Santos et al. Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 / J. Opt. Soc. Am.

A 89

Polarization ellipse and Stokes parameters

in geometric algebra

Adler G. Santos,1,2,* Quirino M. Sugon, Jr.,1,2 and Daniel J. McNamara1,2

1
Manila Observatory, Ateneo de Manila University Campus, Loyola Heights, Quezon City 1108, Philippines
2
Ateneo de Manila University, Department of Physics, Loyola Heights, Quezon City 1108, Philippines
*Corresponding author: adler.g.santos@gmail.com

Received July 7, 2011; revised October 24, 2011; accepted October 27, 2011;
posted October 31, 2011 (Doc. ID 150505); published December 12, 2011
In this paper, we use geometric algebra to describe the polarization ellipse and Stokes parameters. We show that a
solution to Maxwell’s equation is a product of a complex basis vector in Jackson and a linear combination of plane
wave functions. We convert both the amplitudes and the wave function arguments from complex scalars to
complex vectors. This conversion allows us to separate the electric field vector and the imaginary magnetic field
vector, because exponentials of imaginary scalars convert vectors to imaginary vectors and vice versa, while ex-
ponentials of imaginary vectors only rotate the vector or imaginary vector they are multiplied to. We convert this
expression for polarized light into two other representations: the Cartesian representation and the rotated ellipse
representation. We compute the conversion relations among the representation parameters and their correspond-
ing Stokes parameters. And finally, we propose a set of geometric relations between the electric and magnetic
fields that satisfy an equation similar to the Poincaré sphere equation. © 2011 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: 120.2130, 260.5430, 260.2110, 350.7420.

1. INTRODUCTION
There are many formalisms to describe polarized light: Stokes
parameters [1,2], Jones calculus [3,4], Poincaré sphere [5],
Mueller matrices [6], Pauli formalism [7–9], Jackson’s com-
plex vectors [10], complex numbers [11,12], and the more
recent pure operatorial Pauli algebraic approach [13–15].
All these formalisms are dependent on each other, and there
are fundamental textbooks [16,17] in polarization theory that
establish the correspondences between them.
Many of these formalisms, however, use the imaginary
number simply as a mathematical artifice for deriving equa-
tions: only the real part is physically meaningful; the imaginary
part is discarded. Also, the magnetic field is not explicitly in-
cluded in the description of polarized light. In this paper, we
wish to show that imaginary numbers are also physically
meaningful, especially in the description of electromagnetic
waves and polarized light. We shall do this using geometric
algebra.
Clifford (geometric) algebra was invented by Clifford in 1878
[18], but it was only applied to polarized light by Hestenes in
1971 [19], Baylis in 1993 [8], and Doran and Lasenby in 2003
[9]. Clifford algebra is compact and coherent. For example,
the geometric product of two vectors may be expressed as a
sum of their dot and cross products [20]:
ab ¼ a · b þ ia × b;
where i is a geometric product of three orthonormal vectors.
Except for the absence of the Pauli σ matrices, the geometric
product in Eq. (1) is similar to the Pauli identity in quantum
mechanics [21].
Using the identity in Eq. (1), we can define an electromag-
^ as a sum of its electric field vector and its
netic field E
imaginary magnetic field vector:
^ ¼ E þ iζH;
E ð2Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where ζ ¼ μ0 =ϵ0 is the ratio of E to H for the radiation field
as given in Haus and Melcher [22]. This expression lets us de-
fine an elliptically polarized electromagnetic wave in terms of
the exponential plane wave functions e
iðωt−kzÞ :
E þ iζH ¼ ðe1 þ ie2 Þ½aþ e−iðωt−kzþδþ Þ þ a− eiðωt−kz−δ− Þ : ð3Þ
In Baylis [8], Hestenes [19], and in Doran and Lasenby [9], the
electromagnetic field is given F ¼ E þ iB, because the mag-
netic flux density B and not the magnetic field H is the phy-
sical magnetic field in the Lorentz force. But we are following
the convention ofpJancewicz
ffiffiffi [23] wherein the electromagnetic
pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
field is given by ϵE þ μH. Dividing this by ϵ would yield
our expression in Eq. (2).
We shall not go into the Stokes subspace of the Poincaré
sphere [8,24], which is spanned by the 2 × 2 Pauli spin
matrices σ 1 ≡ e1 , σ 2 ≡ e2 , and σ 3 ≡ e3 . These matrices, which
also satisfy the orthonormality relation of Clifford algebra,
act on an abstract column vector defined as the spinor
ðaþ e−iδþ ; a− eiδ− Þ. Note that despite their formal similarity, the
Pauli spin matrices are not equivalent to the vectors e1 , e2 , and
e3 that span the real physical space.
Doran and Lasenby [9] have defined polarized light as
ð1Þ
E ¼ Reððc1 σ 1 þ c2 σ 2 Þe−ik·x Þ ¼ ReðEÞ: ð4Þ
We shall instead use the authors’ exponential relations to
transform the exponents in Eq. (2) from i to −ie3 . This allows
us to conveniently separate the vector and imaginary vector
parts to yield the relations for the electric and magnetic fields:
E ¼ e1 ½aþ eie3 ðωt−kzþδþ Þ þ a− e−ie3 ðωt−kz−δ− Þ ; ð5aÞ

1084-7529/12/010089-10$15.00/0 © 2012 Optical Society of America

90 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 Santos et al.

