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References :-
1 - Electronic Devices and Circuits Bogart.
2 – Microelectronic Circuits Sedra / Smith.
3 – Electronic Devices and Circuit theory
Robert L. Boylestad.
4 - Microelectronics / Jacob Millman
5 – Electronic Devices / Floyd.
An oscillator is a circuit that is capable of sustaining an ac output signal
by converting dc power to ac power (power converter in the sense that its
only input is the dc supply potential and its output is a time varying wave
form).
Sinusoidal Oscillators.
If the generated wave forms, is sine wave.
Feedback Oscillators:
R-C Oscillators, Audio frequency Oscillator.
L-C Oscillators, Radio Frequency Oscillator.
Negative – Resistance Oscillators.
Frequency-selective network
١
This means that Aβ= 1+j0
Where A A 1 , 2 , Αβ = A (1 2)
Therefore, to sustain oscillation:
1- 1 2 = 0, 2π, 4π,…
2- A =1
The RC Oscillator
a) The phase shift oscillator.
Op-amp phase shift oscillator.
Rf
+Vcc
Ri C C C
_
Vo
+
R R R
-Vcc
Fig .1
Each of the three RC networks in the F.B. loop can provide a maximum
phase shift of 60 , Oscillation occurs at the frequency where the total phase
shift through the three RC networks is 180 . The inversion of the op-amp,
itself, provides the additional 180 to meet the requirement for oscillation.
C C C
Vin I1 R I2 R I3 R Vout
Fig.2
٢
(R j ) I RI 0 I V
…(1)
2 f C 1 2 3 in
RI 1 ( 2 R j ) I 2 RI 3 0
2 f C …(2)
0 I 1 RI 2 ( 2 R j ) I 3 0 ….(3)
2 f C
In order to get V
out , we must solve for I3 using determinates.
Vout RI 1
3 …(4)
Vin Vin (1 j )(2 j ) 2 (3 2 j )
2fRC 2fRC 2fRC
Combining the real terms and the imaginary terms separately.
V 1 ……..(5)
out
Vin 5 1
(1 ) j( 6 )
2f R C
2 2 2 2 fRC 3 3 3
(2f ) R C
In order to have a 180 phase shift through the network, the first term
must be a negative number and the value of imaginary term must be equal
zero at the frequency of oscillation f o .
6 1 0 …..(6)
2f o RC (2f o )3 R 3C 3
Solving for fo .
fo 1
……....(7)
2 6 RC
٣
V out 1 1
……..(8)
V in (1 5 ) 29
2 f
2
o R2C 2
1
Thus the gain for the feedback network, β =
29
The closed-loop gain of op.amp must be ( 29 )
i.e. A -29 and Aβ=1.
Example (1):-
For the circuit as shown in Fig.3:
a) Determine the value of Rf necessary for this circuit to operate as an
oscillator.
b) Determine the frequency of oscillation.
Rf
+Vcc
Ri 0.001 µf 0.001 µf 0.001 µf
_
50k Vo
or +
5k 10k 10k 10k
-Vcc
Fig.3
Ans.
C C C C
V1 R R R R V2
1 V2 1
f ,
10 V1 18 . 4
2 RC
7
Fig.4
V1 V2
6 V 1
f , 2
2 RC V 1 29
Fig.5
Exercise (1):
Derive the expression for resonant frequency and the expression for minimum
gain for the (Fig.4 and Fig.5), also evaluate this frequency when R=2kΩ and
C=0.01μF?
٥
Exercise (2):
For the circuit shown in Fig.6 (RC phase-shift oscillator using
transistor) RL=3kΩ, Vcc=6V, ICQ=1mA, hfe=hFE=200 and R=10kΩ.
a) Calculate RE, assuming the feedback network does not Load RL.
b) Calculate RB.
c) Find C for W 10rad / sec .
d) Evaluate R2.
Vcc
RB RL C C C
Vout
R R R
CC
RE
Fig.6
VDD
RD
Vout
C C C
R R RS CS
Fig.7
٦
The FET amplifier is biased by RS & RD the voltage
fo 1 ,
1
2 6 RC 29
blocks labeled and form a voltage divider that determines the feedback
2
ratio. Resistors Ri and R F determine the amplifier gain and are selected to make
the magnitude of the loop gain equal to 1. If the feedback impedances (Z1 and Z2)
are chosen properly, there will be some frequency at which there is zero phase
shift in the signal feedback to the amplifier input V+. Since the amplifier
noninverting, it also contributes zero phase shift so the total around the loops is
zero at the frequency, as required for oscillation.
