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Informaion handling:
Processing data
Techniques for analysing data are best selected with regard to the type of information collected.
Quantitative data will rely on statistical analysis, while qualitative data might include analysis of
transcripts from questionnaires, or survey results. However, when analysing any data, it is important to
start by reviewing the objectives of the research, including research aims, purpose and audience. This
will help in organising the data and ensure that the focus is only on what is relevant.
Often the data or information collected is unwieldy, such as numerical data
and survey responses. It therefore needs to be processed and reformatted into a usable format before
any conclusions can be drawn from the findings.
Summarising information or data will help to identify patterns and compare results. For example,
tables can list key criteria such as gender, age or educational background of respondents. Numerical
data can easily be summarised in mathematical terms, such as averages or frequencies.
Ref: http://member.goodpractice.net/Leadership-Foundation-KB/resources/personal-skills/handling-information-and-data/handling-information-and-data.gp
Once information has been summarised, it is much easier to identify patterns and interpret meanings
from the data. However, if the information is in a very cumbersome format, it may be necessary to
process it further before summarising. Quantitative and qualitative information can also be processed
using specially tailored computer software, designed to reveal patterns in the data collected.
Presenting data
Once all the data have been collected and processed, the next step is to present the results in the
form of a report, a presentation, or whatever form is most relevant to the research.
The purpose of presenting the data is to convince the audience that meaningful and productive
information has been produced. Therefore, the interpretation of the results must be clearly supported
by the data as evidence. It is also important to be open with the audience about the steps in the
research process: what methodology was chosen, what other methods were considered and why they
were disregarded. Provide as much background information as possible (without making the report too
long or complicated). By informing the audience of plans and choices, they will trust the credibility and
validity of the research.
Both qualitative and quantitative data can be presented in a variety (or combination) of the following
formats:
Written – any form of text or written information.
Oral – for example, in speeches or presentations.
Pictorial – photographs, drawings, etc.
Graphical – in a chart or graph depicting numerical information, showing the relation of one
variable to another in the form of a diagram.
Numerical – information given in a number value format, such as statistics.
When reporting data, it is crucial to present the information clearly. Diagrams, photographs, tables,
maps, graphs or other visual representations will negate the need for lengthy description. All visuals
should be numbered consecutively, presented in a consistent style, and have a caption or a heading. If
graphs are used, all axes must be labelled and measurements shown clearly. When using information
from other sources, it is vital to ensure that it is properly referenced. When writing a report, all the
information should be listed in a contents page so that it is easy to find. If the report is very long it may
be beneficial to include a more detailed index of contents at the end of the report, so people can use
this to get straight to the page required. If there is a lot of supplementary information, such as data
tables or photographs, it may be more appropriate to include these as appendices to the main report.
The level and range of information presented will depend on the audience for whom it is intended. If
it includes any recommendations, it is a good idea to follow these with action plans, stating
responsibility (i.e. who is going to do what as a result of the findings, and by when). It is also a good
idea to record the research methodology, which can be referred to in the future whenever a similar
research effort is needed
Locating source of information
Identify the type of information needed
Planning the information search using different tools
Gathering the information
Evaluating the search results
Manage the information ethically
Present the information in correct format
Sorting and groupig your findings:
If the report has been well-planned, this process will be quite
straight forward. Use the headings and sub-headings of your skeletal
framework and make sure you have gathered enough relevant
information to complete each section and subsection. If you need more
information, gather it now – not once you have started to draft your
report
Obtaining the information
Cognitive Process
The first stage of the cognitive or learning process is obtaining information. After you obtain
information, you can continue the cognitive process to varying levels. For example, you may
perform basic cognitive processes by taking in information and simply storing it in your
memory for later recall (remembering). You may also perform higher levels of cognitive
processing such as reasoning, evaluating, and synthesizing the information.
About Obtaining Information
You obtain information from the environment around you. Since many events occur
simultaneously in the environment, you cannot process all that information at once. What
you obtain will depend on what gets your attention. If the stimuli does not come to your
attention, you cannot process it. If the stimuli does get your attention, you will take
information into your brain for mental processing. This mental processing may be affected
by both your perception and intuition.
