SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATION

TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Technology
In

Digital Electronics and Communication Systems

By

Ch. VenkateswaraRao
(14PA1D3803)

Under the esteemed guidance

of

Dr. N. Padmavathy Ph. D (IIT-KGP)

Professor, ECE Department

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISHNU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE&Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
Accredited by NAAC and NBA
Vishnupur, Bhimavaram-534202.

January 2016
 VISHNU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE&Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
Accredited by NAAC and NBA
Vishnupur, Bhimavaram-534202.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the technical seminar entitled Spread Spectrum Communication is being
submitted by Ch. Venkateswara Rao [14PA1D3803] partial fulfilment for the award of the
degree of Master of Technology in Digital Electronics and Communication Systems is a record
of bonafide work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision during academic year
2015-2016 and it has been found worthy of acceptance according to the requirements of the
university.

Project Guide PG Coordinator H.O.D/E.C.E

Dr. N. Padmavathy Dr. P.S.N. Murthy Prof.K.Srinivas

Professor Professor Professor
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our most sincere and grateful acknowledgement is due to this sanctum, Vishnu Institute of
Technology, for giving us opportunity to fulfill my aspirations and for successful completion of
Post-graduation.
I express my heartfelt thanks to our Principal Dr. D. Suryanarayana for providing us
with the necessary facilities to carry out this work.
It is great pleasure for me to acknowledge the guidance, encouragement and support that i
have received from Dr. N. Padmavathy, Ph. D (IIT-KGP), Professor, Department of Electronics
& Communication Engineering, Vishnu Institute of Technology. I am thankful for her
continuous assistance and invaluable suggestions. She not only provided me help whenever
needed, but also the resources required to complete this seminar report on time.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to PG Coordinator Dr. P.S.N. Murthy Ph. D,
Professor, Vishnu Institute of Technology and Prof. K. Srinivas, H.O.D, Electronics &
Communication Engineering, Vishnu Institute of Technology.

Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my beloved

parents for their blessings, friends/classmates for their help and wishes.

Ch. Venkateswara Rao

(14PA1D3803)
 SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATION

Abstract

Advances in technology have brought to us a new form of digital radio service called Spread
Spectrum. The spread spectrum technique handles the radio signal differently from other forms
of digital radio. In spread-spectrum operation, the radio signal is spread across a great bandwidth
with the use of a spreading algorithm based upon a pseudo-noise (PN) code. The result is a signal
that is essentially buried in the noise floor of the radio band. The receiver is programmed to
examine the bandwidth of the spread signal and correlate the data (despread it). The process of
correlation also causes any other signal received to be spread as the wanted signal is despread.
This causes unwanted signals which appear as noise. The result is a signal that is extremely
difficult to detect, does not interfere with other services and still passes a great bandwidth of
data. The spread spectrum techniques like direct sequence spread spectrum, frequency hopping
spread spectrum, time hopping spread spectrum and hybrid spread spectrum are the commonly
used methods for spread spectrum technology. In this report we discuss how the signal
bandwidth is spread according to the spread spectrum technique, processing gain related to the
each technique, importance of jamming margin in spread spectrum and pseudo random codes.

Keywords: Spread spectrum; Processing gain; Jamming margin; Hopping; Pseudo random codes;
Correlation
 List of Figures

Figure Page
Description
number number
1.1 Narrowband Verses spread spectrum 1
1.2 Spread spectrum communication system 4
Spreading operation spreads the signal energy over a wider
1.3 5
frequency bandwidth
1.4 Despreading operation recovers the original signal 5
Sharing of frequency band by multiple users with spread-spectrum
1.5 6
techniques.
Illustration of how the signal can reach the receiver over multiple
1.6 7
paths
1.7 Spread-spectrum signal is buried under the noise level 8
1.8 Basic importance of spread spectrum code. 8
1.9 Time-slot allocations among different users in a TDMA system. 9
1.10 Frequency allocation among different users in a FDMA system 9
CDMA systems access the same frequency band with unique keys
1.11 10
or code.
2.1 Spectrum-analyzer of a DSSS signal. 13
2.2 Spectrum-analyzer of a Frequency hopping spread spectrum signal 15
2.3 Concept of frequency hopping 16
2.4 Time Hopping Spread Spectrum block diagram 16
2.5 Time hopping spectrum 17
2.6 hybrid spread spectrum block diagram 18
2.7 Hybrid spread spectrum 18
5.1 Block diagram of a sample PRN generator 26
5.2 Fibonacci implementation of LFSR 28
5.3 Galois implementation of LFSR 28
5.4 Implementation of MSRG 29
5.5 Generating an m-sequence of length 7 31
 List of Tables

Table Page
Description
number number
Relative comparison of spread spectrum techniques with respect
3.1 20
to processing gain
Relative comparison of spread spectrum techniques with respect
3.2 20
to instantaneous bandwidth
Relative comparison of spread spectrum techniques with respect
3.3 20
to average peak transmit power
5.1 Primitive polynomials used for generating m-sequences 30
 Acronyms and Notations

Acronyms:

BPSK Binary phase shift keying

C Channel capacity

CDMA Code division multiple access

DSSS Direct sequence spread spectrum

FHSS Frequency hopping spread spectrum

FFHSS Fast frequency hopping spread spectrum

FDMA Frequency division multiple access

FCC Federal communications commission

L System implementation loss

PRN Pseudo random noise

r Code rate

S Signal power

SFHSS Slow frequency hopping spread spectrum

T Average pulse width

TDMA Time division multiple access

THSS Time hopping spread spectrum

W Transmission bandwidth

WLAN Wireless local area network

Notations:

β Duty cycle factor

BD Bandwidth of data

BIN Instantaneous bandwidth

BSS Bandwidth of spread spectrum

ES Energy for code symbol

GP Processing gain

GPS Global positioning system

GPDS Processing gain of direct sequence spread spectrum

GPFH Processing gain of frequency hopping spread spectrum

GPTH Processing gain of time hopping spread spectrum

MJ Jamming margin

N0 Noise power

Ps Average peak transmit power

RC Chip rate

RNGTJ Range from the transmitter to jammer

RNGTR Range from the transmitter to receiver

RNGJR Range from the jammer to receiver

S/N0 Signal to noise ratio

TW Pulse width
 INDEX

Page No.

