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1.SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 to Sept. 23, 1939) founded psychoanalysis, a treatment
technique that involves the patient talking to a psychoanalyst. Though his ideas were
controversial, Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential scientists in the fields of
psychology and psychiatry. It has been over 100 years since Freud published his theories, yet
he still influences what we think about personality and the mind.
Life
Freud was born to a wool merchant and his second wife, Jakob and Amalie, in Freiberg,
Moravia, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, on May 6, 1856. This town is now known as
Příbor and is located in the Czech Republic. For most of his life, he was raised in Vienna, and
he was married there in 1886 to Martha Bernays. They had six children. His daughter, Anna
Freud, also became a distinguished psychoanalyst. In 1909, Freud came to the United States
and made a presentation of his theories at Clark University in Massachusetts. This was his
first presentation outside of Vienna. By this point, he was very famous, even with laymen.
In 1923, at age 67, Freud was diagnosed with cancer of the jaw after many years of smoking
cigars. His treatment included 30 operations over the next 16 years, according to the PBS
program, "A Science Odyssey."
Freud lived his adult life in Vienna until it was occupied by Germany in 1938. Though
Jewish, Freud's fame saved him, for the most part. The Nazi party burned his books
throughout Germany, but they let him leave Austria after briefly confiscating his passport. He
and his wife fled to England, where he died in September 1939.
Work
In 1873, Freud entered the University of Vienna medical school. In 1882, he became a
clinical assistant at the General Hospital in Vienna and trained with psychiatrist Theodor
Meynert and Hermann Nothnagel, a professor of internal medicine. By 1885, Freud had
completed important research on the brain's medulla and was appointed lecturer in
neuropathology, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica.
Freud's friend, Josef Breuer, a physician and physiologist, had a large impact on the course of
Freud's career. Breuer told his friend about using hypnosis to cure a patient, Bertha
Pappenheim (referred to as Anna O.), of what was then called hysteria. Breuer would
hypnotize her, and she was able to talk about things she could not remember in a conscious
state. Her symptoms were relieved afterwards. This became known as the "talking cure."
Freud then traveled to Paris to study further under Jean-Martin Charcot, a neurologist famous
for using hypnosis to treat hysteria.
After this new line of study, Freud returned to his hometown in 1886 and opened a practice
that specialized in nervous and brain disorders. He found that hypnosis didn't work as well as
he had hoped. He instead developed a new way to get people to talk freely. He would have
patients lie back on a couch so that they were comfortable and then he would tell them to talk
about whatever popped into their head. Freud would write down whatever the person would
say, and analyze what they had said. This method of treatment is called free association. He
published his findings with Breuer in 1895, in a paper called Studien über Hysterie (Studies
in Hysteria).
In 1896, Freud coined the term psychoanalysis. This is the treatment of mental disorders,
emphasizing on the unconscious mental processes. It is also called "depth psychology."
Freud also developed what he thought of as the three agencies of the human personality,
called the id, ego and superego.
In 1900, Freud broke ground in psychology by publishing his book "The Interpretation of
Dreams." In his book, Freud named the mind's energy libido and said that the libido needed
to be discharged to ensure pleasure and prevent pain. If it wasn't released physically, the
mind's energy would be discharged through dreams.
In 1902, Freud became a professor at the University of Vienna. Soon, he gained followers
and formed what was called the Psychoanalytic Society
In 1905, one of Feud's most controversial theories, those about sexual drive, was published as
"Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie (Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory)." He
theorized that sexual drive is a large factor in determining a person's psychology, even in
infants, an idea he had touched upon in earlier works. He also developed the theory of the
"Oedipus complex." This theory states that boys have sexual attractions toward their mothers
that can create jealousy toward the father.
works
Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child
Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice.
Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory
The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change
A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships Developed in the
Client-centered Framework
On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy
Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become.
On Encounter Groups
On Personal Power: Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact
The Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Person to Person: The Problem of Being Human
The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change
John B. Watson was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in developing
behaviorism. Watson believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observable
behavior. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process, as well as the Little
Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a
previously neutral stimulus. His research also revealed that this fear could be generalized to
other similar objects.
Early Life
John B. Watson was born January 9, 1878, and grew up in South Carolina. While he later
described himself as a poor student, he entered Furman University at the age of 16. After
graduating five years later with a master's degree, he began studying psychology at the
University of Chicago, earning his Ph.D. in psychology in 1903.
Career
Watson began teaching psychology at Johns Hopkins University in 1908. In 1913, he gave a
seminal lecture at Columbia University titled "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,"
which essentially detailed the behaviorist position.
Works