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1 57
2 Energy: Global and Historical Background 58
3 59
4 60
5 Milivoje M. Kostic 61
6
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, U.S.A. 62
7 63
8 Abstract 64
9 The global and historical overview of energy use is presented with emphasis on energy diversity but also 65
10 universality. Starting from ancient civilization a chronology of selected energy-related events is presented. 66
11 It starts from the prehistoric age, when humans relied on their muscular power to survive; then they learned 67
12 how to control and use fire, and to domesticate and use animal power, and slowly evolved from hunters and 68
13
food-gatherers to developers of early agriculture. The use of water and wind power (waterwheels 69
and windmills) expanded human activities and mobility. Further developments included smelting copper
14 70
and iron ores; using charcoal; and developing different tools, gunpowder, and sailing ships. The use of coal
15 71
in the mid-1700s and the development of steam engines set off fast growth of cities, population, and further
16 inventions, including internal-combustion engines and the discovery and use of oil, natural gas, and 72
17 electricity. This accelerated growth period, known as the Industrial Revolution, matured by the end of the 73
18 19th century with significant use of fossil fuels and further electrification, and resulted in almost- 74
19 exponential growth of population and energy use. After the development of nuclear energy and the 75
20 realization that the abundance of inexpensive fossil fuels will come to an end, along with concern about 76
21 global environmental pollution, a modern era, with computerization and global Information Revolution, 77
22 has been taking place. After all developments, life may be happier in the post-fossil fuel era, which 78
represents only a bleep on the human-history radar screen.
23 79
24 80
25 81
26 82
INTRODUCTION AND GLOBAL OVERVIEW: be kinetic or potential, whereas thermal energy represents
27 83
ENERGY DIVERSITY AND UNIVERSALITY overall chaotic motion energy of molecules and related
28 84
microstructures. Energy is the cause of all processes across
29 85
The historical overview of energy intrinsically includes all space and time scales, including global and historical
30 86
geological and societal (human) chronological develop- changes. Actually, energy is “the building block” and
31 87
ments. Energy is more than universal currency. The world fundamental property of matter and space; thus, it is a
32 88
view from inside to outside is possible, figuratively and fundamental property of existence, as elaborated in the
33 89
literally, only through the energy prism. From shining stars “Physics of Energy” article in this encyclopedia and
34 90
35
to rotating planets; to global water, atmospheric, and life elsewhere.[1,2] Energy is both the cause and the con- 91
cycles; to the evolution, industrialization, and modern- sequence of formation and transformation within the
36 92
ization of civilization, energy is the cause and measure of universe (everything we are capable of observing or
37 93
all that there has been, is, and will be. comprehending) at the grand scale, down to the smallest
38 94
Each and every material system in nature possesses subnanostructures within an atom nucleus and electro-
39 95
energy. The structure of any matter and field is energetic, magnetic radiation.
40 96
meaning active—i.e., photon waves are traveling in space; Energy warms our planet Earth and keeps it alive. It
41 97
42
electrons are orbiting an atom nucleus or flowing through a moves cars and trains, and boats and planes. Energy bakes 98
43
conductor; and atoms and molecules are in constant foods and keeps them frozen for storage. It lights our 99
44
interactions, vibrations, or random thermal motions. homes and plays our music. Energy makes our bodies 100
45
Energy is a fundamental property of material systems grow and live and allows our minds to think. Through the 101
46
and refers to the system’s potential to influence changes to centuries people have learned how to harvest and use 102
47
another system by imparting work (forced directional dis- energy in different forms to do work more easily and live 103
48
placement) or heat (forced chaotic displacement/motion more comfortably. No wonder that energy is often defined 104
49 of a system microstructure). Energy exists in many forms: as ability to perform work—i.e., as a potential for energy 105
50 electromagnetic, electrical, magnetic, nuclear, chemical, transfer in a specific direction (displacement in force 106
51 thermal, and mechanical. Electromechanical energy may direction), thus achieving a purposeful process, as opposed 107
52 to dissipative (less-purposeful) energy transfer in the form 108
53 of heat. 109
Keywords: Energy; Power; Fire; Fossil fuels; Steam and heat engines;
54
Industrial revolution; Electrification; Nuclear energy; Solar energy;
Zooming in space and history from the formation of our 110
55 Computerization and information revolution; Global environmental planet Earth some 4.5 billion years ago, it is observed that 111
56 pollution. our planet has been changing ever since due to energy 112

Encyclopedia of Energy Engineering DOI:10.1081/E-EEE-120042341

Copyright q 2007 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. 1

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113 169
114 170
115 171
116 172
117 173
118 174
119 175
120 176
121 177
122 178
123 179
124 180
125 181
126 182
127 183
128 Fig. 1 Population historical growth caused by 184
129 energy use. 185
130 186
131 187
132 exchanges or “energy flows” in different astrophysical, ment.[4–6] Growth as we know it, however, will be 188
133 geological, chemical, biological, and intellectual pro- naturally restricted by overpopulation and resource 189
134 cesses. Hundreds of millions of years ago, life emerged depletion (see Fig. 1). Two things are certain: in the not- 190
135 from the oceans and transformed the landscape. Just a few too-distant future (1) the world population and its living- 191
136 million years ago, the first human species evolved and standard expectations will increase substantially, and (2) 192
137 began its own process of interaction with its environment: economical reserves of fossil fuels, particularly oil and 193
138 the planet Earth. About 1 million years ago our own natural gas, will decrease substantially. The difficulties 194
139 species, Homo sapiens, first appeared, then strived most of that will face every nation and the world in meeting energy 195
140 the history, and boomed with agricultural and the needs over the next several decades will be more 196
141 Industrial Revolution (see Fig. 1). challenging than what we anticipate now. The traditional 197
142 The current world population is about 6.3 billion. solutions and approaches will not solve the global energy 198
143 Standards of living and energy use have been growing problem. New knowledge, new technology, and new 199
144 almost exponentially due to an abundance of resources living habits and expectations must be developed, both to 200
145 (see Fig. 2).[3] Today we humans have become sufficiently address the quantity of energy needed to increase the 201
146 numerous and technologically active that we may be standard of living worldwide and to preserve and enhance 202
147 having a global impact on our planet Earth’s environ- the quality of our environment. 203
148 204
149 205
150 206
MODERN
151 ERA 207
PRE-INDUSTRIAL ERA INDUSTRIAL ERA
Energy Consu mption

152 208
153 209
in USA

154 Industrial Revolution 210

155 211
156 212
157 213
158 214
159 215
160 ZOOMED OUT 216
161 217
162 Fossil Fuel Era Is Just a Bleep Life May Be Happier 218
163 on the Human History Radar Screen in Post Fossil Fuel Era 219
TIME
164 220
165 Fig. 2 Energy in history: PreIndustrial era encompasses human evolutionary survival and development of agriculture. Industrial era 221
166 starts with Industrial Revolution and use of fossil fuels (just a bleep on the human history radar screen). Modern era start with human 222
167 awareness of fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution concerns. 223
168 Source: From U.S. Department of Energy (see Ref. 3). 224

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Energy: Global and Historical Background 3