1. Introduction 1-12
1.1 A Short History 2
1.2 Theoretical Justification 3
1.3 Spread spectrum communication system 4
1.4 Spreading and Despreading 5
1.5 Advantages of Spread Spectrum 6
1.6 Applications of Spread Spectrum 10
2. Spread Spectrum Techniques 13-17
2.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 13
2.1.1 Advantages 14
2.1.2 Disadvantages 14
2.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 14
2.2.1 Advantages 15
2.2.2 Disadvantages 15
2.3 Time Hopping Spread Spectrum 16
2.4 Hybrid Spread Spectrum 17
3. Processing Gain 18-19
3.1 Definition 18
3.2 Processing Gain of various spread spectrum techniques 18
3.3 Comparisons 19
4. Jamming Margin 20-22
5. Pseudo Random Noise Codes 22-29
5.1 Definition and Properties 22
5.2 Pseudo Random Number Generator 23
5.3 Maximal Length PN Sequence 25
5.3.1 Primitive Polynomials 28
5.3.2 Properties 29
6. Summary 31
7. Future Scope 33
References 35
 1 INTRODUCTION

Spread Spectrum Communications is a mostly used digital communications technology that was
originally developed during World War II. Spread spectrum systems like GPS (Global
Positioning System) and Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANS) are being used by literally
millions of people today.

Spread spectrum is a means of transmission in which the signal occupies a bandwidth in

excess of the minimum necessary to send the information; the band spread is accomplished by
means of a code which is independent of the data, and a synchronized reception with the code at
the receiver is used for despreading and subsequent data recovery. The Fig. 1.1; depicts the
difference between narrowband and spread spectrum waveform [1].

Fig 1.1: Narrowband verses spread spectrum signal.

The basic characteristics of the modern spread spectrum systems are as follows

1. The transmission bandwidth is much greater than the minimum bandwidth required to
transmit the message signal
2. Demodulation must be accomplished, in part, by correlation of the received signal with
replica of the signal used in the transmitter to spread the information signal.
3. The carrier is nearly unpredictable, pseudo random, wideband signal.

There are many reasons for spreading the spectrum, and if done properly, a multiplicity of
benefits can accrue simultaneously. Some of these are

1
 1. Anti-jamming
2. Anti-interfacing
3. Low probability of intercept
4. Multiple user random access communication with selective addressing capability
5. High resolution ranging
6. Accurate universal timing.

In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are methods by

which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular
bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider
bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of
secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference, noise and jamming, to
prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).

Over the last several years a new commercial Spread spectrum market place has been
emerging. Spread spectrum Technology covers the art of secure digital communications that is
now being exploited for commercial and industrial purposes. Applications for commercial spread
spectrum range from Wireless LAN's , integrated bar code scanner / palmtop computer / radio
modem devices for warehousing, digital dispatch, digital cellular telephone communications,
information society city/area/state or country wide networks for passing faxes, computer data,
email, or multimedia data.

1.1 A Short History

Early spark-gap wireless transmitters actually used spread spectrum, since their RF bandwidths
were much wider than their information bandwidth. The first intentional use of spread spectrum
was probably by Armstrong in the late 1920s or early 1930s with wide-band frequency
modulation (FM). However, the real impetus for spread spectrum came with World War II. Both
the allies and the axis powers experimented with simple spread-spectrum systems. Much of what
was done is still shrouded in secrecy, however.

The first publicly available patent on spread spectrum came from HeadyLamer, the
Hollywood movie actress, and George Antheil, an avant-garde music composer. This patent was
granted in 1942, but the details were a military secret for many years. The inventors never
2
realized a dime for their invention; they simply turned it over to the US government for use in
the war effort, and commercial use was delayed until the patent had expired.

Most of the work done in spread spectrum throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was
heavily backed by the military and drowned in secrecy. The global positioning system (GPS) is
now the world’s single largest spread-spectrum system. Most of the details on GPS are now
public information. Spread spectrum was first used for commercial purposes in the 1980s when
Equatorial Communications of Mountain View, CA, used direct sequence for multiple-access
communications over synchronous satellite transponders. In the late 1980s, the US Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) opened up the industrial, scientific and medicine (ISM)
frequency bands for unlicensed spread-spectrum communications.

Typical applications for the resulting short-range data transceivers include satellite-
positioning systems (GPS), 3G mobile telecommunications, W-LAN (IEEE 802.11a, IEEE
802.11b, IEEE 802.11g), and Bluetooth. Spread-spectrum techniques also aid in the endless race
between communication needs and radio-frequency availability—situations where the radio
spectrum is limited and is, therefore, an expensive resource.

1.2 Theoretical justification for spread spectrum

The basics of spread spectrum technology are expressed by C.E.Shannon in the form of channel
capacity:

𝐶 = 𝑊 log 2 (1 + 𝑆⁄𝑁) (1.1)

Where, C = channel capacity (bits/sec)
W=transmission bandwidth
N= noise power
S=signal power

The relationship between the ability of channel to transfer the error–free information compared
with the signal to noise ratio existing in the channel, and the bandwidth used to transmit the
information is defined as channel capacity [2], which is determined using (1.1).

Letting C be the desired system information rate [2] and changing the bases of (1.1), we get (1.2)

𝐶⁄ = 1 ∙ 414 log(1 + 𝑆⁄ ) (1.2)

𝑊 𝑁

3
If signal-to-noise ratio is small, say < 1(as in an anti-jam system) then,

𝐶⁄ = 1 ∙ 44 𝑆⁄ (1.3)
𝑊 𝑁0

𝑁0 𝐶⁄
𝑊= 𝑆1 ∙ 44 (1.4)

Thus, for any given signal-to-noise ratio, a low information error rate is obtained by increasing
the bandwidth used to transfer the information [2].

1.3 Spread Spectrum Communication System

Fig 1.2: Spread spectrum communication system

The general block diagram of the spread spectrum communication system [2] is shown in Fig.
1.2. Different spread-spectrum techniques are available, but all have one idea in common: the
key (also called the code or sequence) attached to the communication channel. The manner of
inserting this code defines precisely the spread-spectrum technique. The term spread spectrum
refers to the expansion of signal bandwidth, by several orders of magnitude in some cases, which
occurs when a key is attached to the communication channel.

The formal definition of spread spectrum is more precise: an RF communications system

in which the baseband signal bandwidth is intentionally spread over a larger bandwidth by
injecting a higher frequency signal. As a direct consequence, energy used in transmitting the
signal is spread over a wider bandwidth, and appears as noise. The ratio (dB) between the spread
baseband and the original signal is called processing gain. Typical spread-spectrum processing
gains run from 10dB to 60dB.

4
To apply a spread-spectrum technique, simply inject the corresponding spread-spectrum code
somewhere in the transmitting chain before the antenna (transmitter) and this injection process is
called the spreading operation. The effect is to diffuse the information in a larger bandwidth.
Similarly a despreading operation reconstitutes the information into its original bandwidth.
Obviously, the same code must be known in advance at both ends of the transmission channel.

