Algebras de Frobenius 1

EMS Textbooks in Mathematics
EMS Textbooks in Mathematics is a series of books aimed at students or professional mathemati-

cians seeking an introduction into a particular field. The individual volumes are intended not only
to provide relevant techniques, results, and applications, but also to afford insight into the motiva-
tions and ideas behind the theory. Suitably designed exercises help to master the subject and
prepare the reader for the study of more advanced and specialized literature.
Jørn Justesen and Tom Høholdt, A Course In Error-Correcting Codes

Markus Stroppel, Locally Compact Groups
Peter Kunkel and Volker Mehrmann, Differential-Algebraic Equations
Dorothee D. Haroske and Hans Triebel, Distributions, Sobolev Spaces, Elliptic Equations
Thomas Timmermann, An Invitation to Quantum Groups and Duality
Oleg Bogopolski, Introduction to Group Theory
Marek Jarnicki und Peter Pflug, First Steps in Several Complex Variables: Reinhardt Domains
Tammo tom Dieck, Algebraic Topology
Mauro C. Beltrametti et al., Lectures on Curves, Surfaces and Projective Varieties
Wolfgang Woess, Denumerable Markov Chains
Eduard Zehnder, Lectures on Dynamical Systems. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and Symplectic
Capacities
Andrzej Skowroński
Kunio Yamagata
Frobenius Algebras I
Basic Representation Theory
Authors:
Andrzej Skowroński Kunio Yamagata
Faculty of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
and Computer Science Tokyo University of Agriculture
Nicolaus Copernicus University and Technology
Chopina 12/18 Nakacho 2-24-16, Koganei
87-100 Toruń Tokyo 184-8588
Poland Japan
E-mail: skowron@mat.uni.torun.pl E-mail: yamagata@cc.tuat.ac.jp
2010 Mathematical Subject Classification (primary; secondary): 16-01; 13E10, 15A63, 15A69, 16Dxx,
16E30, 16G10, 16G20, 16G70, 16K20, 16W30, 51F15
Key words: Algebra, module, representation, quiver, ideal, radical, simple module, semisimple module,
uniserial module, projective module, injective module, simple algebra, semisimple algebra, separable
algebra, hereditary algebra, Nakayama algebra, Frobenius algebra, symmetric algebra, selfinjective
algebra, Brauer tree algebra, enveloping algebra, Coxeter group, Coxeter graph, Hecke algebra,
coalgebra, comodule, Hopf algebra, Hopf module, syzygy module, periodic module, periodic algebra,
irreducible homomorphism, almost split sequence, Auslander–Reiten translation, Auslander–Reiten
quiver, extension spaces, projective dimension, injective dimension, category, functor, Nakayama
functor, Nakayama automorphism, Morita equivalence, Morita–Azumaya duality
ISBN 978-3-03719-102-6
The Swiss National Library lists this publication in The Swiss Book, the Swiss national bibliography,
and the detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://www.helveticat.ch.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material
is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data banks. For any kind
of use permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.
© European Mathematical Society 2012
Contact address:
European Mathematical Society Publishing House
Seminar for Applied Mathematics
ETH-Zentrum FLI C4
CH-8092 Zürich
Switzerland
Phone: +41 (0)44 632 34 36
Email: info@ems-ph.org
Homepage: www.ems-ph.org
Typeset using the authors’ TEX files: I. Zimmermann, Freiburg

Printing and binding: Beltz Bad Langensalza GmbH, Bad Langensalza, Germany
∞ Printed on acid free paper
987654321
To our wives
Mira and Taeko
and children
Magda, Akiko, Ikuo and Taketo
Contents
Introduction ix
I Algebras and modules 1

1 Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Representations of algebras and modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 The Jacobson radical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 The Krull–Schmidt theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5 Semisimple modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 Semisimple algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7 The Jordan–Hölder theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8 Projective and injective modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9 Hereditary algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10 Nakayama algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11 The Grothendieck group and the Cartan matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
II Morita theory 123

1 Categories and functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2 Bimodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3 Tensor products of modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4 Adjunctions and natural isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5 Progenerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6 Morita equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7 Morita–Azumaya duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
III Auslander–Reiten theory 203

