Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 14

Q1:

Informaion handling:

The difference between information and data


The terms ‘information’ and ‘data’ are often confused, but there is a considerable difference between
them. Data are the raw objective facts (e.g. numbers, statistics, dates). Once they have been analysed
and a useful meaning has been established, it then becomes information, i.e. it informs or provides
meaning. So, information is facts (or data) processed into a form that is meaningful and will improve
knowledge. (NB: data is the plural, i.e. a number of facts, while datum is the singular, i.e. a single fact.)
The difference between information and data
Information: data that has been processed into a meaningful form.
Data: a collection of uninterpreted or unanalysed facts.

Qualitative and quantitative


There are two broad types of information or data: qualitative and quantitative.
Quantitative is information that is definable, can be measured, and is normally expressed in figures.
This type of information is particularly valuable for making comparisons between targets and results,
between specifications of resources, or finished products.
Qualitative is information that is descriptive and may involve value judgements or opinions. This
type of information is more useful when analysing people’s views on products or services. Each
individual is likely to have different opinions as to what is good or bad, and what could be done to
improve a product, service or situation.

Processing data
Techniques for analysing data are best selected with regard to the type of information collected.
Quantitative data will rely on statistical analysis, while qualitative data might include analysis of
transcripts from questionnaires, or survey results. However, when analysing any data, it is important to
start by reviewing the objectives of the research, including research aims, purpose and audience. This
will help in organising the data and ensure that the focus is only on what is relevant.
Often the data or information collected is unwieldy, such as numerical data

and survey responses. It therefore needs to be processed and reformatted into a usable format before
any conclusions can be drawn from the findings.
Summarising information or data will help to identify patterns and compare results. For example,
tables can list key criteria such as gender, age or educational background of respondents. Numerical
data can easily be summarised in mathematical terms, such as averages or frequencies.
Ref: http://member.goodpractice.net/Leadership-Foundation-KB/resources/personal-skills/handling-information-and-data/handling-information-and-data.gp
Once information has been summarised, it is much easier to identify patterns and interpret meanings
from the data. However, if the information is in a very cumbersome format, it may be necessary to
process it further before summarising. Quantitative and qualitative information can also be processed
using specially tailored computer software, designed to reveal patterns in the data collected.
Presenting data
Once all the data have been collected and processed, the next step is to present the results in the
form of a report, a presentation, or whatever form is most relevant to the research.
The purpose of presenting the data is to convince the audience that meaningful and productive
information has been produced. Therefore, the interpretation of the results must be clearly supported
by the data as evidence. It is also important to be open with the audience about the steps in the
research process: what methodology was chosen, what other methods were considered and why they
were disregarded. Provide as much background information as possible (without making the report too
long or complicated). By informing the audience of plans and choices, they will trust the credibility and
validity of the research.
Both qualitative and quantitative data can be presented in a variety (or combination) of the following
formats:
Written – any form of text or written information.
Oral – for example, in speeches or presentations.
Pictorial – photographs, drawings, etc.
Graphical – in a chart or graph depicting numerical information, showing the relation of one
variable to another in the form of a diagram.
Numerical – information given in a number value format, such as statistics.
When reporting data, it is crucial to present the information clearly. Diagrams, photographs, tables,
maps, graphs or other visual representations will negate the need for lengthy description. All visuals
should be numbered consecutively, presented in a consistent style, and have a caption or a heading. If
graphs are used, all axes must be labelled and measurements shown clearly. When using information
from other sources, it is vital to ensure that it is properly referenced. When writing a report, all the
information should be listed in a contents page so that it is easy to find. If the report is very long it may
be beneficial to include a more detailed index of contents at the end of the report, so people can use
this to get straight to the page required. If there is a lot of supplementary information, such as data
tables or photographs, it may be more appropriate to include these as appendices to the main report.
The level and range of information presented will depend on the audience for whom it is intended. If
it includes any recommendations, it is a good idea to follow these with action plans, stating
responsibility (i.e. who is going to do what as a result of the findings, and by when). It is also a good
idea to record the research methodology, which can be referred to in the future whenever a similar
research effort is needed
Locating source of information
 Identify the type of information needed
 Planning the information search using different tools
 Gathering the information
 Evaluating the search results
 Manage the information ethically
 Present the information in correct format
Sorting and groupig your findings:
If the report has been well-planned, this process will be quite
straight forward. Use the headings and sub-headings of your skeletal
framework and make sure you have gathered enough relevant
information to complete each section and subsection. If you need more
information, gather it now – not once you have started to draft your
report
Obtaining the information