1.4 Spreading & Despreading

In the spread spectrum communication systems the information signal energy is spread over a
large bandwidth during the transmission and despread with in the signal original bandwidth
during the reception. Fig. 1.3 and Fig.1.4 show the bandwidth effects of the spreading and
despreading operations [2].

Bandwidth Effects of the Spreading Operation: Spread spectrum modulation is applied on

top of a conventional modulation such as BPSK or direct conversion. During the spreading the
signal energy is spread over a wide range of bandwidth according to the pseudo random codes.

Fig 1.3: Spreading operation spreads the signal energy over a wider frequency bandwidth

Bandwidth Effects of the Despreading Operation:

Fig 1. 4: Despreading operation recovers the original signal

5
At the receiving end the spread spectrum signal is despread to generate original narrowband
signal. One can also demonstrate that signals such as an interferer or jammer added during the
transmission will be spread during the despreading operation. Waste of bandwidth due to
spreading is offset by multiple users. Spreading results directly in the use of a wider frequency
band by a factor that corresponds exactly to the processing gain mentioned earlier. Therefore
spreading does not spare the limited frequency resource. That overuse is well compensated,
however, by the possibility that many users will share the enlarged frequency band as shown in
Fig. 1.5.

Fig 1.5: Sharing of frequency band by multiple users with spread-spectrum techniques.

1.5 Advantages of spread spectrum

Spread-spectrum systems provide some clear advantages to designers. Few benefits the designers
can expect when using a spread-spectrum-based wireless system has been highlighted and listed
below [1].

1. Reduced crosstalk interference: In spread-spectrum systems, crosstalk interference

is greatly attenuated due to the processing gain of the spread spectrum system as
described earlier. The effect of the suppressed crosstalk interference can be essentially
removed with digital processing where noise below certain threshold results in
negligible bit errors. These negligible bit errors will have little effect on voice
transmissions.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise: Due to the processing gain
and digital processing nature of spread spectrum technology, a spread-spectrum-based
system is more immune to interference and noise. This greatly reduces consumer
electronic device-induced static noise that is commonly experienced by conventional
analog wireless system users.

6
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading: Because of its inherent frequency
diversity properties, a spread spectrum system is much less susceptible to multipath
fading. Wireless channels often include multipath propagation in which the signal has
more than one path from transmitter to receiver. The reflected path (R) can interfere
with the direct path (D) in a phenomenon called fading.Fig.1.6.demonistrated the
signal propagation over multipath [2].

Fig 1.6: Signal Propagation over multiple paths.

4. Inherent security: In a spread spectrum system, a PN sequence is used to either

modulate the signal in the time domain (direct sequence systems) or select the carrier
frequency (frequency hopping systems). Due to the pseudo-random nature of the PN
sequence, the signal in the air has been randomized. Only the receiver having the
exact same pseudo-random sequence and synchronous timing can de-spread and
retrieve the original signal. Consequently, a spread spectrum system provides signal
security that is not available to conventional analog wireless systems.
5. Co-existence: A spread spectrum system is less susceptible to interference than other
non-spread spectrum systems. In addition, with the proper designing of pseudo-
random sequences, multiple spread spectrum systems can co-exist without creating
severe interference to other systems. This further increases the system capacity for
spread spectrum systems or devices.
6. Longer operating distances: A spread spectrum device operated in the ISM band is
allowed to have higher transmitted power due to its non-interfering nature. Because of
the higher transmit power; the operating distance of such a device can be significantly
longer than that of a traditional analog wireless communication device.
7. Hard to detect: Spread-spectrum signals are much wider than conventional
narrowband transmission (of the order of 20 to 254 times the bandwidth of

7
 narrowband transmissions). Since the communication band is spread, it can be
transmitted at a low power without being detrimentally by background noise. This is
because when de-spreading takes place, the noise at one frequency is rejected, leaving
the desired signal.Fig.1.7 describes the concept of data spread which is buried under
the noise level [2].

Fig 1.7: Spread-spectrum signal is buried under the noise level.

8. Hard to intercept or demodulate: The very foundation of the spreading technique is

the code use to spread the signal. Without knowing the code it is impossible to
decipher the transmission. Also, because the codes are so long, simply viewing the
code would still be next to impossible to solve the code; hence interception is very
hard.Fig.1.8.describes the importance of spread spectrum code [2].

Fig 1.8: Basic importance of spread spectrum code.

9. Harder to jam: The most important feature of spread spectrum is its ability to reject
interference. At first glance, it may be considered that spread spectrum would be most
effected by interference. However, any signal is spread in the bandwidth, and after it
passes through the correlator, the bandwidth signal is equal to its original bandwidth,
plus the bandwidth of the local interference. An interference signal with 2 MHz
bandwidth being input into a direct-sequence receiver whose signal is 10 MHz wide
gives an output from the correlator of 12 MHz The wider the interference bandwidth,

8
 the wider the output signals. Thus the wider the input signal, the less its effect on the
system because the power density of the signal after processing is lower, and less
power falls in the band pass filter.

10. Spread spectrum allows multiple access techniques: spread spectrum allows the
multiple access techniques like Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)[2].

Time Division Multiple Access

With TDMA the different users speak and listen to each other according to a defined
allocation of time slots shown in Fig. 1.9. Different communication channels can then
be established for a unique carrier frequency. Examples of TDMA are GSM, DECT,
TETRA, and IS-136.

Fig 1.9: Time-slot allocations among different users in a TDMA system.

Frequency Division Multiple Access

FDMA allocates a specific carrier frequency to a communication channel. The

number of different users [2] is limited to the number of slices in the frequency
spectrum shown in Fig.1.10 of the three methods for enabling multiple access, FDMA
is the least efficient in term of frequency-band usage. Methods of FDMA access
include radio broadcasting, TV, AMPS, and TETRAPOLE.

9
 Fig 1. 10: Frequency allocation among different users in a FDMA system.

Code Division Multiple Access

CDMA access to the air is determined by [2] a key or code shown in Fig. 1.11 In that
sense, spread spectrum is a CDMA access. The key must be defined and known in
advance at the transmitter and receiver ends. Growing examples are IS-95 (DS), IS-
98, Bluetooth, and WLAN.

Fig 1.11: CDMA systems access the same frequency band with unique keys or code.

1.6 Applications of Spread Spectrum:

The major application areas of the spread spectrum are wireless local area networks (WLANs),
Space systems, Global positioning system (GPS), Personal communications [1].