1 The radical of a module category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2 The Harada–Sai lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3 The space of extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4 The Auslander–Reiten translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5 The Nakayama functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6 The Auslander–Reiten formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7 Irreducible and almost split homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8 Almost split sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9 The Auslander–Reiten quiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10 The Auslander theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
viii Contents
11 The Bautista–Smalø theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
IV Selfinjective algebras 332

1 The Frobenius theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
2 The Brauer–Nesbitt–Nakayama theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
3 Frobenius algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
4 Symmetric algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
5 Simple algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
6 The Nakayama theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
7 Non-Frobenius selfinjective algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
8 The syzygy functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
9 The higher extension spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
10 Periodic modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11 Periodic algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
12 The Green–Snashall–Solberg theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
13 Dynkin and Euclidean graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
14 Canonical mesh algebras of Dynkin type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
15 The Riedtmann–Todorov theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
V Hecke algebras 489

1 Finite reflection groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
2 Coxeter graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
3 The Coxeter theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
4 The Iwahori theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
5 Hecke algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
VI Hopf algebras 539

1 Coalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
2 Hopf algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
3 The Larson–Sweedler theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
4 The Radford theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
5 The Fischman–Montgomery–Schneider formula . . . . . . . . . . . 609
6 The module category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Bibliography 637
Index 645
Introduction
The major concern of this book is the representation theory of finite dimensional
associative algebras with an identity over a field. In simplest terms, it is an approach
to the problem of describing how a finite number of linear transformations can act
simultaneously on a finite dimensional vector space over a field. The representa-
tion theory of finite dimensional algebras traces its origin to the middle part of the
nineteenth century with Hamilton’s discovery of the quaternions, the first noncom-
mutative field, and investigations of finite groups via their representations in matrix
algebras over the field of complex numbers. The main achievements of the repre-
sentation theory of algebras of the latter part of the nineteenth and the beginning
of the twentieth century concerned the structure of semisimple finite dimensional
algebras over fields and their representations. A new and fundamental view on the
representation theory of finite dimensional algebras over fields came in the 1930s
from the papers by Noether who gave the theory its modern setting by interpret-
ing representations as modules. The module theoretical approach allowed one to
apply in the representation theory of finite dimensional algebras the language and
techniques of category theory and homological algebra. The modern representation
theory of finite dimensional algebras over fields can be regarded as the study of the
categories of their finite dimensional modules and the associated combinatorial and
homological invariants.
A prominent role in the representation theory of finite dimensional algebras over
fields is played by the Frobenius algebras. This is a wide class of algebras contain-
ing the semisimple algebras, blocks of group algebras of finite groups, the Hecke
algebras of finite Coxeter groups, the finite dimensional Hopf algebras, and the orbit
algebras of the repetitive categories of algebras. The Frobenius algebras have their
origin in the 1903 papers by Frobenius who discovered that the left and right regular
representations of a finite dimensional algebra over a field, defined in terms of struc-
ture constants with respect to a fixed linear basis, are equivalent if and only if there
is a very special invertible matrix intertwining both representations. Later Brauer,
