PHIL 191

Questions and Answers

1. Homosexuality:

What is Michael Levin’s argument against homosexuality?

Michael Levin is an American philosopher and writer. He argues that homosexual acts are abnormal,
and this abnormality must be a source of unhappiness, even though it may go unrecognized.
Why he thinks homosexual acts are “abnormal”.
Because their participants are not using their sexual organs for what they are for.
What is a “misuse” of body parts?
To use the body part for a purpose on which its be made or it never made you happier at the end like
Mr Jones pulls all his teeth and strings them around his neck because he thinks his teeth look nice as a
necklace. He takes pureed liquids supplemented by intravenous solutions for nourishment. It is surely
natural to say that Jones is misusing his teeth, that he is not using them for what they are for, that
indeed the way he is using them is incompatible with what they are for.
Levin’s “Teeth” example;
Levin exemplifies the point that homosexuality is misuse of body parts with the case of Mr. Smith, who
likes to play "Old MacDonald" on his teeth so devoted is he to this amusement, in fact, that he never
uses his teeth for chewing but instead takes nourishment intravenously. This is a clear example where
Mr. Smith is misusing his teeth. In addition to misuse, Levine states that this man will have a dim future
on purely physiological grounds (Levin 355). Since Mr. Smith isn't using his teeth for chewing, his
digestive system will suffer from disuse. The result will be Mr. Smith’s deteriorating health.
Why he thinks homosexuals are unhappier than heterosexuals;
Homosexuality is likely to cause unhappiness because it leaves unfulfilled an innate and innately
rewarding desire also have lower satisfaction with their lives and say they suffer from anxiety, according
to the research.
The Weinberg & Williams (1974) study
The study described by males as ideal for impersonal sex include protection; ample, accessible
opportunities; a known, shared, and organized reality; bounding of the experience; congeniality; and a
comfortable physical setting. This will examine gay baths in relation to these conditions. It also develops
from the male participants' perspective a general model of the successful territorial and interactional
organization of impersonal sex. Finally, the findings are related to the conceptualization of social
organization, the market mentality, and the study of deviance.
How it supports (or fails to support) Levin’s argument;
In reflection of the two articles read, I feel that Weinberg & Williams has a stronger stance in the
argument of homosexuality. They takes the Levis's view on misuse of body parts and shows that many
body parts have multiple uses. Levis provides a strong argument about misuse, and in his example, it
is completely accurate.
Describe the function of genitalia.
To enable sperm to enter the body and to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms.

John Corvino’s criticisms of arguments against homosexuality.

Corvino combines logical precision with a light prose full of humanity and wit.

Unlike many gay-rights advocates, he is not afraid to give opponents' positions their due

Instead of shrinking away from the moral debate or relegating it to a "private matter," he makes the
case for why everyone should-indeed, must-be a moralist.

The 3 reasons homosexuals and heterosexuals have sex;

Sex makes you closer

It trumps money in the happiness factor
Sex can regulate your menstrual cycle

The four types of arguments against homosexuality

a. Homosexuals should not be allowed to marry because they are more likely to be
promiscuous.
b. If everybody was Homosexuals, mankind would cease to exist.
c. Homosexuals will cause the disestablishment of the church.
d. Homosexuals do not even want marriage

Why Corvino believes homosexuality does not violate biblical teaching.

As Corvino combines logical precision with a light prose full of humanity and wit. The direct knowledge
from bible about homosexuality e.g., sex has two purposes: not just procreation, but also delight and
intimacy. The delightfulness of sex leads Corvino that its no more the violation of Biblical teaching.

2. Moral Theory:

Egoism:
In philosophy, egoism is the theory that one’s self is, or should be, the motivation and the
goal of one’s own action. Egoism has two variants, descriptive or normative.
The Legend of Gyges;
The Legend of Gyges is a mythical magical artifact mentioned by the philosopher Plato in
Book 2 of his Republic. It grants its owner the power to become invisible at will. Through
the story of the ring, Republic considers whether an intelligent person would be moral if
they did not have to fear being caught and punished for doing injustices.