1.6.1 Wireless local area networks (WLANs):

A Wireless local area network is a flexible data communication system implemented as an

extension to or an alternative for a wired local area network. WLANs transmit and receive data

10
over the air, minimizing the need for wired connections. Thus, wireless local area networks
combine data connectivity with user mobility and enable movable LANs. Most wireless local
area network systems use spread spectrum techniques (both frequency hopping and direct
sequence). WLANs are being used in health care, retail, manufacturing, warehousing, academic
and other arenas. These industries have profited from the productivity gains of using handheld
terminals and notebook computers to transmit real time information to centralized hosts for
processing. WLANs offer productivity, convenience and cost advantages over wired networks.

1.6.2 Space systems:

In space stations, which are continuously accessible to interference, spread spectrum methods
have proved effective. This is especially true for communication satellites. In general, satellites
do not employ processing on-board as it adds to the complexity and would limit the number of
satellite users. A simple repeating satellite is used, so all the spread spectrum modulation and
demodulation must be done on the ground. With no onboard processing, the satellite is forced to
transmit an uplink interference signal, which reduces the spacecraft transmitter power to send the
desired signal. Another disadvantage of no onboard processing is that every receiver would have
to acquire a spread spectrum demodulator.

1.6.3 Global positioning system:

Global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system developed and operated
by the US Department of Defense. The idea behind GPS is to transmit spread spectrum signals
that allow range measurement from an unknown satellite location. With knowledge of the
transmitter location and the distance to the satellite, the receiver can locate itself on a sphere
whose radius is the distance measured. After receiving signals and making range measurement
on other satellites, the receiver can calculate its position based on the intersection of several
spheres. GPS permits users to determine their 3-D position, velocity and time. This service is
available for military and commercial users round the clock, in all weather, anywhere in the
world.

GPS uses Navigation Satellite Timing and ranging satellites (NAVSTAR). The
constellation consists of 21 operational satellites and three active spares. This provides a GPS
receiver with four to twelve usable satellites in view at any time. A minimum of four satellites

11
allow the GPS card to compute latitude, longitude, altitude and GPS system time. The
NAVSTAR satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of 10,898 Nautical miles in six 55-degree
orbital planes, with four satellites in each plane. The orbital period of each satellite is
approximately 12 hours.

The GPS satellite signal contains information to identify the satellite, as also positioning,
timing, ranging data and satellite status. The satellites are identified by the space vehicle number
or the pseudo-random code number. They transmit on two L-band frequencies: 1.57542 GHz
(L1) and 1.22760 GHz (L2). The L1 signal has a sequence encoded on the carrier frequency by a
modulation technique that contains two codes, a precision (P) code and a course/acquisition
(C/A) code. The L2 code contains only P code, which is encrypted for military and authorized
commercial users.

1.6.4 Personal communications:

The advantages of using spread spectrum in data and voice communications are:

1. Spread-spectrum signals can be overlaid onto bands where other systems are
already operating, with minimal performance impact to or from the other
systems.
2. The anti-interference characteristics of spread-spectrum signals are important in
environments where signal interference can be harsh, such as networks operating
on manufacturing floors.
3. Cellular systems designed with code-division multiple-access (CDMA) spread-
spectrum technology offer greater operational flexibility and possibly a greater
overall system capacity than systems built on frequency-division multiple-access
(FDMA) or time-division multiple-access (TDMA) methods.
4. The anti-multipath characteristics of spread-spectrum signaling and reception
techniques are desirable in applications where multipath is likely to be prevalent.

12
 2 Spread Spectrum Techniques

The spread spectrum techniques are broadly classified as Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum,
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum, Time Hopping Spread Spectrum and Hybrid Technology
[3].

2.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum:

With the Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum technique (DSSS), the Pseudo Random Noise (PRN)
sequence is applied directly to data entering the carrier modulator. The modulator, therefore, sees
a much larger bit rate, which corresponds to the chip rate of the PRN sequence. Modulating an
RF carrier with such a code sequence produces a direct-sequence-modulated spread spectrum
sin 𝑋 2
with ( ) frequency spectrum, centered at the carrier frequency.
𝑋

The main lobe of this spectrum (null to null) has a bandwidth twice the clock rate of the
modulating code, and the side lobes have null-to-null bandwidths equal to the code's clock rate.
Fig 2.1 illustrates the most common type of direct-sequence-modulated spread-spectrum signal
[4]. Direct-sequence spectra vary somewhat in spectral shape, depending on the actual carrier and
data modulation used. Fig 2.1 is a binary phase shift keying (BPSK) signal, which is the most
common modulation type used in direct-sequence systems.

Fig 2.1: Spectrum-analyzer of a DSSS signal.

13
The information signal is modulated with the pseudo random sequence generated by the PRN
generator .The bandwidth spread in the direct sequence spread spectrum is equal to the twice of
the chip rate (pseudo random code).

𝐵𝑆𝑆 = 2𝑅𝐶 (2.1)

Where𝐵𝑆𝑆 = Bandwidth of spread spectrum
𝑅𝐶 =Chip rate of pseudo random code (bits per second)

2.1.1 Advantages
1. This system has best noise and anti- jam performance
2. Unrecognized receivers find it most difficult to detect direct sequence signals
3. It has discrimination against multipath signals
2.1.2 Disadvantages
1. It requires wide band channel with small phase distortion
2. It has long acquisition time
3. The pseudo noise generator should generate sequence at high rates
4. This system is distance relative.
2.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) [3] method causes the carrier to hop from
frequency to frequency over a wide band according to a sequence defined by the PRN. The speed
at which the hops are executed depends on the data rate of the original information. One can,
however, distinguish between fast frequency hopping spread spectrum (FFHSS) and low
frequency hopping spread spectrum (LFHSS). The latter method, the most common, allows
several consecutive data bits to modulate the same frequency. Fast frequency hopping spread
spectrum is characterized by several hops within each data bit.

The transmitted spectrum of a frequency-hopping signal is quite different from that of a

sin 𝑋 2
direct-sequence system. Instead of a ( ) shaped envelope, the frequency hopper's output is
𝑋

flat over the band of frequencies used (see Fig 2.2). The bandwidth of a frequency-hopping
signal is simply K times the number of frequency slots available (i.e., k*freq. slots), where K is
number of frequency choices of each hop channel.

14
 Fig 2.2: Concept of frequency hopping.

The bandwidth of the frequency hopping spread spectrum is K times multiplies of Instantaneous
Bandwidth
𝐵𝑆𝑆 = 𝐾𝐵𝐼𝑁 (2.2)
Where 𝐵𝑠𝑠 is the spread spectrum bandwidth in Hertz
K is frequency choices (used for hopping)
𝐵𝐼𝑁 is Instantaneous Bandwidth in Hertz

The instantaneous bandwidth is defined as the difference between the two consecutive frequency
choices (𝐵𝐼𝑁 ) i.e. difference between the frequencies f1 and f2 as shown in Fig. 2.3.

