
oil decreases with increase in temperature. The transformer oil must have a
minimum resistivity of 30 x 1012 ohm-cm at 90 degree Celsius and 1500 x 1012
ohm cm at 27 degree Celsius.

Dielectric dissipation factor (DDF)

It is numerically equal to the sine of loss angle. A High value of DDF refers to
poor quality of oil. The maximum recommended value of DDF factor of oil at 90
degree Celsius is 0.002.

Procedure of transformer oil test:

To assess the insulating property of dielectric transformer oil, a sample of the

transformer oil is taken and its breakdown voltage is measured.

i. The transformer oil is filled in the vessel of the testing device. Two standard-
compliant test electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are surrounded by
the dielectric oil.
ii. A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously increased up to
the breakdown voltage with a constant, standard-compliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s.
53
iii. At a certain voltage level breakdown occurs in an electric arc, leading to a
collapse of the test voltage.
iv. An instant after ignition of the arc, the test voltage is switched off automatically by
the testing device. Ultra-fast switch off is highly desirable, as the carbonisation due to
the electric arc must be limited to keep the additional pollution as low as possible.

Fig.2.6.2

A. Theoretical Result: Dielectric strength of oil =64kv at 2.5mm gap

B. Practical Result: Dielectric strength of oil =60kv at 2.5mm gap.

Result: Here practically the break down voltage of transformer is 60kv and
theoretically it is 64kv. We know that lower the resulting breakdown voltage, the
poorer the quality of the transformer oil. Here as it is 64kv and 60kv so the
quality of the transformer oil is OK.

Insulation Dielectric Test of Transformer

The dielectric test of transformer is generally performed in two different steps,

likewise, separate source voltage withstand test and induced voltage withstand
test of transformer, which we have discussed one by one below.

Separate Source Voltage Withstand Test of Transformer

This dielectric test is intended to check the ability of main insulation to earth and
between winding.
54
Procedure

1. All three line terminals of the winding to be tested are connected together.

2. Other winding terminals which are not under test and also tank of the
transformer should be connected to earth.

3. Then a single-phase power frequency voltage of shape approximately

sinusoidal is applied for 60 seconds to the terminals of the winding under test.

4. The test shall be performed on all the windings one by one.

5. The test is successful if no break down in the dielectric of the insulation

occurs during test.

Fig.2.6.3

Separate source withstand test of transformer In this transformer testing, the

peak value of voltage is measured, that is why the capacitor voltage divider with
digital peak voltmeter is employed as shown in the diagram above. The peal
value multiplied by 0.707 (1/√2) is the test voltage.

The values of test voltage for different fully insulated winding are furnished
below in the table.

Nominal system
rating
for equipment
415V
11Kv
33Kv
132Kv
220Kv
400Kv
Table 2.6.4

55
Applied high voltage tests

This test generally is carried at the same frequency at which the equipment is
supposed to operate during its life time. This is a single phase test. The power
is supplied by a single phase transformer whose line end is connected to the
object under test and the neutral of the test transformer is solidly grounded.
Lighting is a common phenomenon in transmission lines because of their tall height.
This lightning stroke on the line conductor causes impulse voltage. The terminal
equipment of transmission line such as power transformer then experiences these
lightning impulse voltages. Again during all kind of online switching operation in the
system, there will be switching impulses occur in the network. The magnitude of the
switching impulses may be about 3.5 times the system voltage.

Insulation is one of the most important constituents of a transformer. Any weakness in the
insulation may cause failure of transformer. To ensure the effectiveness of the insulation
system of a transformer, it must confirm the dielectric test. But the power frequency
withstand test alone cannot be adequate to demonstrate the dielectric strength of a
transformer. That is why impulse test of transformer performed on it. Both lightning impulse
test and switching impulse test are included in this category of testing.

Purpose

To verify the adequacy of winding to winding, and winding to ground insulation in

each coil of the transformer under test. This test also verifies the adequacy of all
live-to-ground clearances in the transformer. The purpose is to ensure the electrical
healthiness and suitability of the product for the intended voltage application by
testing the product with application of test over-voltages as prescribed by the
standards. This test verifies the physical clearances between one winding to the
other winding in the same phase, Windings to core at top and bottom ( end-
clearances) , Outer winding to tank sides, Inner winding to core , Bushings to
ground, Switch contacts, connections and tapping leads to ground , Air clearances,
Bushings of one winding to bushings of the other windings

Equipment needed

The current drawn is purely capacitive. The source should be capable of feeding the
capacitance currents generated by combination of capacitances of the windings of the
transformer being tested, at the system frequency (50 Hz).On the object side, all the
phases including neutral, if any, of the winding to be tested are connected to the source. All
the other available terminals of the other windings not under test are connected to earth.
Tank and hence core is also connected to earth. The equipment’s needed are separate
source transformer 8 to 10 KVA, 75000 volts HV /433 volts LV, single phase 50 Hz, Control
gear incorporating trip circuit, consisting of voltage regulator 433 /0 to 433 volts, 20
amperes, single phase, 50 Hz, voltmeter 0 to 433 volts calibrated as 0 to 75000 volts
(preferably digital or moving coil instrument), input ammeter 0 to 20
56
amperes and output ammeter 0 to 250 milliamps. The test shall be commenced
with a voltage not greater than one-third of the test value, which shall be increased
to the specified value as rapidly as is consistent with its magnitude being indicated
by the measuring instrument. Similarly, at the end of the test, voltage shall be
reduced rapidly to less than one third of its full value before switching off. The test
duration is 60 seconds. The test voltage depends upon the impulse level (or
equipment highest voltage).Typical values are given in the standards.

