PRINCIPLES OF CUTTING,

GRINDING, FINISHING,
AND POLISHING

“If opportunity doesn’t knock, build a door”

PRINCIPLES OF CUTTING, GRINDING, FINISHING, AND POLISHING

Particles of a substrate material (workpiece) are removed by the action of a harder material that
makes frictional contact with the substrate. This contact must generate sufficient tensile and
shear stresses to break atomic bonds and release particles from the substrate.
With rotary instrumentation, the blades of a carbide bur or the tips of abrasive particles transfer
the force to the substrate. These tensile and shear stresses are induced in both the substrate and
the rotary instrument. The instrument will fail to cut, grind, or polish if the stress that develops in
any part of the cutting or grinding surface exceeds the strength of the instrument blade edges or
particle bond strength to the binder compared with the strength of the substrate (workpiece). As a
result, blade edges will become dull, and abrasive particles will fracture or tear away from their
binder.
Such degradation of finishing instruments is discussed in more detail in a later section. Subtle
differences distinguish the cutting, grinding, and polishing processes.
A cutting operation usually involves the use of a bladed instrument or any other instrument in a
bladelike fashion. Substrates may be divided into large separate segments, or they may sustain
deep notches and grooves by the cutting operation. High-speed tungsten carbide burs have
numerous regularly arranged blades that remove small pieces or segments of the substrate as the
bur rotates. As shown in Figure

Tooth cut by a carbide bur. Note the regular pattern of removal of tooth structure, which corresponds to
the regular arrangement of blades on the bur.
The unidirectional cutting patternreflects the action of the regularly arranged blades on a
tungsten carbide bur. The pattern produced by a diamond bur and the surface of a coarse
diamond bur is shown in Figure.

A B
A,Tooth ground by a diamond bur. Note the multiple scratches formed by the random arrangement of
abrasive particles on the diamond bur. B, Magnified image of the bonded diamond particles on a coarse
diamond bur (×150).

When 30-fluted finishing burs have been used on a surface, the regular pattern of the cutting
blades is discernible only if the surface is magnified for inspection.
On the other hand, a separating wheel is an example of an instrument that can be used in a
bladelike fashion.
A separating wheel does not contain individual blades, but its thin blade design allows it to be
used in a rotating fashion to grind through cast metal sprues and die stone materials.
A grinding operation removes small particles of a substrate through the action of bonded or
coated abrasive instruments.
Grinding instruments contain many randomly arranged abrasive particles. Each particle may
contain several sharp points that run along the substrate surface and remove particles of
material.
For example, a diamond-coated rotary instrument may contain many sharp diamond particles
that pass over a tooth during each revolution of the instrument.Because these particles are
randomly arranged, many unidirectional scratches are produced within the material surface, as
illustrated in Figure,which shows a tooth surface ground by a diamond bur.
Cutting and grinding are both considered predominantly unidirectional in their action.
This means that a cut or ground surface exhibits cuts and scratches oriented in one predominant
direction. Different types of burs have unique effects on surfaces. In general, a carbide bur with
more blades will produce a smoother surface than a carbide bur containing fewer blades.
For example, a 16-fluted carbide bur produces a smoother finish than an 8-fluted carbide bur, but
the latter removes material more rapidly. Similarly, the coarsest diamond bur removes material
more quickly but leaves a rougher surface.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. Upper left, 16-fluted (left) and 8-fluted (right) tungsten
carbide finishing burs. Upper right, Fine diamond bur. Bottom left, Medium-grit diamond bur. Bottom
right, Coarse-grit diamond bur.

BULK-REDUCTION PROCESS
Bulk reduction can be achieved through the use of instruments such as diamond burs, tungsten
carbide burs, steel burs, abrasive wheels, and separating discs. Whereas diamond burs and
abrasive wheels provide this action by grinding, steel and carbide burs remove materials through
a cutting action of the hard blades.
Rake angle
Rake angle: The rake angle is the most important design characteristic of a bur blade. It is the
angle between the rake face and the radial line (line connecting the centre of the bur and the
blade).