Fig 2.3: Spectrum-analyzer of a Frequency hopping spread spectrum signal.

2.2.1 Advantages
1. These systems bandwidth (spreads) are very large.
2. They can be programmed to avoid some portions of the spectrum.
3. They have relatively short acquisition time.
4. The distance effect is less.

15
2.2.2 Disadvantages
1. These systems need complex frequency synthesizers.
2. They are not useful for range and range-rate measurement.
3. They need error correction.
2.3 Time Hopping Spread Spectrum

Fig 2.4: Time Hopping Spread Spectrum block diagram

Fig. 2.4 describes the general block diagram of Time Hopping Spread Spectrum (THSS) [5]. In
this technique, the modulation is done according to the various time hops on the time axis. The
signal hops in the time period.

Fig 2.5: Time hopping spectrum

The bandwidth of the time hoping spread spectrum is given by

𝐵𝐷
𝐵𝑆𝑆 = ⁄𝛽 (2.3)
Where 𝐵𝐷 =bandwidth of the data
𝛽 = duty cycle factor

16
The duty cycle factor (𝛽) is defined as the ratio of pulse width to the average pulse interval as
given in (2.4),

𝑇
𝛽 = 𝑊⁄𝑇 (2.4)
Where 𝑇𝑊 = pulse width
𝑇 = average pulse interval

2.4 Hybrid Spread Spectrum

Hybrid spread spectrum is formed by the combination of the any of the three techniques namely
DSSS, FHSS and THSS. The bandwidth of the hybrid spread spectrum [9], which is formed by
direct sequence spread spectrum and frequency hopping spread spectrum is given by

𝐵𝑆𝑆 = 2𝐾𝑅𝐶 (2.5)

Where, 𝐵𝑆𝑆 = bandwidth of the spread spectrum
K = number of frequency choices
𝑅𝐶 = chip rate (bits per second)

Fig 2.6: hybrid spread spectrum block diagram.

Fig 2.7: hybrid spread spectrum

17
 3 PROCESSING GAIN
3.1 Definition:
The processing gain of the spread spectrum is given by the ratio of spread spectrum
bandwidth to the minimum information bandwidth. i.e., Processing Gain = spread spectrum
bandwidth/minimum information bandwidth [1]

𝐵𝑆𝑆
𝐺𝑃 = ⁄𝐵 (3.1)
𝐷
where 𝐺𝑃 = processing gain
𝐵𝑆𝑆 = spread spectrum bandwidth
𝐵𝐷 = minimum information bandwidth

3.2 Processing gain of various spread spectrum techniques:

The processing gain of the direct sequence spread spectrum is defined as the ratio of chip
rate to data bit rate, that is, DSPG=chip rate/data bit rate

𝑅𝐶
𝐺𝑃𝐷𝑆 = ⁄𝑅 (3.2)
𝐷

The equation (11) can also be expressed as the ratio of the data bit duration to the chip
duration

𝑡𝑑
𝐺𝑃𝐷𝑆 = ⁄𝑡 (3.3)
𝑐

The processing gain of the frequency hopping spread spectrum is defined as the number of
frequency choices, that is, FHPG=K

𝐺𝑃𝐹𝐻 = 𝑁 (3.4)

The processing gain of hybrid spread spectrum system is the product of processing gains of
composite system, assuming that orthogonality is maintained

𝐺𝑃𝐹𝐻×𝐷𝑆 = 𝐺𝑃𝐹𝐻 × 𝐺𝑃𝐷𝑆 (3.5)

𝐺𝑃𝐹𝐻×𝐷𝑆×𝑇𝐻 = 𝐺𝑃𝐹𝐻 × 𝐺𝑃𝐷𝑆 × 𝐺𝑃𝑇𝐻 (3.6)

3.3 Comparisons:

The spread spectrum techniques are compared with the processing gain, instantaneous
bandwidth, and peak transmit power density:

18
Table 3. 1: Relative comparison of spread spectrum techniques with respect to processing gain

Spread Spectrum Technique Processing gain Relative comparison

DSSS 𝐺𝑃 1
FHSS 𝐺𝑃 1
THSS 𝐺𝑃 1

Table 3. 2: Relative comparison of spread spectrum techniques with respect to instantaneous bandwidth

Spread Spectrum Technique Instantaneous bandwidth Relative comparison

DSSS 𝐵𝑆𝑆 1
𝐵𝐷
FHSS 𝐵𝐷 ⁄𝐵 = 1⁄𝐺
𝑆𝑆 𝑃
THSS 𝐵𝑆𝑆 ,0 1,0

Table 3. 3: Relative comparison of spread spectrum techniques with respect to average peak transmit power

Spread Spectrum Technique Average peak transmit power Relative comparison

𝑃𝑆
DSSS ⁄𝐵 1
𝑆𝑆

𝑃𝑆
FHSS ⁄𝐵 𝐺𝑃
𝐷

𝑃𝑆
THSS ⁄𝐵 𝐺𝑃
𝐷

The comparisons of spread spectrum techniques with the processing gain, instantaneous
bandwidth and average peak transmit power depending up on the characteristics likespread
spectrum bandwidth and actual data bandwidth. According to the definition of the processing
gain, Table 3.1 provides comparison of GP and implies that the processing gain [1, 2] is almost
similar of all spread spectrum techniques. Table 3.2 provides comparison of GP with respect to
instantaneous bandwidth and from the table it is clear that spectrum spread is proportional with
the processing gain. Table 3.3 provides the comparison of processing gain with respect to peak
transmit power.