Lighting is a common phenomenon in transmission lines because of their tall height.

This lightning stroke on the line conductor causes impulse voltageAgain during all kind
of online switching operation in the system, there will be switching impulses occur in
the network. The magnitude of the switching impulses may be about 3.5 times the
system voltage. Insulation is one of the most important constituents of a transformer.
Any weakness in the insulation may cause failure of transformer. To ensure the
effectiveness of the insulation system of a transformer, it must confirm the dielectric
test. But the power frequency withstand test alone cannot be adequate to demonstrate
the dielectric strength of a transformer. That is why impulse test of transformer
performed on it. Both lightning impulse test and switching impulse test are included in
this category of testing.

Fig.2.6.4

Typical failures are due to creepage, tracking on insulating materials and flash
over in oil.

The test voltage depends upon the impulse level (or equipment highest voltage).

Typical values as per the standards are given below:

 7.2

12

17.5

24

36

Table 2.6.5

PASS CRITERIA:

Failure of a winding is indicated by loss of test voltage and/or test set circuit
breaker tripping. Failure can also be indicated by smoke and bubbles from coils
or lead assemblies, or by an audible thump from inside the tank.

DVDF (Double voltage and double frequency) test

DVDF (Double voltage and double frequency) test is popular test conducted on the
Transformer before it is commissioned. In this test double the rated voltage and double
the rated frequency is applied to the Transformer under test and observed for its
withstand capability usually for 1 min. Double voltage is applied to test the Transformer
withstand capability for higher voltages which are sometimes occur in the form of
lightning surges and faults on the transformer. But, practically, no transformer is
subjected to double the rated frequency as the frequency variations are not allowed
beyond 0.5% by the power supply grid controlling authority. In such a case, is it
essential to test the transformer at 200% i.e. double the rated frequency conditions?

When alternating electrical source is applied to the primary winding of the

transformer, it draws magnetizing current which produces alternating flux in the
core of the transformer. This flux links both primary and secondary windings
and due its alternating nature EMF is induced across both windings and E(rms)
can be deduced by the equation.
E (rms) = 4.44ᴓmfN volts

Where E (rms) is RMS voltage induced

ᴓm is maximum flux linked

f is the operating frequency

N is the number of turns in the winding.

As per the above equation, when double the rated voltage is applied while testing the
transformer, without doubling the frequency, the maximum amount of flux linked will
58
also be doubled as the number of turns is always constant for a particular design. This
causes the abnormal heating of core of the Transformer under test and the
magnetizing properties of the core are disturbed permanently. Hence, to avoid this
abnormal heating of the Transformer due to increase in flux, applied frequency will also
be doubled along with applied voltage to test the high voltage with stand capability of
the Transformer. Thus the test is named as Double Voltage Double Frequency test.

General

This test is carried out at a frequency which is at least 2 times the frequency at which
the equipment is supposed to operate during its life time. With one application, all
windings are tested as all windings get the voltages by induction. This is a poly-phase
test for 3 phase transformers and single phase test for single phase transformers.

Purpose

This test verifies the inter-turn insulation ( insulation between adjacent turns in the form of
enamel on copper, paper covering and interlayer insulation in case of foil winding) ,the
interlayer insulation ( paper layers between adjacent layers) ,Clearances between phases
of outside winding on the active-part ( inter-phase · clearances) , external clearances
between bushings of same phase and to bushings of other windings.

Fig.2.6.6

Equipment needed

A 100 Hz generator set comprising of a Prime mover induction motor 433 volts,
3 phase, 50 Hz and 10 kW, Separately excited generator, 50 KVA, 3 phase, 100
Hz, with control of output from near 0 to 1000 volts, Control gear for above
incorporating trip circuit, 3 digital voltmeters (oranalog), range 0 to 1000 volts
AC, 3 digital ammeters (or analog) 0 to 20 amperes AC.
The source should be capable of feeding the no-load loss at the increased frequency
of the transformer under test (and also of the intermediate transformer, if any) at a low
power factor. The frequency should be at least twice nominal frequency. The current

59
requirement is a combination of magnetizing currents at the higher frequency and
the charging currents, which increase due to increase in frequency. The current
drawn depends on many factors including the amount of insulation, voltage class,
frequency, flux-density, rating of the transformer (size of core) etc. The output of the
high frequency generator is connected to one winding of the transformer under test.
It may be necessary to use intermediate transformers and potential transformers of
suitable ratio depending upon the test voltage. All the other windings are kept open.
Tank and hence core is tied down to earth potential. The test duration in seconds is
given by (6000 / test frequency in Hz).

The motor-generator sets need large starters and breakers for operation and time to
spin up or spin down. An induced motor-generator set is also prone to self-excitation.
The self-excitation phenomenon can cause an overvoltage in the generator and
transformer under test. In high voltage systems, conventional method of generating a
wave with a frequency over 50 Hz that has high power is interconnecting a motor and a
generator with nominal frequency over 50 Hz, like 100 Hz or 150 Hz; but for routine
test of distribution transformers, it is not economical to construct a experimental setup
with a motor and generator. Nowadays with power electronics instruments some cheap
solutions are available, like power frequency inverters. Nowadays static frequency
inverters are state of the art for nearly all drive applications. High dynamic inverters
advance in the area of middle and high power.

Typical failures are due to breakdown of inter turn insulation or interlayer insulation.
This test can also cause creepage, tracking on insulating materials and flash over in oil.

