Formulation and

Statement of Hypotheses

Dr. Azhar Majeed Qureshi

dr_azharue@yahoo.com
Definition:

• A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about

the nature of the relationship between two or
more variables.
– A hypothesis represents an educated
guess about what will happen in an
experiment
– Hypotheses are always held tentatively
• A research question is simply a hypothesis
stated in question form.
Definition:

• A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the expected

relationship between two or more variables under study.

• A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem &

objectives into a clear explanation or prediction of the
expected results or outcomes of the research study.

• A clearly stated hypothesis includes the variables to be

manipulated or measured, identifies the population to be
examined, & indicates the proposed outcome for the study.

• ‘Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the

relationship between two variables.’ It implies that there is a
systematic relationship between an independent & a
dependent variable
Purpose of Hypotheses

• Hypotheses enables the researcher to objectively

investigate new areas of discovery.
• It also provides directions to conduct research such as
defining the sources & relevance of data.
• Hypotheses provides clear & specific goals to the
researchers.
• It provides a bridge between theory & reality.
• A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to
be most appropriate.
• As it is a tentative statement of anticipated results, it
guides the researcher towards the direction in which the
research should proceed.
 Continue….

• It stimulates the thinking process of researcher as

the researcher forms the hypothesis by anticipating
the outcome.
• It also determines the most appropriate research
designs & techniques of data analysis.
• Hypotheses provides understanding to the
researchers about what expect from the results of
the research study.
• It serves as framework for drawing conclusions of a
research study.
• Without hypotheses, research would be like aimless
wandering.
Characteristics of Good Research
Hypotheses

Conceptual clarity:
Hypothesis should consist of clearly defined & understandable
concepts. It should be stated in very terms, the meaning & implication
of which cannot be doubted. To facilitate the conceptual clarity,
hypothesis can be stated in declarative statement, in present tense.
Empirical referents:
Research must have an ultimate empirical referent. No usable
hypothesis can embody moral judgments. A good hypothesis must have
empirical basis from the area of enquiry.
Objectivity:
Hypothesis must be objective, which facilitates objectivity in data
collection & keeps the research activity free from researcher value -
judgment.
Specificity:
It should be specific, not general, & should explain the expected
relations between variables. For example, regular yoga reduces stress
Characteristics of Good Research
Hypotheses
Relevant:
The hypothesis should be relevant to the problem being studied as well
as the objectives of the study. Hypothesis must have relevance with
theory under test in a research process.
Testability:
Hypothesis should be testable & should not be a moral judgment. It
must be directly/indirectly observable & measurable. The researcher
can set up a situation that permits one to assess if it is true or false. It
must be verifiable. For example, a statement such as ‘bad partners
produce bad children’. This sort of hypothesis cannot be tested
Consistency:
A hypothesis should be consistent with an existing body of theories,
research findings, & other hypotheses. It should correspond with
existing knowledge.
Simplicity:
A hypothesis should be formulated in simple & understandable terms.
It should require fewer conditions & assumptions.
Characteristics of Good Research
Hypotheses

Availability of techniques:
The researchers must make sure that methods are available for
testing their proposed hypotheses
Purposiveness:
The researcher must formulate only purposeful hypotheses, which has
relevance with research problem & objectives.
Verifiability:
A good hypothesis can be actually verified in practical terms.
Profundity of effect:
A good hypothesis should have profound effect upon a variety of
research variables.
Economical:
The expenditure of money & the time can be controlled if the
hypotheses underlying the research undertaken is good
Sources of Hypotheses

• Theoretical or conceptual
frameworks
• Previous research
• Real-life experiences
• Academic literature
• General Culture
• Analogies
Types of Hypotheses

• Null hypothesis
Symbol = Ho or H0

• Experimental/Alternative hypothesis
Symbol = H1, Ha, etc.
nondirectional (two-way)
directional (one-way)

