Eng. Raid Arrhaibeh Route Surveying 2016

Route surveying ENG.
RA'ID ARRHAIBEH
AL-ALBAIT UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING FACULATY
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Route Surveying
(0705333)
By
ENG. RA'ID ARRHAIBEH
1st semester / 2015 – 2016
0
Route surveying ENG. RA'ID ARRHAIBEH
CH.1
Route location
 Route surveying and systems engineering
- Route surveying includes all field work and requisite calculations (together
with maps, profiles, and other drawings) involved in the planning and
construction of any route of transportation.
- Transportation: refer not only to transportation of persons, but also to the

movement of goods, liquids, gases, power and messages. (Broad field).
- Structures : highways and railroads , aqueducts , canals and flumes,

pipe lines for water , sewage , oil , and gas , cableways and belt conveyors
, and power , telephone , and telegraph transmission lines.
- the survey serves two purposes :
1. Determine the best general route between the termini.

2. Find the optimum combination of alignment, grades, and other details
of the selected route.
- This needs experience in survey and art of engineering

(systems engineering).
 Relation of project to economics
- Every route surveying project involves economic problems (large or

small).
- The decision of project depends on the comparison between the cost and
the returns.
- The social, environmental, and political objectives should carry weight.
- Survey, terrain, equipments, and personal available related to

economy.
 Relation of project to design
- Design problems in route location are closely related to route surveying.
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- Some matters of design must precede field work ( number of lanes , right
of way , maximum grade , minimum radiuses of curves and sight distance
) , others are dependent on it ( fixing alignments, shoulder width and
culvert locations) .
 Basic factors of alignments and grades.

1. Topography (minimum cost, maximum safety, more comfortable, minimum
time).
2. Grade (safety, drainage).
3. Sight distance.
Should be a proper balance between topography and grad.
This needs broad experience, mature judgments, and knowledge of the

objectives of the project.
- Many of accidents occur at allocation where is a sudden and misleading

variation from the condition of curvature, grade, or sight distance.
 Influence of type of project

- The type of route to be built between given termini has a decided influence
on its location.
- For example, railroad needs flat terrain and wide curves , while power line
don’t need that.
 Influence of terrain
- Terrain classified as: level, roiling, and mountainous.
- in level terrain :
1. Alignment may be straight for long distance (minimum curves).
2. Avoid poor foundation.
3. Reduce land damage.
- In rolling terrain :
1. Location depends on orientation of ridges and valleys. (Parallel with
valley).
2. Needing of culverts and bridges.
3. Cut and fill.
4. Uniformly rising grades.
- In mountainous terrain :
1. Steep and short grades.
2. More cost.
3. Less safety.
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 The basic route survey and design system
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Figure 1.1. The basic route survey and design system.
- This operation varies with different organization and the nature of the
project.
 Importance of reconnaissance
- Reconnaissance must be on an area (not on line).
- Depends on type of project and type of terrain.
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- The area must be broad enough to cover all needed area.

- The worst errors of location generally originate in the Reconnaissance.
The Reconnaissance is entrusted to an engineer have mature experience in

the promotional, financial, and engineering aspect of similar projects. Then
he should also be able to sense the significance of present trends and their
probable effect on the future project.
 Purpose of preliminary surveys

- It follows the Reconnaissance report.
- The most important purposes of it are to obtain data for plotting an

accurate map serves as the basis of for projecting the final alignment and
profile.
- It needs at least one traverse.
- It may needs accurate contour maps.
- Take all measurements and elevation of all significant features.
 Proper use of topography

- The primary purpose of contour maps is to serve as a basis for making a
“paper location “of the final center line of route.
- It gives us good information about the route alignment and the area
around it (grade, earth work, valley crossing).
- But always, the engineer should visit the field to take all information that
he may don’t find it in the map. (Material types, soils slides).
- Engineer may visit field before he going to office or after that.
 Function of location survey

- The purpose of location survey is to transfer a paper location, complete
with curves, to the ground.
- It merely proves the geometric accuracy of the field and office works.
 Relation of surveying to engineering
- Surveying and mapping are not engineering. !!!

- They are merely methods of obtaining and portraying data needed as a
prelude to the design and construction of engineering works.
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- In designing large projects, extensive surveying operations are involved in

early reconnaissance, detailed preliminary and location surveys, and all the
work leading to the preparation of topographic maps, profiles, cross
sections, and other working drawings.
 Summary
- Steps in route location :
1. Know the termini points.

2. Identify and locate.
3. Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys.
4. Select a corridor.
5. Possible centerlines
6. Examine each of the alternative alignment.
7. Final design.
eng. Ra'id Arrhaibeh
6
CH.2
Simple curves
 Types of Circular Curves:

1. Simple curves: curve with single constant radius.
Figure 2.1: simple curve.
2. Compound curves: two or more curves in succession, turning in the same

direction.
Figure 2.2: compound curve.
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3. Reverse curves: two simple curves with equal radii turning in opposite
directions with a common tangent.
Figure 2.3: reverse curve.
4. Transition curves: placed between tangents and circular curves or

between two adjacent circular curves having substantially different
radii.(spiral)
Figure 2.4: transition curve.
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5. Broken back curves: two or more curves turning in the same direction
separated by a tangent (L˂ 500 m).
Figure 2.5: broken back curve.
 Simple curve
 Degree of Curve
- Degree of Curve (D):
1. Arc definition: Angle subtended by 100 ft arc along horizontal curve.

Measure of “sharpness” of curve.
Figure 2.6: degree of curvature (arc definition).
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D: 100 = 360:2πR
Where:
D: degree of curve.
R: radius.
2. Chord definition: defines the degree of curve as the angle subtended by a

100 ft.
Figure 2.7: degree of curvature (chord definition).
Where:
D: degree of curve.
R: radius.
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 Simple Circular Curves Terminology
LC = length of chord
Figure 2.8: simple curve elements.
 Formulae for simple Circular Curves
PI=PC+T PT=PC+L
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Figure 2.9: elements of horizontal curve design.
 Principle consideration
- Length of radius or degree of curvature, based on:

1. Design speed.
2. Sight distance As limited by headlights or obstructions
- The smaller the radius, the sharper the curve.

- For high speed highways, curves must be flat and have large radius.
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Figure 2.10: influence of sight distance on horizontal curve design.
- On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees

or other sight obstructions on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight
distance.
𝚫
𝐋𝐬 = 𝟐𝐑 𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐
Where:
R: Radius (m) to the centerline of the inside lane.

Δ: is the deflection angle in degrees subtended by line of sight.
𝚫
𝐌 = 𝐑 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ))
𝟐
Where:
M: Middle ordinate.
R: Radius (m).
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- It is recommended that circular curves should be long enough to avoid problems

appearance.
- The minimum length of circular curves shall be 150 m

- Where the deflection angle is ≤5 degrees, the minimum length of curves shall
be 200 m.
- The circular curves should not be too long to avoid tracking problems especially
when the radius is small.
- Curves which are too long also tend to cause problems to the passing sight
distances.
- The desirable maximum length of circular curve is 800 m.
The absolute maximum length of curve shall be 1000 m
 Setting out simple curves
- Setting Out a Straight Line
Figure 2.11: Setting Out a Straight Line.
- Setting Out Curves
Figure 2.12: Setting out curves.
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- The methods of setting out curves can be mainly divided into two heads
depending upon instruments used :
1. Linear methods. In the linear methods, only a chain or tape is used. Linear
methods are used when:
a. High degree of accuracy is not required.
b. The curve is short.
2. Angular methods. In angular method, an instrument such as a theodolite

is used with or without a chain (or tape).
Figure 2.13: Setting station stakes.
- Linear methods of Setting Out :

 Following are some of the linear methods for setting out simple
circular curves:
1. The Intersection Method.
2. By ordinates or offsets from the long chord.
3. By successive bisection of arcs.
4. By offsets from the tangents.
a. Radial.
b. Perpendicular.
5. By offsets from chords produced (or by deflection distances).
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 The Intersection Method.
 At curve with small radius.
Figure 2.14: intersection method.
Step 1: First place a peg at P.I., Then locate the tangent points P.C and P.T., Then
Divide the tangent lines in equal lengths, by setting out a number of ranging rods
along the tangent lines.
Figure 2.15: intersection method / step1.
Step 2: Give each ranging rod a letter as shown in the figure below. Sight along line
a- a with an assistant holding a ranging rod in your sight line. A second assistant
stands at point b and sights along the line b - b. Move your assistant along line a - a
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until he also stands on line b - b. Mark this spot with a ranging rod and a peg. This is
your first point defining the curve.
Step 3: Now repeat this exercise by sighting along b - b while an assistant is sighting
long c - c to find your next curve point.
Step 4: Complete the exercise for line c - c, d - d, etc. Finally, use these curve points
to set out intermediate points along the curve at 5 m intervals. Inspect the curve and
make sure that all the points provide a smooth curve.
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Adjusting the Position of the Curve
Figure 2.19: Adjusting the Position of the Curve.
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 By ordinates or offsets from the long chord.
Figure 2.20: setting out simple curve by offsets from the long chord.
Where
Xn = the measured distance from D along the long chord.
L = Length of the chord.
x X1 X2 X3 …… Xn
y Y1 Y2 Y3 …… Yn
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 By successive bisection of arcs.
Figure 2.21: setting out simple curve by successive bisection of arcs.
- Procedure
Note:
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 By offsets from the tangents.