PASS CRITERIA:

There should be no collapse or pull down of the test voltage. Smoke and
bubbles from coils or lead assemblies may also indicate an insulation failure.

Load Test

PURPOSE: To determine, by test and calculation, load losses and total losses
of a transformer under test. Also, to determine the impedance voltage of the
transformer, expressed as a percentage of the rated primary voltage, from
which may be calculated the winding currents under short circuit conditions.
The losses obtained from this test combined with the core loss data validates if
the transformer tank and radiators are sufficient to allow for proper cooling.

SETUP: The LV terminals are shorted together. The HV terminals are

connected to a variable AC voltage source. Voltage is than applied to the HV
and increased until such time that rated current is reached. The voltage and
wattage is recorded and compared to data supplied by Engineering.

Load Test helps to determine the total loss that takes place, when the
transformer is loaded. Unlike the tests described previously, in the present case
nominal voltage is applied across the primary and rated current is drown from
the secondary. Load test is used mainly
60
 1. To determine the rated load of the machine and the temperature rise

2. To determine the voltage regulation and efficiency of the transformer.

Rated load is determined by loading the transformer on a continuous basis and

observing the steady state temperature rise. The losses that are generated inside the
transformer on load appear as heat. This heats the transformer and the temperature of
the transformer increases. The insulation of the transformer is the one to get affected
by this rise in the temperature. Both paper and oil which are used for insulation in the
transformer start getting degenerated and get decomposed. If the flash point of the oil
is reached the transformer goes up in flames. Hence to have a reasonable life
expectancy the loading of the transformer must be limited to that value which gives the
maximum temperature rise tolerated by the insulation. This aspect of temperature rise
cannot be guessed from the electrical equivalent circuit. Further, the losses like
dielectric losses and stray load losses are not modelled in the equivalent circuit and the
actual loss under load condition will be in error to that extent.

Many external means of removal of heat from the transformer in the form of different
cooling methods give rise to different values for temperature rise of insulation. Hence
these permit different levels of loading for the same transformer. Hence the only sure
way of ascertaining the rating is by conducting a load test. It is rather easy to load a
transformer of small ratings. As the rating increases it becomes difficult to find a load
that can absorb the requisite power and a source to feed the necessary current. As the
transformers come in varied transformation ratios, in many cases it becomes extremely
difficult to get suitable load impedance. Further, the temperature rise of the transformer
is due to the losses that take place ‘inside’ the transformer. The efficiency of the
transformer is above 99% even in modest sizes which means 1 percent of power
handled by the transformer actually goes to heat up the machine. The remaining 99%
of the power has to be dissipated in a load impedance external to the machine. This is
very wasteful in terms of energy also. (If the load is of unity power factor) Thus the
actual loading of the transformer is seldom resorted to. Equivalent loss methods of
loading and ‘Phantom’ loading are commonly used in the case of transformers. The
load is applied and held constant till the temperature rise of transformer reaches a
steady value. If the final steady temperature rise is lower than the maximum
permissible value, then load can be increased else it is decreased. That load current
which gives the maximumpermissible temperature rise is declared as the nominal or
rated load current and the volt amperes are computed using the same.

In the equivalent loss method a short circuit test is done on the transformer. The short
circuit current is so chosen that the resulting loss taking place inside the transformer is
equivalent to the sum of the iron losses, full load copper losses and assumed stray
load losses. By this method even though one can pump in equivalent loss inside the
transformer, the actual distribution of this loss vastly differs from that taking place in
reality. Therefore this test comes close to a load test but does not replace one.

In Phantom loading method two identical transformers are needed. The windings are
connected back to back. Suitable voltage is injected into the loop formed by the two
61
secondaries such that full load current passes through them. An equivalent current
then passes through the primary also. The voltage source V1 supplies the magnetizing
current and core losses for the two transformers. The second source supplies the load
component of the current and losses due to the same. There is no power wasted in a
load (as a matter of fact there is no real load at all) and hence the name Phantomor
virtual loading. The power absorbed by the second transformer which acts as a load is
pushed back in to the mains. The two sources put together meet the core and copper
losses of the two transformers. The transformers work with full flux drawing full load
currents and hence are closest to the actual loading condition with a physical load.

Fig.2.6.7

PASS CRITERIA:

Tested total losses shall not exceed design losses by more than 6%. The limits
of tested impedance are ±7.5% of specified impedance.
No Load Loss and Excitation Current

Measurement (Core Loss and Exciting Current)

PURPOSE: To measure no load loss (core loss) and excitation current, and verify that
these values are within acceptable tolerance of the calculated values. This will confirm
that the core design (i.e. cross-sectional area and lamination thickness) is adequate to
handle the required flux density, and that the cores were properly assembled.

SETUP: The secondary terminals of the transformer under test are connected to a
variable AC voltage source with no connections to the primary bushings. The voltage is
gradually increased until full rated voltage is obtained. The core loss in watts as well as
the current is recorded and compared to design data supplied by Engineering.
62
PASS CRITERIA:

Core loss shall not exceed design value by more than 10%.

Maximum excitation

wound core 2%
stacked core 5%

Fig.2.6.8

If tested core loss exceeds maximum allowance, another test shall be made at
110% of rated secondary voltage, and the resulting data shall be submitted to a
design engineer for review.

2.7 Transformer Maintenance

Quarterly:

Test the oil for dielectric strength.