Cognitive Process
The first stage of the cognitive or learning process is obtaining information. After you obtain
information, you can continue the cognitive process to varying levels. For example, you may
perform basic cognitive processes by taking in information and simply storing it in your
memory for later recall (remembering). You may also perform higher levels of cognitive
processing such as reasoning, evaluating, and synthesizing the information.
About Obtaining Information
You obtain information from the environment around you. Since many events occur
simultaneously in the environment, you cannot process all that information at once. What
you obtain will depend on what gets your attention. If the stimuli does not come to your
attention, you cannot process it. If the stimuli does get your attention, you will take
information into your brain for mental processing. This mental processing may be affected
by both your perception and intuition.
Factors Affecting Obtaining Information
The information you take in may be affected by different factors. These factors include:
Interest
Attention
Perception
Intuition
Learning Process
You cannot pay attention to all of the stimuli in the environment all at once. Therefore, you
use selective attention to focus on those stimuli relevant to your current interest. What gets
your attention is controlled by what interests you. Hence, it is your interest that starts the
process of obtaining information. Your interests can be thought of as an influential stimulus
that draws your attention to a particular thing, person, or activity.
Once something draws your interests and gets your attention, you begin to form
perceptions. Perception is the way sensory information is transformed so it has meaning.
Perceptions are based on past experiences, education, values, culture, self-concept,
expectations, preconceived notions, and present circumstances.
Some people rely on their intuition to help them obtain and process information. Intuition is
the ability to understand something without any conscious reasoning. It is a knowing or
believing something with no rationale.

About Interest and Attention


If you are interested in something, it will gain your attention. The more attention you pay to
something, the more information you will obtain. However, the opposite is also true. If you
are not interested, you will pay less attention and thus, obtain less information.
Interest and Attention Interplay
Attention and interest are often thought of as the same, however, they are two distinct
factors. Interest is feelings that arouse attention to someone or something while attention is
your mental focus.
Attention and interest are interconnected. Your interest determines their attention. Thus, if
you are interested in something, you will pay attention to it. Likewise, in order to pay
attention to something, you have to have interest in it.
These two factors are also mutually dependent, since what captures your attention is your
interests which can only be satisfied if you pay attention to it.
2/3
About Perception and Intuition
After you pay attention to a particular stimulus, you take the sensory stimuli from the
environment and send that information to your brain to continue the cognitive processes
required to interpret the information. As you interpret information, you begin to make
perceptions about that information. Perception is an unconscious process where you take in
sensory information from your environment and use that information in order to construct
your own version of reality.
Intuition can also play a role in the obtaining of information. Intuition is the ability to acquire
knowledge without the need for conscious reasoning. It is instinctive knowing without the
use of rational processes.
Perception and Intuition Interplay
Perception is organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information. Once
sensory input starts, you use perceptual processes to select among sensory input and
organize that information in your brain. You perception may be created on logical reasoning
based on your past experiences, education, values, culture, or present circumstances.
Intuition, on the other hand, is immediate thought or feeling without the use of conscious
rational processes. It can be thought of as unconscious perception. It has nothing to do with
your experiences. It is a knowing or believing something with no rational explanation.

