bio s yste ms e n ginee r ing 184 (2019) 55 e68

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Research Paper

Utilising near-infrared hyperspectral imaging to

detect low-level peanut powder contamination of
whole wheat flour

Xin Zhao a, Wei Wang a,*, Xinzhi Ni b, Xuan Chu a, Yu-Feng Li c,**,
Chengjun Lu d
a
College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
b
Crop Genetics and Breeding Research Unit, USDA-ARS, 2747 Davis Road, Tifton, GA, 31793, USA
c
Multidisciplinary Initiative Center, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049,
China
d
Lingang Experimental Middle School, Linyi, 276624, China

a r t ic l e in f o
Near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (HSI) was used for detecting low levels of peanut
Article history: powder contamination in whole wheat flour, with concentrations of 0.01e10% (w/w). Two
Received 21 June 2018 types of whole wheat flours, i.e. spring wheat flour (WFS) and winter wheat flour (WFW),
Received in revised form were used. Minimum noise fraction combined with n-Dimensional visualiser tool was
9 May 2019 applied on light intensity calibrated hyperspectral images for preliminary discrimination.
Accepted 6 June 2019 Competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) was applied for optimal wavelength
selection. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) models with standard normal variate
followed by SavitzkyeGolay first derivatives had the best performance, with coefficients of
Keywords: determination of prediction (R2 p) of 0.993 and 0.991, and root mean square error of pre-
Near-infrared hyperspectral imag- diction (RMSEP) of 0.251% and 0.285%, respectively for contaminated WFS and WFW
ing samples. Prediction maps based on PLSR models permitted visualising spatial variations in
Low-level contamination the concentration of peanut contamination. The results indicated that near-infrared HSI
Peanut powder has the potential to detect low-level peanut contamination in whole wheat flour.
Whole wheat flour © 2019 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Visualisation

serious allergy incidents caused by consumption of peanut-

1. Introduction
The risk of foreign matter contamination in food items at
processing facilities increases along with the intensification of
globalisation of food supply chains. For instance, several
contaminated wheat flour or wheat products have been re-
ported worldwide (Allergic Living, 2016; Chutian Metropolis
Daily, 2015; Kids With Food Allergies, 2016; Zhao et al., 2018).
In addition, driven by ambition of higher profits, shoddy goods
and even toxic substances have been illegally added to human