Clean the bushings with dry and clean cloth.
Examine bushings for surface cracks and oil leakages.
Check connections for tightness and inspect for any discolouration of H.T.
bushings, conductors/clamps which may be due to heating. The same is
to be attended.
Check for any gas collection in buchholz relay and if any, gas is to be collected
and tested to investigate the type of fault or
defect. Clean glass cover of buchholz relay.
Check silica gel, if crystals have turned pink-change with reactivated silica gel.
63
 Check oil level indicator carefully .if float operated mechanism is provided,
check the float and mechanism for correct indication of oil level in
conservator, check and try operation of alarm.
Check diaphragm of explosion vent for any possible damage or oil leakage.
Clean cooling fan blades, fins, dampers etc. and try auto operation of cooling
fans if possible.
Check and clean oil forced pump, motor and lubricate their bearings, test pump
failure alarm.
Check transformer ground connection for tightness.
Megger test the transformer windings and records.

Annual:

Check buchholz relay connection and relay operation (lock out relay after
dropping trip link for other equipment).
Check breathing line to breather is free and rectify any
defect. Check and test high oil temperature alarm.
Test ir of control cables.
Check operation of alarm and trip circuit for proper operation and indications.
Megger test fan motor individually and record, test fan motor failure alarm.

Maintenance of Transformer

Circuit Breaker Testing:

64
 Fig.2.7.1

• Continuity of protective conductors.

• Continuity of ring final circuit conductors.

• Insulation resistance.

• Polarity.

• Earth electrode resistance.

• Earth fault loop impedance.

• Functioning of all protective devices.

• Functioning of all items of equipment.

Solar Power Plant

65
3.1 Introduction
Solar panels:

Solar panel is a device which is used to convert energy contained within the
sun’s rays into electricity. A photovoltaic module is an interconnected collection
of cells combined into one item. Solar modules allow for a wide range of varying
sizes of solar panel products to be manufactured.

When a number of solar or photovoltaic modules are installed together, this is

commonly referred to as a solar array, or photovoltaic array. Arrays are a great
way to increase the potential of a solar electricity system, to provide a greater
output of electricity.

The use of solar power panel lows us to generate electricity in remote corners
of the earth, or outer-space. This can be extremely useful when there is no
other source of electricity in the specific area.

It convert sunlight into electrical power via the photovoltaic effect. The
electrical produced is direct current (DC) like a battery, which cannot be used
with normal electrical equipment in a household straight away.

Mounting Frames: Support the solar panels to the sub structure of the roof to
ensure a secure fixture to the roof and space underneath the panel.

Marshalling Enclosure: Connect all strings to the DC cable running the electrical
power from the roof to the inverter. In case of a bigger PV system (> 5 kWp) the
Marshalling box may contain special string fuses.

AC & DC Isolation Enclosure: Holds a 2-pole DC Isolator Switch which protects

the input side of the inverter. There is alternating current (AC) switch on the
output side to allow safe disconnection of the inverter.

INVERTER: Converts the DC power from the PV panels into AC in order to

match the parameters of the utility grid (according to AS 4777). The inverter
deactivates at night and automatically starts operating in the morning when
sunlight is sufficient. The inverter is the operations centre of your system and as
such, useful information can be obtained from the inverter’s display.

3.2 Solar Energy

Basic principle

66
Earth receives sunlight at every location on at least part of the year. The amount of
solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface depends upon:

• Geographic location

• Time of day

• Season

• Local landscape

• Local weather.

Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging
from 0° (just above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are
vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's
rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and
diffuse. Since the Earth is round, the surface nearer its poles is angled away from the
sun and receives much less solar energy than the surface nearer the equator the polar
regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas
receive no sun at all during part of the year. Concentrated solar technology can use
only the direct solar radiation for converting the sunlight into some useful energy.

Concentrating solar technologies (CSTs) use mirrors to reflect and concentrate

sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat.
Concentrating solar technology offers a utility-scale, firm, dispatch able
renewable energy option that can help meet our nation's energy demand.

SOLAR PV SYSTEM TYPES:

Basically Solar PV Systems can be classified into two types. The first and the
oldest is “Stand Alone” and the second which is rather new is “Grid Interactive”.
Common examples of Stand Alone Systems are Solar lantern, Street Lighting
System, Home Lighting System etc. Systems that interact with. The utility power
grid and have no battery backup and systems that interact and include battery
backup as well are known as Grid Interactive Systems.

GRID INTERACTIVE SOLAR POWER PLANT WITHOUT BATTERY BACKUP

This type of system only operates when the grid power is available. Since grid power
outages are rare, this system will normally provide the greatest amount of bill savings
to the customer against investment. However, in the event of an outage, the system is
designed to shut down until utility power is restored. The inverter switches to “sleep
mode” and awaits restoration of grid power. Once grid power restores the inverter
synchronizes itself to grid and starts feeding power into the grid.

GRID INTERACTIVE SOLAR POWER PLANT WITH BATTERY BACKUP

This type of system operates in grid connected mode when the power grid is available.
However, in the event of an outage, the system is designed to operate in standalone
67
mode and starts powering dedicated loads, until utility power is restored. The inverter
switches to “standalone mode” and awaits restoration of grid power. Once grid power
restores the inverter synchronizes itself to grid and starts feeding power into the grid.

TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

PV Array

A PV Array is made up of PV panel which in turn has several PV modules.

These PV modules have environmentally-sealed collections of PV Cells which
converts sunlight to electricity. The technical details of the solar modules
proposed are attached in the form of catalogues.

Balance of System Equipment (BOS)

BOS includes module mounting structures and electrical harness systems used
to integrate the solar modules into the structural and electrical systems. The
electrical wiring systems include Junction Boxes for paralleling, fuses/switches,
surge suppressors for the dc side.