225 consumption rate is 0.287 kW and 1.535 kW in the world 281

226 and the United States, respectively (see Fig. 3). 282
227 The total energy coming to the Earth’s surface is 99.98% 283
228 solar, 0.02% geothermal, and 0.002% tidal/gravitational. 284
229 Currently, about 14 TW (Terawatt, or 2.2 kW/capita [per 285
230 person]) of the world’s energy consumption rate represents 286
231 only a tiny fraction—0.008%—of the solar energy striking 287
232 Earth and is about six times smaller than global 288
233 photosynthesis (all life). Global photosynthesis is only 289
234 0.05% of total solar energy, whereas global atmospheric 290
235 water and wind are about 1% of solar energy. Note that 291
236 the energy rate or power of 1 TWZ1012 WZ29.9 QBtu/ 292
237 yearZ5.89 bbl/year (billion barrels of oil per year) 293
Fig. 3 Energy data: solar energy; dietary metabolic energy; and
238 world and USA energy consumption per capita (per Person). and 1 Quad (QBtu)Z1015 BTUZ1.055!1018 JouleZ 294
239 1.055 EJ (Exa-Joule). For energy-unit conversion and fuel, 295
240 and other energy equivalents, see below and Table 1. 296
241 As an ultimate energy source for virtually all natural 297
242 The human metabolism needed to maintain life is 298
processes, the solar energy is available for direct “harvest”
243 approximately equal to the dietary energy reference value 299
if needed and is absorbed by vegetation and water surfaces
244 of 2000 kcal/day, which is equivalent to 97 W or 331 Btu/h. 300
on Earth, thus being the driving force for natural
245 Human sustained working power is about 75 W, or one- 301
photosynthesis and, in turn, for biosynthesis processes,
246 tenth of 1 hp. Human muscular power bursts may be a 302
as well as the natural water cycle and all atmospheric
247 hundred times greater than basal metabolic or sustained processes. (See the solar-related renewable energy sources 303
248 power. By comparison, the world’s population is about 6.3 in Table 2.) The solar-radiation power density incident to 304
249 billion, with total energy consumption about 7550 Btu/h or Earth’s atmosphere, known as the Solar Constant, is 2 cal/ 305
250 2.21 kW per capita (or 11.34 kW per capita for a population min/cm2 or about 1.4 kW/m2—which, after taking into 306
251 of about 0.3 billion in the United States). The total energy account average day/night time (50%), varying incident 307
252 rate in kW is often scaled by the typical 33% of thermal- angle (50%), and atmospheric/cloud scatter and absorption 308
253 to-electrical conversion efficiency to be compared quali- (53%), reduces to only 0.5$0.5$0.47Z11.7% of the Solar 309
254 tatively with the electrical energy rate in kW, and vice Constant, or about 165 W/m2 at the Earth’s surface, as the 310
255 versa. The corresponding per-capita electricity all-time average (see Fig. 3). 311
256 312
257 Table 1 Energy units with conversion factors and energy equivalents 313
258 314
259 Energy units J KWh Btu 315
260 1 Joule (J) 1 2.78!10 K7
9.49!10 K4 316
261 6 3 317
1 Kilowatt hour (kWh) 3.6!10 1 3.412!10
262 318
263
1 Kilocalorie (kcalZCalZ1000 cal) 4187 1.19!10K3 3.968 319
264 1 British thermal unit (Btu) 1055 2.93!10K4 1 320
265 1 Pound-force foot (lbf ft) 1.36 3.78 10K7 1.29!10K3 321
266 1 Electron volt (eV) 1.6!10K19 4.45!10K26 1.52!10K22 322
267 1 Horsepower!second (hp s) 745.7 2.071!10K4 0.707 323
268 324
269 Energy equivalents J KWh Btu 325
270 326
271 1 Barrel (42 gal) of crude petroleum 6.12!109 1700 5.80!106 327
272 1 Ton (2000 lb) of bituminous coal 2.81!1010 7800 2.66!107 328
273 1000 Cubic feet of natural gas 1.09!109 303 1.035!106 329
274 1 Gallon of gasoline 1.32!108 36.6 1.25!105 330
275 331
1 Gram of uranium 235 8.28!1010 2.30!104 7.84!107
276 11 4 8 332
1 Gram of deuterium 2.38!10 6.60!10 2.25!10
277 333
278 2000 Dietary food calories (2000 kcal) 8.374!106 2.326 7.937!103 334
279 1 Solar constant!cm2!sec 8.374 2.326!10K6 7.937!10K3 335
280 Source: From Elsevier Inc. (see Ref. 1). 336

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337 Table 2 Primary energy sources and conversion to work 393

338 394
Primary energy source Conversion
339 395
340 Non-renewable 396
341 Fossil fuels 397
342 Coal Combustion (heat and heat-engine H/HE/Wa) 398
343 Peat 399
344 Oil/crude petroleum 400
345 Natural gas 401
346 Nuclear 402
347 Uranium Fission (H/HE/W) 403
348 Thorium 404
349 Deuterium b
Fusion (H/HE/W) 405
350 c 406
Renewable
351 407
352
Geothermald 408
353 Hot steam/water H/HE/W 409
354 Ground soil/rock heat 410
355 Volcanic, etc.b 411
356 Ocean-gravitational 412
357 Tidal-ocean wave Direct to work 413
358 Solar-related 414
359 Ocean 415
360 Ocean thermal H/HE/W 416
361 Ocean currents Direct to work 417
362 Ocean wave 418
363 Biomass 419
364 Wood Combustion (H/HE/W) 420
365 Vegetation, etc.e 421
366 Direct solar 422
367 Solar-thermal H/HE/W 423
368 Photoelectric Direct to work 424
369 425
Photochemical
370 426
Electrostatic
371 427
Lightning, etc.b
372 428
Wind
373 429
Wind–air streams
374 430
Hydro
375 431
River/accumulation
376 432
377
Muscular 433
378 Human and animals 434
379 Note: Secondary energy sources (electrical, synthetic fuels, hydrogen, etc.), with energy storage and distribution complete the energy supply domain, which 435
380 with energy needs, consumption and efficiency complete the global energy realm. 436
Energy related processes: electromagnetic radiation; photosynthesis cycle in nature; biosyntheses cycle in nature; electrical processes: electro-dynamic,
381 437
electro-magnetic, electro-chemical; nuclear reactions: fission, fusion, radioactive radiation; chemical reactions: combustion, oxidation, etc.; heat transfer
382 and frictional dissipative processes; thermo-mechanical expansion and compression; natural air streams driven by solar dissipation and gravitational 438
383 buoyancy (wind); natural water cycle driven by solar dissipation, gravitation and buoyancy (evaporation, precipitations, water streams); natural water 439
384 streams (rivers and ocean streams); mechanical expansion and compression. 440
a
385 H/HE/W, conversion to Heat and via Heat-Engine to Work. 441
b
Not commercialized yet.
386 c 442
All renewables, except tidal and geothermal, are due to solar radiation.
387 d
Usually renewable, but may be non-renewable. 443
e
388 Includes many types, as well as waste/garbage. 444
389 Source: From Elsevier Inc. (see Ref. 1). 445
390 446
391 447
392 448

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Energy: Global and Historical Background 5