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: playerwxw@cau.edu.cn (W. Wang), liyf@ihep.ac.cn (Y.-F. Li).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2019.06.010
1537-5110/© 2019 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
56 biosy s tems engineering 184 (2019) 55 e68
food and animal feed products. In 2008, the intake of infant
formula adulterated with melamine in China caused more
than 51,900 infants and young children to suffer from kidney
illness (Sun et al., 2010). In 2013, food goods containing beef
were found to be counterfeited using undeclared horsemeat in
many European countries (Premanandh, 2013). These issues
make the foreign matter contamination/adulteration a glob-
ally imperative problem in food safety and quality. The
development of effective food safety and quality monitoring
systems for the food industry and food supply chain stake-
holders to detect food contamination and adulteration is
needed (Ropodi, Panagou, & Nychas, 2016).
Sensory evaluation and a variety of chemical assay
methods, such as chromatographic approaches (Ghiasvand &
Hajipour, 2016; Wang et al., 2015), enzyme-linked immuno-
sorbent assay (ELISA) (Yang, Zhu, Liu, & Dai, 2016), tandem
mass spectrometry (Monaci, Pilolli, De Angelis, Carone,&
Pascale, 2016), and capillary electrophoresis, are common
methods for food quality inspection (Le et al., 2017). Sensory
evaluation requiring trained sensory panels is costly and time
consuming. Although chemical assay methods perform well
with excellent limits of detection (LOD), they are destructive,
labour-intensive, expensive, and time-consuming
(Kamruzzaman, Makino, & Oshita, 2016). Chemical assay
also produces undesirable chemicals during the detection
process, creating an environmental burden (Gredilla, de
Vallejuelo, Elejoste, de Diego, & Madariaga, 2016). Further-
more, most of the chemical assay methods focus on some
specific pathogenic molecules or chemical substances, which
lead to limited applicability to foreign matter. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop new detection techniques, in particular
to design online/portable detection instruments/devices that
can be applied throughout the food chain (Su, He, & Sun, 2017).
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI), which integrates machine
vision and spectroscopic technologies, has become an active
research area for the development of rapid, nondestructive
detection approaches. Compared with conventional imaging,
HSI obtains not only the appearance and morphologic char-
acteristics of objects, but also information on internal chem-
ical components (Mishra et al., 2016; Su et al., 2017; Su & Sun,
2017). NIR spectroscopy technology uses the average spectra
of spots on the tested object for chemical composition anal-
ysis. However, HSI can obtain a spectrum of each pixel of the
whole tested object; thus, it is also able to provide the spatial
distribution of chemical composition (Huang, Zhou, Meng,
Wu, & He, 2017; Su & Sun, 2017). HSI has exhibited great util-
ity and wide application potential in food safety and quality
inspection (Foca et al., 2016; Liu, Pu, & Sun, 2017; Shi et al.,
2017; Xing et al., 2017). Under the conditions when adulter-
ants are concentrated in a small region, that is, only one or
several pixels, HSI can allow better detectability and attain
lower detection limits than conventional spectroscopy tech-
nology (Forchetti & Poppi, 2017).
Recent research has illustrated the wide applicability of
HSI for detecting adulteration/foreign contamination in
various food products, including milk adulterated with soda,
urea, water, and detergents (Kimbahune, Ghouse, Mithun,
Shinde, & Jha, 2016); prawns adulterated with gelatin (Wu,
Shi, He, Yu, & Bao, 2013); minced beef adulterated with
horsemeat (Kamruzzaman, Makino, Oshita, & Liu, 2015); and
wheat flour adulterated with sorghum, oat and corn flours
(Verdú et al., 2016). Specifically, several reports have evaluated
the application of HSI technology to detect adulteration/
foreign contamination in powdered food products. Forchetti
and Poppi (2017) studied HSI to detect different adulterants
(i.e., whey powder, starch, urea, and melamine) in milk pow-
der and quantify concentrations of adulterants in the mixture
with one, two (starch/urea), and three adulterants (starch/
urea/whey powder) (5e30% by weight for one adulterant, and
1e10% by weight for two and three adulterants). Furthermore,
Huang et al. (2016) and Lim et al. (2016) verified that HSI is able
to discriminate melamine pixels from milk powder pixels
even in concentrations of only 0.02e1% (by weight). Mishra
et al. (2015a, 2015b, 2016) also inspected the spatial location
of peanut particles in wheat flour at concentrations of 0.01%
and 0.05%. However, the tested objects seemed special in
those two cases. The spectra of melamine exhibit significant
diversity from milk at a wavelength range of 1440e1560 nm.
The peanut particle size (1000e500 mm) was greater than that
of wheat flour (125e100 mm and 212e160 mm). The feasibility of
using HSI technology for low-level concentration detection
more generally, where the contaminant/adulterant is similar
to powdery food products in spectral profile and particle size,
has not been investigated.
The current study was aimed at evaluating the feasibility of
using near infrared HSI technology to identify peanut powder
in whole wheat flour at low-levels of contamination. The
specific objectives of the current research were to (1) acquire
the hyperspectral images of two types of wheat flour samples
with a variety of peanut contamination levels, (2) adopt
effective pretreatment methods to remove noise in spatial and
in spectral dimensions, (3) select optimal wavelengths and
then build simplified prediction models, (4) generate visual
prediction maps, and (5) validate the models with new
external data.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
Two types of whole wheat flour, spring wheat flour (WFS) (Bei
Da Huang Lv Ye Quan Mai Fen, Heilongjiangsheng Chang-
shuihe Liangyou Jiagong Co. Ltd., Harbin, Heilongjiang, China)
and winter wheat flour (WFW) (Jin Feixue Quan Mai Fen, Fei
Xue Liang You Shi Pin Co. Ltd., Dongying, Shandong, China),
were purchased from a local supermarket. Flour samples were
sent to the China National Food Quality Supervision and In-
spection Center for components determination. Chemical
compositions of the two types of flour are show in Table 1.
Cooked peanut powder was obtained from a commercial
food-processing factory (Hua Sheng Fen, Wotelaisi Biological
Technology Co., Ltd., Lanzhou, Gansu, China). The particle
sizes of the peanut powder and whole wheat flours were less
than 0.18 mm. For each type of whole wheat flour, homoge-
neous mixed samples with peanut powder were prepared in
the following concentrations by mass: 0.01%, 0.03%, 0.05%,
0.1%, 0.3%, 0.5%, 1%, 3%, 5%, and 10%. Each mixture was used
to fill up three plastic square Petri dishes (100 mm width,
100 mm length, and 15 mm height) as three replicates.
 bio s yste ms e n ginee r ing 184 (2019) 55 e68
Table 1 e Chemical compositions of the two types of flour.
Type Carbohydrate g (100 g)—1 Moisture g (100 g)—1 Protein g (100 g)—1 Fat g (100 g)—1
WFS 71.6 14
WFW 73.6 12
Method GB/Z 21922-2008 GB 5009.3-2016
Likewise, three replicates each for the pure materials, peanut
powder and two types of wheat flour, were prepared.
Additionally, new batches of the two types of flour (WFS
and WFW) were purchased to prepare samples with different
levels of contaminants. Each type of flour sample, in each
concentration, filled one plastic square Petri dish. They were
used as external validation samples to further verify the pre-
diction model developed herein.
2.2. Hyperspectral image acquisition
A pushbroom hyperspectral imaging system (SPECIM Sisu-
CHEMA, Spectra Imaging Ltd., Finland) (Fig. 1) performed
raster scanning to image the samples. The hyperspectral
camera (SPECIM FX 17, Spectra Imaging Ltd., Finland) com-
bined with an InGaAs detector acquired hyperspectral images
from 935.61e1720.23 nm, with a spectral resolution of
3.45 nm. Excluding the external validation samples, the
following 23 images were obtained: 20 mixture images and
one image each of pure WFS, pure WFW, and pure peanut
powder. Each image was stored as a three-dimensional hyper-
cube, with dimensions of 640 (pixels) × 972 (lines) × 224
(bands). The image resolution was about 0.32 mm pixel —1.
Before hyperspectral images of samples were collected, white
and dark reference images were acquired to perform reflec-
tance calibration to reduce the noise from external illumina-
tion and internal instrument circuitry.
Each image scene contained the three Petri dishes filled
with the same type of powder. When capturing hyperspectral
data, the order of different concentration samples was rand-
omised. After image calibration, three sub-images (284 × 284
pixels) of the powder areas in the three Petri dishes were
pixels) of the powder areas in the three Petri dishes were