ζH ¼ e2 ½aþ eie3 ðωt−kzþδþ Þ þ a− e−ie3 ðωt−kz−δ− Þ :
In this form, both the electric and magnetic fields are ex-
pressed as sums of counter-rotating vectors with radii aþ
and a− , initial rotation angles δþ and δ− , and rotation param-
eters t and z for time and space. That is, the exponential of an
imaginary vector e
ie3 ðωt−kz
δ
Þ acts as a rotation operator to
the vectors e1 and e2 . Using the rules of geometric algebra, we
shall relate this form with two other known representations:
(i) Cartesian representation whose component oscillations
are along the x and y axes and (ii) rotated ellipse representa-
tion whose component oscillations are along the semimajor
and semiminor axes of the polarization ellipse.
The Stokes parameters S 0 , S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 are defined as
four observable quantities that characterize the polarization
state of light [25]. In the literature [3,26], there is no adequate
summary of the Stokes parameters in the three representa-
tions of polarized light, so we shall present this summary here.
We shall show that the Stokes parameters are related to the
geometry of the polarization ellipse and that the first Stokes
parameter S 0 corresponds to the magnitudes of the time-
averaged energy and momentum densities. Furthermore, we
shall define the field relation parameters:
s0 ¼ E2 þ ζ 2 H2 ;
s1 ¼ E2 − ζ 2 H2 ;
is2 ¼ 2iζE · H ¼ 2iζjEjjHj cos α;
ð5bÞ magnitude relations between the electric and magnetic fields.
Section 5 is the conclusion.
2. GEOMETRIC ALGEBRA
In this section we shall introduce the products of basis vectors
and complex numbers in geometric algebra and use these to
derive the associative geometric product of vectors as a sum
of their dot and imaginary cross products. By doing so, we
shall show that a general form of an element in geometric al-
gebra for three-dimensional space consists of a scalar, vector,
imaginary vector, and an imaginary scalar, which corresponds
to a magnitude, an oriented line segment, an oriented plane,
and an oriented volume, respectively. After this, we shall de-
velop the formalism for vector rotations. We shall start with
exponentials of imaginary scalars as rotation operators of
complex vectors. Then we shall proceed with exponentials
of imaginary vectors as rotation operators of vectors.
A. Vectors and Imaginary Numbers
There are many vector spaces in which geometric algebras
can be generated, but we shall focus on the geometric algebra
Cl3;0 , also known as the Pauli algebra [23], which is generated
ð6aÞ by the three orthonormal vectors e1 , e2 , and e3 of the physical
space. Any product of these three vectors satisfy the following
orthonormality axiom:
ð6bÞ
ej ek þ ek ej ¼ 2δjk : ð8Þ
ð6cÞ
This means that

s3 ¼ 2ζE × H ¼ 2e3 ζjEjjHj sin α; ð6dÞ e2j ¼ e2k ¼ 1; ð9aÞ

where α is the angle between the vectors E and H. Although

these parameters are not equivalent to the classical Stokes ej ek ¼ −ek ej ; j ≠ k: ð9bÞ
parameters, they are physically important because they define
the relationships between the electric and magnetic fields that In other words, parallel vectors commute while perpendicular
are not found in the classical Stokes parameters. Moreover, vectors anticommute.
the field relation parameters satisfy an equation similar to that The algebra also defines a trivector i,
of the Poincaré sphere:
i ¼ e1 e2 e3 ; ð10Þ
s20 ¼ s21 þ s22 þ s23 : ð7Þ
which has the following properties:
This paper is divided into six sections. Section 1 is the in-
troduction. In Section 2, we shall discuss geometric products i2 ¼ −1; ð11Þ
of vectors and rotation operators in geometric algebra Cl3;0 .
These operators are expressed in terms of the exponentials
of imaginary numbers and of imaginary vectors. In Section 3, ie1 ¼ e1 i ¼ e2 e3 ; ð12aÞ
we discuss Maxwell’s equation and its electromagnetic wave
solutions expressed as a sum of products of the circularly po-
larized basis and wave functions. We express in geometric al- ie2 ¼ e2 i ¼ e3 e1 ; ð12bÞ
gebra terms three classical representations of the polarization
ellipse: Cartesian [16], circular [17], and rotated ellipse repre-
sentations. In Section 4, we shall present the classical Stokes ie3 ¼ e3 i ¼ e1 e2 : ð12cÞ
parameters in all three representations. We shall also propose
a set of relations between the electric and magnetic fields in Equation (11) states that the trivector i is an imaginary
terms of four parameters: the sum and difference of their mag- number. Equations (12a)–(12c), on the other hand, state that
nitudes and their vector dot and cross products. We shall i not only commutes with vectors but also transforms these
show that these magnitudes are related to the electromagnetic vectors into oriented planes perpendicular to them. These
energy and momentum densities and the orthogonality and planes are called bivectors.
Santos et al. Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 91

B. Vector Products and Multivectors C. Vector Rotation via Exponentials of Trivectors

Let vectors a and b be defined as Because i2 ¼ −1, then by Euler’s theorem,

a ¼ a1 e1 þ a2 e2 þ a3 e3 ; ð13aÞ e
iθ ¼ cos θ
i sin θ; ð19Þ

which is a sum of a scalar and a trivector. From complex

b ¼ b1 e1 þ b2 e2 þ b3 e3 : ð13bÞ analysis, we know that

1
Their product is cos θ ¼ ðeiθ þ e−iθ Þ; ð20aÞ
2
ab ¼ a · b þ a∧b; ð14Þ
i
where sin θ ¼ − ðeiθ − e−iθ Þ: ð20bÞ
2

a · b ¼ a1 b1 þ a2 b2 þ a3 b3 ; ð15aÞ To rotate vectors using the exponential e
iθ , we cannot use