449 Energy, Work and Heat Units, and fire, and how to domesticate and use animal power, and 505
450 Energy Equivalents slowly evolved from hunters and food gatherers to 506
451 cultivators of crops and developers of early agriculture. 507
452 Energy is manifested via work and heat transfer, with a The use of water and wind power (waterwheels and 508
453 corresponding Force!Length dimension for work (N m, windmills) enabled humans to expand their activities and 509
454 kgf m, and lbf ft, in SI, metric, and English system of units, mobility. Further developments included smelting of 510
455 respectively); and the caloric units, in kilocalorie (kcal) or copper and iron ores, using wood and charcoal, and 511
456 British thermal unit (Btu), the last two defined as heat developing different tools, gunpowder, and sailing ships. 512
457 needed to increase a unit mass of water (at specified The use of coal in the mid-1700s and the development of 513
458 pressure and temperature) for 1 degree of temperature in steam engines set off fast growth of cities, population, and 514
459 their respective units. Therefore, the water-specific heat is further inventions, including internal-combustion engines 515
460 1 kcal/(kg oC)Z1 Btu/(lb oF) by definition, in metric and and the discovery and use of oil, natural gas, and 516
461 English system of units, respectively. It was demonstrated electricity. This accelerated growth period, known as the 517
462 by Joule that 4187 N m of work, when dissipated in heat, is Industrial Revolution, matured by the end of the 19th 518
463 equivalent to 1 kcal. In his honor, 1 N m of work is named century with significant use of fossil fuels and further 519
464 after him as 1 Joule, or 1 J, the SI energy unit, also equal to developments in electricity, resulting in almost-exponen- 520
465 electrical work of 1 W sZ1 V A s. The SI unit for power, tial growth of population and energy use. After the 521
466 or work rate, is watt—i.e., 1 J/sZ1 W—and also development of nuclear energy and realization that the 522
467 corresponding units in other system of units, such as abundance of inexpensive fossil fuels will come to an end, 523
468 Btu/h. Horsepower is defined as 1 hpZ550 lbf ft/sZ along with concerns for global pollutions, a modern era, 524
469 745.7 W. Other common units for energy, work and with computerization and global Information Revolution, 525
470 heat, and energy equivalents for typical fuels and has been taking place. 526
471 processes are given in Table 1. Regardless of the depletion of fossil-fuel resources, 527
472 Energy is provided from different sources—i.e., those however, the outlook for future energy needs is encoura- 528
473 systems (substances or natural phenomena) that allow for ging. There are many diverse and abundant energy sources 529
474 abundant, convenient, efficient, and thus economical with promising potential, so mankind should be able to 530
475 conversion of their energy into useful energy forms (for enhance its activities, standard of living, and quality of life 531
476 consumption needs). This form usually is thermal for by diversifying energy sources and by improving energy 532
477 heating, and mechanical and electrical for work, with the conversion and utilization efficiencies while increasing 533
478 latter being also very convenient for transmission and very safety and reducing environmental pollution. 534
479 efficient for conversion into any other useful energy forms. 535
480 Because energy consumption needs are time and location 536
481 dependent, energy conversion rate, energy density (per PREINDUSTRIAL ERA: SURVIVAL AND 537
482 unit mass, volume, area, etc.), transportation (trans- AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 538
483 mission), and storage are important. 539
484 There are many sources of energy (see Table 2) that In contrast to today’s mostly sedentary lifestyle, our 540
485 provide for the diverse needs of human activities and ancestors spent most of their existence as hunters and food 541
486 society in general. Energy consumption may be classified gatherers, with strong physical and mental challenges to 542
487 in four general sectors: (1) residential, for appliances and succeed in survival. Those challenges and longtime 543
488 lighting, space heating, water heating, air-conditioning, adaptations ultimately evolved in the complexities of 544
489 etc.; (2) commercial, for lighting, space heating, office today’s societies. It took about 1 million years for our own 545
490 equipment, water heating, air-conditioning, ventilation, species, Homo sapiens, to survive, literally in hardship, 546
491 refrigeration, etc.; (3) industrial, for water and steam and in most of BC history, the world population was below 547
492 boilers, direct-process energy, machine drive, etc.; and (4) 10 million. Except for very few early communities living 548
493 transportation, for personal automobiles, light and heavy in “favorable” localities, most of our ancestors were 549
494 trucks, air-, water-, pipe-, and rail-transport, etc., see surviving on grasslands and forests with population 550
495 Fig. 4.[7] In all four sectors, in addition to primary energy densities comparable to their roaming foragers. Develop- 551
496 sources, electrical energy, as a secondary energy source ment of traditional agriculture was followed by a rise in 552
497 produced from primary energy sources, is used exten- population; further cultivation of crops; and domestication 553
498 sively, as presented elsewhere. Conversion efficiencies of animals, including horses. Many cattle breeds provided 554
499 from different energy sources to useful mechanical or draft and power, as well as milk. Virtually all fuel in 555
500 electrical work are given in Table 3. preindustrial societies came from straw, wood, and 556
501 A chronology of selected energy-related events is charcoal. The latter was critical for smelting and 557
502 presented in Table A1 in the appendix.[8–10] It starts from processing, first metals (copper, iron, and steel) and then 558
503 the prehistoric age, when humans relied on their muscular firing bricks. The power was provided by the muscular 559
504 power to survive; then they learned how to control and use labor of people and animals. Even today, in undeveloped 560

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561 617
562 618
563 619
564 620
565 621
566 622
567 623
568 624
569 625
570 626
571 627
572 628
573 629
574 630
575 631
576 632
577 633
578 634
579 635
580 636
581 637
582 638
583 639
584 640
585 641
586 642
587 643
588 644
589 645
590 646
591 647
592 648
593 Fig. 4 Energy input–output cross-paths from primary sources to consumption sectors and energy losses. [Note that total energy is close 649
594
to 100 QBtu, thus numbers are close to %]. 650
Source: From Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (see Ref. 7).
595 651
596 652
597 rural areas of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, most of the particularly coal and oil, could provide energy at any 653
598 work is provided by human and animal labor. time and in any place. The abundance of fossil fuels (coal, 654
599 Smelting metal ores required large quantities of wood oil, and natural gas) and energy independence from 655
600 and charcoal, as well as skills to sustain high temperatures locality and seasonal natural phenomena, such as 656
601 in metallurgical pits and furnaces. In turn, improved tools waterfalls and wind, opened many opportunities for 657
602 and utilities were made of metals, leading to the unforeseen development. Invention of the first practical 658
603 development of waterwheels and windmills, as well as steam engine by Newcomen and Savery in 1712 and 659
604 wheeled carts and sailing ships (see Table A1).[8,9] improvements by James Watt in 1765 started intensive 660
605 Increased mobility on land and sea helped in exchange development and utilization of fossil fuels—still the most 661
606 of goods and skills from one area to another, which in turn dominant energy source, with an 85% share of the total 662
607 helped the development of better goods, new materials and energy use of modern society. The so-called Industrial 663
608 tools, and ultimately the rise of population. Revolution was set in motion, with unprecedented 664
609 developments, including internal-combustion engines; 665
610 electrification and electrical motors; new devices, 666
611 INDUSTRIAL ERA: THE FOSSIL FUELS’ BLEEP materials, and chemicals; and other inventions (see 667
612 ON THE CIVILIZATION RADAR SCREEN Table A1). The birth and intense development of the 668
613 new energy science, thermodynamics, was taking place, 669
614 Development of prime movers using heat from fuels—the along with the discovery of the fundamental laws of nature 670
615 heat engines—was a critical historical event, because and many other discoveries in chemistry and physics. One 671
616 stored high-density energy in fuels like wood, and invention was fueling another invention, and so on. 672