Fig. 1 e Hyperspectral imaging system.
57
Fibre g (100 g)—1 Ash g (100 g)—1
11.6 2.0 0.9 0.78
12.1 1.5 1.5 0.81
GB 5009.5-2016 GB/T 5009.6-2016 GB/T 5009.10-2003 GB 5009.4-2016
extracted manually. Due to the reflection of light off smooth
surfaces and native high reflectance values, reflectivity of
some samples were close to the saturation value of 100% in
the spectral range of 936e1154 nm. Additionally, data in the
spectral range above 1700 nm showed a low signal to noise
ratio. Finally, 69 hyperspectral sub-images (3 sub-images per
image × 23 images), with a size of 284 pixels × 284 lines × 154
bands (1158e1700 nm), were used in the subsequent data
analysis. Similar procedures were applied on external vali-
dation images to obtain 22 new hyperspectral sub-images (20
mixture sub-images and 2 sub-images of new batches of pure
WFS and pure WFW flour samples). The 22 hyperspectral sub-
images were used only for final model validation. The number
of samples in the external validation set was the same as that
in the prediction set.
2.3. Hyperspectral image analysis
2.3.1. Light intensity calibration
A light intensity calibration method was used to eliminate the
brightness variations within one sub-image caused by the
light source. Digital numbers (DNs) of each row and column of
pixels in each sub-image, at every wavelength, were cali-
brated by the following equations:
DNrci ¼ ki × DNi
ki ¼ Mw=mi
DNcj ¼ pj × DNrcj
,
pj ¼ Mrcw mrcj (1)
where DNrci is the row-corrected values of the ith row of
pixels, ki is the row-corrected coefficient at the ith row, DNi is
the value of the ith row pixel in the raw image, mi is the mean
value of the ith row pixels in the raw image, Mw is the mean
value of all pixels in the raw image, DNc j is the column-
corrected values of pixels in the jth column, pj is the column-
corrected coefficient in the jth column, DNrcj is the value of
the jth column of pixels in the row-corrected image, mrcj is the
mean value of the jth column pixels in the row-corrected
image, and Mrcw is the mean value of the all pixels in the
row-corrected image.
2.3.2. Minimum noise fraction
Subsequently, sub-images of pure whole wheat flour and 10
concentration mixtures were used to construct image mo-
saics, and a minimum noise fraction (MNF) transformation
was applied to the mosaics. MNF has been widely used for
dimensionality reduction in HSI (Xue, Li, Cheng, & Du, 2015).
MNF transformation essentially contains two cascaded prin-
cipal component transforms (Zhang et al., 2015). In
58 biosy s tems engineering 184 (2019) 55 e68
comparison with principal component analysis (PCA), MNF
enables the separation of noise from informative data, with
generated components rescaled by the noise standard devia-
tion, which guarantees that the first few principal compo-
nents exhibit the most primary information as well as the
highest image quality (Gao, Zhao, Jia, Liao, & Zhang, 2017).
Scatterplots constructed from a few MNF bands are able to
recognise pixels of distinct spectral features. The N-dimen-
sional visualiser tool in the ENVI software (Exelis Visual In-
formation Solutions, Boulder, CO, USA) was used to display
their locations in the image. This information enabled inter-
active analysis of hyperspectral image data in the spatial and
spectral domains. In the current study, MNF was applied as an
unsupervised classification method for preliminary observa-
tion of the separability of data. Then, only the first eight bands
were adopted in the inverse MNF transformation to remove
noise and convert MNF bands back to wavelength variables for
later spectral processing. Eight MNF bands were chosen based
on the criterion that the variation of variance percentages
between two adjacent bands was above 0.01%. Each sub-
image, with a size of 284 pixels × 284 lines × 154 wave-
lengths, was divided equally into nine regions of interest
(ROIs), resulting in 27 average spectral curves acquired for the
three replicates of each type of powder. These spectral data
were randomly attributed to the calibration set and prediction
set with a ratio of 2:1. In total, 198 and 99 spectra were in the
calibration and prediction sets, respectively. Five-fold cross-
validation was carried out using the calibration set.
2.3.3. Spectral pretreatment
To eliminate multiplicative interferences and the spectral
additive effects of scatter which result from the physical
properties of samples, such as particle size, the spectra
were preprocessed by different methods prior to modelling.
The preprocessed methods tested were baseline correction
(BLC), normalisation (NOR), standard normal variate (SNV),
multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), SavitzkyeGolay first
derivatives (SGD1) (with a second-order polynomial and a
five-point window), SavitzkyeGolay second derivatives
(SGD2) (with a third-order polynomial and a five-point
window), and combinations of SNV with SGD 1 and SNV
with SGD2.
2.3.4. Model development and evaluation
In this study, multivariate calibration models were devel-
oped by PLSR for quantitative analysis of peanut contami-
nant in whole wheat flour. PLSR essentially applies a
rotated principal component regression to predictor and
predicted variables. Then, new successive orthogonal fac-
tors, called latent variables (LVs), were derived, which
maximise the covariance between spectral data and pre-
dicted variables (Abdi, 2003; Wold, Sjo € stro
€ m, & Eriksson,
2001). In the present study, the number of LVs used in
model was determined according to the criterion of the
lowest prediction error in cross-validation. The perfor-
mance of these PLSR models was evaluated by the coeffi-
cient of determination and root mean square error (RMSE)
of calibration (R2c, RMSEC), cross-validation (five-fold) (Rcv
2
,
2 intensity calibration is shown in Fig. 3b. The result showed a
RMSECV), prediction (R p , RMSEP) and Bias. The best model
was selected according to the highest R2 and lowest RMSE.
2.3.5. Selection of optimal wavelengths
Collinearity and redundancy among input spectral variables
adversely amplify background interference, noise, and over-
lapping bands of components, and thus weaken the perfor-
mance of calibration models for prediction of unknown
samples (Tong, Du, Zheng, Wu, & Wang, 2015). Moreover,
fewer input variables for the prediction model reduces the
computing time and other costs because fewer sensors are
required, which contributes to development of lower-cost
online detection equipment and portable devices. Competi-
tive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) is an effective al-
gorithm for selecting the optimal wavelengths according to
the “survival of the fittest” principle by evaluating the absolute
regression coefficient of each wavelength (He, Sun, & Wu,
2014; Xie, Xu, Shao, & He, 2015). CARS has also been re-
ported to show better performance than the uninformative
variable elimination method (Li, Liang, Xu, & Cao, 2009).
2.3.6. Visualisation of predicted results
For hyperspectral images, the optimal prediction model can
be applied in a pixel-wise manner, generating chemical im-
ages to display the hidden information of properties of the
tested samples in the spatial domain. The optimal PLSR model
herein was applied to the pixels of images to visualise pre-
diction results of contamination concentrations. To speed up
the visualisation process, sub-images with spatial size of
160 × 160 pixels at the corresponding optimal wavelengths
were cut out from the hyperspectral images to build predic-
tion maps. Specifically, each sub-image was unfolded into a
two-dimensional (2-D) matrix, where the rows represented
pixels and columns represented wavelengths. Predicted con-
centration results were obtained by calculating the dot prod-
uct between the 2-D matrix and regression coefficients
determined from the optimal PLSR model. The resultant vec-
tor was refolded back to form a 2-D map where colours rep-
resented diverse predicted concentrations of peanut
contamination.
The flowchart in Fig. 2 shows the main steps of the
hyperspectral image analysis.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Light intensity calibration
Lightness bar noise (as shown in Fig. 3a) was found to be
present in almost all the images. This might be caused by light
source structure and inconsistencies in sensor sensitivity.
These lightness bar noises adversely affected feature extrac-
tion of contaminant concentration information as well as the
accuracy of prediction models. Referring to the procedure
used by Jia, Yoon, Zhuang, Wang, and Li (2017), illumination
inhomogeneity due to chicken fillet thickness was calibrated
by correcting the spectra of each row of image pixels. A new
light intensity calibration method, correcting DN values of
each row pixel and each column pixel of the image at every
wavelength, was proposed in our study. An image after light
clear display of the surface appearance, indicating that the
 bio s yste ms e n ginee r ing 184 (2019) 55 e68 59