a. Radial offset.
Figure 2.22: setting out simple curve by radial offset.
x X1 X2 X3 …… Xn
Ox O1 O2 O3 …… On
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b. Perpendicular offset.
Figure 2.23: setting out simple curve by perpendicular offset.
x X1 X2 X3 …… Xn
Ox O1 O2 O3 …… On
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 By offsets from chords produced (or by deflection

distances).
Figure 2.24: setting out simple curve by deflection distance.
- It is very useful in long curves in highway projects when theodolite is not

available.
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- Angular (Instrumental) methods of Setting Out :

 The following are instrumental methods commonly use setting out a
circular curve :
1. Rankin’s method of tangential (or deflection) angle.
2. Two theodolite method.
3. Tachometric method.
 Rankin’s method of tangential (or deflection) angle.
- Rankine's method is based on the principle that the deflection angle to any
point on a circular curve is measured by one-half the angle subtended by the
arc from P.C to that point It is assumed that the length of the arc is
approximately equal to its chord.
-
Figure 2.25: setting out simple curve by Rankine's method.
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Where
C = length of sub cord.
Procedure for setting Out the Curve :

1) Set the theodolite at the point of curve (T1). With both plates clamped to
zero, direct the theodolite to bisect the point of intersection (V). The line of
sight is thus in the direction of the rear tangent.
2) Release the vernier plate and set angle Δ1 Ai on the vernier. The line of
sight is thus directed along chord T1A.
3) With the zero end of the tape pointed at T1, and an arrow held at a
distance T1A=c along it, swing the tape around T1 till the arrow is bisected
by the cross-hairs. Thus, the first point A is fixed.
4) Set the second deflection angle Δ2 on the vernier so that the line of sight is
directed along T1B.
(5) Repeat step (4) till the last point T2 is reached.
Check': The last point so located must coincide with the point of
tangency (T2) fixed independently by measurements from the point of
intersection. If the discrepancy is small, last few pegs may be adjusted. If it
is more, the whole curve should be reset.
In the case of the left hand curve, each of the calculated values of the
deflection angle (i.e Δ1 , Δ2 : etc.) , should be subtracted from 360. The
angles so obtained are to be set on the vernier of theodolite for setting out
the curve.
- Curve location from Point of Tangency (T2)

If the entire curve is visible from the P.I., the curve can be located by one
sigle set-up there. Also for long curves, it is better to set out the second half
of the curve by starting the measurements and deflections from P.T. so that
any small error can be adjusted at the middle of the curve where a slight
deviation in the alignment is of less consequence than at or near points of
tangency to the curve.
In this method, the theodolite is set up at P.T. and is properly oriented by

sighting on the P.C. when the vernier is reading 0° 00' and telescope is
normal. If this is done, the curve notes are the same whether deflections arc
from P.C. or P.T. (See the two theodolite method). Beginning with the first
station on the curve from P.C, stations arc established in order along the
curve towards P.T.
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 Two theodolite method.
- In the method, two theodolites are used one at P.C. and the other at P.T. The
method is used when the ground is unsuitable for chaining and is based on the
principle that the angle benveen the tangent and the chord is equal to the angle
which that chord subtends in the opposite segment.
Figure 2.26: setting out simple curve by two theodolites method.
- Method of Setting Out the Curve

1) Set up one transit at P.C. (T1) and the other at P.T,(T2).
2) Clamp both the plates of each transit to zero reading.
3) With the zero reading, direct the line of sight of the transit at T1 towards
V. Similarly, direct the line of sight of the other transit at T2 towards T1
when the reading is zero. Both the transits are thus correctly oriented
4) Set the reading of each of the transits to the deflection angle for the first
point A . The line of sight of both the theodolites are thus directed towards A
along T1A and T2A respectively.
5) Move a ranging rod or an arrow in such a way that it is bisected
simultaneously by cross-hairs of both the instruments. Thus, point A is fixed.
6) To fix the second point B, set reading Δ2 on both the instruments and
bisect the ranging rod.
7) Repeat steps (4) and (5) for location of all the points.
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The method is expensive since two instruments and two surveyors are
required. However, the method is most accurate since each point is fixed
independently of the others. An error in setting out one point is not carried
right through the curve as in the method of tangential angles.
 Tachometric method
- By the use of a tachometer, chaining may be completely dispensed with ,

though the method is much less accurate than Rankin’s. In this method, a
point on the curve is fixed by the deflection angle from the rear tangent and
measuring, tacheometrically, the distance of that point from P.C. (T1) and not
from the preceding point as in Rankine's method. Thus, in this method also,
each point is fixed independently of the others and the
- Error in setting out one point is not carried right through the curve as in the
Rankine's method.
Figure 2.27: setting out simple curve by tachometer method.
- Procedure for Setting Out the Curve

1) Set the tacheometer at T1 and sight the point of intersection (V) when the
reading is zero. The line of sight is thus oriented along the rear tangent.
2) Set the angle Δ 1 on the vernier, thus directing the line of sight along T1A.
3) Direct a staffman to move in the direction T1A till the calculated staff
intercept S is obtained. The staff is generally held vertical. Thus, the first
point A is fixed.
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4) Set the angle Δ 2 now, thus directing the line of sight along T1B. Move
the staff backward or forward along T1B until the staff intercept s2 is
obtained, thus fixing the point B.
5) Fix other points similarly.
Since the staff intercept increases with its distance from the tacheometer,
accurate staff reading is not possible when the distances along the whole
chords become too large. In that case, the curve is to be located by shifting
tacheometer to the last point located on the curve.
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CH.3
Compound and reverse curves
Compound Circular Curves
Figure 3.1: compound curve.
- Compound curves result when two or more curves with the same direction of
deflection but different radii are adjoined.
- Uses:
1. To better fit the road centerline to difficult topographic conditions.
2. To avoid some control or obstacle this cannot be relocated.
3. To avoid right-of-way problems.
- Such curves should be avoided if a simple curve satisfies alignment

conditions.
- Although use of three-centered compound curves in intersections is common.
- Problems:
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1. Esthetics.
2. Difficulty in developing the necessary super elevation transition.
3. Possible deception of the driver as to the severity of the curve.
- Compound curves may be acceptable if:

1. The difference in radius is small,
2. If they occur on a one-way roadway.
3. The radius of curvature increases in the direction of travel.
- When compound curves are used on mainline or interchange curves, the radius
of the flatter circular arc R1 should not be more than 50% greater than that of
the sharper arc R2.
- The point of common tangency (PCC) establishes the end of the first curve,
and the beginning of the second.
- The process to plot the survey line is the same, except that multiple points of
intersections and tangency are required.
- The shown two-center compound curve has several variables, mainly:
 R1, R2: from design criteria.

 I1 and I2: measured in the field.
 T1 and T2: computed.
 Four elements should be known, including at least one angle and two
lengths.
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Figure 3.2-a: compound curve elements.