Factors Affecting Obtaining Information
The information you take in may be affected by different factors. These factors include:
Interest
Attention
Perception
Intuition
Learning Process
You cannot pay attention to all of the stimuli in the environment all at once. Therefore, you
use selective attention to focus on those stimuli relevant to your current interest. What gets
your attention is controlled by what interests you. Hence, it is your interest that starts the
process of obtaining information. Your interests can be thought of as an influential stimulus
that draws your attention to a particular thing, person, or activity.
Once something draws your interests and gets your attention, you begin to form
perceptions. Perception is the way sensory information is transformed so it has meaning.
Perceptions are based on past experiences, education, values, culture, self-concept,
expectations, preconceived notions, and present circumstances.
Some people rely on their intuition to help them obtain and process information. Intuition is
the ability to understand something without any conscious reasoning. It is a knowing or
believing something with no rationale.
Objectivity
When people have strongly held beliefs they will often see or hear
things which support these beliefs, but they will not see or hear things
which oppose them. For example, self-deception may cause results to
be interpreted incorrectly. Going further, it is not unknown for people
to perpetrate fraud, either to hoax or to provide ‘evidence’ to support
pre conceived ideas.
So ask yourself whether all the major or relevant points of view have
been fairly represented. If the subject is controversial, the argu ments
for both (or all) cases should have been presented. At the very least,
the person who provided the information should have made it clear
that the views expressed are his or her own, and should then provide
ref erences to opposing viewpoints.
Finally, be very wary of statements without supporting evidence.
Completeness
In computer science a ‘hash total’ is used to ensure the completeness of
a batch of records. However, it is often extremely difficult to prove that
information is complete or, more accurately, that it is not incomplete.
For example, we know of many animals that once inhabited the world.
But how can we prove that they were the only ones? How can we prove
that unicorns never existed? What you must ask yourself, therefore, is
whether all relevant information has been provided and whether any
attempt has been made to deceive or mislead by omission. Then look
at it from the other side: is all the information provided relevant or is
some one trying to ‘blind you with science’?
Strength
Evidence is strong when:
It can be verified or re-performed (for example, a scientific
experi ment). Independent observers have all come to the same conclusion.
There have been a large number of consistent observations.
It is in agreement with the general body of knowledge.
Conversely, evidence is weak when some or all of these conditions
can not be satisfied. Always differentiate between fact and opinion, and
remember that the former provides the far stronger evidence.
How significant are the findings?
You must now step back and assess the implications of your findings.
How material are they? Many report writers simply list every piece
of information they have gathered without any consideration of its
relative importance. This is a mistake because it implies that each is of
equal weight. It is important to recognise that there will be a variety of
inter connected causes for, and consequences of, an event – and these
will not be of equal importance.
Q3:SMART:
Specific:
For the lecturer: Increase student satisfaction levels in the learning resources provided by the department.
What kind of increase are you looking for – a small % increase or a large one? What learning resources are
you referring to?
For the administrator: Reduce the amount of time it takes to respond to academic departmental requests for
information.
What reduction are you aiming for? What do you mean by respond to? Do you really mean all academic
departmental requests for information or a particular area?
Measurable:
For both examples – what measures are you going to use? Clarification is needed for both. How will you
know when the objective has been achieved?
So for the lecturer the objective may now look something like the example below:
Increase student satisfaction levels in the 201X student satisfaction survey by 25% in the learning resources
provided for x course.
For the administrator the objective may have changed slightly to look as follows:
Ensure all academic departmental requests for information on x are dealt with within 3 working days by
October 201X.
Achievable:
This is where you need to consider the context, abilities etc of the individual that you are expecting to do this
work. Is it something that they would be able to do? It may be that the individual would need support in the
form of resources, training/ development etc in order to achieve the objective set (you would note these
down in sections C & D of the SRDS form). It might be that the time frame that you place on the objective
(which is currently missing from one of the examples) makes it less achievable so check this as well.
Relevant:
Double check that the statement you are now crafting reflects both what is needed by the department and fits
in with the expectations of the individual as described in their job summary/ job description.