method significantly improved lightness uniformity correc-

tion. Statistical results of spectra of pure WFS, 0.3% and 10%
samples before and after light intensity calibration are shown
in Fig. 4. After applying light intensity calibration, standard
deviations were reduced and mean values remained un-
changed. The results demonstrate that the proposed method
only reduced deviations caused by irrelevant noise in the
same concentration samples.

3.2. MNF analysis

Each mosaic consisted of sub-images of pure WFS and

contaminated WFS samples with concentrations of 0.01%,
0.03%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.3%, 0.5%, 1%, 3%, 5%, and 10% (as shown
in Fig. 5). MNF was applied to the mosaic. The results of
applying MNF analysis on the mosaic of WFS samples are
shown in Fig. 6. Figure 6a is a 2-D density scatter plot of MNF
band 1 (variance percentages of 58.14%) versus MNF band 3
(variance percentages of 2.88%). The colours in Fig. 6a denote
the density of the pixel distribution, with the red representing
dense and the blue representing sparse. This shows that the
pixels of the mosaic were separated into six clusters after
applying MNF. Figure 6b, c illustrates the corresponding po-
sition on the mosaic image of the six clusters. Red pixel
clusters in Fig. 6b were from samples with concentrations of
10% (Fig. 6c), green from 5%, blue from 1%, yellow from 3%,
cyan from 0.3% to 0.5%, and magenta from pure WFS to 0.1%.
The results indicated that MNF analysis could distinguish
concentrations of 10%, 5%, 3%, 1%, 0.3e0.5%, and less than
0.3% in contaminated WFS samples. However, for WFW
samples, only pixels of samples with concentrations of 10%,
5%, 3%, 1%, and 0.01e0.5% were separated. The pixels of pure
WFW were clustered with those of samples of 5% concentra-
tion. These indicated that detection of peanut contaminant in
WFS showed better results than for contaminants in WFW. In
summary, based on the unsupervised MNF method, pixels of
samples with concentrations of 10%, 5%, 3%, and 1% could be
discriminated for both WFS and WFW samples with contam-
ination. However, for samples with concentrations less than
0.3% and 0.5%, respectively, discrimination was not good. This
Fig. 2 e Flowchart of data processing for prediction of
might be due to that contaminant information obtained in the
peanut contaminant concentration in both types of whole
spectra were less than other irrelevant interference
wheat flour.