- All of the circular curve principles and simple curve formulae apply to the
compound circular curve.
- The elements applying strictly to the compound curves are as follows:
1. Compound circular curves have common points of tangent; there are no main
tangents between one end of the first simple curve part and the beginning end
of the next simple curve part of the compound circular curve.
2. They can be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
3. In a compound circular curve with two simple curve arcs there will be two
radius points, two P.I. points, six semi-tangents, three delta angles, two long
chords, two central angles and two main tangents.
4. In the previous figure, the radius line O1-P.C.C. is common to both simple
curves at O2 to P.C.C. Subsequently, once the P.C.C. (point of compound
curve) and one radius point are located, the other radius point can be
established (on either line P.C.C. O1 or on a prolongation of line P.C.C. O2).
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Figure 3.2-b: compound curve elements.
 Compound Circular Curves Solution
- Many methods are available to solve for the variables of a compound curve. In
this course, only two methods will be presented:
1. Vertex Triangle Method.
2. Traverse Method.
- Vertex Triangle Method
1. Assuming R1, R2, I1, I2, and the station at PI are known.
2. The line PI1 and PI2 is tangent to the curve at point PCC and forms the vertex
triangle PI-PI1-PI2.
3. The distance PI1-PCC = T1 = R1 tan (I1/2).
4. The distance PCC-PI2 = T2 = R2 tan (I2/2).
5. Consequently, distance PI1-PI2 = T1 + T2.
6. The vertex triangle PI-PI1-PI2 is solved for PI1-PI and PI-PI2.
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Figure 3.3: Vertex Triangle Method.
- Traverse Method:
1. Draw a sketch of the curve to be computed.
2. Form a closed traverse, including all independent variables
[Polygon O1- PC1-PI-PT2-O2-O1]
3. Assume a direction of zero azimuth to be parallel or perpendicular to one

unknown line [O1-PC1 can be assumed due north]
4. Tabulate data for traverse calculations, compute departures and latitudes.
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Figure 3.4: traverse Method.
Table 3.1: traverse Method.
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 Setting-out Compound Curves (Deflection Angles Method)
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Figure 3.5: setting out of compound curve.
Table 3.2: tables needed in setting out of compound curve.
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- Procedure for two-center compound curve :
1. The positions of PC1, PCC, and PT2 are marked on the ground using TL, TR
and T1.
2. The Theodolite is set up over PC1 and point PI is sighted and horizontal angle
is set to zero.
3. Points 1L, 2L, 3L …are located by angle and distance using then table of the
left curve.
4. The Theodolite is set up over PCC and point PC1 is sighted, the instrument is
turned by 180 + D1/2 and horizontal angle is set to zero.
5. Points 1R, 2R, 3R …are located by angle and distance using the table of the
right curve.
Reverse Circular Curves
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- It is another type of a compound curve.
- Reverse curves usually consist of two simple curves with equal radii turning in
opposite directions with a common tangent.
- Although compound curves afford flexibility in fitting the road to the terrain
and ground control, their use should be avoided outside intersection or
interchange areas.
- Once they are on a horizontal curve, drivers expect the radius to remain
unaltered hence supporting a constant speed across the length of the curve.
- Like a compound curve's PCC, the PRC (Point of Reverse Curvature) is the
PT of the first curve and the PC of the second curve.
- Uses:
1. For pipelines, canals, local roads, railroad yards, and parks (low-speed traffic).
2. Reverse curves are seldom recommended.
3. They are absolutely NOT recommended for high-speed roads. For high-
speed roads, we must provide a tangent section that will allow full
development of super elevation at both ends.
Figure 3.6: reverse curve.

- in the reverse curve:
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1. The line formed by the origins (O's) and the PRC is a straight line.
2. The line formed by the PI's and the PRC is a straight line.
3. These two lines intersect and form a right angle at the PRC.
Figure 3.7: reverse curve elements.
- Types of reverse curves:
1. With parallel tangents.

2. With divergent tangents.
3. With different radii.
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Figure 3.8: reverse curve types.
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- Reverse Circular Curves with Parallel Tangents
 Usually (p) and two additional variables must be known.

 In most cases R1 = R2
Figure 3.9: Reverse Circular Curves with Parallel Tangents.
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Table 3.3: Reverse Circular Curves with Parallel Tangents.
- Layout in the field
1. Points PC1 and PT2 are fixed on the ground.
2. Theodolite is setup over point PC1.
3. Point N is sighted and the horizontal angle is set to zero.
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4. First curve is laid out by the deflection angle method (each point is located by
angle and distance).
5. Theodolite is setup over point PRC.
6. Point PC1 is sighted.
7. The instrument is turned 180+D/2 degrees and the horizontal angle is set to
zero.
8. The second arc is set out using the same procedure.
- Reverse Circular Curves with Constant Radius
 1, 2, PC1PT2 distance, Ch (PC1) are known. Of course R = R1 = R2
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 Layout tables and field procedure are the same as for the previous case.
Figure 3.10: Reverse Circular Curves with divergent Tangents.
- Reverse Circular Curves with Variable Radii
 Design tables are prepared in the same as for the previous case.
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- Layout in the field
1. The first curve is set out by the same procedure of a simple circular curve.
2. The second curve is setout from the PRC by turning the Theodolite
counterclockwise then sighting I2 and setting the horizontal angle to zero.
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CH.4
Transition curves (Spiral Curves)
- Spiral curve : A curve that provides a gradual transition in curvature between
route elements for added safety and comfort.
- Spiral curves are also called Transition or Easement curves.
- Spiral curves are used in railway, highway, canals projects to connect:
1. A tangent and a simple circular curve.

2. Two parallel or intersecting tangents.
3. A tangent and a compound curve.
4. Two simple circular curves.
5. Two compound curves.
Figure 4.1: transition curve.
 Objectives:
1. To accomplish gradual transition from the tangent to circular curve, so that

curvature changes from zero to a finite value. In other words; gradual
introduction of centrifugal force, thus reducing the shock to tracks and
equipment on railroads making high-speed operation attractive to passengers.
2. To provide a medium for gradual introduction or change of required super
elevation.
3. To introduce gradual change of curvature from curve to curve in the case of
compound and reverse curves.
4. Build safety into highways by reducing the tendency to veer from the traffic
lane.
5. Simplify future widening of highways for technical or psychological reasons.
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- To call a spiral between a straight and curve as valid transition curve, it

has to satisfy the following conditions:
1. One end of the spiral should be tangential to the straight , The other end
should be tangential to the curve.
2. Spiral’s curvature at the intersection point with the circular arc should be equal
to arc curvature , Also at the tangent its curvature should be zero.
3. The rate of change of curvature along the transition should be same as that of
the increase of super elevation.
4. Its length should be such that full super elevation is attained at the beginning
of circular arc.
 Geometry of Spiral Curves :
- Spiral curves have gradual and continuous change in radius. The radius starts
by infinite or large value closing to a limited value. Based on this fact, a huge
number of curves can be used.
- For practical reasons, three types are adopted for route design:
1. Cubic parabolas.
2. Lemniscates.
3. Cornu spiral or Clothoids.
- Because of its mathematical simplicity and ease of staking out, Clothoids are
mostly used in route design.
Figure 4.2: types of transition curves.
- The degree of curvature of the spiral curve increases from 0 at TS to Da at SC.

This change occurs over the spiral length Ls.
- The rate of change of curvature per unit length of spiral is :
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- Hence, the degree of curvature at any point ( p ) on the spiral is:
Figure 4.3 : curvature of spiral.
- And the radius of spiral at any point p is:
- At point SC :
- Dividing both equations :
- Which indicates that the radius of a spiral varies inversely as the length of the
spiral times a constant.
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 Super elevation:
- There are two methods of determining the need for super elevation:
1. Method of Maximum Friction: In this method, we find the value

of radius above which we don’t need super elevation to be
provided:
Figure 4.4: centrifugal force.
 If the radius provided is less than the above value... that has to be
compensated by:
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- But tanθ is the cross-slope of the roadway, which is the same as the super
elevation rate e . Consequently,
- The term ef is small compared to one, and may be omitted, so the relationship
can be simplified to :
- A commonly used mixed-unit version of the above equation is:
- Where V is in Km/h and R is in meters, Alternatively,
- Values of ( f ) recommended by AASHTO are conservative relative to the

actual friction factor between the tires and the roadway under most conditions,
and vary with design speed. These are given in the following table.
Table 4.1: Values of side friction recommended by AASHTO.
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- For the higher design speeds, the super elevation rates for these minimum
curve radii, as calculated by the last equation, are less than the maximum super
elevation rates given above. Consequently, the maximum super elevation rates
really apply only to fairly low design speeds.
2. Method of Maximum Super elevation : In this method, we just

assume that there is no friction factor contributing and hence make
sure that swaying due to the curvature is contained by the cant.
 maximum rates of super elevation (e) are limited by:

1. the need to prevent slow-moving vehicles from sliding to the inside
of the curve.
2. the need to keep parking lanes relatively level in urban areas.
3. to keep the difference in slope between the roadway and any streets
or driveways that intersect it within reasonable bounds .
 AASHTO recommends that maximum super elevation rates be limited to:

 12 percent for rural roadways.
 8 percent for rural roadways for which snow or ice are likely to be
present.
 6 percent or 4 percent for urban streets.
- In addition, there is a tradeoff between the maximum rate of super elevation

and the minimum curve radius permitted at any design speed. AASHTO
recommends the minimum curve radii shown in the following table.
Table 4.2: Recommended minimum radius of curvature.
51
 With the previous relation :
 Euler spiral equation for an ideal transition curve.
Figure 4.5:method of maximum friction.
52
 Setting out Spiral Curves
- Spiral curves can be set out using two methods:

1. Rectangular coordinates method.
2. Deflection angles method.
- Setting out Spiral Curves by Rectangular coordinates method :
Figure 4.6: Rectangular coordinates method.
53
- example:
A spiral curve is used to connect a straight line with a circular curve (R=300m).
The length of the spiral is 121.933m and Ch(TS)=475m. To layout the curve, a
point is to be taken each 25m on the spiral. Calculate x, y, and the change of
each point.
- Solution :
- Setting out Spiral Curves by Deflection Angles Method:
Figure 4.7: Deflection Angles Method.
54
- Example:
A spiral curve is used to connect a straight line with a circular curve (R=300m). The
length of the spiral is 121.933m and Ch(TS)=475m. To layout the curve, a point is to
be taken each 25m on the spiral. Calculate the deflection angles at each station.
- Solution :
- Setting out Spiral Curves Geometry of Spiral Curves :
 in the case where a simple curve is to be replaced by two spirals and a

simple curve segment, the original circular curve is shifted inward from
the main tangent to provide a room for the spirals. PC-PT is shifted to the
position A-SC-CS-B. The portion SC-CS of the circular curve is kept
55
while the portions A-SC and CS-B are replaced by spirals TS-SC and CS-
ST respectively.
Figure 4.8: Geometry of Spiral Curves.
Figure 4.9: setting of spiral curve.
56
Figure 4.10: shift of circular with spiral.