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 4 Jamming Margin
It is the maximum jammer power to signal power ratio that a spread spectrum receiver can
tolerate, while still maintaining the specified bit-error-rate. It is expressed in decibels.
Mathematically the jamming margin is given by:
𝐺𝑃
𝑀𝐽 = ⁄ 𝑆 (4.1)
(( ⁄𝑁)𝐿)
where 𝑀𝐽 = Jamming margin
𝐺𝑃 = processing gain
𝑆⁄ = minimum required output signal-to-noise ratio
𝑁
𝐿 = system implementation loss
𝑀𝐽 (𝑑𝐵) = 𝐺𝑃 (𝑑𝐵) − (𝑆⁄𝑁)(𝑑𝐵) − 𝐿(𝑑𝐵) (4.2)

The coding used in the spread spectrum techniques for error correction does not reduce
the jamming margin .Then the jamming margin is given by:

𝐺𝑃
𝑀𝐽 = ⁄ 𝐸𝑏 (4.3)
[( ⁄𝑁 ) × 𝐿]
0
𝐸𝑠⁄
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑟 (4.4)
𝐵𝐷 = 𝐵𝑠 𝑟 (4.5)

Where𝐸𝑠 = energy for code symbol (W)

𝐵𝑠 = code symbol bandwidth (Hertz)

𝑟 = code rate (data bits/code symbol)
Therefore 𝑀𝐽 is given as
𝐵 𝑁
𝑀𝐽 = ( 𝑠𝑠⁄𝐵 ) × ( 0⁄𝐸 ) × 𝐿 (4.6)
𝑠 𝑠

Processing gain vulnerability- predictor jammer:

1. A predictor jammer observe the spread signal and via computational capabilities breads
the pseudo random noise code .It uses this knowledge of code to predict the pseudo
random noise code choice made by the spread spectrum system and allocates its
resources to jam that signal
2. The predictor jammer’s ability to break the pseudo random noise code is a function of the
code type and not a function of spread spectrum technique used

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3. The pseudo random noise sequences are vulnerable to jamming due to some special
properties of the PN codes
4. Because of the special properties of the PN codes even an infinitely fast follower jammer
is totally ineffective if the PN code rate satisfies the following condition [1]

1⁄ [𝑅𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐽 ] − [𝑅𝑁𝐺𝑇𝑅 ] − [𝑅𝑁𝐺𝐽𝑅 ]⁄

𝑃𝑅𝑁 ≤ 𝐶 (4.7)
where 𝑃𝑅𝑁 = pseudo random noise code
𝑅𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐽 = range from transmitter to jammer (meters)
𝑅𝑁𝐺𝑇𝑅 = range from transmitter to receiver (meters)
𝑅𝑁𝐺𝐽𝑅 = range from jammer to receiver (meters)
C = speed of light (3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)

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 5 Pseudo Random Noise Codes

5.1 Definition and Properties:

Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) code sequences are deterministically generated but have
properties similar to random sequences generated by sampling a white noise process.PN code
sequences have pseudo randomness properties those are
1. Over the sequence period, the number of 1’s and 0’s differs by at most 1.
2. Over the sequence period half the runs have length 1,one fourth have length 2, one eight
have length 3, etc. For each of the run lengths there are equally many runs of 0’s and 1’s.

A PN code used for direct sequence-spreading exists of some units called chips; these chips can
have two values: -1/1 (polar) or 0/1. As we combine every data symbol with a complete PN
code, the DS processing gain is equal to the code-length. To be usable for direct-sequence
spreading, a PN code must meet the following constraints:

1. The sequences must be building from 2-leveled numbers.

2. The codes must have a sharp (1-chip wide) autocorrelation peak to enable code
synchronization.
3. The codes must have a low cross-correlation value, the lower this cross-correlation, the
more users we can allow in the system.
4. This holds for both full-code correlation and partial-code correlation.
5. The latter because in most situations there will not be a full-period correlation of two
codes, it is more likely that codes will only correlate partially (due to random-access
nature).

The above requirement stands for good spectral density properties (equally spreading the energy
over the whole frequency-band). Codes that can be found in practical direct sequence-systems
are: Walsh-Hadamard codes, M-sequences, Gold codes and Kasami-codes. These code sets can
be roughly divided into two classes: orthogonal codes and nonorthogonal codes. Walsh
sequences fall in the first category, while the other group contains the so-called shift register
sequences. There are some desired properties we want the spreading sequences to possess:

22
 1. Sequence elements should behave like identically independent (iid) random variables,
i.e., the sequence should be pseudo random.
2. It should be easy to distinguish a spreading signal from a time-shifted version of
spreading signal.
3. It should be easy to distinguish a spreading signal from other spreading signals, including
time shifted versions of them, in the set.
4. It should be easy for the transmitter and the intended receiver to generate the spreading
sequence.
5. It should be difficult for any unintended receiver to acquire and regenerate the spreading
sequence.

In the spread spectrum communication the pseudo random codes generated by the pseudo
random generator have pseudo randomness properties. According to the pseudo randomness of
the sequence the sequence elements are random for certain amount of time. After that the
sequence is repeated. The time shifted version of the spread signal causes fading effect and it is
easy to distinguish between the spread signal and multipath signal [5].

5.2 Pseudo Random Number Generator:

A pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), also known as a deterministic random bit generator
(DRBG), is an algorithm for generating a sequence of numbers whose properties approximate the
properties of sequences of random numbers. The PRN generated sequence is not truly random,
because it is completely determined by a relatively small set of initial values, called the PRNG's
seed (which may include truly random values). Although sequences that are closer to truly
random can be generated using hardware random number generators, pseudorandom number
generators are important in practice for their speed in number generation and their
reproducibility.

A PRNG can be started from an arbitrary initial state using a seed state. It will always
produce the same sequence when initialized with that state. The period of a PRNG is defined
thus: the maximum, over all starting states, of the length of the repetition-free prefix of the
sequence. The period is bounded by the number of the states, usually measured in bits. However,

23
since the length of the period potentially doubles with each bit of state added, it is easy to build
pseudo random number generator with periods long enough for many practical applications.

If a random number generator internal state contains n bits, its period can be no longer
than 2n results, and may be much shorter. For some PRNGs, the period length can be calculated
without walking through the whole period. Linear Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs) are usually
chosen to have periods of exactly 2n−1. Linear congenital generators have periods that can be
calculated by factoring. Although these generators will repeat their results after they reach the
end of their period, a repeated result does not imply that the end of the period has been reached,
since its internal state may be larger than its output; this is particularly obvious with PRNGs with
a one-bit output.

Fig 5.1: Block diagram of a sample PRN generator.

24
In modern communication the codes are digital sequences that must be as long and as random
and possible to appear as noise-like as possible. But in any case, the codes must remain
reproducible, or the receiver cannot extract the message that has been sent. Thus, the sequence is
nearly random. Such a code is called a pseudo-random number (PRN) or sequence. The method
most frequently used to generate pseudo-random codes is based on a feedback shift register. The
Fig. 5.1 shows the simple feedback shift register for pseudo random number generator. The shift
register contains eight data flip-flops (FF). At the rising edge of the clock, the contents of the
shift register are shifted one bit to the left. The data clocked in by FF1 depends on the contents
fed back from FF8 and FF7. The PRN is read out from FF8. The contents of the FFs are reset at
the beginning of each sequence length. Simply note that the construction or selection of proper
sequences, or sets of sequences, are not trivial. To guarantee efficient spread-spectrum
communications, the PRN sequences must respect certain rules, such as length, autocorrelation,
cross -correlation, orthogonality, and bits balancing.