Time-frame:
Is there a time frame in place? By when will you be expecting this work to have been done? When will it be
measured and will the information be available then?
Using a separate piece of paper – look at the statement(s) that you have written in step one and apply the
SMART criteria to them.
The approach described in steps one and two means that you will go back to your original statement several
times and will end up re-writing it possibly more than once. Only stop re-writing the objective once you and
the reviewee are happy that you both understand what is written and what it means.
4. Setting SMART objectives within the SRDS process
Objective setting within the SRDS process should be a joint event. Reviewees are encouraged to submit their
own objectives for consideration in the review and as reviewer you may find that your role is simply to use
the SMART acronym to clarify your understanding of what the individual is expecting to do. If your
reviewee does not submit any objectives then use the review meeting to start discussing your thoughts on
what their objectives should be. In practice you may not come up with SMART objectives during the review
meeting itself, but will need to work on them over a period of time and continue to discuss and potentially
negotiate what goes in and what doesn’t!
5, Hints and tips
• Focus on what you need the individual to achieve - avoid writing objectives which describe what someone
is going to do.
• Objectives should reflect the level and range of responsibilities that an individual has.
• Objectives should be challenging and aim to achieve positive outcomes – avoid setting too difficult or too
easy objectives, both can be de-motivating.
• A useful objective is one which describes to you, the reviewee and anyone else who might read the
objective what is expected of them.
6. Further support
There are a number of books available from the library on writing and setting objectives. These can be
accessed via the STAR catalogue.
The SRDS skills for reviewers course includes a session on objective setting. For information about what
this course covers please visit the following webpage http://www.shef.ac.uk/hr/sld/developyourself/srds
Reading Assessments
reading is unidirectional process from letters to sound to meaning reading is a complex process in
which cognitive and psychological function of different level interact with each other in making sense
of the meaning of the text.
Both DIBELS Next and Aims web offer progress monitoring assessments.
3. Diagnostic- Diagnostic assessments provide the teacher with more in-depth information about the
student’s skills. Diagnostic assessments can range from standardized assessments to teacher-made
classroom assessments. The Quick Phonics Screener and the Primary Spelling Inventory are two
assessments that we use to help us target specific deficits in the area of phonics. We also find that having
a running records assessment is helpful when designing interventions. Several schools use the Rigby
Running Records while others use the Diagnostic Reading Assessment. In Michigan, we use the
Michigan Literacy Progress Profile to assess letters/sounds and specific phonemic awareness skills.
4. Outcomes- Outcome assessments are typically administered once a year. These assessments are
usually referred to as “high stakes” assessments and the data is used to assess curriculum design,
implementation and teachers’ efforts over the course of a school year. Outcome assessments provide
standard scores and percentiles so that the problem solving team (and parents) can compare a particular
student’s performance to peers across the nation as well as peers within the district. The two outcome
assessments used in my schools are the Gates-MacGinitie for kindergarten and the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills. Although these assessments provide valuable information, they are costly and time consuming to
administer.
Hummingbird Algorithm
Hummingbird still uses Panda and Penguin, as well as other “old parts” from the previous search
algorithm, but it’s an entirely new system.
Google as a car, where Hummingbird is the brand new engine in that car (which will still have a
lot of similar components from the old engine) is a great way of thinking about this change
Many of the pieces are still the same but the technology has been updated for a modern search
world
Hummingbird Update…
Panda and Penguins update adjusted a pre-existing formula to knockout low-quality contents and
links.
Hummingbird appears to be an update underlying engine along the lines of Google's increased
ability to map synonyms over time.
It is similar to Google’s caffeine update, which made indexing faster and put a higher premium on
pages that are more recent.
It still include many old factors like PR but will be more effective at including newer items like
schema and semantic Mark up.
CHANGES…..
First, Google has increased its ability to deal with complex search queries which means that it also
has got better at indexing entities in Web documents.
Second, it has got a lot better at relationally linking search queries and Web documents which
means that its Knowledge Graph must be considerably enriched.”
Hummingbird is paying more attention to each word in a query, ensuring that the whole query -
the whole sentence or conversation or meaning - is taken into account, rather than particular words.