57
CH.5
Vertical curves (parabolic Curves)
 Vertical Curves :
Figure 5-1: Vertical Curves in roads
58
Figure 5-2: Crest Vertical Curves
Figure 5-3: Sag vertical curves
 Vertical curves in highways are usually parabolic and the levels are
computed using the formula :
Where:
LEVX = Level at a point, x meters from the beginning of vertical curve.
LEVBVC = Level at the beginning of vertical curve.
G1 = slope of the first tangent in percentage.
59
G2 = slope of the second tangent in percentage.
x = distance from the beginning of the vertical curve.
LVC = length of vertical curve.
 Sight distances and Minimum rate of curvature:
- Vertical curves are specified in terms of rate of curvature K and the Algebraic
difference between gradients.
- the vertical curves lengths are related to K by the formula:
L = KA
Where:
L = Length of vertical curve.
K = Rate of vertical Curvature (the required length of crest/ sag curve to a 1% change
in gradients)
A = Algebraic difference between the gradients (g2-g1)
- Recommended minimum rate of curvature (K) for vertical curves are given in
Table 5-1.
- Where the K-value is (> 51) a special attention should be given to drainage
design. Where kerbs are used it may be necessary to remove them so as to
provide adequate transverse drainage.
- Where the algebraic difference between the gradients is ≤ 0.5% the computed
length of the vertical curves from the K-values and A may be so small such that an
impression of a kink can be observed in the vertical alignment.
- Engineering judgment shall be exercised to obtain reasonable lengths of curves

and at the same time providing solution to drainage challenges.
- It is practically very expensive to construct a vertical alignment meeting the

conditions for passing Sight Distance due to the fact that such a construction will
need a lot of cuts and fills.
- It is therefore recommended to adhere to stopping sight distances during road

design.
- The K values for passing Sight Distance can be used to indicate whether
overtaking should be permitted during road marking and provision of traffic signs
or not.
60
Table 5-1: Minimum rate of curvature (K-values) for vertical curves.
Design Speed K-Values to Satisfy stopping sight K-Values to

km/h distances satisfy
(m / % of g) passing sight
Crest Sag distances
(m / % of g)
30 3 4 50
40 5 8 86
50 10 12 126
60 18 18 176
70 22 25 246
80 49 32 310
90 71 41 387
100 105 51 475
110 151 62 561
120 201 74 664
*Swedish guide line.
AASHTO
61
 Coordination Of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment :
- Some major points on alignment coordination which need to be considered during

road design are described below:
1. The best alignment is obtained when the horizontal and vertical curves are
separated in design.
2. A larger number of horizontal intersection points than vertical points are

undesirable.
3. A sequence of closely spaced crest and sag curves must be avoided as it may
appear as horizontal but may hide oncoming traffic.
4. The beginning of a horizontal curve shall always fall within the available sight
distance. Thus, a horizontal curve should never be introduced near the top or
end of a sharp crest curve. The same applies for sharp horizontal curves at the
bottom of steep grades.
5. On dual carriageways, variations in the width of the median and the use of
separate horizontal and vertical alignment should be considered to derive the
design and operational advantage of one-way roads. Another advantage is a
possible reduction of construction cost by being able to fit each section
separately to the terrain.
6. Sharp horizontal curves should not be placed near low points of vertical
curves. This violates driver expectations as operating speeds are higher on
bottom of the curve.
7. Flatten both Vertical and Horizontal curves near intersections to enhance sight
distances.
62
Figure 5-4: Basic space elements
63
64
65
CH.6
Earthwork
 Setting Out the Vertical Alignment
 Planning the Vertical Alignment:
- The vertical alignment or longitudinal section, defines exact level of the road. As
with the horizontal alignment, most government departments have standards for
how the vertical alignment is designed. Rules concerning the gradients greatly
influence the alignment of the road and the amount of earthworks required.
- The setting out of the vertical alignment of a road in hilly or mountainous terrain
calls for experience. Major earthworks can be avoided if the contours of the
terrain are followed. This can often be done in the case of rural roads since the
standards for such roads allow for smaller radiuses on the horizontal alignment.
- Maximum allowable gradients should not be exceeded except in very exceptional