Nesbitt and Nakayama realized that the study of finite dimensional algebras with the
property that the left and right regular representations are equivalent is crucial for a
better understanding of the structure of nonsemisimple algebras and their modules,
and called them Frobenius algebras. In a series of papers from 1937–1941, Brauer,
Nesbitt and Nakayama established characterizations of Frobenius algebras which
were independent of the choice of a linear basis of the algebra. In particular, we
may say that a finite dimensional algebra A over a field K is a Frobenius algebra if
there exists a nondegenerate K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K which is asso-
ciative, in the sense that .ab; c/ D .a; bc/ for all elements a, b, c of A. Moreover,
if such a nondegenerate, associative, K-bilinear form is symmetric, A is called a
symmetric algebra. We also mention that the Frobenius algebras are selfinjective
x Introduction
algebras (projective and injective modules coincide), and the module category of
every finite dimensional selfinjective algebra over a field is equivalent to the module
category of a Frobenius algebra.
The main aim of the book is to provide a comprehensive introduction to the rep-
resentation theory of finite dimensional algebras over fields, via the representation
theory of Frobenius algebras. The book is primarily addressed to graduate students
starting research in the representation theory of algebras as well as mathematicians
working in other fields. It is hoped that the book will provide a friendly access
to the representation theory of finite dimensional algebras as the only prerequisite
is a basic knowledge of linear algebra. We present complete proofs of all results
exhibited in the book. Moreover, a rich supply of examples and exercises will help
the reader to understand the theory presented in the book.
We divide the book into two volumes.
The aim of the first volume of the book is two fold. Firstly, it serves as a general
introduction to basic results and techniques of the modern representation theory of
finite dimensional algebras over fields, with special attention to the representation
theory of Frobenius algebras. The second aim is to exhibit prominent classes of
Frobenius algebras, or more generally selfinjective algebras.
The first volume of the book is divided into six chapters, each of which is
subdivided into sections. We start with Chapter I presenting background on the
finite dimensional algebras over a field and their finite dimensional modules. In
Chapter II we present the Morita equivalences and the Morita–Azumaya dualities
for the module categories of finite dimensional algebras over fields. Chapter III is
devoted to presenting background on the Auslander–Reiten theory of irreducible
homomorphisms and almost split sequences, and the associated combinatorial and
homological invariants. Chapter IV forms the heart of the first volume of the book
and contains fundamental classical and recent results concerning the selfinjective
algebras and their module categories. In Chapter V we present the classification of
finite reflection groups of real Euclidean spaces via the associated Coxeter graphs
and show that they provide a wide class of symmetric algebras over an arbitrary
field, called the Hecke algebras. In the final Chapter VI we describe the basic
theory of finite dimensional Hopf algebras over fields and show that they form a
distinguished class of Frobenius algebras for which the Nakayama automorphisms
are of finite order.
The main aim of the second volume of the book, “Frobenius Algebras II. Or-
bit Algebras” is to study the Frobenius algebras as the orbit algebras of repetitive
categories of finite dimensional algebras with respect to actions of admissible au-
tomorphism groups. In particular, we will introduce covering techniques which
frequently allow us to reduce the representation theory of Frobenius algebras to the
representation theory of algebras of small homological dimension. A prominent
role in these investigations will be played by tilting theory and the authors theory
of selfinjective algebras with deforming ideals.
Introduction xi
We thank our universities for their continuous support as well as for financial
support from Research Grant N N201 269135 of the Polish Ministry of Science and
Higher Education and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Grant-in-Aid
for Scientific Research (B) 21340003, allowing the realization of this book project
during the authors’ visits in Toruń and Tokyo.
We would like to express our deep gratitude to Jerzy Białkowski for typing
and proper computer edition of all chapters of the book. We take also pleasure
in thanking our younger colleagues Marta Błaszkiewicz, Alicja Jaworska, Maciej
Karpicz, Marta Kwiecień and Adam Skowyrski for carefully reading parts of the
book and their helpful corrections and suggestions. We also thank the European
Mathematical Society Publishing House, in particular Manfred Karbe and Irene
Zimmermann, for their very friendly cooperation.
Chapter I
Algebras and modules
This chapter is devoted to presenting background on finite dimensional algebras