ordinary vectors as operands. Instead, we use the complex
vector in Jackson [10]:
a∧b ¼ e1 e2 ða1 b2 − a2 b1 Þ þ e2 e3 ða2 b3 − a3 b2 Þ
eþ ¼ e1 þ ie2 ; ð21Þ
þ e3 e1 ða3 b1 − a1 b3 Þ: ð15bÞ
and we extract the real part later. That is, if we define
Notice that the product of the two vectors a and b is the sum of
a scalar dot product a · b and a bivector wedge product a∧b. e1∓ þ ie2
¼ ðe1 þ ie2 Þe
iθ ; ð22Þ
Note that a · b is symmetric and a∧b is antisymmetric.
To relate the wedge product a∧b to the more familiar and we use Eq. (19) in Eq. (22), we obtain
cross product a × b, we use the relations in Eqs. (12a)–(12c)
to obtain e1∓ ¼ e1 cos θ∓e2 sin θ; ð23aÞ

a∧b ¼ ia × b:
Here, the bivector (oriented plane) a∧b is rewritten in terms
of the pseudovector a × b normal to the plane formed by a
and b.
Geometric algebra allows elements belonging to different
vector spaces to be added up; e.g., the geometric product
is the sum of a scalar and an imaginary vector. This means
that the most general form of the sum can be constructed
by having a linear combination of scalars, vectors, imaginary
vectors, and imaginary scalars:
^ ¼ a0 þ a1 þ ia2 þ ia3 ;
A ð17Þ
ð16Þ
e2
¼
e1 sin θ þ e2 cos θ; ð23bÞ
after separating the scalar and bivector parts. Geometrically,
e1þ is a rotation of e1 about e3 counterclockwise by an angle θ,
while e1− is similar except that the rotation is clockwise. On
the other hand, e2þ is a rotation of e2 about e3 clockwise by an
angle θ, while e2− is similar except that the rotation is counter-
clockwise (Fig. 1).
D. Vector Rotation via Exponentials of Bivectors
Because ðie3 Þ2 ¼ ðe1 e2 Þ2 ¼ −1, then by Euler’s theorem [28],
e
ie3 θ ¼ cos θ
ie3 sin θ ¼ cos θ
e1 e2 sin θ; ð24Þ

where a0 and a3 are scalars and a1 and a2 are vectors. The which is a sum of a scalar and a bivector. From complex ana-
^ † of A
spatial inverse A ^ is obtained by reversing the sign of
lysis, the relations corresponding to Eqs. (20a) and (20b) are
^
every vector in A:
1
^ † ¼ a0 − a1 þ ia2 − ia3 ; cos θ ¼ ðeie3 θ þ e−ie3 θ Þ; ð25aÞ
A ð18Þ 2

which is similar to the parity operation in Sakurai [27] except

1
that we define i ¼ e1 e2 e3 , which changes sign under the parity sin θ ¼ − ie3 ðeie3 θ − e−ie3 θ Þ: ð25bÞ
2
operation. Notice that scalars and imaginary vectors do not
change sign under the parity operation, while vectors and ima- The product of e1 and e2 with the bivector ie3 is also a rotation
ginary scalars do. Note that the dagger notation used here is of these two vectors about e3 counterclockwise by an angle
not the same as the reversion operator, such as in Hestenes π=2:
and Sobczyk [20], which reverses the order of the vector fac-
tors, so that the reverse of A ^ is a0 − a1 − ia2 − ia3 . This is not e1 ie3 ¼ e1 e1 e2 ¼ e2 ; ð26aÞ
the same as Eq. (18). The definition of spatial inversion in
Eq. (18) is actually the same as the automorphic grade involu-
tion in Baylis [8]. e2 ie3 ¼ e2 e1 e2 ¼ −e1 ; ð26bÞ
92 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 Santos et al.

where we used the relation in Eq. (12c). In general, if we want where

to rotate e1 and e2 about e3 arbitrarily by an angle θ, we right-
multiply these two vectors by e
ie3 θ in Eq. (24), where the ne- ^ ¼ E þ iζH;
E ð32aÞ
gative sign means clockwise rotation and the positive sign
means counterclockwise rotation:
∂ 1∂
¼ þ∇ ð32bÞ
e1 e
ie3 θ ¼ e1 cos θ
e2 sin θ; ð27aÞ ∂ ^r c ∂t

are the electromagnetic field [29,31] and the space–time deri-

ie3 θ
e2 e ¼ ∓e1 sin θ þ e2 cos θ: ð27bÞ vative operator, respectively. Distributing the space–time de-
rivative operator and applying the definition of the geometric
Comparing Eqs. (27a), (27b), (23a), and (23b), we get product to the nabla operator, we get

e1∓ ¼ e1 e∓ie3 θ ; ð28aÞ ∇ · E ¼ 0; ð33aÞ

e2
¼ e2 e∓ie3 θ : ð28bÞ 1 ∂E

− ζ∇ × H ¼ 0; ð33bÞ
c ∂t
Adding Eqs. (28a) and (28b), and using Eq. (22), we arrive at

ðe1 þ ie2 Þe
iθ ¼ ðe1 þ ie2 Þe∓ie3 θ : ð29Þ ζ ∂H

∇×Eþ ¼ 0; ð33cÞ
c ∂t
Equation (29) is the exponential conversion relations for
vector rotations.
∇ · H ¼ 0; ð33dÞ
The products of the unit vectors with the exponential e
ie3 θ
are
after separating the scalar, vector, bivector, and trivector
parts. Equations (33a)–(33d) are Gauss’s law, Ampere’s
e1 e
ie3 θ ¼ e∓ie3 θ e1 ; ð30aÞ
law, Faraday’s Law, and the magnetic flux continuity law,
respectively.
e2 e
ie3 θ ¼ e∓ie3 θ e2 ; ð30bÞ
B. Circularly and Elliptically Polarized Electromagnetic
Waves
e3 e
ie3 θ ¼ e
ie3 θ e3 : ð30cÞ We assume the following electromagnetic plane wave solution
to Maxwell’s equation:
Notice that e1 and e2 change the sign of the exponent upon
swapping while e3 will not change the sign of the exponent. ^
¼ E
þ iζH
¼ eþ a
E ~
ψ~
1 ; ð34Þ

3. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
In this section, we show how the four Maxwell’s equations in
free space may be combined in a single equation that states
that the space–time derivative of the electromagnetic field is
zero, where the vector electromagnetic field is a sum of a vec-
tor electric field and a bivector magnetic field. We shall show
that a solution to Maxwell’s equation is a circularly polarized
electromagnetic wave, and from this we construct an ellipti-
cally polarized wave solution. Using geometric algebra, we
shall transform the elliptically polarized solution from an ex-
pression containing exponentials of trivectors to another con-
taining exponentials of bivectors. After this, we convert the
circular basis representation of elliptically polarized light to
the Cartesian and rotated ellipse representations.
A. Maxwell’s Equation
Maxwell’s equation for electromagnetic fields in free space
can be expressed in geometric algebra as a single equation
[29,30]:
∂E^
¼ 0; ð31Þ
∂ ^r
where
eþ ¼ e1 þ ie2 ; ð35aÞ
~
¼ a
eiδ
;
a ð35bÞ
ψ~
1 ¼ e∓iðωt−kzÞ : ð35cÞ
Here, a~
is the complex amplitude and ψ~
1 is the wave func-
tion. Note that though we use a complex
pffiffiffi vector eþ that is pro-
portional to Jackson’spϵffiffiþffi ¼ eþ = 2, we shall not use his other
basis ϵ− ¼ ðe1 − ie2 Þ= 2; the complex vector eþ is sufficient
for our purposes.
In order to understand the physical meaning of Eq. (34), we
substitute Eqs. (35a)–(35c) into our solution,
^
¼ E
þ iζH
¼ ðe1 þ ie2 Þa
e∓iðωt−kz∓δ
Þ :
E ð36Þ
Separating the vector and bivector parts, we arrive at
E
¼ e1 a
cosðωt − kz∓δ
Þ
e2 a
sinðωt − kz∓δ
Þ; ð37aÞ
Santos et al. Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 93

uses the imaginary number i to unify the electric and magnetic

fields and convert one to the other as the wave propagates
in space and time as shown by Eqs. (37a) and (37b). Thus,
Fig. 1. Rotation of the unit vectors e1 and e2 counterclockwise by in geometric algebra, a circularly polarized light is a more nat-
an angle θ about the unit vector e3 . The new vectors are e01 ¼ e1 eie3 θ ural expression for the polarized monochromatic electromag-
and e02 ¼ e2 eie3 θ . The unit vector e3 is pointing out of the page.
netic plane wave.
Now that we have established that Eq. (34) is a circularly
ζH
¼ e2 a
cosðωt − kz∓δ
Þ∓e1 a
sinðωt − kz∓δ
Þ: ð37bÞ polarized electromagnetic wave, we now verify if it does in-
deed satisfies Maxwell’s equation in Eq. (31). Substituting
Equations (37a) and (37b) describe circularly polarized elec-
Eq. (34) to Maxwell’s equation in Eq. (31), we get
tric and magnetic fields. If the subscript of E and H is positive,
then the polarization is left-circularly polarized. If negative, ^
 
∂E ω
the polarization is right-circularly polarized. ¼ ∓i a
ψ~
1 ¼ 0:
− ke3 ðe1 þ ie2 Þ~ ð42Þ
To make the expressions for these fields more compact, we ∂ ^r c
use the theorem in Eq. (29) for Eq. (36) to get
Because ω=c ¼ k by the wave condition [29] and
^
¼ E
þ iζH
¼ ðe1 þ ie2 Þa
e
E
ie3 ðωt−kz
δ
Þ
ð1 − e3 Þðe1 þ ie2 Þ ¼ ð1 − e3 Þð1 þ e3 Þe1 ¼ 0; ð43Þ
¼ e1 a
e
ie3 ðωt−kz
δ
Þ
ie2 a
e
ie3 ðωt−kz
δ
Þ : ð38Þ
then the electromagnetic wave Eq. (34) is indeed a solution to
Separating the vector and bivector parts, we obtain Maxwell’s equation in Eq. (31).
We may also rewrite Eq. (42) in a coordinate-free way as
E
¼ e1 a
e
ie3 ðωt−kz
δ
Þ ; ð39aÞ  
∂E^
ω
¼ ∓i − k ðE
þ iζH
Þ ¼ 0; ð44Þ
∂ ^r c
ζH
¼ e2 a
e
ie3 ðωt−kz
δ
Þ ; ð39bÞ
where we used the relations in Eq. (34) together with k ¼ ke3 .
after factoring out i in the second equation. Notice that the Factoring out the trivector i in Eq. (44) and separating the
electric field E
, the magnetic field H
, and the wave vector scalar, vector, bivector, and trivector parts, we get [30]
k ¼ ke3 are mutually perpendicular, and that E
and H
are
rotating about k in time t for a fixed position r ¼ r 0 e3 (Fig. 2). k · E
¼ 0; ð45aÞ
If the sign of the exponential argument before ie3 is positive,
then the rotation is counterclockwise in time; if negative, then
ω
the rotation is clockwise. E þ ζk × H
¼ 0; ð45bÞ
Normally in the literature, instead of eþ ¼ e1 þ ie2 , only e1 c

is used, so that instead of the complex monochromatic elec-
tromagnetic plane wave in Eq. (36), we have ω
i ζH
− ik × E
¼ 0; ð45cÞ
c
~
¼ e1 a
e∓iðωt−kz∓δ
Þ :
E ð40Þ