The major components of the BOS are the Inverter and the Controllers. These
form the brain of the system which does multi operation.

Fig.3.2.1

Module mounting system:

The module mounting structure is designed for holding suitable number of modules in
series. The frames and leg assembles of the array structures is made of Mild Steel hot
dip galvanized of suitable sections of Angle, Channel, Tubes or any other sections
conforming to IS:2062 for steel structure to meet the design criteria. All nuts & bolts
considered for fastening modules with this structure are of very good quality of
68
Stainless Steel. The array structure is designed in such a way that it will occupy
minimum space without sacrificing the output from SPV panels at the same time.

Fig.3.2.2

3.3 Application of Solar Energy

A solar electric array generates electricity from the sun's light with no moving or
wearing parts. Our solar products are designed to utilize the direct current from
the array efficiently, even as the energy production varies throughout the day.

• Solar Lantern

• Solar Street Lights

• Home Lighting System

• Solar Water Heaters

• Solar Water Pump

Traditionally, the sun has provided energy for practically all living creatures on
earth, through the process of photosynthesis, in which plants absorb solar
radiation and convert it into stored energy for growth and development.
Scientists and engineers today seek to utilize solar radiation directly by
converting it into useful heat or electricity.
Two main types of solar energy systems are in use today: photovoltaics, and thermal
systems. There is a great deal of opportunity for using these systems in the state of
Pennsylvania, and ongoing work at Penn State is seeking to improve the available
technology and increase the utilization of solar energy systems in the keystone state.

69
3.4Technical details of Solar Power Plant
Segments

The 2MW Plant is divided into three single Inverter and each array consists of 24
Independent segments of one MW each. Modules connected in series. The power
each segment is equipped with four generated from 2MW PV Plant. The combination
of 20 modules makes one string. Series connected module combiner string combiner
box. There are 24 string connected to positive and 24 string connected negative
terminal of switch combiner box. Total 6400 module i.e. 320 string connected to
inverter through string combiner box which convert 800V dc to ac of voltage 415V
which step through transformer to 11kV through grid and distribute to nearby areas.

Fig.3.4.1

Solar Cell Material

Total no. of modules
Open circuit Voltage of module
Short circuit voltage of module
Maximum Current through each module
One string voltage
Average unit used per day
Cost of one unit
Cost of solar power plant
Inclination of modules
Table 3.4.1

70
3.5Plant Maintenance & Operation
In addition to 2 MW, one more 10 kW PV regularly to meet the water requirements
of plant has been installed on the rooftop of the Plant. The other two pump sets
remain office building to take care of domestic idle most of the time.

Lighting and cooling loads of the Plant, Cleaning of PV Modules including the load of
exhaust fans. At generally, the modules are cleaned by present, the plant is maintained
by 13 spraying water with the help of extendable workers which includes 2 technical
persons hosepipes. Occasionally, wipers are used to who look after data collection and
remove the accumulated dirt and bird monitoring. Droppings, say once in a month. On
three bore - wells have been installed at average, each module is cleaned once in a
site with pump-set capacities of 2 HP, week on rotational basis.

Performance analysis

The total Energy produced by 3 MW Plant generations during 2010. Since

Segment-3 during the year 2010 was 3,347,480 units. Was not performing
satisfactorily for a few Out of this, 3,303,200 units were sold to the months, which is
evident from the figure, we grid. Figure 4 shows the contribution of all will restrict
our analysis to the first two the three Segments in the total power Segments only.

Efficiency

The 2-MW plant efficiency is the combined insolation of 2561 Wh/sqm and average
efficiencies of segments 1 and 2 after the module temperature of 28.630C. The
daily dc-ac conversion by inverters to 415 Volts efficiency of the 2MW plant ranged
from 5% and just before stepping up to 11 kV ac. So, to 13.41% depending on the
performance of this should not to be confused with the arrays, inverters, average
module overall plant efficiency. Temperature and the solar insolation. The Figure 11
shows the efficiency of the 2 MW yearly average daily efficiency of the plant, that is
combined efficiency of was about 10.14%, considering the day’s segments 1 & 2,
over the study period. The have grid-offs for less than half a highest efficiency
achieved was 13.41% on hour or no grid-offs. The abnormal drop in 24th July
2010. The total energy generated the efficiency during the last few months was on
that day was 4975.8 kWh with solar mainly due to inverter related problems

71
72
Manufacturing of CFL
4.1 Introduction

CFL

Fig.4.1.1

The parent to the modern fluorescent lamp was invented in the late 1890s by
PETER COOPE HEWIT. The Cooper Hewitt lamps were used for photographic
studio and industries.

They are two type of CFLs: INTEGRATED and NONINTEGRATED LAMPS

INTEGRATED LAMPS: Integrated lamps combine the tube and ballast in a

single unit. These lamp allows consumers to replace incandescent lamps easily
with CFLs. Integrated CFLs work well in many standard incandescent light
fixtures reducing the cost of converting to fluorescent.
NON-INTEGRATED LAMPS: Non-integrated CFLs have the ballast permanently
installed in the luminaire and only the lamp bulb is usually changed at its end of life.
Since the ballast are placed in the light fixture they are large and lasts longer
compared to the integrated once, and they don't need to be replaced when the bulb
reaches its end of life. Non-integrated CFL housings can be more expensive and
sophisticated. They have two types of tubes, a bi-pin tube designed for
conventional ballast and a quarter-pin tube designed for an electronic ballast or a
conventional ballast with an external starter which activities the need for external
heating pin but causes incompatible with electronic ballast.