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673 Table 3 Energy conversion efficiencies by the end of the 18th century (see Fig. 1). The Industrial 729
674 Revolution matured and continued with the Industrial Era 730
675 Engine/process Efficiency %
and ultimately evolved into the modern era of societal 731
676 Otto (gasoline) engine 20–30 development. 732
677 Diesel engine 30–40 733
678 734
Gas turbine 30–40
679 735
680
Steam turbine 35–45 MODERN ERA: SOPHISTICATION, 736
681 Nuclear, steam turbine 30–40 CONSERVATION, AND DIVERSIFICATION 737
682 Combined gas/steam turbines 40–60C 738
683 Fuel cell (hydrogen, etc.) 40–60C The Modern Era in societal development represents a 739
684 continuation of the Industrial Era, with development of 740
Photovoltaic cell 10–25
685 new technologies (including nuclear energy, space 741
Geothermal plant 5–15 exploration, computerization, and information tech-
686 742
687
Windmill 30–40 (59% limit) nologies) as well as the realization that the 743
688 Hydro turbine 80–85 abundance of inexpensive fossil fuels will come to an 744
689 Electro-mechanical motor/ 70–98 end, along with concern about global environmental 745
690 generator pollution. 746
691 Note: Thermal-to-mechanical work conversion is limited by stochio- The primary energy sources for the world in 2003 and 747
692 metric combustion temperature and the Carnot cycle efficiency. Fuel cell the United States in 2004 are presented in Table 4, and the 748
693 efficiency is limited by Gibbs free energy values for process reactants and primary sources for the production of electricity are 749
694
products, and may be close to 100%. Due to material property limitations presented in Table 5.[3,4] In addition, the U.S. energy 750
and process irreversibilities (dissipation of energy), practical efficiencies
695 supply by consumption sector, including electricity 751
are much lower and there is room for substantial improvements. For
696 example, existing hybrid cars have 80% improved efficiency (and production, is given in Table 6. The world and U.S. 752
697 mileage) over the same classical cars, from 25 to 45%, by using electro/ populations, energy production, and consumption also are 753
698 mechanical engines/storage hybrid systems. summarized in Table 4. Total energy production— 754
699 including losses, import, and export—is available as 755
700 energy supply for consumption and storage. Also, most 756
701 The use of new heat engines and the need for more fuels of the world’s electricity (about 65%, and about 71% in the 757
702 were propelling discovery of many coal mine and oilfields. United States) is produced from fossil fuels, with overall 758
703 In return, available energy sources were enabling an conversion efficiency of only about 33%. Conversion 759
704 intense rise in human activities, skills, and knowledge, as efficiency is similar in nuclear power plants, which 760
705 well as the growth of civilization, reaching 1 billion people contribute to about 16% of world and about 20% of U.S. 761
706 762
707 763
Table 4 World and U.S. total energy supply by source (in QBtu)
708 764
709 Source World, 2003 U.S., 2004 765
710 766
Coal 99.69 23.9% 22.528 22.6%
711 767
Petroleum 159.17 38.2% 40.130 40.2%
712 768
713 Natural gas 98.7 23.7% 22.991 23.1% 769
714 Fossil fuels 357.56 85.7% 85.649 85.9% 770
715 Nuclear electric 26.52 6.4% 8.232 8.3% 771
716 Hydro-electric 27.18 6.5% 2.725 2.7% 772
717 773
Renewables/others 5.87 1.4% 3.391 3.4%
718 774
Total 417.12 100.0% 99.740 100.0%
719 775
720 776
World and U.S. population and energy comparisons
721 777
722 Source World, 2003 U.S., 2004 778
723 779
724 Population 6,300 100% 294 4.7% 780
725 Energy production 417.12 100% 70.369 16.9% 781
726 Energy consumption 417.12 100% 99.740 23.9% 782
727 15 783
Note: Energy in Quadrillion Btu (1 QBtuZ10 Btu) or %, population in Millions.
728 Source: From U.S. Department of Energy (see Refs. 3 and 4). 784

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785 Table 5 World and U.S. electric energy supply by source (in Billion kWh) 841
786 842
787 Source World, 2003 U.S., 2004 843
788 Coal 1,976.3 50.0% 844
789 Petroleum 117.6 3.0% 845
790 846
Natural Gas 714.6 18.1%
791 847
792
Fossil Fuels 10,364.8 65.4% 2,808.5 71.0% 848
793 Nuclear Electric 2,523.1 15.9% 788.6 19.9% 849
794 Hydro-electric 2,645.8 16.7% 269.6 6.8% 850
795 Renewables/Others 241.9 1.5% 89.2 2.3% 851
796 Total 15,843.9 100% 3,955.9 100% 852
797 853
Note: Energy in Billion kWh or %; 1 kWh(electric) equivalent to 10580 Btu(thermal) at 33% efficiency, however 1 kWhZ3412 Btu (as unit conversion).
798 854
Source: From U.S. Department of Energy (see Refs. 3 and 4).
799 855
800 856
801 electricity production. When the global energy supply is FUTURE ENERGY OUTLOOK: LIFE MAY BE 857
802 given together with fossil fuels and expressed in British HAPPIER AFTER FOSSIL FUELS 858
803 thermal units (Btu), all electrical energy (including hydro 859
804 and wind) is given in equivalent Btu thermal units, At present, most of the world’s energy consumption is 860
805 accounting for the conversion efficiency (typically, 33%). supplied by fossil fuels (about 85%). The proven fossil- 861
806 When electrical energy is accounted separately, the actual fuel reserves are limited, however, and if they continue to 862
807 electrical output is given in kilowatt hours (kWh), as be used at the present rates, it is estimated that coal (as 863
808 shown in Table 5. Due to different forms and conversion used under current conditions) will be depleted in about 864
809 efficiencies of primary energy sources, and due to the 250 years; oil, in 60 years; and natural gas, in about 80 865
810 complexities of energy production and losses, trans- years. We have to keep in perspective that “proven 866
811 portation and storage, import, and export, it is virtually reserves” refers to the customary and economical mining 867
812 impossible to account correctly for all energy paths and and utilization of fuels, but new reserves and more efficient 868
813 forms in the same units; therefore, the total figures (and technologies are being discovered, making new fuel 869
814 percentages) usually do not add up exactly (see Fig. 4 and reserves economical. At present, a substantial amount of 870
815 Table 6 for examples). the world’s electricity is obtained from nuclear and hydro 871
816 Fossil fuels account for more than 85% of total world energy (about 16 and 17%, respectively), and the use of 872
817 and U.S. energy consumption (see Table 4). Almost 40% other renewable energy resources is increasing—namely, 873
818 of total world and U.S. primary energy is used for geothermal, wind, biomass, and solar. In addition, 874
819 electricity production (see Tables 4–6), mainly in thermal alternative synthetic fuels, including hydrogen, are being 875
820 and nuclear power plants (more than 80% in the world and developed. It is worth noting that some countries 876
821 more than 90% in the United States), using heat engines (including Norway, Brazil, New Zealand, Austria, and 877
822 undergoing thermomechanical conversion processes with Switzerland) produce almost all or most of their electricity 878
823 relatively low conversion efficiencies (see Table 3). The from hydro energy, and France produces most of its 879
824 overall conversion efficiency from chemical or nuclear electricity (more than 75%) from nuclear. Reserves of 880
825 fuel energy to thermal energy of combustion gases or nuclear fuel are orders of magnitude higher than reserves 881
826 steam, to mechanical and electrical energy, is only about of fossil fuels, and nuclear fuel does not contribute to CO2 882
827 30%–35%. and greenhouse pollution. 883
828 884
829 885
830 Table 6 U.S. energy consumption by sector in 2004 (in QBtu) 886
831 887
Sector Primary Electric Total
832 888
833 Residential 7,022 7.1% 14,154 36.43% 21,176 21.2% 889
834 Commercial 4,072 4.3% 13,443 34.60 17,515 17.6% 890
835 891
Industrial 22,076 22.3% 11,171 28.75% 33,247 33.3%
836 892
Transportation 27,709 27.6% 84 0.22% 27,793 27.9%
837 893
838 Electric 38,850 38.7% 894
839 Total 99,729 100.0% 38,852 100% 99,740 100% 895
840 Source: From U.S. Department of Energy (see Ref. 3). 896

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Energy: Global and Historical Background 9