Separating the vector and imaginary vector parts, we get iζk · H
¼ 0: ð45dÞ

~
Þ ¼ e1 a
cosðωt − kz∓δ
Þ;
ReðE ð41aÞ Because the electric field E
and the magnetic field H
are
both perpendicular to the wave vector k as given in Eqs. (45a)
and (45d), then we may rewrite the cross products of k with
~
Þ ¼ ∓ie1 a
sinðωt − kz∓δ
Þ:
ImðE ð41bÞ E
and H
in terms of the geometric product:

k
By convention, only the real part describes the electric field E
− iζ H ¼ 0; ð46aÞ
and the imaginary part is discarded, so that Eq. (40) only de- jkj

scribes a linearly polarized light. Comparing this result with
the circularly polarized wave expression in Eq. (36), we see
k
the conciseness and completeness of geometric algebra that ζH
þ i E ¼ 0; ð46bÞ
jkj

after factoring out ω=c ¼ jkj. Notice that these two equations
are equal. For example, if we left multiply Eq. (46b) by −ik=jkj
we get Eq. (46a), because k2 ¼ jkj2 .
Using Eq. (46b), we may rewrite the electromagnetic field
^
as
E
Fig. 2. Rotation of the electric field E and magnetic field H with zero
initial phase angle. The initial field vectors E0 and H0 point along the  
^
¼ E
þ iζH
¼ k
e1 and e2 directions and are rotated by an angle ϕ ¼ ωt − kz. The wave E 1þ E : ð47Þ
vector k is pointing out of the page. jkj

94 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 Santos et al.

From this we see that iζH
is the same as the bivector or

oriented plane formed by the unit vector k=jkj and electric
field E
:
k k
iζH
¼ E ¼ ∧E
: ð48Þ
jkj
jkj

C. Representations of Polarization Ellipse

In general, the solution to Maxwell’s equation with frequency
ω is a linear superposition of wave functions ψ~ −1 and ψ~ [29]:
Fig. 3. Circular basis representation of the elliptically polarized light
^ ¼ ^eþ ð~
E ~− ψ~ −1 Þ;
aþ ψ~ þ a ð49Þ E as the sum of two vectors rotating in opposite directions with radii
aþ and a− and initial phase angles δþ and δ− . The semimajor axis is
E1 ¼ aþ þ a− , the semiminor axis is E2 ¼ aþ − a− , and the tilt angle is
which can be shown to be an expression for elliptically polar- β=2 ¼ ðδþ þ δ− Þ=2.
ized light, if we only work in the complex plane by plotting
only the curve traced by the expression a a− ψ~ −1 as dis-
~þ ψ~ þ~ phasors in complex analysis as an accessory to vector analy-
cussed in Azzam and Bashara [16] and Klein and Furtak sis, we do not take the real vector part and discard the ima-
[12]. We use Eq. (29) to transform the general electromagnetic ginary vector part of the electric field E because the result of
wave expression in Eq. (49) to obtain the rotations is still a vector.
Using Euler’s theorem in Eq. (24) and the identity e1 ie3 ¼ e2
^ ¼ ^eþ ð^
E ^− ψ^ −1 Þ;
aþ ψ^ þ a ð50Þ in Eq. (26a), Eq. (53) becomes

where E ¼ e1 ðaþ cosðϕ þ δþ Þ þ a− cosðϕ − δ− ÞÞ

^
¼ a
e ie3 δ

a ; ð51aÞ þ e2 ðaþ sinðϕ þ δþ Þ − a− sinðϕ − δ− ÞÞ: ð55Þ

This may be rewritten as

ψ^
1 ¼ e
ie3 ðωt−kzÞ : ð51bÞ
E ¼ E x cosðϕ þ δx Þe1 þ E y cosðϕ þ δy Þe2 ; ð56Þ
Note that ψ~ ¼ e−iðωt−kzÞ in Eq. (49) is an exponential of an ima-
ginary number or trivector, while ψ^ ¼ eie3 ðωt−kzÞ in Eq. (50) is
where
an exponential of an imaginary vector or bivector.
E x ¼ ½a2þ þ a2− þ 4aþ a− cosðδþ þ δ− Þ2 ; ð57aÞ
1
Separating the vector and imaginary vector parts of the
transformed electromagnetic wave expression in Eq. (50)
yields the electric and magnetic fields:
Ey ¼ ½a2þ þ a2− − 4aþ a− cosðδþ þ δ− Þ2 ; ð57bÞ
1

^− ψ Þ;
aþ ψ^ þ a
E ¼ e1 ð^ ^ −1 ð52aÞ
 
aþ sin δþ − a− sin δ−
δx ¼ arctan ; ð57cÞ
aþ cos δþ þ a− cos δ−
ζH ¼ e2 ð^
aþ ψ ^− ψ^ −1 Þ:
^ þa ð52bÞ
 