• Research Question
Symbol = RQ or R
Null Hypothesis

• the null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis, used to

determine whether the results of an experiment are
statistically significant.
• It posits that there is “no relationship” between two
variables, or “no difference” between two groups.
• The null hypothesis is “supported,” if the results are
statistically non-significant
– the null hypothesis is never “proven” (at least not by a
single study)
– impossibility of proving a negative
• The null hypothesis is “rejected,” in favor of the
experimental hypothesis, if the results are statistically
significant
Experimental hypothesis

• A prediction that there will be statistically significant

findings
– significant differences or correlations between groups
or among variables
• Nondirectional hypothesis
– significant difference in any direction
• Directional hypothesis
– Predicts that a specific group or condition will be
higher or have more of something, or
– predicts the specific direction that a correlation will
take (positive negative, curvilinear)
Examples

• Null hypothesis:
– Ho: High exposure to violent video games does not
produce more antisocial behavior in elementary school
children than low exposure.
• Non directional hypothesis:
– H1: Pakistani and American supervisors will differ
significantly in their use of threats as a compliance
gaining strategy.
• Directional hypothesis
– Ha: Deaf children whose parents are deaf will acquire
language faster than deaf children whose parents are
not deaf.
Stating the Hypotheses

• A hypothesis is formulated after

the problem has been stated and
the literature study has been conducted
• It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware
of the theoretical and empirical background to the
problem falsifiable.
• The initial idea is the starting point ◦
Often vague or general, it requires refining before
research hypotheses can be generated
• Refinement of the initial idea is based on
(1) a search of relevant research literature
(2) initial observations of the phenomenon
• Narrow and formalize the initial idea into a statement
of the problem
Stating the Hypotheses

• Avoid vague or nebulous wording

– the hypothesis or research question must be clear and
concise
– The hypothesis or research question must be
testable.
– The hypothesis or research question must be
falsifiable.
– Wrong: Do students with high GPAs feel better about
themselves than students with low GPAs?
– Right: Do undergraduates with GPAs greater than 3.0
have higher self esteem than undergraduates with
GPAs of lower than 2.0?
Statement of the Problem

• In the form of a question that clearly indicates an

expected relationship
• The nature of the question will dictate the required level of
constraint of a study
1. Causal questions will require experimental research
2. Questions about relationships can be
answered with lower constraint research
• Convert into research hypothesis by operationally
defining the variables
• Then Problem statements become research
hypotheses when constructs are operationalized
Hypothesis Testing

All hypothesis tests are conducted the same way.

• The researcher
1. states a hypothesis to be tested,
2. formulates an analysis plan,
3. analyzes sample data according to
the plan, and
4. accepts or rejects the null hypothesis,
based on results of the analysis.
Hypothesis Testing (Cont..)

1. State the hypotheses.

Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null and an alternative
hypothesis. The hypotheses are stated in such a way that they are mutually
exclusive. That is, if one is true, the other must be false; and vice versa.
2. Formulate an analysis plan.
The analysis plan describes how to use sample data to accept or reject the
null hypothesis. It should specify the following elements.
Significance level.
Often, researchers choose significance levels equal to 0.01, 0.05, or 0.10;
but any value between 0 and 1 can be used. ◦
Test method.
Typically, the test method involves a test statistic and a sampling
distribution. Computed from sample data, the test statistic might be a mean
score, proportion, difference between means, difference between
proportions, z-score, t-score, chi-square, etc. Given a test statistic and its
sampling distribution, a researcher can assess probabilities associated with
the test statistic. If the test statistic probability is less than the significance
level, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Hypothesis Testing (Cont..)

Analyze sample data.

Using sample data perform computations called for in the analysis plan.
• Test statistic. When the null hypothesis involves a mean or
proportion, use either of the following equations to compute the
test statistic.
• Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of statistic) Test
statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard error of statistic)
• where Parameter is the value appearing in the null hypothesis, and
Statistic is the point estimate of Parameter. As part of the analysis,
you may need to compute the standard deviation or standard error
of the statistic. Previously, we presented common formulas for the
standard deviation and standard error.
• When the parameter in the null hypothesis involves categorical
data, you may use a chi-square statistic as the test statistic.
Instructions for computing a chi-square test statistic are presented
in the lesson on the chi-square goodness of fit test.
THANK YOU