897 Furthermore, advances in energy conversion and growth rate from 1970 to 2002. Worldwide, total energy 953
898 utilization technologies, and increases in efficiency, use is projected to grow from 412 QBtu (quadrillion 954
899 including computerized control and management, contrib- British thermal units) in 2002 to 553 QBtu in 2015 and 955
900 ute to energy conservation, an increase in safety, and a 645 QBtu in 2025 (see Fig. 5).[5] Emerging Economies 956
901 reduction of related environmental pollution. Actually, will account for much of the projected growth in energy 957
902 per-capita energy use in the United States and other consumption over the next two decades, with energy use in 958
903 developed countries has been reduced in recent years. the group more than doubling by 2025 due to strong 959
904 The increase of the world’s population, however, and the projected economic growth in the region. The world 960
905 development of many underdeveloped and very population is expected to grow on average by 1% per year 961
906 populated countries (China, India and others) will (0.4, K0.2, and 1.2% in the Mature, Transitional, and 962
907 influence continuous increase of the world’s energy Emerging regions, respectively) and to reach 7.85 billion 963
908 consumption. by 2025. The gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to 964
909 Fig. 5 gives one of the most recent projections of the increase by 3.9% per year on average: 5.1% per year in the 965
910 world’s energy consumption, by region, until 2025.[5] The Emerging Economies countries, compared with 2.5% per 966
911 Mature Market Economies region (15% of the 2005 world year in the Mature Market Economies countries and 4.4% 967
912 population) represents North America, Western Europe, per year in the Transitional Economies countries of 968
913 and Mature Market Asia (Japan, Australia, and New Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union (EE/FSU). 969
914 Zealand). The Transitional Economies region (6% of the The long-term projections are more uncertain because 970
915 2005 world population) represents Eastern Europe (EE) future development may turn in many different, even 971
916 and the former Soviet Union (FSU). The rest is the unexpected, directions. 972
917 Emerging Economies region (78% of the 2005 world As already stated, two things are certain: In the not-too- 973
918 population), consisting of emerging Asia (53% of the 2005 distant future (1) the world population and its living- 974
919 world population), the Middle East (4% of the 2005 world standard expectations will increase substantially, and (2) 975
920 population), Africa (14% of the 2005 world population), economical reserves of fossil fuels, particularly oil and 976
921 and Central and South America (7% of the 2005 world natural gas, will decrease substantially. The difficulties 977
922 population). that will face every nation and the world in meeting energy 978
923 World energy consumption is projected to increase by needs over the next several decades will be more 979
924 57% from 2002 to 2025. Much of the growth in worldwide challenging than what we anticipate now. The traditional 980
925 energy use is expected in the Emerging Economies solutions and approaches will not solve the global energy 981
926 countries. The increase is projected on average to be problem. New knowledge, new technology, and new 982
927 2.0% per year over the 23-year forecast (from 2002 to living habits and expectations must be developed, both to 983
928 2025)—somewhat lower than the 2.2% average annual address the quantity of energy needed to increase the 984
929 standard of living worldwide and to preserve and enhance 985
930 the quality of our environment. 986
931 A probable scenario, in the wake of a short history of 987
932 fossil fuels’ abundance and use (a bleep on the human- 988
933 history radar screen), the following energy future is 989
934 anticipated: 990
935 991
936 1. Creative adaptation and innovations, with change 992
937 of societal and human habits and expectations (life 993
938 could be happier after the fossil-fuels era). 994
939 2. Intelligent, high-tech local and global energy 995
940 management in a wide sense (to reduce waste, 996
941 improve efficiency, and improve the quality of the 997
942 environment and life). 998
943 3. Unforeseen large (higher order of magnitude) 999
944 potential for energy conservation and regeneration 1000
945 in industry, transportation, and the commercial and 1001
946 residential sectors. 1002
947 4. Nuclear energy and re-electrification for most 1003
948 stationary energy needs. 1004
949 5. Cogeneration and integration of power generation 1005
950 Fig. 5 World energy history and projection consumption and new industry on a global scale (to close the 1006
951 by region. cycles at sources, thus protecting the environment 1007
952 Source: From U.S. Department of Energy (see Ref. 5). and increasing efficiency). 1008

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1009 6. Renewable biomass and synthetic hydrocarbons for developments, and sophistication in many areas of 1065
1010 fossil-fuel replacement (mobile energy, trans- complex societies, there will be many unforeseen 1066
1011 portation, and chemicals). opportunities to enhance efficiencies of energy production 1067
1012 7. Advanced energy storage (synthetic fuels, and utilization. Therefore, the outlook for energy needs is 1068
1013 advanced batteries, hydrogen, etc.). encouraging. There are many diverse and abundant energy 1069
1014 8. Redistributed solar-related and other renewable sources with promising potential, so the mankind should 1070
1015 energies (to fill in the gap). be able to enhance its activities, standard of living, and 1071
1016 quality of life by diversifying energy sources and by 1072
1017 After all, life may be happier in the post-fossil fuel era, improving energy conversion and utilization efficiencies, 1073
1018 which represents only a bleep on the human-history radar while at the same time increasing safety and reducing 1074
1019 screen. With increased population and technological environmental pollution. 1075
1020 1076
1021 1077
1022 APPENDIX A 1078
1023 Table A.1 Chronology of selected energy-related events in history 1079
1024 1080
1025 Year Event in energy history 1081
1026 500,000C or BC Middle Pleistocene humans control fire (burning wood). Direct evidence was found outside a cave at Chou 1082
1027 k’ou-tien, China, where charcoal was found along with traces of a stone tool making-industry 1083
1028 1084
10,000C Paleo-Indians used hot springs in North American for cooking, and for refuge and respite
1029 1085
6,000C The earliest known use of ships comes from Egyptian rock drawing dating from 6,000 BC
1030 1086
1031 4,500C Egyptians mine copper ores and smelt them 1087
1032 4,000C Horses are ridden in what is now the Ukraine 1088
1033 3,500C Wheeled vehicles are used in Mesopotamia as seen in a pictograph found in Uruk 1089
1034 1,000C Coal from the Fu-shun mine in northeastern China may have been used to smelt copper 1090
1035 1091
900C The use of natural gas was mentioned in writings from China
1036 1092
480C The Persians used incendiary arrows wrapped in oil-soaked fibers at the siege of Athens
1037 1093
1038 400C Greek philosopher Democritus theorized that matter consists of tiny, particles called atomos, that could not be 1094
divided
1039 1095
1040 250C Archimedes invents a number of items including the Archimedian screw—a helix-shaped screw in a tube for 1096
1041 lifting water. He is also credited with having discovered the principles of the lever 1097
1042 211C It was in China that the first known well was drilled for natural gas to reported depths of 150 m (500 ft) 1098
1043 100C BC or C In Illyria (ex-Yugoslavia and Albania), and probably in western Anatolia (Turkey), water-powered mills are 1099
1044 used for grinding grain 1100
1045 100 AD Hero of Alexandria invents the first steam engine called the aeolipile. It consisted of a spherical vessel fitted 1101
1046 with two jets pointing in opposite directions. Hero also invented a wind device 1102
1047 300 Chinese learn to use coal instead of wood as fuel in making cast iron 1103
1048 1104
300 Water mills appear in Roman Empire
1049 1105
300 First known references to a perpetual motion machine appears in a Sanskrit manuscript. It describes a wheel
1050 1106
with sealed cavities in which mercury would flow in such a fashion that one half of the wheel would always be
1051 1107
heavier, providing continuous spinning
1052 1108
600 The earliest known references to wind-driven grain mills, found in Arabic writings
1053 1109
1054 1100 As a result of the Arab invasion of Spain, the industrial art of distillation of petroleum products into illuminants 1110
became available in western Europe by the 12th century
1055 1111
1056 1200 The first documented proof that coal was mined in Europe, provided by the monk Reinier of Liège 1112
1057 1200 Alcohol is first distilled in Europe from grains 1113
1058 1221 Chinese use bombs and other uses of gunpowder, leading eventually to development of rockets 1114
1059 1500 Leonardo da Vinci invents many devices including a glider, parachute and a helicopter type of device 1115
1060 1116
1570 William Gilbert studies magnetism and the corresponding attraction of rubbed amber and various rubbed jewels
1061 1117
1603 Hugh Platt discovers coke, a charcoal-like substance produced by heating coal
1062 1118
1063 1609 The first attempt is made to harness ocean energy in the Bay of Fundy 1119
1064 (Continued) 1120