Because the electric and magnetic fields have the same ellip- a− cos δ− − aþ cos δþ
δy ¼ arctan : ð57dÞ
tically polarized wave expression except that the unit vectors aþ sin δþ þ a− sin δ−
rotated for the electric field is e1 and that for the magnetic
field is e2 , then it is sufficient, from this point onward, to dis- Equation (56) is the Cartesian basis representation of ellipti-
cuss only the electric field. cally polarized light, interpreted as a sum of two orthogonal
Using the definitions of a ^
and ψ^
1 in Eqs. (51a) and (51b), oscillations with E x and Ey as the amplitudes along the x and
we may rewrite the electric field in Eq. (52a) as y axes, respectively, with δx and δy as the initial phase angles
of oscillation (Fig. 4). Equations (64a) and (57d) are the ex-
E ¼ e1 ½aþ eie3 ðϕþδþ Þ þ a− e−ie3 ðϕ−δ− Þ ; ð53Þ pressions of the Cartesian basis parameters in terms of the
circular basis parameters. Their inverse relations are
where
1
a
¼ ½E 2x ∓2Ex Ey sinð
ðδx − δy ÞÞ þ E 2y 2 ; ð58aÞ
1

ϕ ¼ ωt − kz: ð54Þ 2

Equation (53) is the circular basis representation of elliptically  

Ex cos δx − E y cos δy
polarized light, interpreted as a sum of two vectors of lengths δþ ¼ arctan ; ; ð58bÞ
aþ and a− that are rotating counterclockwise and clockwise, E x sin δx þ E y sin δy
respectively, with initial phase angles δþ and δ− from the po-
sitive x axis (Fig. 3). Notice that the exponentials eie3 ðϕþδþ Þ and  
e−ie3 ðϕ−δ− Þ act as vector rotation operators on the vectors aþ e1 E x sin δx − E y cos δy
δ− ¼ − arctan : ð58cÞ
and a− e1 . Thus, unlike in Klein and Furtak [12], which uses E x cos δx þ Ey sin δy
Santos et al. Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 95

Fig. 4. Cartesian basis representation of elliptically polarized light Fig. 5. Rotated ellipse representation of the elliptically polarized
Eδx δy as a sum of two orthogonal oscillations with amplitudes Ex light Eδβ as a rotated ellipse with semimajor axis E1 , semiminor axis
and E y , and initial phase angles δx and δy . E2 and tilt angle β=2.

On the other hand, if we define 1
E1 ¼ ðE 2x þ 2Ex Ey sinðδx − δy Þ þ E2y Þ2
1

2

1
a
¼ ðE 1
E2 Þ; ð59aÞ þ ðE 2x − 2E x Ey sinðδx − δy Þ þ E 2y Þ2 ; ð63aÞ
1

2

β E2 ¼
1
ðE2x þ 2Ex E y sinðδx − δy Þ þ E2y Þ2
1
δ
¼
δ þ ; ð59bÞ
2 2

− ðE2x − 2Ex E y sinðδx − δy Þ þ E2y Þ2 ; ð63bÞ
1
and substitute these relations into Eq. (53), we get

    
1 1 1 Ex cos δx − Ey cos δy
E ¼ e1 ðE 1 þ E2 Þeie3 ðϕþδÞ þ ðE1 − E 2 Þe−ie3 ðϕþδÞ eie3 β=2 : δ¼ arctan
2 2 2 Ex sin δx þ Ey sin δy
 
ð60Þ Ex sin δx − Ey cos δy
þ arctan ; ð63cÞ
Ex cos δx þ E y sin δy
Using Euler’s theorem in Eq. (24) and the identity e1 ie3 ¼ e2 in
Eqs. (26a) and (60) becomes   
β 1 Ex cos δx − E y cos δy
¼ arctan
2 2 E x sin δx þ E y sin δy
E ¼ ½E 1 cosðϕ þ δÞe1 þ E 2 sinðϕ þ δÞe2 eie3 β=2 : ð61Þ  
Ex sin δx − Ey cos δy
− arctan : ð63dÞ
Equation (61) is the rotated ellipse representation of ellipti- Ex cos δx þ E y sin δy
cally polarized light, interpreted as an ellipse with initial phase
Their inverse relations are
angle δ, semimajor axes lengths E 1 and E 2 , that is rotated
 2 1
counterclockwise about e3 by an angle β=2 (Fig. 5). The ad- E þ E 22 þ ðE21 − E 22 Þ cos β 2
Ex ¼ 1 ; ð64aÞ
vantage of using geometric algebra in this representation is 2
that the ellipse E 1 cosðϕ þ δÞe1 þ E 2 sinðϕ þ δÞe2 can be easily
 1
rotated via the action of the exponential of the bivector ie3 . E21 þ E 22 − ðE 21 − E22 Þ cos β 2
Ey ¼ ; ð64bÞ
Equations (59a) and (59b) are the circular basis parameters 2
in terms of the rotated ellipse representation parameters.
 
The inverse relations are E1 sin δ cos β=2 þ E 2 cos δ sin β=2
δx ¼ arctan ; ð64cÞ
E1 cos δ cos β=2 − E 2 sin δ sin β=2
E 1 ¼ aþ þ a− ; ð62aÞ  
E1 sin δ sin β=2 − E2 cos δ cos β=2
δy ¼ arctan : ð64dÞ
E1 cos δ sin β=2 þ E 2 sin δ cos β=2
E 2 ¼ aþ − a− ; ð62bÞ

1
δ ¼ ðδþ − δ− Þ; ð62cÞ 4. STOKES AND FIELD RELATION
2
PARAMETERS
In this section, we derive the Stokes parameters in the rotated
β 1 ellipse and circular basis representations starting with the
¼ ðδ þ δ− Þ: ð62dÞ
2 2 þ Stokes parameters in the Cartesian basis representation, by
using the basis parameter relations that are given in the pre-
For completeness, we express the rotated ellipse vious section. After this we discuss the field relation param-
parameters (E 1 , E2 , δ, β=2) in terms of the Cartesian basis eters that also satisfy an equation similar to the Poincaré
parameters (E x , E y , δx , δy ): sphere equation.
96 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 Santos et al.