circumstances. If possible, the option of alternative horizontal alignment should be
explored to avoid steed vertical gradients.
 Setting Out :
- Several methods can be used for setting out the vertical alignment of rural roads in
hilly or mountainous terrain.
- The method shown below is based on the use of profile boards to optimize the
road level, avoiding unnecessary earth movement
Figure 6.1: profile of route.
66
Step 1: First, fix profile boards on the ranging rods along the centre line at a fixed
level, say 1 meter above the ground level.
Figure 6.2-a :setting out profile/ step1.
Step 2: Then sight along the profile boards. Get an assistant to adjust the level of each
of the intermediate profile boards so they are all on line with the first and the last
profile. All the profile boards will then be at a level 1 meter above the level of the
centre line of the new road (before designing the camber)
Figure 6.3-b :setting out profile / step 2.
Step 3: If the level of the centre line is too deep into the terrain, i.e. involving too
much excavation works, you can move the profile boards up or down to reduce the
leveling works, achieving a balance between the volumes of excavation and fill.
Figure 6.4-c :setting out profile / step 3.
67
Step 4: Finally, make sure that the profile boards along the centre line has been
correctly placed. All other levels for the road structure will be set out based on the
profiles along the centre line.
 Road Gradients
- When setting out the centre line of a road, it is important to check the gradients
along the road profiles. Transfer the level of one profile board to the next ranging
rod and measure the difference. The slope or the gradient is then calculated as
follows:
Figure 6.5 : road gradient.
 Pegging
- When the alignment has been determined, it is the task of the supervisor to set the
pegs showing excavating limits. It is good practice to place such pegs at a fixed
distance (say 1.0 meter) outside the area where the excavation has to take place.
- To guide the workers, multipurpose pegs can be set at the exact place where
excavation has to start. To further guide the workers, these pegs are then
connected with strings.
68
- The place where this upper line of pegs will have to be set depends on:
1. the width of the road,
2. the angle of the hill side slope, and
3. the angle of the face of the cut.
Figure 6.6: excavation pegging.
- Where embankments have to be set out, the survey pegs should be marked to
indicate how much will have to be dug or filled as shown below. When level
measurements are written on the pegs, always measure from the top of the peg.
- The pegs are set outside the areas of filling, not to be lost during the work
(multipurpose pegs can of course be put at the exact limits of excavation.
- The width of cut or fill is determined by the formation width of the road and
the angles of the side slopes of the excavation/embankment. Multi-purpose
pegs should be set while the work goes on to show the workers where to dump
or excavate the soil.
Figure 6.7:filling pegging.
69
 Setting Out Cross Sections
- When a cross-section is set out in the field, survey pegs and multi-purpose pegs
show:
1. the centre line of the road.
2. the level of the road (flat/hilly/mountainous terrain, cut, fill).
3. the location of the ditches.
4. the limit of excavation (cut, side long cut).
5. the amount of the embankment (fill).
- The cross section pegs should be set out at a right angle to the centre line pegs.
 Setting Out the Road Camber
- When setting out the road camber and side drains, it is important to reduce the
amount of excavation to a minimum by following the existing level of the
terrain along the road line.
- The procedure described below is an efficient way of setting out the road
levels, achieving a well placed road with good drainage and which does not
involve massive excavation and/or fill works.
Step 1: Using the previously set out centre line, set out ranging rods at 10m intervals
along the centre line for a section of 50 to 100 meters. At the start of the section,
measure out the position of the road shoulders and the outer end of the side drains
from the centre line. Repeat this exercise at the other end of the section. Place a
wooden peg next to each of the ranging rods.
Step 2: Once the key positions of the road have been set out at the start and the end
of the road section, sight in intermediate ranging rods at every 10m along the road
shoulders and side drains. Place wooden pegs next to each of the intermediate ranging
rods.
Figure 6.8: Setting Out the Road Camber.
70
Step 3: On the centre line of the road, fix the first profile board. This profile may
already be in position as the last profile from the previous set out section. If not,
measure 1m up from the existing ground level, and mark this level on the ranging rod.
Fix a profile board to the ranging rod so that the top edge of the profile board is at the
mark made on the rod.
Step 4: Go to the centre line ranging rod at the other end of the road section and
repeat the procedure, measuring up 1m from the ground level.
Figure 6.9: centre line ranging rod.
Step 5: By sighting in the intermediate profiles from one end, fix profile boards on
the intermediate ranging rods along the centre line so that they are all at the same
level.
Figure 6.10: fix profile boards on the intermediate ranging rods along the centre line.
Step 6: Check the height of each profile board above the ground level. If the height is
approximately 1m, there is no need to adjust them and you can use the level of the
profile as it is.
If the height of the profile boards is greater or less than 1m by 10cm, then inspect the
line. There may be humps or depressions along the line.
The set out line will in most cases smooth out these variations. However, it may be
that the set out line is over a hill or a dip in the terrain.
71
In such cases, it is necessary to adjust the profiles to avoid too much excavation
works.
Figure 6.11: Checking the height of each profile.
Adjust the profile at position D so that it is 1m above the ground and then lift the
profiles at B, C and E to sight in line with the profiles at A to D and D to F. This
exercise will reduce the amount of excavation works.
Before starting on the next step, make sure that the side drains can be emptied. It is
important to spend time on this step to get the levels right. All other levels will be set
out based on the profiles along the centre line of the road.
Figure 6.12: Adjust the profile if needed.
Step 7: Transfer the levels to the ranging rods at the outer end of the side drains. Start
with the beginning of the road section. Using a string and a line level, transfer the
level of the profile board at the centre line to the ditches on both sides of the road.
Once the levels are set out with profile boards, mark the levels on pegs next to each
ranging rod.
Repeat this procedure for the same two ranging rods at the other end of the road
section and for any intermediate profile along the centre line that was lifted or
lowered to reduce excavation works. Then, sight in the intermediate side drain levels.
72
In most cases, the height of the drain profile on the low side of the centre line is more
than 1m. This is because we have started from higher grounds, and since the road is
level, the lower side drains will be less deep.
Figure 6.13: Transfer the levels to the ranging rods at the outer end of the side drains.
Step 8: Mark the levels for the centre line on pegs placed next to the ranging rods
along the centre line. Now, use the centre line profile boards to set out intermediate
pegs, placed at every 5 m along the centre line. This is easily carried out with a 1m
traveler. Mark these pegs at the point where the bottom of the traveler touches the
peg, when lined up with the profiles. On all the centre line pegs, mark the level of the
crest of the camber.
Levels are usually written as three-digit numbers, showing the required cut or fill in
meters (e.g. +0.20 means that a fill of 20 centimeters is required). When the level is
indicated, always measure from the top of the peg.
You have now set out the profiles for the leveling of this road section.
Figure 6.14: Levels are usually written in the peg.
Step 9: Place the levels of the shoulders along the road. For this, it is useful to have a
traveler 1m high. If we line up the traveler along the line between the two side drain
profiles, the bottom of the traveler will show the correct level of the shoulder.
73
Place pegs every 5m along the edge of the shoulder, and using the traveler, mark these
pegs at the point where the bottom of the traveler ends when it lines up with the
profiles.
Figure 6.15: Place the levels of the shoulders along the road.
Step 10: Locate and set out the miter drains. It is important that the miter drains are
set out before the excavation works for the side drains and camber is commenced.
Step 11: Set out with string line the side drains that need to be excavated. Remember
to leave out the miter drain block-offs.
 Cross-section of Standard Formation (flat terrain)
- In this case, the survey pegs serve to mark the centre line as well as the road
level. When it is necessary to cut or fill to reach the required level, this is
shown on the peg.
Figure 6.16: Cross-section of flat terrain.
 Cross-section of Side Cut
- Here the survey peg marks the road level. After the road has been excavated to
level, the centre line and ditch slope pegs will be placed.
74
Figure 6.17: Cross-section of Side Cut.
 Cross-section of Cut to Fill
- the survey peg marks the future level of the road. The figure below shows that
the volume of the excavation is approximately twice the volume of the fill and
that a bench-notch should be dug to provide a stable foundation for the fill side
of the road.
Figure 6.18: Cross-section of Cut to Fill.
 Cross-section of a Fill
- The survey pegs on both sides of the road show the height to be filled. The
height is marked on the peg and measured from the top of the peg. With a slope
of 1:1 on both sides, the formation width can be calculated by adding hf1 and
hf2 to the road width.
75
Figure 6.19: Cross-section of Fill.
 MASS-HAUL DIAGRAM
- A mass-haul diagram or curve is drawn subsequent to the calculation of
earthwork volumes, its ordinates showing cumulative volumes at specific
points along the centre line.
- Volumes of cut and fill are treated as positive and negative, respectively.
- Compensation can be made as necessary, for shrinkage or bulking of the

excavated material when placed finally in an embankment.
Figure 6.20 : typical mass-haul diagram.
76
- Figure 6.20 shows a typical mass-haul diagram in which the following

characteristics of a mass-haul diagram may be noted:
1. A to G and S to M indicate decreasing aggregate volume which imply the

formation of embankment.
2. Rising curve from R to B indicates a cut.
3. R having a minimum ordinate is a point which occurs in the curve at the
end of an embankment.
4. S having the maximum ordinate is a point which indicates the end of a cut.
- In a mass-haul diagram for any horizontal line, e.g., GH, the ordinates at G and
H will be equal, and therefore, over the length GH, the volume of cut and fill
are equal, i.e., they are balanced out.
- When the curve lies between the trace line ABC, earth is moved to left, B-R-A,
and, similarly, when the curve lies above, earth is moved to right, i.e., B-S-C.
The length of the balancing line indicates the maximum distance that the earth
will be transported within the particular loop of the diagram formed by the line.
Though the base line ABC gives continuous balancing lines AB and BC, but for
ensuring the most economical solution, the balancing lines should be taken at
appropriate place without caring for continuity.
- Haul: It is defined as the total volume of excavation multiplied by average haul

distance. It is the area between the curve and balancing line, i.e., area GRH is
the haul in length GH.
- Free-haul: It is the distance up to which the hauling is done by the contractor

free of charge. For this distance the cost of transportation of the excavated
material is included in the excavation cost.
- Overhaul: It is the excavated material from a cutting moved to a greater

distance than the free-haul, the extra distance is overhaul.
Problem1
Along a proposed road, the volumes of earthwork between successive cross-

sections 50 m apart are given in Table 6.1 Plot a mass-haul diagram for
chainage 5000 to 5600, assuming that the earthworks were balanced at
chainage 5000. The positive volumes denote cut and the negative volumes
denote fill.
 Draw the balancing lines for the following cases:
(a) Balance of earthworks at chainage 5000 and barrow at chainage 5600.
(b) Equal barrow at chainages 5000 and 5600.
 Determine the costs of earthworks in the above two cases using the rates as
under.
77
(i) Excavate, cart, and fill within a free-haul distance of 200 m = 10.00
jod/m3.
(ii) Excavate, cart, and fill for overhaul.
(iii) Barrow and fill at chainage 5000.
(iv) Barrow and fill at chain age 5600.
Table 6.1: an example of mass-haul diagram.
78
CH.7
Special Curve Problems
 Obstacle problems
- Case 1 : P.I inaccessible :
When the point of intersection is inaccessible, a line is run (or traverse if

necessary) to connect the two tangents. The deflection angles it makes with
the tangents arc measured with transit set-ups at its end. Its length is also
measured very accurately. The deflection angle Δ of the curve is then equal to
the sum of the two deflection angles. The distances from the ends of the line to
the P.I. are calculated by the solution of the triangle. The procedure is as
follows : (Figure 7.1).
1. Select two indivisible points A and B and the two tangents so that line
AB is moderately on the level ground. If the ground towards the P.I. is
unsuitable for chaining, the points (A and B) may be ehoscn towards
the centre of the curve.
2. Set the transit at A and orient the line of sight in the direction AT1
when the reading on the circle is zero. Transit the telescope so that the
line of sight is now in the direction AV. Measure the deflection angle
(α ) accurately.
3. Similarly, set the transit at B and measure the deflection angle (β). The
total deflection angle of the curve will then be (∆ ).
4. Measure the distance AB accurately with the help of total station.
Figure 7.1: curve with P.I inaccessible
79
- case 2: P.C is not accessible
If the point of curve (P.C.) is inaccessible, the following steps arc necessary to
determine its change. Unless this is done, the length of the first sub-chord and
the position of the pegs on the curves cannot be determined.
Figure 7.2: curve with P.C inaccessible.
80
1- Calculate the tangent length T and measure it back along the rear
tangent. Noting that P.C. falls in the obstacle, select a point A very
near the obstacle and measure the distance AV.
Then T1A = T - AV
2- Select another point B on the tangent and to the other side of the
obstacle and find chainage.
3- By any method of chaining past the obstacle the solution of the

triangle ABC), compute the length AB.
4- The chainage of T1 = chainage of B + AB - T1A.