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1121 Table A.1 (Continued) 1177

1122 1178
1612 A primitive thermometer invented by Galileo
1123 1179
1650 Otto van Guericke develops a way to charge a ball of sulfur with static electricity. He is also observed light
1124 1180
produced by electricity. The term electricity is coined to describe the force that is found when amber is rubbed
1125 1181
with silk (static electricity)
1126 1182
1659 Natural gas is discovered in England; the first time in Europe
1127 1183
1128 1660 Robert Boyle presented a law (Boyle’s law), which states that pressure varies inversely with volume at constant 1184
1129 temperature, paving the way for the ideal gas law 1185
1130 1670 Christian Huygens builds a motor driven by explosions of gunpowder 1186
1131 1680 Sir Isaac Newton proposes that a jet of steam could be used (like a rocket) to power a carriage, an idea now 1187
1132 considered to be a precursor to development of the jet engine 1188
1133 1680 The match is first discovered by Robert Boyle who rubbed phosphorus and sulfur together 1189
1134 1687 In famous Principia, one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Isaac Newton 1190
1135 presents the universal law of gravitation and the three fundamental laws of motion 1191
1136 1192
1690 The recycled paper manufacturing process is introduced. The Rittenhouse Mill near Philadelphia made paper
1137 from fiber derived from recycled cotton and linen rags 1193
1138 1194
1698 Dennis Papin describes an apparatus (called the Papin Cylinder in which the condensation of steam in a cylinder
1139 1195
creates a vacuum. He later in 1698 develops the first piston that is moved by the pressure of steam rather than
1140 atmospheric pressure 1196
1141 1197
1709 Sir Issac Newton builds an electric generator consisting of a rotating glass sphere
1142 1198
1712 Thomas Newcomen in collaboration with Thomas Savery build the first practical steam engine to use a piston
1143 1199
and cylinder
1144 1200
1145 1738 Daniel Bernoulli published the conservation of live forces in hydraulics (now known as Bernoulli equation) and 1201
the kinetic molecular theory of gasses
1146 1202
1147 1747 Benjamin Franklin describes in a letter his discovery that a pointed conductor (Franklin’s lightning rod) can 1203
1148 draw electric charge from a charged body 1204
1149 1755 Leonhard Euler equations for the motion of inviscid incompressible fluid and contributions in mathematics, 1205
1150 optics, mechanics, electricity, and magnetism 1206
1151 1765–1776 The steam engine is perfected by James Watt with condenser that is separated from the cylinder 1207
1152 1766 The element hydrogen (symbol is H) is discovered by Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) and English physicist and 1208
1153 chemist 1209
1154 1774 Joseph Priestley and Karl Scheele independently discover the element oxygen (symbol is O) 1210
1155 1211
1775 Allesandro Volta describes his electrofore perpetuo (electrophorus), a device for producing and storing a charge
1156 of static electricity, replacing the Leiden jar and eventually leads to modern condensers 1212
1157 1213
1777 The first buildings in France since Roman times are heated by warm water central heating systems
1158 1214
1779 The first versions of the bicycle appear in Paris
1159 1215
1160 1783 Montgolfier brothers of France create the first hot air balloons using flame fires that floated in the air 1216
1161 1787 First steamboat in America is demonstrated on the Delware River in Philadelphia, Pennsilvania 1217
1162 1789 The element Uranium (symbol is U) is discovered by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist 1218
1163 1789 Antoine Lavoisier presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law 1219
1164 of mass conservation, and denied the existence of phlogiston. He lists elements, or substances that could not be 1220
1165 broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, and sulfur. His 1221
1166 list, also included light, and caloric (heat fluid), which he believed to be material substances. He underscored 1222
1167 the observational basis as opposed to reasoning 1223
1168 1799 Alessandro Volta creates the first electric battery called the Voltaic pile 1224
1169 1804 Richard Trevithick develops a steam locomotive that runs on iron rails 1225
1170 1226
1816 Robert Stirling invents a power cycle with heated air that operates without a high-pressure boiler
1171 1227
1821 Michael Faraday reports his discovery of electromagnetic rotation. He creates the first electrical “motors,”
1172 1228
although his rotating needle is not a real motor because it cannot power anything
1173 1229
1174 1821 Johann Seebeck observes that two different metals joined at two different places kept at two different 1230
temperatures will produce an electric current. This is called thermoelectricity and the Seebeck effect will later
1175 1231
be used in the development of the semiconductor
1176 1232
(Continued)

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12 Energy: Global and Historical Background

1233 Table A.1 (Continued) 1289

1234 1290
1823 Methyl alcohol was first discovered by condensing gases from burning wood into a liquid. It is used as a solvent
1235 1291
and a chemical building block to make consumer products as plastics, plywood and paint
1236 1292
1824 In “On the motive power of fire,” Sadi Carnot shows that work is done as heat passes from a high to a low
1237 1293
temperature. He defines work and hints at the second law of thermodynamics
1238 1294
1827 George Ohm writes “The galvanic circuit investigated mathematically,” which contains the first statement of
1239 1295
the Ohm’s law, that the electrical current is equal to the ratio of the voltage to the resistance
1240 1296
1241 1830 The first locomotive in the U.S. to carry 26 passengers 13 miles over the tracks of the Baltimore and Ohio 1297
Railroad. George Stephenson’s steam locomotive was chosen over three competitors to open the Liverpool to
1242 1298
Manchester railway in England. This is considered the start of the railroad boom
1243 1299
1244 1831 Michael Faraday independently discovers that electricity can be induced by changes in an electromagnetic 1300
field. Though Henry found it earlier, but didn’t publish it, so Faraday is credited with the discovery
1245 1301
1246 1832 Joseph Henry discovers self-induction, or inductance, the second current in a coil through which one current is 1302
1247 passing that is induced by the first current 1303
1248 1838 The steamship Sirius is the first ship to cross the Atlantic on steam power alone, taking 18 days and very nearly 1304
1249 running out of coal before reaching New York 1305
1250 1839 The first work done with photovoltaics was performed by Edmond Becquerel 1306
1251 1839 William Grove develops the first fuel cell, a device that produces electrical energy by combining hydrogen and 1307
1252 oxygen 1308
1253 1841 Frederick de Moleyns obtains the first patent for an incandescent lamp, an evacuated glass containing powdered 1309
1254 charcoal that bridges a gap between two platinum filaments 1310
1255 1842 Julius Robert Mayer is the first to state the law of conservation of energy (known as the first law of 1311
1256 thermodynamics), noting that heat and mechanical energy are two aspects of the same thing 1312
1257 1313
1943 Joule experimentally measure the “heat” equivalent of “work, also known as “mechanical equivalent of heat,”
1258 thus discrediting the caloric theory 1314
1259 1315
1948 William Thomson (i.e. Lord Kelvin) proposed an absolute scale of temperature. It was based on theory
1260 1316
proposed by Sadi Carnot and later developed by Clapeyron
1261 1317
1850 Rudolf Clausius and later Rankine formulate the first law of energy conservation, which starts new science
1262 1318
“Thermodynamics.” The first statement of the second law of thermodynamics was enhanced by Clausius in
1263 1319
1865 as “entropy always increases in a closed system.” In other words, other energies in a closed system will
1264 change toward heat and disorder 1320
1265 1321
1851 William Thomson (i.e. Lord Kelvin) describes heat pump, a device where heat is absorbed by the expansion of a
1266 1322
working gas and given off at a higher temperature in a condenser
1267 1323
1853 William Rankine, proposed a thermodynamic theory with Kelvin based on the primacy of the energy concept.
1268 1324
He stated the Law of Conservation of Energy as “all different kinds of physical energy in the universe are
1269 1325
mutually convertible.” He also invented an absolute temperature based on the interval of one degree Fahrenheit
1270 termed the Rankine temperature scale 1326
1271 1327
1853 Kerosene is extracted from petroleum for the first time
1272 1328
1855 Henry Bessemer introduces the Bessemer process for producing inexpensive steel in a blast furnace
1273 1329
1274 1859 Gaston Plante in Paris invents the first lead-acid storage battery, which produces electricity from a chemical 1330
1275 reaction and can be recharged again and again 1331
1276 1865 Natural gas first found near Stockton, California when workmen drilling for water found natural gas at 1,800 1332
1277 feet. It supplied gas for lighting the courthouse as well as warm water for nearby swimming baths 1333
1278 1867 Nicholaus Otto developed an internal combustion engine that is an improved version of Lenoir’s engine 1334
1279 1870 Heinrich Hertz used Edmond Becquerel’s discoveries that certain materials, such as selenium, produced small 1335
1280 amounts of electric current when exposed to light. Not long after that, selenium photovoltaic cells were 1336
1281 converting light to electricity at 1–2% efficiency 1337
1282 1875 Alfred Nobel accidentally discovered that nitroglycerine retain its explosive properties when absorbed by 1338
1283 diatomaceous earth, calling it “dynamite.” He left his estate to establish famous “Nobel Prizes.” 1339
1284 1882 Joseph Fourier developed a mathematical theory of heat in terms of differential equations 1340
1285 1341
1877 Nikolaus Otto develops the four-cycle internal combustion engine, similar to what we use today
1286 1342
1879 Thomas Alva Edison invented the first electric incandescent lamp of practical value
1287 1343
1288 (Continued) 1344

