Modular Algebra PDF

Solving Linear Congruences Chinese Remainder Theorem Moduli are not Relatively Prime Properties of Euler’s φ Functio
Chapter 4 - Solving Linear Congruences,

Chinese Remainder Theorem, and Euler’s Φ
Function
March 3, 2007
Chapter 4 - Solving Linear Congruences, Chinese Remainder Theorem, and Euler’s Φ Function
1 Solving Linear Congruences
2 Chinese Remainder Theorem
3 Moduli are not Relatively Prime
4 Properties of Euler’s φ Function
Lemma 4.1
Lemma 4.1
Given relatively prime integers a and m, there exists an integer
b, unique modulo m, such that
a × b ≡ 1 (mod m).
Lemma 4.1
Lemma 4.1
Given relatively prime integers a and m, there exists an integer
b, unique modulo m, such that
a × b ≡ 1 (mod m).
Definition
If a × b ≡ 1 (mod m), then we say that b is the inverse of a
modulo m.
Proof of Lemma 4.1
Proof of Lemma 4.1

By the Euclidean algorithm (Algorithm 1.8) we can find integers
b and c such that
a × b + m × c = 1.
This means that a × b is congruent to 1 modulo m.
Let e be any other integer satisfying
a × e ≡ 1 (mod m).
Proof of Lemma 4.1 - Cont.

Then,
e ≡ e × (a × b) (mod m)
≡ (a × e) × b (mod m)
≡ b (mod m)
Chinese Remainder Theorem
We need to prove that if p and q are distinct primes, then
φ(p × q) = (p − 1) × (q − 1).
We need to prove that if p and q are distinct primes, then
φ(p × q) = (p − 1) × (q − 1).
We will prove more. The starting point is an algorithm that

appeared in the first century A.D. simultaneously in China,
in the writings of Sun-Tsu, and in Judea, in a book by
Nichomachus of Gerasa.
Theorem 4.4
Let m1 , m2 , . . . , mr be positive integers that are pairwise
relatively prime (i.e., no two share a common factor larger than
one). Let a1 , a2 , . . . , ar be arbitrary integers. Then there exists
an integer a such that
a ≡ a1 (mod m1 )
≡ a2 (mod m2 )
..
.
≡ ar (mod mr ).
Furthermore, a is unique modulo M = m1 × m2 × · · · mr .
Proof of Theorem 4.4
Proof of Theorem 4.4

We will actually find an algorithm for constructing a. For each i
from 1 up to r , define Mi by
Mi = (M/mi )φ(mi ) .
Since M/mi is relatively prime to mi and divisible by mj for

every j not equal to i, we have that
Mi ≡ 1 (mod mi )
Mj ≡ 0 (mod mi )
for every j not equal to i.
Proof of Theorem 4.4 - Cont.

Define a by
a = a1 × M1 + a2 × M2 + · · · + ar × Mr .

Define a by
a = a1 × M1 + a2 × M2 + · · · + ar × Mr .
To see that a is unique modulo M, let b be any other integer

satisfying the r congruences. Then for each mi , a and b are
congruent modulo mi . In other words, mi divides b − a. Since
this is true for every i, M divides b − a which means that
a≡b (mod M).

Define a by
a = a1 × M1 + a2 × M2 + · · · + ar × Mr .
To see that a is unique modulo M, let b be any other integer

satisfying the r congruences. Then for each mi , a and b are
congruent modulo mi . In other words, mi divides b − a. Since
this is true for every i, M divides b − a which means that
a≡b (mod M).
Of course, one need only compute the values of Mi modulo

M, which keeps the computations a little more reasonable.
Question
What if two or more of the moduli are divisible by the same

prime? The Chinese Remainder Theorem does not work in
this case.
Question
What if two or more of the moduli are divisible by the same

prime? The Chinese Remainder Theorem does not work in
this case.
We first observe that if we have a congruence with a
modulus which is divisible by more than one prime, then
we can split our single congruence into several
congruences as long as the new moduli are relatively
prime and their product is the original modulus.
Example
Example
x ≡ 3 (mod 45)
Example
Example
x ≡ 3 (mod 45)
is equivalent to
x ≡3 (mod 5) and x ≡ 3 (mod 9).
Example
Example
x ≡ 3 (mod 45)
is equivalent to
x ≡3 (mod 5) and x ≡ 3 (mod 9).
The equivalence is a consequence of the Chinese Remainder