A. Classical Stokes Parameters S 0 ¼ 2ða2− þ a2þ Þ; ð68aÞ

The Stokes parameters in the Cartesian basis representation
in Eq. (56) are widely known in the literature. They are de-
fined as [11,32,33] S 1 ¼ 4aþ a− cosðδþ þ δ− Þ; ð68bÞ

S 0 ¼ E2x þ E 2y ; ð65aÞ
S 2 ¼ 4aþ a− sinðδþ þ δ− Þ; ð68cÞ

S 1 ¼ E2x − E 2y ; ð65bÞ
S 3 ¼ 2ða2− − a2þ Þ: ð68dÞ

S 2 ¼ 2E x E y cosðδx − δy Þ; ð65cÞ Equations (68a)–(68d) say that the Stokes parameters only
depend on the radii a− and aþ of the counter-rotating vectors
in the circular basis and the sum δþ þ δ− of the initial phase
S 3 ¼ 2Ex E y sinðδx − δy Þ: ð65dÞ angles.

The parameter S 0 describes the total intensity of the optical
field, S 1 describes the preponderance of linearly horizontally
polarized light over linearly vertically polarized light, S 2 de-
scribes the preponderance of linear þ45° polarized light over
linear −45° polarized light, and the fourth parameter S 3 de-
scribes the preponderance of right-circularly polarized light
over left-circularly polarized light [25]. The definition of the
Stokes parameters in Eqs. (65a)–(65d) will be used in deriving
the Stokes parameters for the rotated ellipse and the circular
basis representations.
We can show that the Stokes parameters in Eqs. (65a)–
(65d) can be expressed in the rotated ellipse representation
(E1 , E2 , δ, β=2) as
S 0 ¼ E 21 þ E 22 ; ð66aÞ
S 1 ¼ ðE21 − E 22 Þ cos β; ð66bÞ
B. Field Relation Parameters
To determine the relationship between E and H as defined
in Eqs. (52a) and (52b), we first take their squares and their
products:
E2 ¼ ζ 2 H2 ¼ a2þ þ a2− þ 2aþ a− cosð2ϕ þ δþ þ δ− Þ; ð69aÞ
ζEH ¼ −ζHE ¼ ie3 ½a2þ þ a2− þ 2aþ a− cosð2ϕ þ δþ þ δ− Þ;
ð69bÞ
where we used the relations (30a) and (30b) and the exponen-
tial definition of the cosine in Eq. (20a). Adding and subtract-
ing these squares and products, we get
s0 ≡ E2 þ ζ 2 H2 ¼ 2½a2þ þ a2− þ 2aþ a− cosð2ϕ þ δþ þ δ− Þ;
ð70aÞ

s1 ≡ E2 − ζ 2 H2 ¼ 0; ð70bÞ
S2 ¼ ðE 21 − E22 Þ sin β; ð66cÞ

is2 ≡ 2iζE · H ¼ 0; ð70cÞ

S 3 ¼ 2E1 E2 ; ð66dÞ

where we used the relations in Eqs. (64a)–(64d), together with s3 ≡ 2ζE × H ¼ 2e3 ½a2þ þ a2− þ 2aþ a− cosð2ϕ þ δþ þ δ− Þ;
the identities ð70dÞ

θ where s0 , s1 , s2 , and s3 are what we shall define as the field

sinðarctan θÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; ð67aÞ
1 þ θ2
1 lation shows that the energy density U ¼ ðϵ0 E2 þ μ0 H2 Þ=2 is
cosðarctan θÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð67bÞ
1 þ θ2
Notice that the Stokes parameters Eqs. (66a)–(66d) do not de-
pend on the elliptical phase angle δ, but only on the geometric
parameters of the ellipse: semimajor axis E1 , semiminor axis
E 2 , and tilt angle β=2 (Fig. 5), assuming that E 1 is greater
than E2 .
The Stokes parameters in the circular basis representation
[17,28] can be derived by substituting relations Eqs. (62a),
(62b), and (62d) in the Stokes parameters of the rotated
ellipse representation in Eqs. (66a)–(66d):
relation parameters. Equations (70a) and (70d) are new re-
sults for elliptically polarized light, but Eqs. (70b) and (70c)
are familiar relations for electromagnetic waves. The first re-
varying in space and time according to the wave function ar-
gument 2ϕ ¼ 2ðωt − kzÞ [8,29]. The second relation shows that
the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields are propor-
tional, jEj ¼ ζjHj [34]. The third relation shows that the dot
product of the electric and magnetic fields is zero, which
means that E and H are perpendicular. And the fourth relation
shows that the momentum density S=c2 ¼ ðE × HÞ=c2 is
proportional to the energy density U ¼ jSj=c, which corre-
sponds to the well-known relation for light E ¼ pc [35].
Notice that if we set ϕ ¼ 0, which means t ¼ 0 at z ¼ 0, then
the field relations (70a) and (70d) reduce to
Santos et al. Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012 / J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 97

s0 jϕ¼0 ¼ E2 þ ζ 2 H2 ¼ S 0 þ S 1 ;
s3 jϕ¼0 ¼ 2ζE × H ¼ e3 ðS 0 þ S 1 Þ;
where S 0 and S 1 are the classical Stokes parameters.
Taking the time average over one optical period τ ¼ 2π=ω
of Eqs. (70a)–(70d) as similarly done in Baylis [8], we get
hs0 i ¼ hE2 þ ζ 2 H2 i ¼ 2ða2þ þ a2− Þ;
hs1 i ¼ hE2 − ζ 2 H2 i ¼ 0;
ð71aÞ sphere, these parameters are not identical to the Stokes
parameters. But even then, the field relation parameters com-
plement the Stokes parameters because the former provides a
ð71bÞ geometric interpretation for the geometric relations of the
electric field E and the magnetic field H. For monochromatic
plane waves that we considered in this paper, the E and H are
orthogonal in direction and proportional in magnitude to each
other so that s1 and s2 are zero. But when light is a mixture of
several polarization states propagating in different directions,
ð72aÞ the net electric and magnetic fields of the superposition are
not necessarily perpendicular and proportional so that s1
and s2 will not be zero. From these two parameters we can
ð72bÞ determine the relative magnitudes and directions of the time-
averaged electric and magnetic fields.