Q2: EVALUATING YOUR FINDINGS


There are two aspects to this evaluation:
􀁩􀁩 How reliable are the findings?
􀁩􀁩 How significant are the findings?
Consider each in turn.
How reliable are the findings?
There are four factors by which the reliability of information should be
judged:
􀁩􀁩 accuracy
􀁩􀁩 objectivity
􀁩􀁩 completeness
􀁩􀁩 strength.
Accuracy
Sometimes you can check the data supplied. For example, are the
mathematical calculations accurate? If there are too many to check,
remember Pareto’s principle which states that eighty per cent of what is
important is represented by twenty per cent of what exists. Concentrate
on this twenty per cent.
Information may also be inaccurate if it is out of date. In experi mental
work, was current equipment used? In legal matters, has account been
taken of any recent and relevant legislation or case law? When text
books have been consulted, were they the most recent editions?

Objectivity
When people have strongly held beliefs they will often see or hear
things which support these beliefs, but they will not see or hear things
which oppose them. For example, self-deception may cause results to
be interpreted incorrectly. Going further, it is not unknown for people
to perpetrate fraud, either to hoax or to provide ‘evidence’ to support
pre conceived ideas.
So ask yourself whether all the major or relevant points of view have
been fairly represented. If the subject is controversial, the argu ments
for both (or all) cases should have been presented. At the very least,
the person who provided the information should have made it clear
that the views expressed are his or her own, and should then provide
ref erences to opposing viewpoints.
Finally, be very wary of statements without supporting evidence.
Completeness
In computer science a ‘hash total’ is used to ensure the completeness of
a batch of records. However, it is often extremely difficult to prove that
information is complete or, more accurately, that it is not incomplete.
For example, we know of many animals that once inhabited the world.
But how can we prove that they were the only ones? How can we prove
that unicorns never existed? What you must ask yourself, therefore, is
whether all relevant information has been provided and whether any
attempt has been made to deceive or mislead by omission. Then look
at it from the other side: is all the information provided relevant or is
some one trying to ‘blind you with science’?
Strength
Evidence is strong when:
􀁩􀁩 It can be verified or re-performed (for example, a scientific
experi ment). Independent observers have all come to the same conclusion.
􀁩􀁩 There have been a large number of consistent observations.
􀁩􀁩 It is in agreement with the general body of knowledge.
Conversely, evidence is weak when some or all of these conditions
can not be satisfied. Always differentiate between fact and opinion, and
remember that the former provides the far stronger evidence.
How significant are the findings?
You must now step back and assess the implications of your findings.
How material are they? Many report writers simply list every piece
of information they have gathered without any consideration of its
relative importance. This is a mistake because it implies that each is of
equal weight. It is important to recognise that there will be a variety of
inter connected causes for, and consequences of, an event – and these
will not be of equal importance.

Q3:SMART:
Specific:
For the lecturer: Increase student satisfaction levels in the learning resources provided by the department.
What kind of increase are you looking for – a small % increase or a large one? What learning resources are
you referring to?
For the administrator: Reduce the amount of time it takes to respond to academic departmental requests for
information.
What reduction are you aiming for? What do you mean by respond to? Do you really mean all academic
departmental requests for information or a particular area?
Measurable:
For both examples – what measures are you going to use? Clarification is needed for both. How will you
know when the objective has been achieved?
So for the lecturer the objective may now look something like the example below:
Increase student satisfaction levels in the 201X student satisfaction survey by 25% in the learning resources
provided for x course.
For the administrator the objective may have changed slightly to look as follows:
Ensure all academic departmental requests for information on x are dealt with within 3 working days by
October 201X.
Achievable:
This is where you need to consider the context, abilities etc of the individual that you are expecting to do this
work. Is it something that they would be able to do? It may be that the individual would need support in the
form of resources, training/ development etc in order to achieve the objective set (you would note these
down in sections C & D of the SRDS form). It might be that the time frame that you place on the objective
(which is currently missing from one of the examples) makes it less achievable so check this as well.
Relevant:
Double check that the statement you are now crafting reflects both what is needed by the department and fits
in with the expectations of the individual as described in their job summary/ job description.
Time-frame:
Is there a time frame in place? By when will you be expecting this work to have been done? When will it be
measured and will the information be available then?
Using a separate piece of paper – look at the statement(s) that you have written in step one and apply the
SMART criteria to them.
The approach described in steps one and two means that you will go back to your original statement several
times and will end up re-writing it possibly more than once. Only stop re-writing the objective once you and
the reviewee are happy that you both understand what is written and what it means.
4. Setting SMART objectives within the SRDS process
Objective setting within the SRDS process should be a joint event. Reviewees are encouraged to submit their
own objectives for consideration in the review and as reviewer you may find that your role is simply to use
the SMART acronym to clarify your understanding of what the individual is expecting to do. If your
reviewee does not submit any objectives then use the review meeting to start discussing your thoughts on
what their objectives should be. In practice you may not come up with SMART objectives during the review
meeting itself, but will need to work on them over a period of time and continue to discuss and potentially
negotiate what goes in and what doesn’t!
5, Hints and tips
• Focus on what you need the individual to achieve - avoid writing objectives which describe what someone
is going to do.