5.3 Maximal Length PN sequence (M-sequence):

Maximum Length PN sequences are binary sequence generators that are capable of outputting all
possible combinations of binary sequences in 2𝑚 − 1 cyclic shifts, where m is the size of the
linear feedback shift register (LFSR) used in generating such sequences. Terms like
pseudorandom binary sequences (PRBS) or psuedonoise sequences are also used to refer m-
sequences. To generate an m-sequence, feedback connection of linear feedback shift register is
connected according to a primitive polynomial (generator polynomial).

Linear feedback shift register (LFSR) produce linear recursive sequences (LRS) because
all operations are linear. Generally speaking, the length of the sequence before repetition occurs
depends upon two factors, the feedback taps and the initial state. A linear feedback shift register
of any given size m (number of registers) is capable of producing every possible state during the
period 𝑁 = 2𝑀 − 1 shifts, but will do so only if proper feedback taps have been chosen. For
example, such an eight stage linear feedback shift register will contain every possible
combination of ones and zeros after 255 shifts. Such a sequence is called a maximal length
sequence, maximal sequence, or less commonly, maximum length sequence. It is often

25
abbreviated as m-sequence. In certain industries m-sequences are referred to as a pseudo noise
(PN) or pseudorandom sequences, due to their optimal noise-like characteristics.

Maximal length generators can actually produce two sequences. The first is trivial one
which has a length of one, and occurs when the initial state of the generator is set to all zeros.
(The generator simply remains in the zero state indefinitely.) The other one is the useful one
which has a length of2𝑚 − 1.Together, these two sequences account for all 2𝑚 states of an m-bit
state register.

When the feedback taps of a linear feedback shift register are non-maximal then the
length of the generated sequence depends upon the initial state of the linear feedback shift
register. A non-maximal generator is capable of producing two or more unique sequences (plus
the trivial all-zeros one), with the initial state determining which is produced. Each of these
sequences is referred to as a state space of the generator. Together, every non-maximal sequence
the generator can produce accounts for all 2𝑀 states of an m-bit state register.

The linear feedback shift register can be implemented in two ways. The Fibonacci
implementation and Galois implementation. The Fibonacci implementation consists of a simple
shift register in which a binary-weighted modulo-2 sum of the taps is fed back to the input. (The
modulo-2 sum of two 1-bit binary numbers yields 0 if the two numbers are identical, and 1 if the
differs: 0+0=0, 0+1=1, and 1+1=0.) The Fig. 5.2 shows the Fibonacci implementation [6] of the
linear feedback shift register.

Fig 5.2: Fibonacci implementation of LFSR

26
For any given tap, weight 𝑔𝑖 is either 0, meaning no connection, or 1, meaning it is fed back.
Two exceptions are 𝑔0 and𝑔𝑚 , which are always 1 and thus always connected. Note that 𝑔𝑚 is
not really a feedback connection, but rather is the input of the shift register.

The Galois implementation consists of a shift register, the content of which is modified at
every step by a binary-weighted value of the output stage, again using modulo-2 math. The
bellow Fig. 5.3 shows the Galois implementation of linear feedback shift register.

Fig 5.3: Galois implementation of LFSR

Careful inspection reveals that the order of the Galois weights is opposite that of the Fibonacci
weights. Given identical feedback weights, the two LFSR implementations will produce the
same sequence. However, the initial states of the two implementations must necessarily be
different for the two sequences to have identical phase (that is, zero bit offset relative to each
other). The initial state of the Fibonacci form is called the initial fill or initial vector, and this
initial fill comprises the first m bits output from the generator. The initial state of the Galois
generator must be adjusted appropriately to attain the equivalent output of its first m bits. (In
mathematical literature, the initial state of either form is called the seed.)

When implemented in hardware, modulo-2 addition is performed using exclusive-OR

(XOR) gates. The Galois form is generally faster than the Fibonacci in hardware due to the
reduced number of logic gates in the feedback loop, thus making it the favored form. It should be
noted that, in some industries, the Fibonacci form LFSR is referred to as a simple shift register
generator (SSRG), and the Galois form is referred to as a multiple-return shift register generator
(MRSRG) or modular shift register generator (MSRG).

27
In the simple shift register generator (SSRG) and modular shift register generator (MSRG) all
the feedback signals are returned to a single input.Fig.5.4shows the implementation of modular
shift register generator [3].

Fig 5.4: Implementation of MSRG

5.3.1 Primitive Polynomials:

A generator polynomial is said to be primitive if it cannot be factored (i.e., it is prime), and if it is

a factor of (i.e., can evenly divide)𝑋 𝑁 + 1, where 𝑁 = 2𝑀 − 1(the length of the m-sequence).For
example, if we wish to construct an m-sequence generator using 3 registers (m=3), then the
primitive polynomial that determines the feedback connection can be determined as follows.

𝑁 = 2𝑀 − 1 (5.1)
𝑋 7 + 1 = (𝑋 + 1)(𝑋 3 + 𝑋 + 1)(𝑋 3 + 𝑋 2 + 1) (5.2)
Since the number of registers are m = 3, we have to choose a primitive polynomial that is of
degree 3. From the above equation we have two choices for m = 3, i.e., (𝑋 3 + 𝑋 + 1) and(𝑋 3 +
𝑋 2 + 1). These polynomials are often represented as [3 1 0] and [3 2 0] respectively.
Some of the primitive polynomials used for generating m-sequences are given below.
Table 5. 1: Primitive polynomials used for generating m-sequences.

Degree (m) Length of m-sequences (N) Polynomials

1 1 𝑋+1
2 3 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1
3 7 𝑋3 + 𝑋 + 1
4 15 𝑋4 + 𝑋 + 1

28
 5 31 𝑋5 + 𝑋2 + 1
6 63 𝑋6 + 𝑋 + 1
7 127 𝑋7 + 𝑋 + 1
8 255 𝑋8 + 𝑋7 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋 + 1
9 511 𝑋9 + 𝑋4 + 1
10 1023 𝑋10 + 𝑋 3 + 1

Fig. 5.5 describes the maximal sequence generator of length 7.In this number of input bit
sequences are three. So the generating sequence of length 7 i.e.23-1. The feedback taps in the
feedback shift register are selected to correspond to the coefficients of the primitive polynomial.
Binary sequences drawn from the alphabet {0, 1} are shifted through the shift register in
response to clock pulses. 1 signifies closed or a connection and, 0 signifies open or no
connection. Each clock time, the register shifts all its contents to the right. The particular 1s and
0s occupying the shift register stages after a clock pulse are called states. Consider the initial
state of the shift register is [0 0 1] then, during the first clock pulse the state of the register is [1 0
0].