Theorem.
Procedure and Example
Procedure
Let us assume that in our system of congruences we have two
moduli say m1 and m2 that are both divisible by the same prime
p.
Procedure
p. We split each of our congruences into two congruences as
explained above where one of the new moduli is the highest
power of p dividing m1 or m2 , respectively.
Procedure
p. We split each of our congruences into two congruences as
explained above where one of the new moduli is the highest
power of p dividing m1 or m2 , respectively.
Example
As an example, the two congruences
x ≡ 3 (mod 45)
x ≡ 7 (mod 756)
Example - Cont.
Example - Cont.
are split into four congruences:
x ≡ 3 (mod 9)
x ≡ 7 (mod 27)
x ≡ 3 (mod 5)
x ≡ 7 (mod 28).
Example - Cont.
Example - Cont.
are split into four congruences:
x ≡ 3 (mod 9)
x ≡ 7 (mod 27)
x ≡ 3 (mod 5)
x ≡ 7 (mod 28).
We now have two congruences that both involve powers of p.

One of two things has to happen:
Two Things
Two Things
1. The congruences are contradictory and so there are no
solutions. This is the case with the example given above. If
x ≡ 3 (mod 9), then x ≡ 3, 12, or 21 (mod 27). or
Two Things
Two Things
1. The congruences are contradictory and so there are no
solutions. This is the case with the example given above. If
x ≡ 3 (mod 9), then x ≡ 3, 12, or 21 (mod 27). or 2. Both of
the congruences for powers of p are implied by the congruence
with the higher power. This means we can get rid of one of our
equations, leaving us with three congruences with relatively
prime moduli for which we can use the Chinese Remainder
Theorem.
Example
Example
Consider the system of congruences,
x ≡ 7 (mod 200)
x ≡ 82 (mod 375).
Example
Example
Consider the system of congruences,
x ≡ 7 (mod 200)
x ≡ 82 (mod 375).
This splits into four congruences:
x ≡ 7 (mod 25)
x ≡ 82 (mod 125)
x ≡ 7 (mod 8)
x ≡ 82 (mod 3).
Example - Cont.
Example - Cont.
The congruence modulo 25 is a special case of the congruence
modulo 125, so we really have three congruences to relatively
prime moduli:
Example - Cont.
Example - Cont.
prime moduli:
x ≡ 82 (mod 125)
x ≡ 7 (mod 8)
x ≡ 82 ≡ 1 (mod 3),
Example - Cont.
Example - Cont.
prime moduli:
x ≡ 82 (mod 125)
x ≡ 7 (mod 8)
x ≡ 82 ≡ 1 (mod 3),
which has as a solution
x ≡ 1207 (mod 3000).
Lemma 4.6
Lemma 4.6
If gcd(m, n) = 1, then
φ(m × n) = φ(m) × φ(n).
Lemma 4.6
Lemma 4.6
φ(m × n) = φ(m) × φ(n).
Proof
Let a be a positive integer less than and relatively prime to
m × n. In other words, a is one of the integers counted by
φ(m × n).
Lemma 4.6
Lemma 4.6
φ(m × n) = φ(m) × φ(n).
Proof
Let a be a positive integer less than and relatively prime to
m × n. In other words, a is one of the integers counted by
φ(m × n). We consider the correspondence
a → (a mod m, a mod n).

The integer a is relatively prime to m and relatively prime to n,
so a mod m and a mod n are relatively prime to m and n,
respectively.

The integer a is relatively prime to m and relatively prime to n,
so a mod m and a mod n are relatively prime to m and n,
respectively. This means that each integer counted by φ(m × n)
corresponds to a pair of integers, the first counted by φ(m) and
the second counted by φ(n).

By the second part of Theorem 4.4, distinct integers counted by
φ(m × n) correspond to distinct pairs. Therefore, φ(m × n) is at
most the number of such pairs:
φ(m × n) ≤ φ(m) × φ(n).