Fig. 3 e Images (284 £ 284 pixels) of pure WFS at 1158 nm before (a) and after (b) light intensity calibration.
60 biosy s tems engineering 184 (2019) 55 e68

Fig. 4 e Max/Min, standard deviation (Stdev) and mean of spectra of pixels of sub-images of pure WFS, 0.3% and 10%
samples before (B) and after (A) light intensity calibration.

information. The difference between the results of WFS and
WFW samples was probably caused by differences in
composition contents of the two types of flour. The first eight
bands were applied in inverse MNF transformation to remove
noise and transfer MNF bands back to wavelength variables
for later average spectral analysis, as explained previously.
3.3. Spectral pretreatment and full spectral model
Table 2 shows the main statistical parameters of PLSR models
for WFS and WFW samples using different pretreatment
methods based on the full spectral range. A PLSR model based
on raw spectra (no pretreatment) was also calculated for the
comparative analysis. For contaminated WFS samples, not all
of the pretreatment methods improved the performance of
PLSR models. SNV, SNV þ SGD1, and SNV þ SGD2 performed
best and offered the most improvement in model perfor-
mance. For contaminated WFW samples SNV, SNV þ SGD1,
and SNV þ SGD2 were better than other pretreatment
methods.
The average spectra of wheat flour and pure peanut
powder after the different pretreatments are shown in
Fig. 7a, b. It can be observed that the spectra after applying
SNV had the largest span of ordinates, although the profile
of these was similar with raw spectra. There is no obvious
distinct difference between average spectra of wheat flour
and peanut powder after BLC, NOR, and MSC, in comparison
with the raw spectra. After SGD 1 and SGD2, the profile of
spectra of wheat and peanut powder differed in some parts
of the spectral range. However, the ranges of ordinate
values of spectra were narrow. For SNV þ SGD1 and
SNV þ SGD2, the profile of spectra of wheat and peanut
powder showed differences in some parts of the spectral
range, while the ranges of ordinate values were greater than
those after SGD1 and SGD2. In summary, the difference
between average spectra of pure wheat flour and pure
peanut powder after SNV and SNV þ SGD were the largest of
the different pretreatments. This might be the reason that
SNV and SNV þ SGD treated spectra provided the best PLSR
models.

Fig. 5 e Images of pure WFS and 10 mixtures with different peanut powder concentrations at 1158 nm.
 bio s yste ms e n ginee r ing 184 (2019) 55 e68 61

Fig. 6 e Results of MNF analysis for peanut-contaminated WFS samples combined with a 2-dimensional scatter plot. (a) MNF
2-D density scatter plot of band 1 (variance percentage of 58.14%) versus band 3 (variance percentage of 2.88%); (b) scatter
plot with different classes; and (c) corresponding mosaic image where the red, green, blue, yellow, cyan, and magenta
clusters represent 10%, 5%, 1%, 3%, 0.3e0.5%, and 0.1%e0% mixture concentration, respectively.

Table 2 e PLSR models for contaminated WFS and WFW samples using different pretreatment methods based on the full
spectral range.
Flour Pretreatment method LVs Calibration Cross-validation Prediction
R2c RMSEC (%) Biasc (%) R2cv RMSECV (%) Biascv (%) R2p RMSEP (%) Biasp (%)
WFS NON 8 0.993 0.243 0.000 0.993 0.256 0.004 0.992 0.266 —0.027
BLC 6 0.992 0.267 0.000 0.991 0.279 0.001 0.992 0.272 —0.023
NOR 7 0.993 0.256 —0.000 0.992 0.265 0.001 0.992 0.273 0.030
SNV 9 0.996 0.189 —0.000 0.996 0.201 0.004 0.995 0.218 —0.018
MSC 7 0.995 0.223 —0.000 0.994 0.230 0.003 0.993 0.251 —0.010
SGD1 8 0.993 0.249 0.000 0.993 0.258 —0.001 0.993 0.260 —0.023
SGD2 8 0.993 0.246 —0.000 0.993 0.258 0.000 0.993 0.260 —0.010
SNV þ SGD1 9 0.996 0.189 0.000 0.996 0.201 0.003 0.995 0.218 —0.019
SNV þ SGD2 9 0.996 0.194 0.000 0.995 0.205 0.001 0.995 0.208 0.021
WFW NON 8 0.991 0.293 0.000 0.990 0.298 0.000 0.990 0.308 —0.032
BLC 8 0.990 0.298 0.000 0.990 0.302 0.001 0.990 0.298 0.001
NOR 7 0.990 0.307 —0.000 0.989 0.311 —0.000 0.989 0.310 —0.002
SNV 9 0.995 0.218 0.000 0.994 0.226 —0.001 0.994 0.242 —0.014
MSC 7 0.992 0.277 —0.000 0.991 0.281 0.001 0.991 0.284 0.017
SGD1 8 0.990 0.293 —0.000 0.990 0.299 0.000 0.990 0.307 —0.000
SGD2 8 0.991 0.293 —0.000 0.990 0.299 —0.001 0.990 0.311 —0.028
SNV þ SGD1 9 0.995 0.221 0.000 0.994 0.229 0.000 0.994 0.235 0.024
SNV þ SGD2 9 0.995 0.217 —0.000 0.994 0.231 —0.002 0.994 0.242 —0.001
62 biosy s tems engineering 184 (2019) 55 e68