Fig 5.5: Generating an m-sequence of length 7.

5.2.1 Properties:
1. An m-bit register produces an m-sequence of period, 2𝑀 − 1 .

29
2. An m-sequence contains exactly 2𝑚−1ones and 2𝑚−1 − 1 zeros.
3. The modulo-2 sum of an m-sequence and another phase (i.e. time-delayed version) of
the same sequence yields yet a third phase of the sequence.
4. Each stage of an m-sequence generator runs through some phase of the sequence.
(While this is obvious with a Fibonacci LFSR, it may not be with a Galois LFSR.)
5. A sliding window of length m, passed along an m-sequence for 2𝑀 − 1 position, will
span every possible m-bit number, except all zeros, once and only once. That is, every
state of an m-bit state register will be encountered, with the exception of all zeros.
6. Define a run of length r to be a sequence of r consecutive identical numbers, bracketed
by non-equal numbers. Then in any m-sequence there are:
1 run of ones of length m.
1 run of zeros of length m-1.
1 run of ones and 1 run of zeros, each of length m-2.
2 runs of ones and 2 run of zeros, each of length m-3.
4 runs of ones and 4 run of zeros, each of length m-4.
.
.
2𝑚−3 runs of ones and 2𝑚−3 run of zeros, each of length 1.[4]

30
 6 Summary

Spread spectrum systems exhibit unique qualities that cannot be obtained from conventional
narrowband systems. There are many research avenues exploring these unique qualities.
Amateurs in their inherent pioneering nature can and will find new and novel applications for
spread spectrum communications that the commercial sector may not even think of.so far we are
discussing about the basic fundamentals, spread spectrum techniques, processing gain, jamming
margin and pseudo random(PN)codes. This discussion is centered on the following main themes.

1. Basics of spread spectrum

2. Spread spectrum modulation techniques
3. The processing gain
4. Jamming margin
5. PN codes

Basics of spread spectrum:

In this we have discussed about basic fundamentals of spread spectrum systems. How the spread
spectrum is differing from narrow band spectrum (Ref. Fig.1.1), the advantages of spread
spectrum, applications of spread spectrum and operation of spread spectrum like spreading and
dispreading operations (Ref. Fig.1.3 & Fig. 1.4).

Spread spectrum modulating techniques:

The spread spectrum techniques are broadly classified as Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum,
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum, Time Hopping Spread Spectrum and Hybrid Technology.

With the Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum technique (DSSS), the Pseudo Random Noise (PRN)
sequence is applied directly to data entering the carrier modulator. The modulator, therefore, sees
a much larger bit rate, which corresponds to the chip rate of the PRN sequence. Modulating an
RF carrier with such a code sequence produces a direct-sequence-modulated spread spectrum
(sin 𝑋) 2
with ( ) frequency spectrum, centered at the carrier frequency. Depending upon the
𝑋

bandwidth of the spread signal of each technique the area of use of the modulation technique is
changed.

31
Processing Gain: The processing gain of the spread spectrum is given by the ratio of spread
spectrum bandwidth to the minimum information bandwidth.

Jamming Margin:

It is the maximum jammer power to signal power ratio that a spread spectrum receiver can
tolerate, while still maintaining the specified bit-error-rate. It is expressed in decibels.

PN codes:

Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) code sequences are deterministically generated but have properties
similar to random sequences generated by sampling a white noise process. Pseudo random codes
are very significant in spread spectrum communication. Depending upon the properties of these
codes the spreading and dispreading of the signal is happened. Some of the sequences used for
this are

1. Maximal length sequences

2. Gold codes
3. Walsh-hadamard codes
4. Kasami-codes

32
 7 Future scope

Spread spectrum systems exhibit unique qualities that cannot be obtained from conventional
narrowband systems. There are many research avenues exploring these unique qualities.
Amateurs in their inherent pioneering nature can and will find new and novel applications for
spread spectrum communications that the commercial sector may not even think of.

Typical Spread spectrum applications such as wireless Ethernet use point-to-point

communications. They link two subnets over distances of several miles with external Yagi
antennas and less than one watt of power. Amateurs would rather use the traditional CSMA/CA
technique they are familiar with in today's packet radio. However, with the requirement of
correlating the spreading code it would require a network node to have multiple receivers to
listen in on the channel and detect when an outlying node is trying to communicate with it.
Here's where amateur radio experimentation can advance the art of spread spectrum, by creating
a CDMA spread spectrum packet radio network. By using the techniques employed by GPS,
relatively short codes can be used to minimize receiver acquisition time. These codes would also
need to have good cross-correlation properties to minimize multiple access interference between
nodes.

Power control is required to control the reuse of the frequency beyond code division
multiplexing. It also behooves us to explore good power control to limit interference and to
reduce the power consumption and drain on batteries. Routing of packets through a network is
typically a software issue, but with the ability to do code division multiplexing, how do we route
packets from one subnet to another when they do not use the same code sequence?

Driving cost down has always been a top goal of any designer, and even more so since
the Amateur is experimenting with their own money. Amateurs tend to be a frugal lot and will
find any means available to build a system that costs as little as possible. This spawns innovative
and creative methods to achieve this means. Then these means tend to be passed back to the
commercial sector and benefit everybody.

33
 CDMA is not the exclusive province of direct sequence systems; CDMA can also be used
with frequency hopping. TDMA is not the exclusive province of narrowband systems; TDMA
can also be used with direct sequence or frequency hopping.

34
 References

[1] Gaston, B., Applications of Spread Spectrum Radio Technology for the Security Market,
Security Technology, 1994, pp. 86-91.
[2] http://www.maximintegrated.com/support.
[3] Singh, M.R., Spectrum Utilization by Frequency Hopping Radio Systems vis-à-vis
Frequency Radio Systems, Journal of Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility, V
pp.20-26, 1995.
[4] Pickholtz, R.L.; Schilling, D.L.; Milstein, L.B., Theory of Spread-Spectrum
Communications--A Tutorial, In the Proceedings of IEEE Transactions on
Communications, 30(5), pp.855-884, 1982.
[5] Utlaut, W.F., Spread spectrum: Principles and Possible Application to Spectrum
Utilization and Allocation, IEEE conference in Communications Society Magazine, 16(5),
pp.21-31, 1978.
[6] G. L. Stüber, Principles of Mobile Communication, Kluwer Academic, Boston 1996.
[7] Stüber, Gordon L. Principles of Mobile Communication. Springer Science & Business
Media, 2011.
[8] Dixon R C, Spread Spectrum System, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976.
[9] www.youtube.com\spread spectrum techniques and technology.

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