Thus, the chainage of P.C. is known.
5- Compute length of the curve and find the chainage of T2.
6- Set out the curve in the reverse direction from T2.
- case 3: P.T is not accessible
in order to continue the work past the toward tangent, it is necessary to know
the chainage. Of the tangency (T2) . If it is inaccessible, following steps are
necessary to determine its location.
Figure 7.3: curve with P.T inaccessible.
1- Determine the chainage of the point of intersection (v).
2- On the forward tangent, select a point A very near the obstacle.

Measure the distance VA.
Thus, distance AT2 = T-VA.
81
3. Chainage of T2 = chainage of T1 + length of the curve.
4. Select any point B on the tangent, but to the other side of the
obstacle. By any method of chaining past the obstacle (e,g solution of
triangle ABC) , calculate the distance AB.
5. The chainage of B = chainage of T2 + AB -AT2.
6. From the point B , locate the first accessible full chain peg on the
forward tangent.
- case 4: P.C and P.I are not accessible:
1. Select any point A on the rear tangent. Run any convenient line AB and
measure its length. Measure angles VAB and VBA by the theodolite set-ups at
A and B. Calculate
AT1 and the angle Δ as discussed in case (1). Knowing the chainage of A and
distance AT 1 calculate the chainage of T1 and also of T2 .
2 ) Imagine the curve produced backward to C on the perpendicular offset AC.

Then
3. make the perpendicular offset AC at A , as calculated above.
4. from C draw a chord CD parallel to AT1 , making CD = 2AT1

Then point D will be on the curve.
5. set the theodolit at D , then deflect from DC an angle equal to COT1 for a
tangent to the curve at D.
6. Prepare a table of deflection angles with respect to D , and set out the curve
from it.
82
Figure 7.4: curve with P.I and P.C. both are inaccessible.
 When the compete curve set out from P.C
In case of very long curves or obstructions intervening the line of sight, it

may not be possible to set out the whole curve from one single set up of the
instrument at P.C. In such a case, it is necessary to set up the instrument at one
or more points along the curve. We will consider two cases of the set ups of
the theodolite at intermediate points on the curve :
Let C be the last point set out from the P.C. (T1) and let its deflection angle be
Δc Assuming that T1 is visible from C, the procedure for setting out the rest of
the curve is as follows :
1. Shift the theodolite at C and set it there .

2. Set the vernier to read 0° and on T1 with the telescope inverted.
3. Transit the telescope. The line of sight is now directed along T1C pro-
duced.
4. Unclamp the upper plate, and set the vernier to read deflection angle Δd
the forward point D as if it were located from T1 and locate the point D as
usual.
83
Figure 7.5: setting out from intermediate point.
84
 Special problems in simple curves:
- passing a curve through fixed point :
85
Figure 7.6: curve location from P.I.
- Passing a curve tangential to three lines :
Figure 7.7: curve tangential to three lines.
86
 Use of Control Points :
To make the use of control points to set out the curve, the points on the curve
can be located by setting up the theodolite at any control point, and setting of
bearing of a particular point on the theodolite, and measuring the length of the
point from the control point. From the figure we find that to set out the
complete curve, use of control point Y would be most appropriate.
Example 1 :
circular curve of radius of 17.5 chains deflecting right through 32°40′, is to be
set out between two straights having chainage of the point of intersection as (51
+ 9.35).
Calculate the necessary data to set out the curve by the method of
deflection angles. Also calculate the necessary data indicating the use of the
control points shown in Fig. 7.8.
Figure 7.8: Use of Control Points.
87
Example 2
- PI is inaccessible , an auxiliary line EF is staked.

- φ=60o
- λ=75o
- b= 80m
- Compute the elements of curve if R=200m
- Δ= φ+λ=60 + 75=135o
Solution :
Example 3
Two straights AP and OC meet at an inaccessible point /. A circular curve of
500m radius is to be set out joining the two straights. The following data were
collected:
APQ = 157°22ʼ. CQP = 164°38' PO = 200 m.
Calculate the necessary data for setting out the curve by the method of
offsets from long chord. The chain to be used is of 30 m length, and the
chainage of P is (57 + 17.30) chains.
88
89
90
CH.8
Curve Problems in Highway Design
 Sight distance
- Sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car.
- For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient
length to ensure that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles when
driving on the road.
- Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight distances to enable

drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers, without
risk of accidents.
 Stopping Sight Distance:
- The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a

vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in
its path.
𝐕²
𝐒𝐒𝐃 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∗ 𝐭 ∗ 𝐕 +
𝟐𝟓𝟒 (𝐟 + 𝐆)
Where:
SSD = stopping sight distance [m]

t = driver reaction time, generally taken as 3.0 seconds
V = Vehicle speed [km/h]
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction.
G = percent grade, + for upgrade and – for down grade [%/100]
Table 8-1: Sight Distances on Level Ground (G=0)

Design Speed Coefficient of Stopping sight Passing sight Reduced
(km/h) Friction (f) distances (m) distances passing sight
from formulae distances for
(m) design (m)
30 0.40 30 217 75
40 0.38 45 285 125
50 0.35 63 345 175
60 0.33 85 407 225
70 0.31 110 482 275
80 0.30 130 540 315
90 0.30 169 573 340
100 0.29 205 670 375
110 0.28 247 728 399
120 0.28 285 792 425
91
 Control of Sight Distance:
A. On Crest Vertical Curves :
- The following values should be used for the determination of sight lines:
1. Driver’s eye height: 1.07 m.
2. Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 m.
3. Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 m.
Figure 8-1: Stopping and passing sight distances at a crest curve
B. On Sag Vertical Curves :
Figure 8-2: Stopping sight distance in a sag curve
C. On Horizontal Circular Curves
- On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees

or other sight obstructions on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight
distance.
92
Figure 8-3: Sight distance for horizontal curves
𝚫
𝐋𝐬 = 𝟐𝐑 𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐
Where:
R: Radius (m) to the centerline of the inside lane.

𝚫
𝐌 = 𝐑 (𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ))
𝟐
Where:
M: Middle ordinate.
R: Radius (m).
 Stopping Sight Distance: Single Lane Roads (DC8)
- In Certain classes of roads only have a single lane; the passing distance is the sum
of the stopping sight distance for the two vehicles, plus a 30-metre safety
distance.
 Passing Sight Distance

- Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single
carriageway roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to
pass another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle travelling at the design speed.
93
- Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the
roadway.
- For horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions on the

insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance.
- The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four

components, as follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction.
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane.
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver.
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle.
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
𝐚𝐭𝟏
𝐝𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝐭𝟏 (𝐯 − 𝐦 + ( ))
𝟐
Where:
t1 = time of initial maneuver in sec.
a = average acceleration, km/h/s.
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h.
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h.
d2 = 0.278 vt2
Where:
t2 = time the passing vehicle occupies right lane, sec.
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h.
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per Table 6-3:
Table 8-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds
Speed Group 50 - 65 66 - 80 81 - 100 101 - 120