CFLs have two main components magnetic or electronic ballast and a gas-filled tube
(called bulb or burner). Replacement of magnetic ballast with electronic ballast has
removed most of the flickering and slow starting traditionally with fluorescent lighting that
allowed the development of smaller lamps directly interchangeable with more sizes of
incandescent bulbs. CFLs are produced for both alternating current (AC) and direct
73
current (DC) input. DC CFLs are popular to use in recreational vehicles and off
the grid housing. There are various agency initiative in developing countries to
replace kerosene lamp which as associated health and safety hazard with CFL
powered by battery, solar panels or wind generators
CFLs in solar powered street light uses solar panel mounted on the poles. Due to
potential to reduce electric consumption and pollution various organizations have
encouraged the adoption of CFLs and other efficient lighting. Effort range from
publicity to encourage awareness, to direct handouts of CFLs to the public. Some
electric utilities and local government has subsidized CFLs or provide them for free
to customer as a mean off reducing electric demand. CFLs are generally not for
outdoor and some will not start in cold weather when switched on.

As of 2009 CFLs turn on in a second, but many still take time to achieve full
brightness. The light colour may be slightly different immediately after being turned
on. Some CFLs ate manufactured as instant on and have no noticeable warm-up
period but other can take up a minute to reach full brightness or longer in very cold
temperature. Some that uses mercury take up to three minutes to reach full output.
Thus the shorter period may make CFLs less suitable for applications such as
motion activated light, hybrid lamps, combining a halogen lamp with a CFL are
available when warm-up time is unacceptable. The halogen lamp lights
immediately and is switched off once the CFL has reached full brightness.

Compact Fluorescent light bulbs, also known as CFLs, are an eco-friendly alternative
to standard incandescent light bulbs. CFLs can be screwed into the same sockets as
other light bulbs and provide very comparable lighting. CFLs are easily recognizable
due to their distinct twisting shape. These “green” light bulbs have a host of benefits
that can help improve the planet, our home and finances. One of the greatest benefits
of compact fluorescent light bulbs is their energy efficiency. A CFL uses 50 to 80
percent less energy than other light bulbs. While many consumers are dissuaded by
the higher initial cost of a CFL these light bulbs must be replaced less often than
incandescent bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights can have a dramatically extended
lifespan, lasting as much as 10 times longer than their incandescent counterparts.
While standard incandescent bulb will last for a year, a CFL can last anywhere from 8
to 10 years. Furthermore, a 75-watt incandescent bulb can be replaced by a 20-watt
CFL bulb. One can receive the same amount of light while paying for far less energy.
Replacing just one incandescent bulb with a CFL can prevent as much as 450 lb. of
carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere. Compact fluorescent light bulbs can be
used in almost any light fixture that accepts an incandescent bulb. CFLs can be used
in everything from table lamps to ceiling fixtures. Specially designed CFLs are also
available for more unique types of lighting. A three-way CFL can be used in lighting
fixtures with a three-way setting. Though CFLs were initially unsuitable for dimmer
switches, dimmable CFLs are now available as well. While compact fluorescent lighting
is ideal for many situations, it must be used in the right way to reap the full benefits.

Man has been aware of fluorescence for hundreds of years, but was unable to put it to
practical use for lighting until Thomas Edison was granted a patent for the fluorescent
74
lamp in 1907. The fluorescent lamp is an electric lamp consisting of a glass
tube, coated on the inside with a fluorescent substance that gives off light when
acted upon by electricity. Fluorescent lamps and incandescent lamps are the
two major sources of electric light today. However, fluorescent lamps produce
3.5 times as much light per watt, have much longer lives and often cost less
than the corresponding models of incandescent lamps. Consequently,
fluorescent lamps are commonly used in offices, factories, classrooms,
restaurants, and libraries, as well as a number of other public buildings.
Typical fluorescent lamps consist of a long glass tube that seals the inner components
from atmosphere. These inner components include two electrodes that emit a flow of
electrons; mercury vapor, which is the source of ultraviolet radiation; argon gas, which
helps in starting the lamp and of course fluorescent power coating on the inner surface
of the tube; and compact energy saving fluorescent lamp contains ballast.

Manufactures of light bulbs are constantly trying to lower the costs of

production. As a leading manufacturer of fluorescent lamps, Taiwan has played
an important role in helping to develop the technology and automated
machinery necessary to keep those products costs down.

Consequently, the manufacturers in Taiwan can help entrepreneurs by

supplying them with the machinery and technology needed to produce more
economical and efficient fluorescent light bulbs.
The production of fluorescent lamps is done in four stages. Most of the work is
done by automatic machinery, so only a minimal number of workers are required.

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called as compact fluorescent light, energy
saving light and compact fluorescent tube. It is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace
an incandescent lamp, some types fit into logging fixtures formerly used for
incandescent lamp. The lamp uses a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space
of an incandescent bulb and compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.

Compared to general service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of

visible light, CFL uses one - fifth to one third the electric power, and last for
eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a higher purchase price in electricity
costs over the lamps lifetime. Like all fluorescent lamps CFL contains mercury
which complicates their disposal in many countries, government have
established recycling schemes for CFLs and glass generally.

CFLs radiates a spectral power distribution that is different from that of

incandescent lamps, improved phosphorus for emulation have improved the
perceived colour of the light emitted by CFLs are subjectively similar in colour to
standard Inca incandescent lamps.
CFLs typically have a rated service life of 6,000 to 15,000 hours, whereas standard
incandescent lamps have a service life of 750 or 1000 hours. However the actual
lifetime of lamps depends on many factors including operating voltage manufacturing
75
defects exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and
off lamp orientation and ambient operating temperature among other factors.