(associative, with an identity) over a field and their finite dimensional modules
(representations). We present complete proofs of all results exhibited in this chapter.
We start with a discussion of examples of finite dimensional algebras over a
field, including the bound quiver algebras of the path algebras of finite quivers
modulo admissible ideals, playing a prominent role in the modern representation
theory of algebras. Moreover, we give a very useful interpretation of modules over
bound quiver algebras as linear representations of quivers bound by the relations
generating the related admissible ideals. Then we introduce and describe the basic
properties of the (Jacobson) radical of an algebra and of a module, semisimple
modules and algebras, the socle and the top of a module, projective modules and
injective modules, hereditary algebras, uniserial modules and Nakayama algebras,
the Grothendieck group and the Cartan matrix of an algebra. In particular, we
prove the following classical results: the Krull–Schmidt decomposition theorem
for modules, the Wedderburn structure theorem for semisimple algebras, Maschke’s
theorem for group algebras, the Jordan–Hölder theorem on composition series of
modules, the structure theorems on Nakayama algebras and their modules, as well
as on projective modules and injective modules.
1 Algebras
By a ring we mean a system .A; C; ; 0A ; 1A / consisting of a set A, two binary
operations, the addition C W A A ! A, .a; b/ 7! a C b, the multiplication
W A A ! A, .a; b/ 7! a b (simply ab), and two different elements 0A and 1A
of A, such that the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) .A; C; 0A / is an abelian group, with zero element 0A ,
(ii) .ab/c D a.bc/,
(iii) a.b C c/ D ab C ac and .b C c/a D ba C ca,
(iv) 1A a D a D a1A ,
for all elements a; b; c 2 A. Therefore, the multiplication is associative and both

left and right distributive with respect to the addition, and 1A is the identity of A
with respect to the multiplication. A ring A is commutative if ab D ba for all
2 Chapter I. Algebras and modules
elements a; b 2 A. We will frequently abbreviate 0 D 0A and 1 D 1A , if it will not

lead to confusion.
Throughout, we identify the ring .A; C; ; 0A ; 1A / with its underlying set A.
A ring F is said to be a skew field (or division ring) if every nonzero element a
in F is invertible with respect to the multiplication, that is, there exists b 2 F such
that ab D 1F and ba D 1F . A skew field F is said to be a field if F is commutative.
A field K is said to be algebraically closed if every nonconstant polynomial f .x/
in one variable x with coefficients in K has a root in K. (We refer to [Coh1] for a
general theory of skew fields.)
If A and B are rings, then a map f W A ! B is called a ring homomorphism if
f .a C b/ D f .a/ C f .b/ and f .ab/ D f .a/f .b/, for all elements a; b 2 A, and
f .0A / D 0B , f .1A / D 1B .
Let K be a field. A K-algebra is a ring A with an additional structure of a (left)
K-vector space, compatible with the multiplication of the ring, that is, such that
.ab/ D .a/b D a.b/
for all 2 K and all a; b 2 A, and 1K 1A D 1A , where 1K is the identity of K

and 1A is the identity of A (see [Noe1]). Observe that then 1K a D 1K .1A a/ D
.1K 1A /a D 1A a D a for all a 2 A. Moreover, A has also a right K-vector space
structure given by a D a.1A / D .a1A / D a for all 2 K and a 2 A. We
will identify the field K with the K-subspace K1A D 1A K of A. A K-algebra A
is said to be finite dimensional if the dimension dimK A of the K-vector space A is
finite.
If A and B are K-algebras, then a ring homomorphism f W A ! B is called
a K-algebra homomorphism if f is a K-linear map. Two K-algebras A and B
are called isomorphic if there is a K-algebra isomorphism f W A ! B, that is, a
bijective K-algebra homomorphism. In this case, we write A Š B.
A K-vector subspace B of a K-algebra A is called a K-subalgebra of A if the
identity of A belongs to B and bb 0 2 B for all elements b; b 0 2 B. Observe that
then B is a K-algebra with 1B D 1A . A K-vector subspace I of a K-algebra A is
a left ideal of A (respectively, right ideal of A) if ax 2 I (respectively, xa 2 I )
for all elements x 2 I and a 2 A. A two-sided ideal of A (or simply an ideal
of A) is a K-vector subspace I of A which is both a left ideal and a right ideal of
A. Observe that if I is a two-sided ideal of A, then the quotient K-vector space
A=I has a unique K-algebra structure such that the canonical surjective K-linear
map W A ! A=I , a 7! aN D a C I , becomes a K-algebra homomorphism. A
left, right, or two-sided ideal I of A is said to be proper if I ¤ A, or equivalently,
1A … I .
Examples 1.1. (a) The field C D R ˚ Ri of complex numbers is a 2-dimensional

R-algebra over the field R of real numbers, and an infinite dimensional Q-algebra
over the field Q of rational numbers.
1. Algebras 3
(b) Let H D R ˚ Ri ˚ Rj ˚ Rk be the division R-algebra of quaternions