(km/h)
d3 (m) 30 55 80 100
94
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2.
d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
Resulting passing sight distances are included in Table 6-1.
Figure 8-4: Passing Sight Distances.
95
 Super elevation
- Vehicles passing around circular curves are forced out of the curves by centrifugal
forces.
- Super elevation is the raising of the edges of a road towards the centre of a
horizontal curve in order to counteract centrifugal forces.
 Guidelines for application of Super elevation
- The maximum rate of super elevation for bituminous roads shall be 0.08 (8%)
for flat, rolling and hilly terrain and 0.06 (6%) for mountainous terrain.
- For gravel roads the maximum rate of super elevation shall not exceed 0.06
(6%).
- In urban areas the maximum rate of super elevation shall not exceed 0.04 (4%).
- No super elevation is employed within important intersection areas or where

there is a tendency to drive slowly because of turning and crossing movements,
warning devices, and signals.
Figure 8.5: central force
*Note from the Tables: NC=Normal Crown, RC= Remove Adverse Crown.
96
Table 8.3: Super elevation rates % related to design speed (Vd) and horizontal curve
(emax=8%, NC= 2.5%)
R(m) Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
7000 NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC
5000 NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC
3000 NC NC NC NC NC NC NC RC RC RC
2500 NC NC NC NC NC NC RC RC RC 2.9
2000 NC NC NC NC NC RC RC 2.6 3.0 3.5
1500 NC NC NC NC RC RC 2.8 3.4 3.9 4.6
1400 NC NC NC RC RC 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.1 4.9
1300 NC NC NC RC RC 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.2
1200 NC NC NC RC RC 2.9 3.4 4.1 4.7 5.6
1000 NC NC RC RC 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.8 5.5 6.5
900 NC NC RC RC 3.1 3.7 4.4 5.2 6.0 7.1
800 NC NC RC 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.6
700 NC RC RC 3.0 3.8 4.5 5.3 6.3 7.2 8.0
600 NC RC 2.6 3.4 4.3 5.1 6.0 6.9 7.7
500 NC RC 3.0 3.9 4.9 5.8 6.7 7.6 8.0
400 RC 2.7 3.6 4.7 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.0
300 RC 3.5 4.5 5.6 6.7 6.7 8.0
250 RC 4.0 5.1 6.2 7.4 7.9
200 3.0 4.6 5.8 7.0 7.9 8.0
175 3.4 5.0 6.2 7.4 8.0
150 3.8 5.4 6.7 7.8
140 4.0 5.6 6.9 7.9
130 4.2 5.8 7.1 8.0
120 4.4 6.0 7.4
119 4.4 6.0 7.4
110 4.7 6.3 7.6
100 5.0 6.6 7.8
90 5.2 6.9 8.0
80 5.5 7.2 8.0
70 5.9 7.5
60 6.4 7.9
50 6.9 8.0
40 7.5
30 8.0
 Guidelines for application of Super elevation on Gravel Roads
- The maximum rates for super elevation to be applied on gravel roads shall be
calculated using the following relationship:
𝐕𝐃²
𝒆=
𝟐𝟔𝟎𝐑
97
Where:
e = super elevation rate (decimals).
VD = design speed (km/h).
R = radius of curve (m).
- The values of super elevation to be applied shall be rounded – off to the nearest
0.1%.
- For 0.03 ≥ e > 0.002: adverse crown only.
- For e < 0.002: normal camber.
- The maximum rate of super elevation for gravel roads shall be 0.06 (6%)
irrespective of terrain classification.
 Distribution of super elevation within the horizontal alignment
- Super elevation within a curve is applied by rotating the road lanes from the
normal camber until the road attains full super elevation.
- The rotation is divided in two stages which are called:
1. Tangent Runoff.
2. Super elevation runoff.
- This rotation can be done around the road centre line, the edge of the inner lane
or the edge of the outer lane.
- Tangent Runoff (TR) is the length of the road whereby the normal camber on the
outside of the curve is rotated until adverse crown is removed from the outer half
of the road carriageway.
- Super elevation Runoff (SR) is the length of the road from the point with adverse
crown removed up to the point where the road has attained the maximum super
elevation.
- For circular curves without transition curves 2/3 of the super elevation runoff
shall be within the tangent while 1/3 shall be applied within the circular curve.
98
Figure 8.6: Application of super elevation on circular curves
- For curves with transition curves, full super elevation shall be applied within
the transition curves.
Figure 8.7: Application of super elevation on curves with transition curves
- In this case the length of super elevation runoff is the spiral length beginning
with the tangent to spiral (TS) and ending with Spiral to Circular Curve (SC).
- The change in cross slope begins by removing of the adverse crown from the lane
or lanes on the outside of the curve on tangent runoff just before TS and rotating
the road cross section until reaching full super elevation at SC.
99
Figure 8.8: super elevation
- Super elevation Transitions :
Consists of Runoff and tangent Run out sections:

- Runoff: length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside lane cross
slope from zero to full super elevation.
100
- Run out: length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside lane cross
slope from normal rate to zero.
- The length of super elevation run-off is given by the formula:
(w ∗ n1) ∗ ed
Lr = ( ) ∗ (bw)
Δs
Where:
Lr = Length of super elevation runoff (m).
ed = Value of design super elevation in percent.
Δs = rate of change of super elevation (relative gradient) in percentage as given in
Table 6-6.
w = width of one traffic lane, m.
n1 = number of lanes rotated.
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated (Table 6-7)
Table 8.4: Maximum and Minimum rate of Change of Super elevation.
Design 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Speed
Km/h
Max. Δs 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
(%)
Min. Δs 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
(%)
Table 8.5: Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated
Number of lanes Rotated Adjustment Factor Length Increase Relative to One-

Lane Rotated (=n1bw)
1 1.00 1.0
2 0.75 1.5
3 0.67 2.0
- The minimum length of tangent run out is calculated by the formula below:
e0
Lt = ( ) ∗ (Lr)
ed
Where:
Lt = minimum length of tangent run out, m.

Lr = Length of super elevation runoff.
ed = Value of design super elevation in percent, %.
e0 = Normal Cross Slope in percent, %.
101
 Rotation of Shoulders during super elevation application

- It is desirable that all paved shoulders should be sloped upward at the same rate
as the travel way.
Figure 8.9: Shoulder Rotation during Super elevation application
 Transition Curves :
 Transition curves are provided to ensure a smooth transition between tangents

and circular curve.
 They start at the tangents with radius equal to infinity and join the circular
curves with radius equal to that of the circular curve.
102
 The advantages of transition curves are to enable smooth turning movement

of vehicles between tangents and circular curves, provide basis for application of
super elevation and for aesthetic purposes.
 Transition curves are spirals, parabolic or cubic parabola.
 For the purpose of design of Jordanian roads the spirals transition curves
should be applied.
 Transition curves shall be applied to circular curves under the following

condition:
𝐕𝐃 ³
R<
𝟒𝟑𝟐
Where:
R: Radius of the circular curve (m).
VD: Design Speed (km/h).
 To estimate the length of transition curve needed, three criteria are to be used and
the higher value shall be adopted. These criteria are driver’s comfort,
application of super elevation and Aesthetics as described below:
1. Drivers Comfort :
a. for design speeds less than 50 km/h.:
𝐕𝐃 ³
L=
𝟐𝟖𝐑
b. For design speeds greater than 50 km/h .

𝐕𝐃 ³
L=
𝟐𝟑.𝟑𝐑
Where:
VD: Design Speed (km/h).

R: Radius for the circular curve (m).
2. Super elevation run-off and run out to be contained within the transition:
Ls = Lr + Lt
103
(w ∗ n1) ∗ ed
Lr = ( ) ∗ (bw)
Δs
e0
Lt = ( ) ∗ (Lr)
ed
Where:
Lr : Length of super elevation runoff (m).
ed : Value of design super elevation in percent.
Δs : rate of change of super elevation (relative gradient) in percentage as given in
Table 6-6.
w : width of one traffic lane, m.
n1 : number of lanes rotated.
bw : adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated (Table 6-7)
Lt : minimum length of tangent run out, m.
ed : Value of design super elevation in percent, %.
e0 : Normal Cross Slope in percent, %.
3. Aesthetics
L=R/9
Where:
L: Length of transition curve.

R: Radius of the Circular curve.
 The three criteria described above are normally used to estimate minimum
length of transition curves.
 In that case the maximum value of transition curve indicated in the equation
below shall be considered.
𝑳𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √𝟐𝟒𝑹
Where:
Ls max: maximum length of transition curve (m).
R: Curve radius (m).
 In case of radiuses greater than 1000 m, consider just the first two criteria
(no need to Aesthetics).
104
 Widening on Curves
- The required width of the road convenient for vehicles to be able to maneuver
safely depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving.
- Widening of the road width on sections with curves can be implemented in order
to allow for maneuver when vehicles are moving at high speeds, allow for
sweeping area for trucks and to provide for psychological feeling of safety when
the road is passing on embankment with high fills.
- Where transition curves are provided, widening may be placed on the inside or
divided equally between the outside and inside of the circular curve.
- On curves which have no transition, the widening should be applied on the inside
edge of the pavement only. ?????????
- Regardless of how widening is effected; the final centre line markings should be
placed midway between the edges of the widened pavement.
 Track width (U) :

𝑼 = 𝒖 + 𝑹 − (√𝑹² − 𝑳²)
Where
U: track width on curve (m).

u: track width on tangent (m).
R: radius of turn (m).
L: wheel base of design vehicle (m).
 Width of front overhang (FA) :
𝑭𝑨 = 𝑹² + 𝑨(√𝟐𝑳 + 𝑨) ) - R
Where
FA: width of front overhangs (m).

R: radius of curve (m).
A: front overhang (m).
L: wheel base (m).
 The width of the rear overhang (RA) :
RA ≤ 0.15 m
Or
RA = Zero.
105
Figure 8-10: Typical turning path
 lateral clearance between the edge of the roadway and the nearest wheel path
(C):
- Typical values of C are:
 0.75 m for a travelled way width of 6.5 m.