Fig.4.1.2

CFL power sources:

CFLs are produced for both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) input.
DC CFLs are popular for use in recreational vehicles and off-the-grid housing.
Some families in developing countries are using DC CFLs (with car batteries and
small solar panels) and/or wind generators, to replace kerosene lanterns.

CFLs can also be operated with solar powered street lights, using solar panels located
on the top or sides of a pole and luminaries that are specially wired to use the lamps.

76
4.2 Advantages of CFL
There are many advantages of using these CFL’s is that they can give the same
amount of light as compared to other lighting equipment such as incandescent lamps
and halogens lighting. But the main advantages of using them are as follows:

1) They use about 75-80% less electricity than conventional incandescent

bulbs for the same lighting

2) By using integrated type of CFL’s the average energy bill would be

reduced to such an extent that the cost for purchasing them can be covered in
a period of 6 months use.
3) They last longer than normal incandescent bulbs averaging about 6000-
15000 hours and if used for nearly 8 hours every day can last about 2-5 years on
an average. With further care and efficient usage they can last up to 10 years.

4) The lighting produced is flicker free and is constant for a very long
time. Also it starts instantaneously and can be used with dimmer circuits for
controlling the intensity of light and 3 way switches. The come in a variety of
shapes and rating to suit various lighting needs ranging from normal household
lighting to industrial lighting. They can be fixed in different positions also.
5) A normal 150 W incandescent bulb can be effectively replaced by a 32 W CFL.
This can cut the energy consumed by nearly 950 W. using this bulb we can cut carbon
emissions due to power plants by 300 kg. Also during its lifetime of say 10000 hours it
can cut emissions by 1800 kg. This is done by a single CFL! If every household were to
put one in their homes then we can save enough coal to last 6 years.

6) According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, if every U.S. household

replaced just one regular incandescent light bulb with a compact fluorescent
light bulb, it would prevent 90 billion pounds of greenhouse gas emissions from
power plants, the equivalent of taking 7.5 million cars off the road. And the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency says that by replacing regular light bulbs with
compact fluorescent light bulbs at the same minimal rate, Americans would
save enough energy to light more than 2.5 million homes for a year.

77
 Fig.4.1.3

Circuit Diagram of CFL

Fig.4.1.4

78
4.3Raw Materials Used in CFL
1. Low Sodium Lead free glass tube

2. Exhaust Tube

3. Lead in wire

4. Filament

5. Phosphorus: Three band phosphors; AT, Y, EU

6. Emitter (Oxide): Carbonate suspension

7. Cane glass for beads mount

8. Main Amalgam 2.30±0.10 mm

9. Sub Amalgam net

10. Mercury 99.999%

11. Argon gas 99.999%

12. Base cement (per customer’s standard)

13. Base

PROCESS

CUTTING

BENDING

COATING

SEALING

FUSION

PUMPING

AGING

79
4.4 Manufacturing Machines
1. Cutting machine
2. Bending machine
3. Coating machine
4. Sealing machine
5. Fusion machine
6. Pumping machine
7. Aging machine

Cutting machine

Fig.4.4.1

First starting is two types of tubes used to make d/t. One is 11.4 diameter (mm)
tube other is 9.00 diameter (mm) tube. Small diameter tube is used to make
genie lamps and big diameter One used to make essential lamps.

Process:

Manual loading of full length lead free

tube. Glass tube rising on conveyor.
Glass tube loading on horizontal
cutting. Heating through burner.
First cutting into 3 pieces with wet cutting wheel.
Heating through burner and then cut the glass tube.

80
 Bending machine
Fig.4.4.2
This process uses bending machine to bend the tubes of required length. The
input is straight tube and output is U shaped tubes.
Process:
Manual loading of cut glass into
hopper. Transfer to bed by drum.
Preheating of glass tube with burner in two stages.
Heating of glass tube with burners in four stages.
Strengthening of glass tube with sodium dioxide
byburner. Folding of glass tube and loading to turret
head by jaws. Glass blow moulding in u shape mould.
Annealing of bent glass tube with
burner. Cooling of bent tube with air.

Coating machine

Fig.4.4.3

81
Coating machine is used for coating process. In this process the tubes are coated
with fluorescent powder .The fluorescent powder is a combination of phosphor
(calcium phosphate aluminium oxide) and polyethylene oxide and dispersion agent.

Process:

Manual loading of bent glass.

Automatic transfer of glass tubes to heads.
Suspension dosing into bent glass tubes.
Controlled drying at suspension in coated shell across 10 positional with hot
air. Drying at suspension in coated shell across 32 positions with hot air.
Drying of coated bent tubes at brushing and wiping area using burner.
Automatic unloading of coated bent tubes with pneumatic across twopass.
Powder weight, hot air temp, suspension viscosity check every 2 hrs.
Suspension gravity checks each shift.
Transfer of shell to brushing machine.

Sealing machine
Fig.4.4.4

82
FUSION MACHINE

Fig.4.4.5

Fusion machine is used to fuse the two tubes in such a manner that they should
be leak proof.

Process

Manual bending of 4w in sealed tube towards upper

side. Manual loading on chute provided on machine.
Automatic loading of sealed glass tube on outer side.
Height alignment from top of both glass tubes loaded
previously. Preheating of fusion ends carried out with burner.
Heating of concentrated area carried out.
Blasting with nitrogen to produce holes at fusion
end. Glazing at fusion holes.
Kissing and stretching of both the tubes, to make hollow
bridge. Cooling in ambient air.
Leak checking.
Unloading.