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Energy: Global and Historical Background 13

1345 Table A.1 (Continued) 1401

1346 1402
1880 Pierre Curie discovers the piezoelectric effect that certain substances produce electric current under pressure
1347 1403
1882 The first electric central station to supply light and power was the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of
1348 1404
New York City. It had one generator which produced power for 800 electric light bulbs. Within 14 months, the
1349 1405
service had 508 subscribers and 12,732 bulbs
1350 1406
1884 Nikola Tesla invents the electric alternator, an electric generator that produces alternative current
1351 1407
1352 1885 James Prescott Joule builds an internal combustion engine that is the precursor to the diesel engine 1408
1353 1886 Henry Ford builds his first automobile in Michigan 1409
1354 1888 Heinrich Hertz detects and produces radio waves for the first time. Radio waves are called Hertzian waves until 1410
1355 renamed by Guglielmo Marconi, who calls them radiotelegraphy waves 1411
1356 1890 Clement Ader’s Eole is the first full-size aircraft to leave the ground under its own power, carrying its inventor 1412
1357 as a pilot. The plane crashed on landing, so the invention was not credited to Ader 1413
1358 1891 Nikola Tesla invents the Tesla coil, which produces high voltage at high frequency 1414
1359 1415
1893 Rudolf Diesel describes an internal combustion engines that will be named after him. The ignition of the gas
1360 1416
mixture in the cylinder is obtained by heating during the compression cycle
1361 1417
1895 On the Willamette River at Oregon City, Oregon, the first dam is specifically built to drive a hydroelectric
1362 1418
power plant
1363 1419
1897 Joseph Thomson discovers the electron, the particle that makes electric current and the first known particle that
1364 1420
is smaller than an atom
1365 1421
1366 1900 The first offshore oil wells are drilled 1422
1367 1901 Guglielmo Marconi transmits first long distance communication using electromagnetic or radio waves 1423
1368 1902 America’s first moving-picture theater opens in Los Angeles, charging 10 cents for a one hour show 1424
1369 1902 Maie and Pierre Curie discover the atomic weight of radium 1425
1370 1426
1902 Willis H. Carrier invents the first air conditioner, although his name is first used in 1906 to describe a different
1371 device 1427
1372 1428
1905 Albert Einstein published his paper on the photoemissive photoelectric effect, along with a paper on his theory
1373 1429
of relativity. The paper describes light for the first time as being both a wave and a particle. He later wins Nobel
1374 Prize in 1921 1430
1375 1431
1908 Polish scientist Czochralski developed a way to grow single-crystal silicon, a necessary step for computer
1376 1432
industry and solar cells
1377 1433
1919 British airship R-34 is the first airship to cross the Atlantic Ocean
1378 1434
1379 1921 A German scientist, Friedrich Bergius succeeds in liquefying coal into oil in Stuttgart 1435
1380 1927 First successful long-distance television transmission was demonstrated, from President Hoover’s office in 1436
1381 Washington, DC, to the Bell Laboratories in New York 1437
1382 1929 The first “talking” movie filmed entirely in color was released 1438
1383 1929 Felix Wankel patents a rotary engine, but the engine is not practical until the 1950s 1439
1384 1929 Georges Claude develops the first electrical power plant to use the difference in temperature between the upper 1440
1385 and lower layers of ocean 1441
1386 1442
1937 Frank Whittle and A.A. Griffitsh build the first working jet engine in England. Independently in Germany, von
1387 Ohain and M. Muller develop a similar engine 1443
1388 1444
1942 The first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was demonstrated by Enrico Fermi and his staff at the University
1389 1445
of Chicago, making possible the development of the atomic bomb
1390 1446
1945 U.S. explodes the first nuclear weapon at Alamogordo, N.M, a different type of atomic bomb is dropped on the
1391 1447
Japanese city of Hiroshima, followed by another nuclear bomb on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945
1392 1448
1946 The ENIAC computer is demonstrated to scientists and industrialists; even though it was used during W.W.II. It
1393 1449
multiplies 360 ten-digit numbers and extracts a square root “in a single second.”
1394 1450
1395 1946 First Soviet nuclear reactor goes into operation 1451
1396 1947 The first peacetime nuclear reactor in the U.S. starts construction at Brookhaven, NY 1452
1397 1947 Andrei Sakharov and F.C. Frank propose the use of negative muons to produce fusion reactions in a mixture of 1453
1398 deuterium and hydrogen. This possibility is rediscovered in 1957 by Luis Alvarez 1454
1399 1455
(Continued)
1400 1456

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1457 Table A.1 (Continued) 1513