• Keep objectives under review throughout the year.

• Objectives should reflect the level and range of responsibilities that an individual has.

• Objectives should be challenging and aim to achieve positive outcomes – avoid setting too difficult or too
easy objectives, both can be de-motivating.

• A useful objective is one which describes to you, the reviewee and anyone else who might read the
objective what is expected of them.
6. Further support
There are a number of books available from the library on writing and setting objectives. These can be
accessed via the STAR catalogue.
The SRDS skills for reviewers course includes a session on objective setting. For information about what
this course covers please visit the following webpage http://www.shef.ac.uk/hr/sld/developyourself/srds

Q4: Principles of Reprot writing:


Q5:Assessing You Readings
o Recalling word meanings
o Make your own inference
o Finding answers
o Weaving together ideas in the content
o Drawing inferences from the contents
o Recognizing a writer’s purpose
o Identify writer’s techniques
o Recall your structure

Reading Assessments
reading is unidirectional process from letters to sound to meaning reading is a complex process in
which cognitive and psychological function of different level interact with each other in making sense
of the meaning of the text.

Four Types of Reading Assessments


Assessment and intervention is the heart and soul of Response to Intervention (RtI). Prior to beginning
either a school-wide program or developing an intervention plan for a particular student, it is critically
important to have assessment data. There are 4 types of reading assessments that comprise a
comprehensive K-3 reading assessment plan. Each type of assessment is important in its own right and
provides valuable information to school teams in the RtI process. So, take a look at these types of
assessments. How comprehensive is your K-3 reading assessment plan?
1. Screening
2. Progress Monitoring
3. Diagnostic
4. Outcomes
1. Screening- The purpose of a screening assessment is to identify students who are at-risk for reading
difficulties. Identifying the students early on who are likely to struggle with learning to read is important
as we can then develop intervention plans that, hopefully, PREVENT a life-long reading deficit.
The DIBELS Next and the Aims web assessments are the two most commonly administered screening
assessments in schools. Our schools utilize the DIBELS Next assessments. Students are screened three
times a year using the particular assessments designed for each grade level. For example, students in 2nd-
6th grade read 3 grade level passages for one minute. The number of words correct per minute (wcpm)
is calculated and compared to an expected level of performance. The assessments are easy to administer
and take no more than 8 minutes per student. When the data is entered into the computer-based system,
a variety of charts/graphs are provided for school-based problem solving teams to analyze. Below is a
sample of a class list report that a teacher will receive after each benchmark period.
2. Progress Monitoring- The purpose of progress monitoring is to track student performance during
an instructional period. Once a student is identified as at-risk for reading difficulties, an intervention plan
is developed. Every week or every other week, the student is assessed with a progress monitoring probe
(usually a one minute assessment). The purpose of the assessment is to determine if the student is making
progress when provided with the additional support. Below is a sample of a progress monitoring chart
measuring oral reading fluency for a 2nd grade student?