83
AGING MACHINE

Fig.4.4.6

4.5Market Potential
The average rated life of a CFL is between 8 and 15 times that of incandescent.
CFLs typically have a rated life-span of between 6,000 and 15,000 hours,
whereas incandescent lamps are usually manufactured to have a lifespan of
750 hours or 1,000 hours. For a given light output, CFLs use 20 to 33 percent
of the power of equivalent incandescent lamps.

Electrical power equivalents for differing lamps

Compact Fluorescent (W)

9-13
13-15
18-25
23-30
30-52
Table 4.5.1

APPLICATIONS:

1. Decorative applications

2. Speciality lightings

3. Dimmable applications

4. Enclosed fixtures

84
 5. Outdoor lightings

6. Energy star approved fixtures

7. Small fixtures

8. Flashing applications

Life Span

CFLs typically have a rated service life of 6,000 to 15,000 hours whereas standard
incandescent lamps have service life of 750 to 1,000 hours. However the actual
lifetime of lamps depends on many factors including operating voltage manufacturing
defects exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and off
lamp orientation and ambient operating temperature among other factors.

The life of a CFL is significantly shorter if it is turned on and off frequently. In the
city 5 minutes on/off cycle the life span of some CFLs may be reduced to that of
incandescent light bulb. CFLs can be expected to produce 70-80% of their
original light output.

Energy Efficiency

Because the eyes sensitively changes with the wavelength, the output of the light
commonly measured in linens, a measure of the power of light as perceiver human
eyes. The luminous efficacy of lamps is the number of lumen produced watt of
electrical power used. The luminous efficiency of a typical CFL is 50-70 per watt
(1m/w) and that of a typical incandescent lamp is 10-17(1m/w) ,these lamps have
lighting efficient of 7-10% for CFLs and 1•5-2•5%for incandescent
Because of their efficiency, CFLs uses between one-seventh and one-third of the power
equivalent to incandescent lamps. 50-70% of the world today lighting market scale were
incandescent in 2015. Replacing all inefficient lighting with CFLs. It would save 40 Greta
watt hours (TWh) per year, 2•5% of the world electricity consumption. In US it is estimated
that replacing all the incandescent would save 80(TWh) yearly. Since CFLs use much less
energy than incandescent lamp (ILS) ,a phase - out of ILS would result in less carbon
dioxide (CO2) being emitted in to the atmosphere. Exchanging ILS for efficient CFLs on a
global scale would achieve anyway CO2 reduction of 230 Mt (million tons) more than the
combined yearly CO2 from Netherlands and Portugal

If the building is indoor incandescent lamps are replaced by CFLs then the heat
produced due to lighting is significantly reduced. In warm climate or in office or in
industrial buildings ,where air condition are often required, CFLs reduce the load on
the cooling system when compared to the use of incandescent lamps, resulting in
savings of electricity in addition to the energy efficiency saving of the lamps
themselves. However in cooler climate in which building, require heating the
heating system needs to be replace the reduced heat from the lighting fixtures.
85
Conclusion
During this training period in Amson Transformers, I got the information and practical
knowledge about Distribution Transformer. I got the knowledge about different outer
and inner part of transformer like core, winding, relay and different type of transformer
testing. I got the idea how to find out transformer fault and how to solve it, and also see
that how change transformer oil and winding. Then I learn to design the core and its
importance to improve transformer efficiency and performance parameters. Then after
we see that how to purify the transformer oil with the use of oil filter. Then I study and
learn the whole process of online bidding of transformers.

If there is a single way everyone can contribute to the problems faced by the
environment and the energy scenario of the present this can be considered the
most simplest. Also this is a long term solution for lighting problems which is
cheap and energy efficient.
Solar power is an immense source of directly useable energy and ultimately creates
other energy resources: biomass, wind, and hydropower and wave energy. Most of the
Earth's surface receives sufficient solar energy to permit low-grade heating of water
and buildings, although there are large variations with latitude and season. At low
latitudes, simple mirror devices can concentrate solar energy sufficiently for cooking
and even for driving steam turbines. The energy of light shifts electrons in some semi
conducting materials. This photovoltaic effect is capable of large-scale electricity
generation. However, the present low efficiency of solar PV cells demands very large
areas to supply electricity demands. Direct use of solar energy is the only renewable
means capable of ultimately supplanting current global energy supply from non-
renewable sources, but at the expense of a land area of at least half a million km2.

86
Difficulties Faced
1. Upload of BOQ was a tedious task because of sever times of
proofreading.

2. Bid choosing was erroneous because of multiple factors involved; hence a

team of members was always there to aid the process.

3. Technical specifications of transformers were vast and it was difficult to

understand deeply every concept in limited time.

4. Writing emails to clients was hectic task because of plenty times of

proofreading and FPM consultation lead to lots of iterations.

5. Factory hours in scorching heat was pathetic during industrial processes

learning, concentration ability was affected.

6. In CFL manufacturing, poisonous gases were filled, although protection was

provided, but it was a dangerous environment.

87
References
[1]Tender Documents “e-procurement” governement portal.

[2]BoQ Documents “haryana e-procurement” portal.

[3] Award of contract letter templates from e-procurement government portal.

[4] Amson transformers design aspects modules plus manufacturing processes sheet.

[5]e-Procurement contract management file at Amson transformers.

[6]Phillips “Annual Budget” and “Lead Time” reports.

[7]Contract management software generated reports and graphical data.

88