By the second part of Theorem 4.4, distinct integers counted by
φ(m × n) correspond to distinct pairs. Therefore, φ(m × n) is at
most the number of such pairs:
φ(m × n) ≤ φ(m) × φ(n).
In the other direction, we take a pair of integers, one counted by

φ(m) and the other counted by φ(n). Since m and n are
relatively prime, we can use the first part of Theorem 4.4 to
construct a unique positive integer a less than and relatively
prime to m × n.

By the Chinese Remainder Theorem
(b, c) → a ≡ b (mod m) and c (mod n).

So the number of such pairs is at most φ(m × n):
φ(m × n) ≥ φ(m) × φ(n).

So the number of such pairs is at most φ(m × n):
φ(m × n) ≥ φ(m) × φ(n).
In Exercise 4.17 you are asked to prove that if p is a prime,

then
φ(pa ) = pa−1 × (p − 1).
Theorem 4.7
With this equality and Lemma 4.6, we can calculate φ(n)

for n that we can factor.
Theorem 4.7
With this equality and Lemma 4.6, we can calculate φ(n)

for n that we can factor.
Theorem 4.7
Let
n = p1a1 × p2a2 × · · · × prar
be the unique factorization of n. Then

1 1 1
φ(n) = n × 1 − × 1− × ··· × 1 − .
p1 p2 pr

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Solving Linear Congruences Chinese Remainder Theorem Moduli are not Relatively Prime Properties of Euler’s φ Functio

Chapter 4 - Solving Linear Congruences,

1 Solving Linear Congruences

2 Chinese Remainder Theorem

3 Moduli are not Relatively Prime

4 Properties of Euler’s φ Function

Proof of Lemma 4.1

Proof of Lemma 4.1

Proof of Lemma 4.1 - Cont.

Proof of Lemma 4.1 - Cont.

1 Solving Linear Congruences

2 Chinese Remainder Theorem

3 Moduli are not Relatively Prime

4 Properties of Euler’s φ Function

Chinese Remainder Theorem

We need to prove that if p and q are distinct primes, then

Chinese Remainder Theorem

We need to prove that if p and q are distinct primes, then

We will prove more. The starting point is an algorithm that

Chinese Remainder Theorem

Furthermore, a is unique modulo M = m1 × m2 × · · · mr .

Proof of Theorem 4.4

Proof of Theorem 4.4

Since M/mi is relatively prime to mi and divisible by mj for

for every j not equal to i.

Proof of Theorem 4.4 - Cont.

Proof of Theorem 4.4 - Cont.

To see that a is unique modulo M, let b be any other integer

a≡b (mod M).

Proof of Theorem 4.4 - Cont.

To see that a is unique modulo M, let b be any other integer

a≡b (mod M).

Of course, one need only compute the values of Mi modulo

1 Solving Linear Congruences

2 Chinese Remainder Theorem

3 Moduli are not Relatively Prime

4 Properties of Euler’s φ Function

What if two or more of the moduli are divisible by the same

What if two or more of the moduli are divisible by the same

x ≡3 (mod 5) and x ≡ 3 (mod 9).

x ≡3 (mod 5) and x ≡ 3 (mod 9).

The equivalence is a consequence of the Chinese Remainder

Procedure and Example

Procedure and Example

Procedure and Example

We now have two congruences that both involve powers of p.

This splits into four congruences:

which has as a solution

x ≡ 1207 (mod 3000).

1 Solving Linear Congruences

2 Chinese Remainder Theorem

3 Moduli are not Relatively Prime

4 Properties of Euler’s φ Function

φ(m × n) = φ(m) × φ(n).

φ(m × n) = φ(m) × φ(n).

φ(m × n) = φ(m) × φ(n).

a → (a mod m, a mod n).

Proof of Lemma 4.6 - Cont.

Proof of Lemma 4.6 - Cont.

Proof of Lemma 4.6 - Cont.

Proof of Lemma 4.6 - Cont.

Proof of Lemma 4.6 - Cont.

Proof of Lemma 4.6 - Cont.