Both DIBELS Next and Aims web offer progress monitoring assessments.
3. Diagnostic- Diagnostic assessments provide the teacher with more in-depth information about the
student’s skills. Diagnostic assessments can range from standardized assessments to teacher-made
classroom assessments. The Quick Phonics Screener and the Primary Spelling Inventory are two
assessments that we use to help us target specific deficits in the area of phonics. We also find that having
a running records assessment is helpful when designing interventions. Several schools use the Rigby
Running Records while others use the Diagnostic Reading Assessment. In Michigan, we use the
Michigan Literacy Progress Profile to assess letters/sounds and specific phonemic awareness skills.
4. Outcomes- Outcome assessments are typically administered once a year. These assessments are
usually referred to as “high stakes” assessments and the data is used to assess curriculum design,
implementation and teachers’ efforts over the course of a school year. Outcome assessments provide
standard scores and percentiles so that the problem solving team (and parents) can compare a particular
student’s performance to peers across the nation as well as peers within the district. The two outcome
assessments used in my schools are the Gates-MacGinitie for kindergarten and the Iowa Test of Basic
Skills. Although these assessments provide valuable information, they are costly and time consuming to
administer.

Q6: Skeltal Famework of report


Q7: Hummingbird algorithm

Hummingbird Algorithm
 Hummingbird still uses Panda and Penguin, as well as other “old parts” from the previous search
algorithm, but it’s an entirely new system.
 Google as a car, where Hummingbird is the brand new engine in that car (which will still have a
lot of similar components from the old engine) is a great way of thinking about this change
 Many of the pieces are still the same but the technology has been updated for a modern search
world

Hummingbird Update…
 Panda and Penguins update adjusted a pre-existing formula to knockout low-quality contents and
links.
 Hummingbird appears to be an update underlying engine along the lines of Google's increased
ability to map synonyms over time.
 It is similar to Google’s caffeine update, which made indexing faster and put a higher premium on
pages that are more recent.
 It still include many old factors like PR but will be more effective at including newer items like
schema and semantic Mark up.

CHANGES…..
 First, Google has increased its ability to deal with complex search queries which means that it also
has got better at indexing entities in Web documents.
 Second, it has got a lot better at relationally linking search queries and Web documents which
means that its Knowledge Graph must be considerably enriched.”
 Hummingbird is paying more attention to each word in a query, ensuring that the whole query -
the whole sentence or conversation or meaning - is taken into account, rather than particular words.

What Type Of “New” Search Activity Does Hummingbird Help?


Hummingbird better focus on the meaning behind the words. It may better understand the actual location
of your home, if you’ve shared that with Google. It might understand that “place” means you want a brick-
and-mortar store. It might get that “iPhone 5s” is a particular type of electronic device carried by certain
stores. Knowing all these meanings may help Google go beyond just finding pages with matching words.
So What Does This Mean For Your Business And All The SEO You Have Done?
 All that work that you have been doing on your website recently, building links, exploring social
media, creating landing pages or whatever other techniques you may be using to improve your
SEO, is that all for nothing now?
 No not at all, Google have said there is nothing new or different that publishers or SEOs need to
worry about. Google still expects websites to have original, high-quality content that is relevant.
 Methods that have been important in the past still remain important today; the new algorithm just
allows Google to process your searches in a new and better way.

Impact & Considerations….


Increase the details of article and Product-level content:-
1. As Google is more intended toward intent and meaning behind search phrases, a high level of detail
in content is needed.
2. Especially for pages targeted toward longer-tail term-opens increased opportunities to rank for a
wider range of terms.
3. To provide Google with content that can be matched s wider ranges of search phrases.

Expand Content…
 Developing deeper catalogs of meaningful content that can put a brand to be answer of wide range
of query.
 Integrating user generated content i.e. whether adding reviews to pages or allowing wider posting
by visitors, which can not only help to enhance the reach of current pages but more quickly expand
content catalog-while keeping content fresh.