Expand Content…
Developing deeper catalogs of meaningful content that can put a brand to be answer of wide range
of query.
Integrating user generated content i.e. whether adding reviews to pages or allowing wider posting
by visitors, which can not only help to enhance the reach of current pages but more quickly expand
content catalog-while keeping content fresh.
Q8:Objectives
It is vital to establish your precise objective. You must first be absolute ly
sure of the purpose of your report. Only then can you even begin to
think about what you are going to write and how you are going to write
it.
A clearly defined objective has a number of important benefits:
It helps you decide what information to include – and leave out.
It helps you pitch the report at the right level.
It makes it easier to write the report
Q9: Planning:
1. Preparation
Many factors affect the design of your presentation. A effective presenter will acknowledge and address each of the
following:
objectives;
audience;
venue;
remit.
Objectives
Why you are making your presentation? Bear in mind what you want to achieve and what you want your audience to
take away with them. Once you have decided upon your objectives, you are in a much better position to make
strategic decisions about the design and tone of your presentation. For example, a presentation to a seminar group
might require a balanced argument, whereas a charity appeal might require a more creative approach. Ask yourself:
what do you want your audience to have understood?
what action do you want your audience to take following your presentation?
how can you best design your presentation to meet your objectives?
Audience
Your audience will have a variety of different experiences, interests and levels of knowledge. A effective presenter will
need to acknowledge these and prepare for and respond to them accordingly. Ask yourself:
how much will your audience already know about your topic?
how can you link new material to things they might already understand?
© Learning Development, University of Leicester 2009 2
will you need to win them over to a particular point of view?
You may not be able to answer these questions for each member of your audience but you should have enough
information to ensure that you have targeted your material at the right level for their needs. This might involve avoiding
technical jargon or explaining abstract concepts with clear practical examples. If you fail to consider your audience’s
needs, you will fail to appeal to their interest and imagination.
Venue
Where will you be making your presentation? What will the room be like? What atmosphere will the physical conditions
create? A large lecture theatre might create a formal atmosphere. Similarly, a seminar room might create a less formal
tone. Ask yourself:
what kind of atmosphere do you wish to create?
how might the room arrangement affect your relationship with the audience?
can you do anything to change the arrangement of the room to suit your objectives?
what audio-visual aids can you use?
Remit
You may well have been given a remit for your presentation; you will need to stick to this. For example, you may have
been asked to present a paper at a conference in a certain style or meet certain assessment criteria on your course.
Ask yourself:
how much time have you been allocated?
are you required to stick to a common format or style?
have any guidelines been set regarding the content of your presentation (i.e. a predetermined title, or a fixed
number of overhead transparencies)?
Linking statements send signals to your audience, highlighting the next point in your argument, linking to earlier ideas
or clarifying the stage you have reached in your argument overall. This may be of particular importance in a lengthy
presentation where even the most effective presenter has to work hard to keep an audience involved.
5. Developing an opening
The introduction to your presentation is crucial. It is your first point of contact with your audience; you can either
capture or lose your audience’s interest in a matter of seconds. Use your introduction to lay a clear foundation for the
presentation to follow. Try using the following structure:
introduce yourself;
state what you will be talking about (a title or subject area);
state how you will be talking about it (e.g. by comparing test results or reviewing the supporting literature);
state what you intend to be the outcome of your presentation (an informed group, a lively discussion);
state what you expect your audience to do (listen, take notes, read a handout, ask questions before/during/after).
Always give your audience a moment to absorb this information before moving into your first main point.
6. Developing a conclusion
Your conclusion is another important stage in your presentation. You can use it to remind your audience of your main
points, draw these points to a stimulating conclusion and leave your audience with a lasting impression of the quality of
your presentation. The following structure provides a effective conclusion:
a review of your title or subject area “In this presentation I wanted to explore the relationship between X and Y.”;
a summary of your main points “We have discussed the following points…”;
a summary of the process you have been through “By looking at X we have found that Y …”;
a conclusion clearly drawn from your main points (this must be supported by the detail of your presentation) “It is
clear that there can be no substantive relationship between X and Y”;
a parting statement to stimulate your audience’s thoughts (this might be a question or a bold comment).