Fig. 7 e Average spectra of pure wheat flour [pure WFS (a) and pure WFW (b)] and pure peanut powder after different
pretreatments. The black dashed curve is the average spectrum of pure wheat flour. The red solid curve is the average
spectrum of pure peanut. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)

As shown in Table 2, the full spectra PLSR models for
contaminated WFS samples performed better than that for
the corresponding WFW samples, which is consistent with
the results of MNF analysis in section 3.2. The PLSR models
based on SNV had promising results, with R2 ofp0.995 and
0.994, and RMSEP of 0.218% and 0.242%, for contaminated WFS
and WFW samples, respectively. The plots of measured versus
predicted values of the prediction sets for contaminated WFS
and WFW samples are shown in Fig. 8a, b, respectively. All
samples with concentrations equal to or greater than 0.3%
 bio s yste ms e n ginee r ing 184 (2019) 55 e68 63

Fig. 8 e Performance of full spectral PLSR models based on SNV applied to prediction set for WFS (a) and WFW (b) samples.
The solid line is the 1:1 line, and the thin dashed line is the fitted line.

were predicted to be above 0. This implies that the lowest

detection limit was 0.3% for both types of flour samples based
on the full spectral models. In other words, whole wheat flour
contaminated with peanut particles at a concentration of 0.3%
or more could be correctly identified as contaminated whole
wheat flour.

3.4. Optimal wavelength selection and multispectral

PLSR model

CARS were applied to spectra preprocessed by SNV,

SNV þ SGD1, and SNV þ SGD2 to select an optimal subset of
wavelengths. The specific outcomes are shown in Table 3. The
numbers of selected wavelengths based on the three methods
were different, although their corresponding full spectral PLSR
models exhibited similar performances (shown in Table 2).
SNV þ SGD1 had the least number of optimal wavelengths for Fig. 9 e Average spectral curves of pure WFS (thin dashed
both WFS and WFW samples, which indicates that SGD 1 curve), WFW (dash-dotted curve), and peanut powder
appropriately enhanced spectral features so as to reduce the (solid curve) after SNV þ SGD1 pretreatment, with the
number of optimal wavelengths. Hence, SNV þ SGD1 was flagged optimal wavelengths (wavelengths selected for
applied before development of multispectral PLSR models. WFS samples are bold, while the wavelengths for WFW
Seven wavelengths (1,196, 1,354, 1,411, 1,478, 1,482, 1,492, samples are italic).
and 1545 nm) and five wavelengths (1,200, 1,203, 1,242, 1,245,
and 1249 nm) were identified as the optimal wavelength
samples concentrated on a region from 1190 nm to 1250 nm.
subsets for WFS and WFW samples, respectively. The optimal
The optimal wavelengths were located at the regions where
wavelengths were evident on the preprocessed (SNV þ SGD1)
great diversity was observed from the curves between peanut
average spectral curves for pure WFS, WFW, and peanut
powder and wheat flour. According to the references (Joe &
powder (shown in Fig. 9). Curve profiles of pure peanut powder
Gopal, 2017; Rosa et al., 2017), 1195 nm corresponds to the
were similar to those of both types of pure whole wheat flour.
CeH second overtone from CH3, and 1360 nm corresponds to
Consequently, pixel identification of peanut powder or wheat
the CeH combination band from CH3. A wavelength of
flour directly based on band subtraction or band ratio
1410 nm is attributed to the OeH first overtone from ReOH in
methods was not possible. The seven optimal wavelengths
oil. Wavelengths of 1483 and 1490 nm correspond to the NeH
were distributed in a dispersed manner on the spectral curve.
stretch first overtone from CONH2 and CONHR. A wavelength
The distribution of five optimal wavelengths for WFW

Table 3 e Results of CARS after different pretreatment methods.