his2 i ¼ h2iζE · Hi ¼ 0; ð72cÞ 5. CONCLUSION

In this paper, we have presented a geometric algebra formal-
ism for polarized light. We started with Maxwell’s equation in
hs3 i ¼ h2ζE × Hi ¼ 2e3 ða2þ þ a2− Þ: ð72dÞ
free space and proposed an electromagnetic plane wave solu-
tion in terms of the product of a circular basis vector with the
Notice that the magnitudes of the energy and momentum
linear combination of a wave function and its complex con-
densities are equal to the first Stokes parameter S 0 .
^ in jugate. We transformed the complex-valued wave functions
Taking the spatial inverse of the electromagnetic field E
and their coefficients into terms involving the exponentials
Eq. (50), we obtain
of an imaginary vector. This transformation allows us to
immediately separate the electric and magnetic fields of the
^ † ¼ −E þ iζH;
E ð73Þ electromagnetic wave by taking its vector and imaginary
vectors parts.
where E and H are defined in Eqs. (52a) and (52b), respec- Because the electric and magnetic fields are similar in form,
tively. It can be shown that the field relation parameters we only considered the electric field component as done in the
defined in Eqs. (70a)–(70d) are related to the product of the literature. This electric field is the sum of two counter-rotating
electromagnetic field and its spatial inverse: vectors with the exponentials of imaginary vectors acting as
vector rotation operators. Using the identities in geometric al-
^E
E ^ ¼ s1 þ is2 ; ð74aÞ gebra, we showed that this representation is equivalent to the
two other representations: (i) the rotated ellipse representa-
tion whose component oscillations are along the semimajor
E ^ † ¼ s1 − is2 ;
^ †E ð74bÞ and semiminor axes of the polarization ellipse and (ii) Carte-
sian basis representations whose component oscillations are
along the x and y axes. We computed the relations between
E ^ ¼ −s0 − s3 ;
^† E ð74cÞ the three sets of representation parameters. We also com-
puted the Stokes parameters in the different representations
and provided interpretations based on the geometry of the el-
^E
E ^ † ¼ −s0 − s3 : ð74dÞ lipse. We showed that the first Stokes parameter corresponds
to the magnitudes of the time-averaged energy and momen-
Notice that using the expansions in Eqs. (74a) and (74b), we tum densities. We showed that the electric and magnetic fields
may combine the relations in Eqs. (72b) and (72c) into are perpendicular in direction and proportional in magnitude.
^E
E ^ ¼ E † E † ¼ 0. We also defined the field relation parameters in terms of the
Now, the product of E ^† E
^ with its spatial inverse can be sum and difference of the squares of the electric and magnetic
expressed as fields and their dot and cross products. And like the Stokes
parameters, they also satisfy an equation similar to the
^E
ðE ^ † EÞ
^ † ÞðE ^ ¼ ðE
^ †E ^ EÞ;
^ † ÞðE ^ ð75Þ Poincaré sphere equation.
The presentation in this paper of polarized light via geo-
because the products are associative and E ^ †E
^ † is a scalar by metric algebra has several advantages over the other formal-
Eq. (74b). Substituting Eqs. (74a)–(74d) into Eq. (75), we get isms. The first advantage is the unifying power of geometric
the relation [31] algebra. Geometric algebra unifies complex and vector ana-
lyses, the four Maxwell’s equations, and the electric and mag-
s20 − s23 ¼ s21 þ s22 : ð76Þ netic wave solutions. The second advantage is that we do not
disregard imaginary quantities at the end of each computation
Equation (76) is similar in form to the Poincaré sphere as is usually done in the literature. Instead, we use imaginary
equation [2,3]. vectors to express rotation operators and to distinguish the
Though the field relation parameters s0 , s1 , is2 , and s3 in magnetic from the electric field. The third advantage is we
Eqs. (70a)–(70d) satisfy an equation similar to the Poincaré can use the machinery of geometric algebra to convert
98 J. Opt. Soc. Am. A / Vol. 29, No. 1 / January 2012
different representations of polarized light. The exponential
rotation operators of vectors are used to describe the tilt of
the polarization ellipse and to describe its counter-rotating
vector components. The fourth advantage is that we define
the field relation parameters which describe the geometric re-
lations between the electric and magnetic fields. The vanish-
ing of the second and third field relation parameters means
that the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to
each other and proportional in magnitude. The nonvanishing
first and fourth field relation parameters correspond to the
electromagnetic energy and momentum densities, whose time
averages are proportional to the first Stokes parameter.
In a future work, we shall extend our geometric algebra
formalism to optical elements such as rotators, attenuators,
phase shifters, polarizers, and birefringent crystals, and dis-
cuss the significance of the field relation parameters. We shall
also discuss partially polarized light and its relationships to
Fourier analysis and Hilbert spaces in geometric algebra.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is funded by the Asian Office of Aerospace
Research and Development with award number FA2386-10-
1-4162.
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