Include Schema.Org Markup on Pages and Templates


Hummingbird comes on the heels of Google’s efforts to encourage sites to include semantic mark up-
specifically schema.org mark up in content to identify data more thoroughly and create connections to
wider concept. We should use semantic markup to our sites or make use of Google webmaster tool
“data highlighter” as a temporary alternative. Unless we will be steps behind those who are and gap will
growing fast.

Post Content as Answers to Questions


 Long tail queries and question based informational searches makes a tremendous amount of
search volume collectively.
 While many brands focus on searches that are tied to direct response, answering question that
shopper and audience asking-even those who tangentially related to what you ultimately want them
to consider buying-can act as huge draw for visitor and exposure.
 In brief we need to develop content related to query-based search, long-tail concepts, and wider
content base that looks beyond immediate direct response.

Optimize For Mobile User...


In addition to supporting semantic search, the ability to better parse voice commands and questions should
add further attention to optimizing your site for mobile search (via Google’s recommended base platform
for responsive design website) and to developing content that can attract and enable mobile-specific
searchers(who tend to use phrases that are more localized in nature).

Q8:Objectives
It is vital to establish your precise objective. You must first be absolute ly
sure of the purpose of your report. Only then can you even begin to
think about what you are going to write and how you are going to write
it.
A clearly defined objective has a number of important benefits:
􀁩􀁩 It helps you decide what information to include – and leave out.
􀁩􀁩 It helps you pitch the report at the right level.
􀁩􀁩 It makes it easier to write the report

An objective is not what you intend to write, it is what you intend to


achieve. Writing a research report is not an objective, it is a task. The
objective is to extend the readers’ knowledge of the world by reducing
their uncertainty and increasing their understanding of it. Writing a
trou ble-shooting report is not an objective, it is a task. The objective is
to locate the cause of some problem and then suggest ways to remove
or treat it. Concentrate on the objective, not the associated task.

Here are some possible overall objectives for a report writer:


􀁩􀁩 to inform
􀁩􀁩 to describe
􀁩􀁩 to explain
􀁩􀁩 to instruct
􀁩􀁩 to evaluate (and recommend)
􀁩􀁩 to provoke debate
􀁩􀁩 to persuade.

So far, so good. But an objective to inform, describe or explain is too


general. You need to be more specific. Perhaps it is to inform sales staff
of the details of the new commission scheme. The more closely you can
identify your precise objective – preferably in just one sentence – the
more useful your report is likely to be.
There is a great advantage in setting a clear objective. If the report has
been commissioned, you can go back to the person who requested it
Ssand ask them to have a look at your objective to make sure they agree
with it. If they don’t, find out precisely what they do expect from you.
By tak ing just a few minutes to clear this up at the earliest realistic time,
you will avoid the very real risk of wasting days, weeks or even months
on unnecessary and irrelevant work.

Q9: Planning:

Seven stages in planning a presentation

1. Preparation
Many factors affect the design of your presentation. A effective presenter will acknowledge and address each of the
following:
objectives;
audience;
venue;
remit.

Objectives
Why you are making your presentation? Bear in mind what you want to achieve and what you want your audience to
take away with them. Once you have decided upon your objectives, you are in a much better position to make
strategic decisions about the design and tone of your presentation. For example, a presentation to a seminar group
might require a balanced argument, whereas a charity appeal might require a more creative approach. Ask yourself:
what do you want your audience to have understood?
what action do you want your audience to take following your presentation?
how can you best design your presentation to meet your objectives?

Audience
Your audience will have a variety of different experiences, interests and levels of knowledge. A effective presenter will
need to acknowledge these and prepare for and respond to them accordingly. Ask yourself:
how much will your audience already know about your topic?
how can you link new material to things they might already understand?
© Learning Development, University of Leicester 2009 2
will you need to win them over to a particular point of view?