Accordingly, it can be a positive, negative or a zero rake angle

Negative Rake Angle

A rake angle is negative when the rake face is ahead of the radial line.

Positive Rake Angle

It is said to be positive when the rake face trails the radial line.

Zero rake angle or Radial rake angle

A zero rake angle also known as the radial rake angle is seen when the rake face and the radial
line coincide with each other.

Abrasive-coated discs are popular instruments for bulk reduction of resin-based composite
restorations. For bulk reduction of composites, the clinician should choose 8- to 12-fluted
carbide burs or abrasives with a particle size of 100 μm or larger and sufficient hardness (9 to 10
Mohs hardness). SEM images of the surface finishes produced on a resin-based composite by a
coarse diamond, a 12-fluted carbide bur, a 16-fluted carbide bur, and two types of finishing or
polishing systems are shown in Figure.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the surface of a resin-based composite after the grinding,finishing,
and polishing processes using five instruments: A, A coarse diamond. B, A 12-flute carbide bur. C, A 16-flute
carbide bur. D, An abrasive impregnated finishing disc. E, An abrasive impregnated polishing disc.
For bulk reduction of ceramics and metals, the user should follow the manufacturers’
instructions to minimize the time required. In some cases, instruments used in the dental lab may
be different from those used chairside, so the abrasiveness of an unknown instrument should be
tested on a scrap piece of the material that will be used for a specific task.

CONTOURING
Even though contouring can be achieved during the bulkreduction process, in some cases, it
requires finer cutting instruments or abrasives to provide better control of contouring and surface
details. At the end of this process, the desired anatomy and margins should be established. The
smoothness of the surface at this stage depends on the instrument used and may require extra
steps to establish a smoother surface. Usually 12- to 16-fluted carbide burs or abrasives ranging
in size from 30 to 100 μm provide a fine contouring action.

FINISHING
In general, finishing and polishing processes require a stepwise approach, introducing finer
scratches to the surface of the substrate to methodically remove deeper scratches.This process
may require several steps to reach the desired surface smoothness. Surface imperfections can be
an integral part of the internal structure, or they can be created by the instruments that are used
for gross removal because of the size of the abrasives or the flute geometry. Finishing provides a
relatively blemish-free smooth surface. The finishing action isusually accomplished using 18- to
30-fluted carbide burs, fine and superfine diamond burs, or abrasives that are between 8 and 20
μm in size.