 0.90 m for a travelled way width of 7.5 m.
 A further allowance, Z, is provided to accommodate the difficulty of

maneuvering on a curve and the variation in driver operation.
106
𝐙 = 𝟎. 𝟏(√𝑽/𝑹
Where:
V: design speed of the road (km/h).

R: radius (m).
WC = N (U + C) + FA (N - 1) + Z
Where:
N: number of lanes.
Values of curve widening = WC – W
Where:
W: the width of the travelled way on tangent sections.

WC: the width of the travelled way on curve sections.
 Widening should transition gradually on the approaches to the curve so that the
full additional width is available at the start of the curve.
 In practice, curve widening is thus applied over no more than the length of the
super elevation runoff preceding the curve.
 Lane widening is generally not applied to curves with a radius greater than 300
meters, regardless of the design speed.
 The widening is normally applied only on one side of the road. This is usually on
the inside of the curve to match the tendency for drivers to cut the inside edge
of the travelled way.
107
 Climbing Lanes:
 Where the critical lengths of gradients cannot be achieved consideration needs
to be given to application of climbing lanes.
 A climbing lane is an auxiliary lane provided to remove the slow moving trucks
from the traffic stream climbing a gradient in order to improve safety and the
Level of Service.
o Warrant for climbing lanes :
 Once the critical lengths of gradients are exceeded the designer should consider
the traffic, terrain and economic factors before deciding on whether to introduce
a climbing lane or not.
 Climbing lanes are warranted on two-lane highways when One of the following
conditions is met:
1. A traffic volume of ADT ≥ 1500.
2. Directional flow rate on the upgrade ≥200 veh/h or Directional flow rate
for trucks on the upgrade ≥20 veh/h and Speed reduction for trucks is 10
mi/h (20 km/hr) for a typical heavy truck or LOS is E or F on the grade.
o Design of climbing lanes :
 It is recommended that the width of the climbing lanes be the same as the width
of the adjacent lane.
 Shoulders should be tapered to allow for escape of merging vehicle in case of

hindrance to merging to the main lane due to presence of traffic in the lane.
 Care should be taken to ensure that climbing lanes do not merge in curves
wherever possible.
108
Figure 8.11: Climbing lane
Figure 8.12: Climbing lane entrance
109
Figure 8.13: Climbing lane terminal.
o Guidance on determination of start and end points of climbing lanes:
 By following the steps below, the start and end points of the climbing lanes can
be determined.
 The distances from the beginning of the upgrade to points A and B as well as the
distances form the crest to points D and E as shown in Figure 6-19 shall be
determined during the design.
 These distances are referred to as LA, LB, LD and LE respectively. See

illustration below.
Figure 8.14: Illustration for climbing lane lengths determination.
110
Determine:
1. The first gradient, g1 [+ %], and the second gradient, g2 [+/- %].
2. The speed at the beginning of the grade, V1 [km/h], and the allowable speed
reduction, VRDC [km/h] (for the purpose of this manual= 20 km/h).
Calculate the climbing lane entrance speed, V2 [km/h], by using the formula:
V2 = V1 – VRDC, where V2 is the speed of the slow moving vehicle
entering the climbing lane at point B.
3. From Figure 6-18, determine lengths L1 [m] and L2 [m];
L1 is read from where V1 intersects the g1 deceleration curve,

L2 is read from where V2 intersects the g1 deceleration curve.
L1 and L2 express the critical lengths over which a vehicle is able to

maintain the given speeds (V1 and V2 respectively) while moving up the
grade at a given constant gradient.
4. Determine the distance from the start of the grade to point B, LB [m].
The distance is calculated as:

LB = L2 - L1
Choose climbing lane entrance taper length, LT1 [m] (minimum =100 m)
and calculate the distance from the start of the grade to point A, LA [m], as:
LA = LB – LT1
Next, the placement of the climbing lane terminal follows.
5. From Figure 6-18, read the lowest speed, VLOW [km/h], from where the
L1+LGRADE intersect the g1 deceleration curve.
VLOW is the speed reached after travelling the length of the grade when
reaching point C.
Over longer grades, the speed of a vehicle will eventually reach a constant
level.
This can be seen obtained from the deceleration asymptotes in Figure 6-18.
6. From Figure 6-18, determine lengths L3 [m] and L4 [m];

L3 is read from where VLOW intersects the g2 acceleration curve,
L4 is read from where V2 intersects the g2 acceleration curve.
L3 and L4 express the critical lengths over which a vehicle is able to
accelerate to a given speed while moving downhill, straight or less uphill at a
given gradient.
7. The distance from the crest to point D, LD [m], is calculated as:

LD = L4 - L3
By choosing the length of the terminal taper which again should be at least
100 m, the distance from the crest to point E can be simply be calculated.
Choose terminal taper length, LT2 [m] (minimum length is 100 m), and
calculate the distance LE [m] as:
111
LE = LD + LT2.
Example of use of Figure 6-18 (from Swedish highway guide line):
A truck has a speed of 80 km/h at the beginning of a grade of a gradient of 5%.

Reading the length at 80 km/h and 60 km/h, (80 km/h - 20 km/h = 60 km/h) at s =
5%, one get lengths of 150 m and 450 m respectively.
The difference is 300 m and this implies that after 300 m a climbing lane with full
width has to be established at point B in Figure 6-19.
The climbing lane has to be continued until the truck is gaining a speed of 60 km/h.
This length can also be found in Figure 6-18.
The lowest speed a truck at 5% is 32 km/h assuming the length of the grade is long
enough for a truck to achieve this speed.
The grade is followed by a downhill of 2% and hence the length computed to the
crest as shown in Figure 6-18.
Taking the acceleration line -2% and reading the length at 30 km/h and 60 km/h
respectively, gives 0 m and 240 m which signify that the lane has to be extended to
240 m past the crest. In addition the taper has to be added.
Figure 8.15: climbing lane figure.
112
Figure 8.16: climbing lane calculations example.
113

Eng. Raid Arrhaibeh Route Surveying 2016

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Route surveying ENG.

1st semester / 2015 – 2016

 Route surveying and systems engineering

- Transportation: refer not only to transportation of persons, but also to the

- Structures : highways and railroads , aqueducts , canals and flumes,

- the survey serves two purposes :

1. Determine the best general route between the termini.

- This needs experience in survey and art of engineering

 Relation of project to economics

- Every route surveying project involves economic problems (large or

- The social, environmental, and political objectives should carry weight.

- Survey, terrain, equipments, and personal available related to

 Relation of project to design

- Design problems in route location are closely related to route surveying.

 Basic factors of alignments and grades.

Should be a proper balance between topography and grad.

This needs broad experience, mature judgments, and knowledge of the

- Many of accidents occur at allocation where is a sudden and misleading

 Influence of type of project

 The basic route survey and design system

Figure 1.1. The basic route survey and design system.

- The area must be broad enough to cover all needed area.

The Reconnaissance is entrusted to an engineer have mature experience in

 Purpose of preliminary surveys

- The most important purposes of it are to obtain data for plotting an

- It needs at least one traverse.

- It may needs accurate contour maps.

- Take all measurements and elevation of all significant features.

 Proper use of topography

- Engineer may visit field before he going to office or after that.

 Function of location survey

 Relation of surveying to engineering

- Surveying and mapping are not engineering. !!!

- In designing large projects, extensive surveying operations are involved in

1. Know the termini points.

eng. Ra'id Arrhaibeh

 Types of Circular Curves:

Figure 2.1: simple curve.

2. Compound curves: two or more curves in succession, turning in the same

Figure 2.2: compound curve.

Figure 2.3: reverse curve.

4. Transition curves: placed between tangents and circular curves or

Figure 2.4: transition curve.

Figure 2.5: broken back curve.

- Degree of Curve (D):

1. Arc definition: Angle subtended by 100 ft arc along horizontal curve.

Figure 2.6: degree of curvature (arc definition).

2. Chord definition: defines the degree of curve as the angle subtended by a

Figure 2.7: degree of curvature (chord definition).

 Simple Circular Curves Terminology

Figure 2.8: simple curve elements.

 Formulae for simple Circular Curves

Figure 2.9: elements of horizontal curve design.

- Length of radius or degree of curvature, based on:

- The smaller the radius, the sharper the curve.

Figure 2.10: influence of sight distance on horizontal curve design.

- On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees

R: Radius (m) to the centerline of the inside lane.

- It is recommended that circular curves should be long enough to avoid problems

- The minimum length of circular curves shall be 150 m

- The desirable maximum length of circular curve is 800 m.

The absolute maximum length of curve shall be 1000 m

 Setting out simple curves

- Setting Out a Straight Line