Flour type Pretreatment method RMSECV (%) Number of wavelengths
WFS SNV 0.239 9
SNV þ SGD1 0.238 7
SNV þ SGD2 0.250 15
WFW SNV 0.281 11
SNV þ SGD1 0.281 5
SNV þ SGD2 0.286 16
64 biosy s tems engineering 184 (2019) 55 e68
of 1540 nm is associated with the OeH stretch first overtone in
starch. A wavelength of 1200 nm has been identified as
important for discrimination of peanuts from other food, such
as wheat, milk, and cocoa, by Ghosh et al. (2016). A wavelength
of 1250 nm corresponds to the absorption values for protein
and starch (Mohan, Karunakaran, Jayas, & White, 2005). These
previous reports provide additional evidence that the selected
wavelengths are informative and correlate highly with spec-
tral absorption peaks for molecular groups of the ingredients
in peanut powder and whole wheat flour. The difference be-
tween the two distributions of selected wavelengths might be
caused by the diversity of composition content between the
two types of whole wheat flour samples.
Multispectral PLSR models for WFS and WFW samples
were established using the corresponding optimal wave-
lengths. The results (shown in Table 4) demonstrated good
quantitative prediction ability. The plots of measured versus
predicted values of prediction sets for WFS and WFW samples
are shown in Fig. 10a, b, respectively. The results indicated
that the limits of detection by the multispectral prediction
models were 0.3% and 0.5% for WFS and WFW samples,
respectively. Peanut contamination detection in WFS samples
was better than that in WFW samples, which is consistent
with the results described in section 3.3. The regression
equations derived from the best multispectral PLSR model for
WFS samples to predict different contaminant levels was as
follows:
YWFS ¼ 27:17 — 4946:06X1196nm — 1911:96X1354nm
þ 1792:03X1411nm þ 1666:18X1478nm (2)
þ 1987:73X1482nm þ 2099:52X1492nm — 1039:63X1545nm
The regression equation for WFW samples was.
YWFW ¼ 5:38 — 9914:46X1200nm þ 7209:40X1203nm
— 47508:18X1242nm þ 47408:25X1245nm þ 6524:36X1249nm
(3)
The method proposed in the present study was developed
in non-real-time computing environments. It demonstrated
the feasibility of applying near-infrared hyperspectral imag-
ing to detect low level of peanut powder contamination in
whole wheat flour and the potential for on-line implementa-
tion. Hyperspectral imaging has the capability to detect con-
taminants, but the technology is too slow for real-time on-line
detection (Mehl, Chen, Kim, & Chan, 2004). Multispectral im-
aging has been proposed for solving online sorting issues
(Chen, Chao, & Kim, 2002); however, development of a real-
time multispectral imaging systems is still challenging
(Erkinbaev, Henderson, & Paliwal, 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Yoon,
Park, Lawrence, Windham, & Heitschmidt, 2011). The design
Table 4 e Multispectral PLSR models based on SNV þ SGD1 for contaminated WFS and WFW samples.
Optimal Flour type Nr.LVs Calibration
wavelengths (nm) Rc2
RMSEC (%) Biasc (%)
1196, 1354, 1411, 1478, WFS 4 0.994 0.234 0.000
1482, 1492, 1545
1200, 1203, 1242, WFW 5 0.992 0.276 —0.000
1245, 1249
of both hardware and software for such systems face enor-
mous challenges. The hardware platform needs to produce
high-quality data to meet application demand in time-
sensitive situations with deadlines. For software design, the
algorithms developed in non-real-time environments need to
be implemented in a real-time application. Two typical real-
time multispectral imaging applications have been realised.
One was for polymer sorting (Leitner, Mairer, & Kercek, 2003),
which used a CMOS readout integrated circuit (ROIC) for the
NIR InGaAs cameras (900e1700 nm). CMOS ROIC has high
pixel-readout rates, and 80 input features were used for clas-
sifier. The other was for faecal detection on chicken carcasses
(Yoon et al., 2011), which used electron-multiplying CCD
(EMCCD) sensors (400e1000 nm). EMCCD is able to read data
partially under user-defined wavelengths. The faecal detec-
tion algorithms used only three wavelengths for real-time
detection. For online detection application of peanut-
contaminated flour, further research is needed for the hard-
ware and software algorithm aspects.
3.5. Visualisation of prediction results
The multispectral PLSR models were applied here to each
pixel to generate visual prediction maps for contaminated
WFS and WFW samples. The visual maps of pure flour and
samples with contaminant concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, 3%, 5%,
and 10%, with predicted concentration variations, are shown
using a linear colour scale from low (blue) to high (red) in
Fig. 11a, b. Visual prediction maps for both types of flour
samples with contaminant concentrations above 3%
possessed a difference in obvious appearance from the pure
flour. Due to the prediction error and noise from every pixel,
the visual prediction map for samples with concentrations
less than 3% did not perform well. In the current study, the
pure peanut powder and whole wheat flour have similar
spectral curves, the particle size was small (less than
0.18 mm), and image resolution was insufficient (0.32 mm
pixel—1). Therefore, the identification of the location of indi-
vidual peanut particles was not possible. Nevertheless, the
results demonstrated that HSI technology could be used to
visualise low concentration variations of a chemical compo-
nent in a spatial dimension, which cannot be accomplished
using either the human eye or common industrial cameras.
3.6. Model validation using external samples
To further verify the models, hyperspectral images of the
external validation samples were collected and pretreated
with the same methods proposed herein. After pretreatment,
new data were input to the multispectral PLSR models. The
Cross-validation Prediction
2
Rcv Rp2
RMSECV (%) Biascv (%) RMSEP (%) Biasp (%)
0.994 0.239 0.001 0.993 0.251 —0.018
0.991 0.278 —0.000 0.991 0.285 0.010
 bio s yste ms e n ginee r ing 184 (2019) 55 e68 65

Fig. 10 e Performance of multispectral PLSR models applied to prediction set for contaminated WFS (a) and WFW (b)
samples. The solid line is the 1:1 line, and the thin dashed line is the fitted line.