POLISHING
The purpose of polishing is to provide an enamel-like luster to the restoration. Smaller particles
provide smoother and shinier surfaces. The speed of achieving a luster, however, depends on the
hardness and size of the abrasive particles and the method of abrasion (e.g., two-body abrasion or
threebody abrasion). Ideally, abrasive particles in the range of particle sizes up to 20 μm provide
luster at a low magnification.At the end of this process, there should be no visible scratches.
However, there will always be scratches that are detectable at higher magnification. The surface
must be cleaned between steps because abrasive particles left on the surface from the previous
step can cause deep scratches.The quality of the surface finish and polish can be characterized by
the measurement of the surface roughness using a profilometer, an optical microscope, or an
SEM. In clinical practice, the surface luster is usually judged without magnification.
Most of the time, surface smoothness is correlated with the luster, as in cases such as resin-based
composite restorations. However, the smoothest surface does not necessarily provide the most
lustrous surface. For industrial applications, reflectometers are used to measure the luster.
However, it is difficult to use them successfully for dental applications because of the irregular
contour and small size
of dental restorations. Polishing procedures, the most refined of the finishing processes, remove
the finest surface particles. Each type of polishing abrasive acts on an extremely thin region of
the substrate surface. Polishing progresses from the finest abrasive that can remove scratches
from the previous grinding procedure and is completed when the desired level of surface
smoothness is achieved. Each step is followed by the use of progressively finer polishing media
until no further improvement in surface finish is observed. The final stage produces scratches so
fine that they are not visible unless greatly magnified. Polishing should be terminated when no
further change in surface luster or glossiness occurs during the application of the finest abrasive
that is used for that application. Further attempts to improve the surface appearance may actually
degrade the surface by generating heat and by smearing dislodged material across the surface.
Examples of polishing instruments are rubber abrasive points, fine-particle discs and strips, and
fine-particle polishing pastes. Polishing pastes are applied with soft felt points, muslin (woven
cotton fabric) wheels, prophylaxis rubber cups, or buffing wheels. A nonabrasive material
should be used as an applicator while using polishing pastes. Felt, leather, rubber, and synthetic
foam are popular applicator materials for buffing. A common feature of some of these materials
is their porous texture, which allows fine abrasive particles to be retained during the buffing
procedure. Polishing is considered multidirectional, which means that the final surface scratches
are oriented in many directions.
Note that the differences in surface appearance are subtle because of the transitional nature of the
grinding and polishing processes. If there were larger differences in the size of particles
removed, the surface change would be more easily detected. Heat generation during the cutting,
contouring, finishing, and polishing processes of direct restorations is a major concern. To avoid
adverse effects to the pulp, the clinician must cool the surface with a lubricant, such as an air–
water spray, and avoid continuous contact of high-speed rotary instruments with the substrate.
Intermittent contact during operation is necessary not only to cool the surface but also to remove
debris formed between the substrate and the instrument. The effectiveness and the speed of the
contouring, finishing, and polishing procedures will be greatly improved by the removal of
debris.1
Rationale of finishing and polishing

The mechanisms involved in mechanical finishing and polishing using abrasive particles are part
of tribiology, the discipline associated with material science, physics, chemistry and surface
contact engineering . A description of a tribiological system consists of a set of experimental
parameters (eg, applied load, velocity, and duration of motion) and the system structure (eg, the
two bodies in contact, the interfacial media, and the surrounding media).
Finishing and polishing devices, materials, and procedures are intended to produce intentional,
selective, and controlled wear of dental restorative material surfaces
Wear is defined as a cumulative surface damage phenomenon in which material is removed from
a body as small debris particles, primarily by mechanical processes. The wear mechanism is the
transfer of energy with removal or displacement of material. The four major wear mechanisms
are adhesion, abrasion, surface fatigue, and tribochemical reactions.
In polishing with abrasive particles, the wear mechanism is mostly abrasive wear, but other
mechanisms are also possible. These include surface fatigue and the development of ploughing
grooves or scratches, which in some instances are accompanied by hertzian fractures.
These are two-body abrasion and three-body abrasion. In a two-body mode, the bound abrasive
particle is solidly fixed to the substrate. In a three-body abrasive mode, free (or loose) particles
form slurry between the specimen surface to be polished and a flat polishing substrate.
The free particles in a three-body wear mode may be intentionally added abrasives or detached
debris from the worn surface. Most dental finishing and polishing devices operate in the two
body mode. Nevertheless, dentist, hygienists, and laboratory technicians use the three-body
abrasive mode in the form of loose abrasives, such as prophy or polishing pastes.
Three-body abrasive wear occurs when loose particles move in the interface between the
specimen surface and the polishing application device.Such a situation occurs when abrasives are
intentionally deposited so as to roll on top of the polishing substrate, as in the case of the final
polishing step with very small grains on soft lubricated pads. A three-body mode may also occur
when small pieces of material are detached from the specimen to be polished and become
trapped or circulate within the zone of contact between the two first bodies.
The manifestations of abrasive wear are a change of the surface roughness resulting from
material removal and a change of the physical and chemical properties of the surface and
subsurface with respect to those of the bulk. These deformations, which can be described in
mechanical and geometrical terms, are accompanied by the production of highly localized heat
and the creation of residual defects and surface flaws in the material being polished.10