(discovered in 1843 by W. R. Hamilton [Ham]) with the multiplication of basis
elements:
ij D j i D k; j k D kj D i; ki D i k D j; i 2 D j 2 D k 2 D 1:
Then H is a 4-dimensional (noncommutative) R-algebra. Observe that H is not a

C-algebra, because R is the set of all elements of H commuting with every element
of H, and obviously R is not a C-algebra. On the other hand, H is a left C-vector
space and a right C-vector space.
We would like to mention that by a theorem of F. G. Frobenius [Fro0] from
1877, the only finite dimensional division R-algebras are R, C and H (for a proof
see [Coh3], Corollary 5.4.2, or [DK]), Theorem 4.6.1. We also note that C is an
algebraically closed field, and hence every finite dimensional division C-algebra is
isomorphic to C (see Exercise 12.38).
(c) Let K be a field and n a positive natural number. Then the set Mn .K/ of all
square n n matrices over K is a K-algebra of dimension n2 . A K-basis of Mn .K/
is formed by the set of elementary matrices Eij , 1 i; j n, where Eij has
coefficient 1 in the position .i; j / and the coefficient 0 elsewhere. We will denote
by 0n the zero matrix and by In the identity matrix in Mn .K/.
(d) For a positive natural number n, the subset
2 3
K 0 0
6K K 0 7
6 7
Tn .K/ D 6 : :: : : :: 7
4: : : : :5
K K K
of Mn .K/ consisting of all triangular matrices Œaij in Mn .K/ with zeros above the
main diagonal is a K-subalgebra of Mn .K/.
(e) Let G D .G; ; e/ be a finite group with identity element e and K a field. The
group algebra ofP G with coefficients in K is the K-vector space KG consisting of
all formal sums g2G g g, where g 2 K for all g 2 G, with the multiplication
defined by the formula
X X X
g g h h D g h gh:
g2G h2G g;h2G
Then KG is a K-algebra of dimension jGj (the order of G) and the identity 1KG D e.
Moreover, the K-algebra KG is commutative if and only if the group G is abelian.
For K D C, the group algebra CG has been introduced by F. G. Frobenius in the
paper [Fro2] from 1897.
(f) Assume that A1 and A2 are K-algebras. The product of the K-algebras
A1 and A2 is the product A D A1 A2 of the K-vector spaces A1 and A2 ,
with the multiplication given by .a1 ; a2 /.b1 ; b2 / D .a1 b1 ; a2 b2 /, for all elements
a1 ; b1 2 A1 , a2 ; b2 2 A2 . Then A D A1 A2 is a K-algebra with the identity
element .1A1 ; 1A2 /. Clearly, if A1 and A2 are finite dimensional K-algebras, then
A is a finite dimensional K-algebra, and dimK A D dimK A1 C dimK A2 .
(g) Let A be a K-algebra. Then the opposite algebra Aop of A is the K-algebra
whose underlying K-vector space is A, but the multiplication in Aop is defined
by the formula a b D ba, for all elements a; b 2 A.
The classical nineteenths century way of defining finite dimensional associative
algebras over a field K (K. Weierstrass [Wei], R. Dedekind [Ded], T. Molien [Mol],
F. G. Frobenius [Fro1]) involved some set of constants from the field K assumed to
satisfy certain conditions.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Choose a basis
a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an of the K-vector space A. Then there exist elements ˛ij k 2 K,
i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng such that
X
n
aj ak D ˛ij k ai
iD1
for all j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, called the structure constants of A, with respect to the
basis a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an . Moreover, there exist 1 ; : : : ; n 2 K such that the identity
1A of A has the expression
Xn
1A D j aj :
j D1
Lemma 1.2. (i) For all elements j; k; h; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the following equality
holds:
Xn X n
˛ij k ˛hil D ˛ikl ˛hj i :
iD1 iD1
(ii) For all elements i; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the following equalities hold:
X
n X
n
j ˛ij k D ıik and j ˛ikj D ıik ;
j D1 j D1
where ıik is the Kronecker delta.