Fig.8
٧
Fig.9 lead-lag circuit.
j
Z1 R1 …………………………………(1)
c1
j
R2
j c2 j
Z 2 R2 \\ = …………………...(2)
c2 R j c2
c2
2
R2
Z2 …………………………….(3)
j R 2 C 2 1
R2
( )
V Z2 jR2C2 1
VOut Z1 Z 2 ( R j ) ( R2
)
……………(4)
C1 jR2C2 1
1
R2
( )
V jR2C 2 1
VOut RC j ………………(5)
R1 jR1 R2C2 2 2 R2
C1 C1
( )
jR2C 2 1
V R2 ………………(6)
VOut ( R R R C 2 ) j (R R C 1 )
C1
1 2 2 1 2 2
C1
٨
In order for V to have the same phase as VOut , this ratio must be a purely real
number. Therefore, the imaginary part in Equation (6) must be zero. Setting the
imaginary part equal to zero and solving for `gives us the oscillation frequency:
1 1 1
o R1 R2C 2 0 o R1 R2C 2 o
2
o C1 o C1 R1 R2C1C 2 …(7)
1
o
R1 R2C1C2 …………………………………….(8)
1
f f0 ………………………….(9)
2 R1R2C1C2
In most applications, the resistors are made equal and so are the capacitors:
R1 R2 R and C1 C 2 C . In this case , the oscillation frequency becomes:-
1
f fo ……………………(10)
2RC
R R 1
C 3R 3 ……………(11)
R R R j0
C
Therefore, the amplifier must provide a gain of 3 to make the magnitude of the loop
gain unity and sustain oscillation.
1
A 3 ………………………………....(12)
For non-inverting amplifier:
RF R
A 1 3 F 2 ……………………………..(13)
Ri Ri
٩
Exercise (3): Design a wein-bridge oscillator that oscillates at 25 kHz.
2. LC Oscillator circuit.
The Colpitts oscillator
Rf
+Vcc
Ri
_
+
Vout
C1
-Vcc
L
C2
Fig.10
The combination of C1, C2 and L acts as a parallel resonant circuit in
the F.B. loop and the frequency of oscillator is:
1
f
2 LCeq
C 1C 2
C
Where eq (C1 in series with C2)
C1 C 2
The Hartley oscillator
Rf
+Vcc
Ri _
Vout
+
L1
-Vcc
C
L2
Fig.11
١٠
L1, L2 and C act as a resonant Circuit in the F.B. loop. The frequency of
oscillator is.
1
f
2 LeqC
a. Hartly oscillator Rf
Leq = L1 + L2
+Vcc
1 Ri
_
f
2 Leq C +
Vout
0.4
-Vcc mH
f = 160 kHz 2
0.1 nF
mH
(a)
Rf
+Vcc
Ri
_
+ Vout
400
-Vcc pF
0.1
800 mH
pF
(b)
Fig.12
١١
b. Colpitts oscillator
C 1C 2
C eq
C1 C 2
Ceq = 270 pF
1
f 0.97 MHz
2 LCeq
The Crystal Oscillator
Crystal oscillators offer greater frequency stability than other types. The
crystal oscillator uses a quartz crystal as the resonant circuit.
Ls
Quartz
Cm Crystal
Osci.
(Cp) Rs
Cs
The crystal will deform if a voltage is placed across their parallel faces.
Similarly, if the crystal is mechanically deform, a voltage will appear across its
opposite faces.
This property of crystal is called piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric crystal has a mechanical resonant frequency; its Q
factor is very high.
١٢
Series resonance occurs in the crystal when the reactances in the
series branch are equal.
Parallel resonance occurs, at a higher frequency, when the reactance
of Ls equals the reactance of Cm.
Reactance
+
Inductive
wp
w
ws
Capacitive
_
1
ws : Series resonant frequency. ws
Ls C s
1 1 1
wp : Parallel resonant frequency. wp
Ls Cm Cs
Cm >> Cs
The oscillator frequency is essentially determined by the crystal and not
by the rest of the circuit.
١٣
Example (3):-
A crystal oscillator, (as shown in fig.15), using the crystal as a series
resonant circuit. The impedance of the crystal is minimum at the series
resonance, providing maximum feedback. Cc is a coupling capacitor to
prevent dc voltage from being fed back.
Rf
+Vcc
Ri _
Vout
+
-Vcc
R1 Cc
Fig.15
Example (4) :-
Rf
+Vcc
Ri
_
+ Vout
C1
-Vcc
C2
Fig.16
A modified Colpitts oscillator, (as shown in fig.16), uses the crystal in its
parallel resonant mode. The impedance of the crystal is maximum at parallel
resonance thus developing the maximum voltage across both C1 and C2.
The voltage across C2 is fed back to the input.
١٤
Exercise (4): Sketch a circuit diagram of a phase shift RC oscillator
using BJT & FET. Derive the expression for the frequency of oscillator and
the minimum amplifier gain.
Exercise (5): For a Wien bridge oscillator circuit if the lead-lag network
has the following R=12kΩ and C=0.015μF. Calculate the resonant frequency
and the minimum amplifier gain.
Exercise (6):
Derive the equation of frequency of oscillator for the Colpitts and Hartly
oscillators.
١٥
Negative Resistance Concepts
Negative resistance occurs in electronics when an increase in voltage
results in a decrease in current (a Voltage – Controlled Negative Resistance)
or where an increase in current results in a decrease in voltage (a Current
Controlled Negative Resistance).
dv
r
di
Iv
VD
(a) (b)
Fig.17: (a) Tunnel diode symbol, (b) tunnel diode characteristic.
Tunnel diode sinusoidal oscillator.
Vout
I -r
C L
Fig.18
It is suitable for use in microwave oscillators.
١٦