Fig. 11 e Visual prediction maps of peanut-contaminated WFS (a) and WFW (b) samples based on multispectral PLSR
models.

prediction results of multispectral PLSR models applied to the
external validation set were R2 of 0.961 and 0.935, RMSEP of
3.54% and 2.31%, and bias of 3.41% and 1.87%, respectively, for
contaminated WFS and WFW samples. Visual prediction
maps of peanut-contaminated WFS and WFW samples from
the external validation set based on multispectral PLSR
models are shown in Fig. 12.
When compared with the performance of multispectral
models applied to the prediction set (R2 pof 0.993 and 0.991,
RMSEP of 0.251% and 0.285%, and bias of —0.018% and 0.010%,
respectively, for WFS and WFW samples), R2 of the models
applied to the external validation set were lower, and the
RMSEP and bias showed larger values. In other words, model
errors were greater when predicting contaminant levels in a
new external dataset. This might be caused by the different
batches of flour samples for calibration set and external vali-
dation set. Wheat kernels used to produce different batches of
flour might have great differences. Because of the variable
factors in wheat production, such as wheat cultivation tech-
nique, growing environment, and geographic conditions, flour
produced in any given wheat production area and season is
unique. However, R2 for the two models for the external vali-
dation set were relatively high, above 0.930, indicated the
feasibility of the methods proposed herein. In addition, the
new visual prediction maps (Fig. 12) showed similar model
performance when applied to the external validation set
compared to previous dataset. The new visual prediction
maps for both types of flour samples with contaminant con-
centration above 5% performed well. This also indicated the
potential and practicability of the methods proposed herein.
Furthermore, the results also indicated that representative-
ness of modelling samples is crucial to improve the precision
of models. To improve prediction accuracy of low-
concentration contamination and robustness of prediction
models, representative samples from a wide source of tested
material should be included in the calibration sets.
Light penetration depth is a critical factor for the detection
capacity of hyperspectral imaging. Light needs to sufficiently
penetrate the food materials to obtain effective intensity of
the radiation, which is correlated to content of the compounds
of interest inside the food. Light penetration depth is defined
as the depth where incident light is reduced by 99% in the
material (Qin & Lu, 2008). It is affected by type and physical
condition of a given sample, detection wavelength, and strong
absorbing constituents in the samples (Huang, Liu, & Ngadi,
2014). Research on penetration depth of light in visible and
NIR ranges is limited, and most research has focused on fruits
(Lammertyn, Peirs, De Baerdemaeker, & Nicolaı, 2000; Qin &
66 biosy s tems engineering 184 (2019) 55 e68
Fig. 12 e Visual prediction maps of peanut-contaminated WFS (a) and WFW (b) samples from external validation set based
on multispectral PLSR models.
Lu, 2008). A previous study showed that light penetration
depth varies from 7.1 mm for plums to 65.2 mm for zucchini
(Qin & Lu, 2008). For this study, adulterated powder samples
were prepared to be homogeneous and thereby represent
ideal conditions. Considering the complications of real-world
situations, penetration depth of light and maximum detect-
able depth for contaminant particles should be further stud-
ied. Related published work has investigated the penetration
depth of NIR hyperspectral reflectance imaging for the
detection of melamine under a milk powder layer. Their re-
sults indicated that the accuracy for identifying melamine-
contaminated milk samples decreased from 99.86% to
58.26% as the milk powder depth increased from 1 mm to
5 mm (Huang et al., 2016).
4. Conclusions
The feasibility of using near-infrared hyperspectral imaging to
detect low-levels of peanut powder contamination in whole
wheat flour was evaluated. MNF applied to the light intensity
calibrated hyperspectral images clearly discriminated the
pixels of samples with concentrations of 10%, 5%, 3%, and 1%
for both WFS and WFW. Although a full spectral PLSR model
preprocessed by SNV, SNV þ SGD1, and SNV þ SGD2 showed
similar performance, the multispectral model with SNV þ SGD1
had the best results with the least number of optimal wave-
lengths, which implied that SGD1 appropriately enhanced the
spectral features. Results indicated the limits of detection of
peanut powder contamination were 0.3% and 0.5%, respectively
for contaminated WFS and WFW samples, based on multi-
spectral PLSR models using subsets of wavelengths (compared
with 0.3% contaminant detection limit for both types of flour
using the full spectra models). Although for minute contami-
nation levels the detection ability of the model was not enough,
the results were sufficiently good to have practical significance
for the detection of peanut powder as an unreported food
ingredient present in commercial wheat food products.
Prediction maps based on multispectral PLSR models
visualised peanut powder contamination with low-level con-
centration variation (≤3%) in a spatial manner over the whole
wheat flour sample, which is impossible to realise with either
the human eye or common industrial cameras. The study
demonstrated that the NIR HSI technique has the potential for
practical detection of low levels of peanut powder contami-
nation in whole wheat flour. The methodology proposed
herein could also be used as a reference for detection of other
foreign contamination or adulteration in whole wheat flour.
However, due to the similar trends of spectral curves of pure
peanut powder and wheat flour, the small particle size of
samples (less than 0.18 mm), and insufficient image resolution
(0.32 mm pixel—1), the identification of the physical location of
peanut particles in the sample surface cannot be accom-
plished with the current setup. Further research is needed to
evaluate NIR HSI used to identify the locations of contaminant
particles under situations of different image resolutions and
sample particle sizes. Additionally, investigation of the
penetration capacity of HSI and development of real-time
multispectral imaging systems are important tasks for
future research.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported financially by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 31772062). The authors
thank the Quantum Design China Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China), for
the support they provided for the HSI system.
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