You may not be able to answer these questions for each member of your audience but you should have enough
information to ensure that you have targeted your material at the right level for their needs. This might involve avoiding
technical jargon or explaining abstract concepts with clear practical examples. If you fail to consider your audience’s
needs, you will fail to appeal to their interest and imagination.
Venue
Where will you be making your presentation? What will the room be like? What atmosphere will the physical conditions
create? A large lecture theatre might create a formal atmosphere. Similarly, a seminar room might create a less formal
tone. Ask yourself:
what kind of atmosphere do you wish to create?
how might the room arrangement affect your relationship with the audience?
can you do anything to change the arrangement of the room to suit your objectives?
what audio-visual aids can you use?

Remit
You may well have been given a remit for your presentation; you will need to stick to this. For example, you may have
been asked to present a paper at a conference in a certain style or meet certain assessment criteria on your course.
Ask yourself:
how much time have you been allocated?
are you required to stick to a common format or style?
have any guidelines been set regarding the content of your presentation (i.e. a predetermined title, or a fixed
number of overhead transparencies)?

2. Choosing your main points


Once you have thought about the design of your presentation, you can define your main points. Try presenting no
more than three main points in a ten minute presentation. Always allow time for an adequate introduction and
conclusion. It is difficult for an audience to follow a more complex argument without significant help from the presenter.
A effective presentation delivers information in a logical, structured manner, building on the previous point and
avoiding large jumps in sequence. Ask yourself:
what are the main points you wish to make?
are these points structured in a logical, coherent way?
do these main points reflect your own objectives and take account of the needs of your audience?

3. Choosing your supporting information


The supporting information helps your audience understand, believe in and agree with your main points. This evidence
might take the form of factual data, points of detail or an explanation of process. It might be presented in imaginative
ways using diagrams, pictures or video segments. Think about:
what will add clarity to your argument (explaining complex terms, reminding your audience of any supporting
theories)?
what will add authority to your argument (making connections with other people's work, quoting experts, offering
evidence from your own research)?
what will add colour to your argument (showing a video clip or a slide, using a practical example or a vibrant
analogy)?
4. Establishing linking statements
The next stage is to develop the linear flow of your presentation. This can be achieved by using linking statements to
show clearly how your main points fit together. Common linking statements include:
“The next stage in our project was to…”;
“Another important issue of consideration was…”;
“By following this argument we can now see that…”.

Linking statements send signals to your audience, highlighting the next point in your argument, linking to earlier ideas
or clarifying the stage you have reached in your argument overall. This may be of particular importance in a lengthy
presentation where even the most effective presenter has to work hard to keep an audience involved.
5. Developing an opening
The introduction to your presentation is crucial. It is your first point of contact with your audience; you can either
capture or lose your audience’s interest in a matter of seconds. Use your introduction to lay a clear foundation for the
presentation to follow. Try using the following structure:
introduce yourself;
state what you will be talking about (a title or subject area);
state how you will be talking about it (e.g. by comparing test results or reviewing the supporting literature);
state what you intend to be the outcome of your presentation (an informed group, a lively discussion);
state what you expect your audience to do (listen, take notes, read a handout, ask questions before/during/after).
Always give your audience a moment to absorb this information before moving into your first main point.

6. Developing a conclusion
Your conclusion is another important stage in your presentation. You can use it to remind your audience of your main
points, draw these points to a stimulating conclusion and leave your audience with a lasting impression of the quality of
your presentation. The following structure provides a effective conclusion:
a review of your title or subject area “In this presentation I wanted to explore the relationship between X and Y.”;

a summary of your main points “We have discussed the following points…”;

a summary of the process you have been through “By looking at X we have found that Y …”;

a conclusion clearly drawn from your main points (this must be supported by the detail of your presentation) “It is
clear that there can be no substantive relationship between X and Y”;

a parting statement to stimulate your audience’s thoughts (this might be a question or a bold comment).

7. Reviewing your presentation


Once you have written your presentation make sure that you review its content. Ask yourself:
does the presentation meet your objectives?
is it logically structured?
have you targeted the material at the right level for your audience?
is the presentation too long or too short?

Вам также может понравиться