1458 1514
1947 The first airplane to break the speed of sound, the Bell X-1, is flown by Chuck Yeager
1459 1515
1948 The first transistor, invented by Drs. John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brittain, was demonstrated. The essential
1460 1516
element of the device was a tiny wafer of germanium, a semi-conductor
1461 1517
1462 1948 Market acceptance of frozen orange concentrate leads to the expansion of the frozen foods industry, with 1518
associated increases in packaging
1463 1519
1464 1951 An announcement was made of a battery that converts nuclear energy to electrical energy. Philip Edwin Ohmart 1520
1465 of Cincinatti, Ohio, invented the radioactive cell 1521
1466 1952 Westinghouse Electric Corporation builds the first breeder reactor at the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission’s 1522
1467 laboratories in Arco, Idaho. It produces more plutonium than the uranium it burns, promising an era of cheap 1523
1468 nuclear energy 1524
1469 1954 Bell Lab’s Chapin, Fuller, Pearson, AT&T, patent “Solar Energy Converting Apparatus,” submitted to U.S. 1525
1470 patent office 1526
1471 1957 The Soviet Union launches the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnick 1. Another satelite Sputnick 2 carried a 1527
1472 live dog Laika into space, but the dog did not return to earth 1528
1473 1958 Integrated circuits produced by Texas Instruments 1529
1474 1959 Francis Bacon builds a fuel cell in which hydrogen and oxygen react in a mixture of potassium hydroxide in 1530
1475 water to produce electricity 1531
1476 1961 Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space making a single orbit of the planet in 1 h 48 min 1532
1477 1533
1962 Telstar satellite launched; the first commercial telecommunications satellite; project of Bell Telephone
1478 1534
Laboratories, proposed in 1955 by John R. Pierce
1479 1535
1969 Humans first steps on the Moon. Neil Armstrong and Michael Collins and Edwin Aldrin on the Apollo 11
1480 1536
1481 1969 Geologists discover oil in Alaska’s north slope 1537
1482 1971 Silicone chips are produced by Intel and Texas Instruments 1538
1483 1972 The first electric power using municipal refuse as a boiler fuel was generated by the Union Electric Company’s 1539
1484 Meramec Plant in St. Louis, Missouri 1540
1485 1973 The polyethylene terephthalate plastic bottle is patented by chemist Nathaniel Wyeth which soon began to 1541
1486 replace glass bottles. The recycling of the plastic soon followed 1542
1487 1976 Unmanned US Voyager spacecraft lands on Mars 1543
1488 1544
1977 Trans-Alaska oil pipeline opens
1489 1545
1980s Personal computers take off
1490 1546
1491 1982 CD players produced by Philips and Sony 1547
1492 1983 Specially built 1-kW, PV-powered car, the Solar Trek, drives across Australia, covering 4000 km in less than 1548
1493 20 days. The maximum speed was 72 kph, with an average speed for the trip of 24 kph 1549
1494 1984 A 20-MW geothermal plant opened at Utah’s Roosevelt Hot Springs 1550
1495 1985 Martin Green team, University of New South Wales, Australia, breaks the 20-percent efficiency barrier for 1551
1496 silicon solar cells under “1-sun” conditions 1552
1497 1986 Chernobyl nuclear reactor number 4 near Kiev in ex-Soviet Union explodes leading to a catastrophic release of 1553
1498 radioactivity 1554
1499 1986 The world’s largest 14,000 MW Itaipu Dam, along the border of Brazil and Paraguay, is opened 1555
1500 1556
1986 NOVA, an experimental laser fusion device at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory create the first
1501 1557
laser fusion reaction. Fusion, however, remains elusive through the end of the century
1502 1558
1989 Exxon Valdez, a 1,260,000 barrels-of-oil tanker strikes a reef in Alaska’s Prince William Sound, spilling an
1503 1559
estimated 240,000 barrels of crude
1504 1560
1992 The biggest array of 9600 thin film photovoltaic modules ever assembled starts operation in Davis, California,
1505 1561
delivering up to 479 kW, enough for over 100 homes
1506 1562
1507 2000s Computerization with Internet information exchange, sophistication and globalization (see Energy Future 1563
Outlook section above)
1508 1564
1509 Note: All early dates are approximate and other dates may differ due to reference to either conception, patenting, publication, or first application, in different 1565
1510 sources[8–10] or elsewhere. 1566
1511 1567
1512 1568

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Energy: Global and Historical Background 15

1569 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY motion of a system’s molecular or related structures). Energy 1625
1570 exists in many forms: electromagnetic (including light), 1626
1571 1. Kostic, M. Work, power, and energy. In Encyclopedia of electrical, magnetic, nuclear, chemical, thermal, and mechan- 1627
1572 Energy, Cleveland, C.J., Ed.; Elsevier Inc.: Oxford, U.K., ical (including kinetic, elastic, gravitational, and sound). 1628
1573 2004; Vol. 6, 527–538. Energy Conservation: It may refer to the fundamental law of 1629
1574 2. Kostic M. Irreversibility and reversible heat transfer: The nature that energy and mass are conserved—i.e., cannot be 1630
1575 quest and nature of energy and entropy. In IMECE2004, created or destroyed, but only transferred from one form or 1631
ASME Proceedings. ASME : New York, 2004. one system to another. Another meaning of energy
1576 1632
3. Energy Information Administration. Annual Energy Review conservation is improvement of efficiency of energy
1577 1633
2004. U.S. Department of Energy, Available at: www.eia. processes so that they could be accomplished with minimal
1578 1634
doe.gov/aer (accessed on June 2005). use of energy sources and minimal impact on the
1579 4. Energy Information Administration. International Energy 1635
environment.
1580 Annual 2003. U.S. Department of Energy, Available at: Energy Conversion: A process of transformation of one form of 1636
1581 www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/wec.html (accessed on June energy to another, such as conversion of chemical to thermal 1637
1582 2005). energy during combustion of fuels, or thermal to mechanical 1638
1583 5. Energy Information Administration. International Energy energy using heat engines, etc. 1639
1584 Outlook 2005. U.S. Department of Energy. Available at: Energy Efficiency: Ratio between useful (or minimally necess- 1640
1585 www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo (accessed on June 2005). ary) energy to complete a process and the actual energy used 1641
1586 6. Energy Information Administration. Forecasting and to accomplish that process. Efficiency may also be defined as 1642
1587
Analysis of Energy. U.S. Department of Energy. Available the ratio between energy used in an ideal energy-consuming 1643
at: www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/forecasting.html (accessed on June process vs energy used in the corresponding real process, or
1588 1644
2005). vice versa for an energy-producing process. Energy, as per the
1589 1645
7. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The Energy and conservation law, cannot be lost (destroyed), but the part of
1590 Environment Directorate. Available at: http://eed.llnl.gov 1646
energy input that is not converted into useful energy is
1591 (accessed on June 2005). 1647
customarily referred to as energy loss.
1592 8. Smil, V. Energy in World History; Westview Press, Inc.: 1648
Industrial Revolution: Controversial term referring to the
1593 Boulder, CO, 1994. 1649
development of heat engines and use of fossil fuels, first in
1594 9. California Energy Commission. Energy Time Machine, 1650
Britain and later in other countries, from 1760 to 1850.
1595 Available at: www.energyquest.ca.gov/time_machine/ 1651
Nonrenewable Energy Sources: The energy sources (such as
1596 (accessed on June 2005). 1652
fossil and nuclear fuels) created and accumulated over a very
1597 10. Bejan, A. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics; Wiley: 1653
long period in the past, for which the creation rate is many
1598
New York, 1988. 1654
orders of magnitude smaller than the consumption rate, so that
1599 they will be depleted in a finite time period at the current rate 1655
1600
Glossary of consumption. 1656
1601 Energy: It is a fundamental property of a physical system and Renewable Energy Sources: The continuously or frequently 1657
1602 refers to its potential to maintain a system identity or structure available (renewed daily or at least annually) energy 1658
1603 and to influence changes with other systems (via forced– sources—solar energy, wind, water flows, ocean and tidal 1659
1604 displacement interactions) by imparting work (forced direc- waves, biomass, and so on—that, for all practical purposes, 1660
1605 tional displacement) or heat (forced chaotic displacement/ are expected to be available forever. 1661
1606 1662
1607 1663
1608 1664
1609 1665
1610 1666
1611 1667
1612 1668
1613 1669
1614 1670
1615 1671
1616 1672
1617 1673
1618 1674
1619 1675
1620 1676
1621 1677
1622 1678
1623 1679
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