Psychological (Strong and Weak) Egoism (PE)

The descriptive egoist’s theory is called “psychological egoism.” Psychological egoism
describes human nature as being wholly self-centered and self-motivated. Examples of this
explanation of human nature predate the formation of the theory, and, are found in
writings such as that of British Victorian historian, Macaulay, and, in that of British
Reformation political philosopher, Thomas Hobbes.
Ethical Egoism (EE).
Ethical egoism is the normative theory that the promotion of one’s own good is in
accordance with morality. In the strong version, it is held that it is always moral to promote
one’s own good, and it is never moral not to promote it. In the weak version, it is said that
although it is always moral to promote one’s own good, it is not necessarily never moral to
not. That is, there may be conditions in which the avoidance of personal interest may be a
moral action.
Utilitarianism:
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on
outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical
choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number.
utilitarianism is an egalitarian theory;
Egalitarianism is a trend of thought in political philosophy. An egalitarian favors equality
of some sort: People should get the same, or be treated the same, or be treated as equals, in
some respect.
Hedonism;
The term "hedonism," from the Greek word (hēdonē) for pleasure, refers to several related
theories about what is good for us, how we should behave, and what motivates us to behave
in the way that we do. All hedonistic theories identify pleasure and pain as the only
important elements of whatever phenomena they are designed to describe.
Nozick’s “Experience Machine” counterexample to Hedonism;
Robert Nozick’s Experience Machine counterexample to hedonism is one of the most
famous thought experiments in contemporary philosophy. It has convinced many that
there is more to prudential value than the felt quality of our experiences. Yet it is often
misunderstood, and too easily dismissed.

The “Trolley Problem” objection to utilitarianism.

The trolley problem highlights a fundamental tension between two schools of moral
thought. The utilitarian perspective dictates that most appropriate action is the one that
achieves the greatest good for the greatest number. Meanwhile,
the deontological perspective asserts that certain actions – like killing an innocent person –
are just wrong, even if they have good consequences. In both versions of the trolley
problem above, utilitarians say you should sacrifice one to save five, while deontologists
say you should not.
Kantianism:
The term "Kantianism" or "Kantian" is sometimes also used to describe contemporary
positions in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and ethics.
Rationality;
Rationality is the quality or state of being rational – that is, being based on or agreeable to
reason. Rationality implies the conformity of one's beliefs with one's reasons to believe,
and of one's actions with one's reasons for action.
categorical vs. hypothetical imperatives;

A categorical imperative [i.e., an imperative based on reason alone] is one that represents
"an action as objectively necessary in itself apart from its relation to a further end"
A hypothetical imperative [i.e., an imperative based on inclination or desire] represents
"the practical necessity of a possible action as means to something else that is willed (or at
least which one might possibly will)."
The Categorical Imperative (Formula of Universal Law);
The 'Golden Rule' (in its positive form) says: "Treat others how you wish to be treated".
Kant's first formulation of his Categorical Imperative says: "Act only in accordance with
that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law."
Be mindful of objections to each theory. Know how to apply each theory. Also, think about your own
views on these issues: which moral theory do you favor and why?

3. Other Concepts:

consequentialist vs. rule-based theories of morality;

consequentialism is based on two principles:
Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act
The more good consequences an act produces, the better or righter that act
It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma:
A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences
And it gives this general guidance on how to live:
People should live so as to maximise good consequences
How does sexuality normally develop, and what can happen to disrupt this process?
Human sexuality is complicated and mysterious. We don't know exactly how sexual
attractions develop; however, scientists and researchers who've studied child
development have some idea of what the process generally looks like and what happens
when something disrupts that process.

Some people say homosexuality is natural and moral; others say it is unnatural and immoral.
How do we know?
Our standard can only be what God says. In Romans 1 we read,God gave them over to
shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. In the
same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with
lust for one another. Men committed indecent acts with other men, and received in
themselves the due penalty for their perversion
True False

1. Business ethics is not really concerned with “doing the right thing. (False)
2. Choices about work may require a trade-off between meaningful work, leisure time,
money, and security. (True)
3. Rule-utilitarianism is the idea that the rightness of actions depends solely on the
relative good produced by individual actions. (False)
4. Classic utilitarianism depends heavily on a strong sense of impartiality. (True)
5. Utilitarians judge the morality of conduct by multiple standards.(False)
6. Rule utilitarians claim that the right thing to do might not always, in that instance,
produce the most good. (True)
7. The integrity objection to utilitarianism claims that one's deeply held projects and
character traits are morally unimportant, given utilitarianism. (True)
8. Utilitarianism seems to counsel against resting. . (True)