Proof. (i) For j; k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have the equalities
X
n X
n
.aj ak /al D ˛ij k ai al D ˛ij k .ai al /
iD1 iD1
X
n X
n Xn X
n
D ˛ij k ˛hil ah D ˛ij k ˛hil ah ;
iD1 hD1 hD1 iD1
1. Algebras 5
and
X
n Xn

aj .ak al / D aj ˛ikl ai D ˛ikl aj ai
iD1 iD1
X
n X
n Xn X
n
D ˛ikl ˛hj i ah D ˛ikl ˛hj i ah :
iD1 hD1 hD1 iD1
Since a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an form a K-basis of A, the required equalities are equivalent

to the associativity conditions .aj ak /al D aj .ak al /, for all elements j; k; l 2
f1; : : : ; ng.
(ii) For k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have the equalities
X
n X
n

1A ak D j aj ak D j aj ak
j D1 j D1
X
n X
n Xn X
n
D j ˛ij k ai D j ˛ij k ai ;
j D1 iD1 iD1 j D1
and
X
n X
n

ak 1A D ak j aj D j ak aj
j D1 j D1
X
n X
n Xn X
n
D j ˛ikj ai D j ˛ikj ai :
j D1 iD1 iD1 j D1
Again, the required equalities are equivalent to the identity conditions 1A ak D

ak D ak 1A , for all elements k 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Observe also that the associativity .ab/c D a.bc/, for all a; b; c 2 A, is equiva-
lent to the associativity conditions .aj ak /al D aj .ak al /, for all j; k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
for the basis elements. Similarly, the identity condition 1A a D a D a1A , for
all a 2 A, is equivalent to the identity conditions 1A ak D ak D ak 1A , for all
k 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Therefore, given a finite dimensional K-vector space A and a
K-basis a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an of A, the choice of n3 C n elements ˛ij k 2 K and j 2 K,
i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, satisfying the equalities described in Lemma 1.2, determines
a K-algebra structure on A. Conversely, every finite dimensional K-algebra A can
be constructed in that way. In fact, if we choose the first basis element a1 to be the
identity of A, then j D ı1j , ˛i1k D ıik , ˛ij1 D ıij , for all i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
and the condition (ii) of Lemma 1.2 is trivially satisfied. Observe that it is the case
for the R-algebras C and H (see Examples 1.1 (a) and (b)), where additionally the
structure constants are from f1; 1g.
We will present now an important construction of finite dimensional K-algebras

proposed by P. Gabriel [Ga1], [Ga2] in the early 1970s, playing a fundamental role
in the modern representation theory of associative algebras.
By a quiver we mean a quadruple Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / consisting of two sets: Q0
(whose elements are called vertices) and Q1 (whose elements are called arrows),
and two maps s; t W Q1 ! Q0 which associate to each arrow ˛ 2 Q1 its source
s.˛/ 2 Q0 and its target t .˛/ 2 Q0 , respectively. An arrow ˛ 2 Q1 with source
˛
a D s.˛/ and target b D t .˛/ is usually denoted by ˛ W a ! b, or a ! b. A
quiver Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / is usually denoted briefly by Q D .Q0 ; Q1 /, or simply
by Q. A quiver Q D .Q0 ; Q1 / is said to be finite if Q0 and Q1 are finite sets. The
underlying graph Q x of a quiver Q is obtained from Q by forgetting the orientation
of the arrows. The quiver Q is said to be connected if Q x is a connected graph.
Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / be a quiver and a; b 2 Q0 . A path of length l 1 with
source a and target b (or a path from a to b) is a sequence .aj˛1 ; ˛2 ; : : : ; ˛l jb/,
where ˛k 2 Q1 for all k 2 f1; : : : ; lg, and we have s.˛1 / D a, t .˛k / D s.˛kC1 /
for each k 2 f1; : : : ; l 1g, and t .˛l / D b. Such a path will be denoted briefly by
˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l , and may be visualized as
˛1 ˛2 ˛l
a D a0 ! a1 ! a2 ! !al1 ! al D b:
We denote by Ql the set of all paths of Q of length l. We may also associate with
each vertex a 2 Q0 a path of length l D 0, called the trivial path at a, denoted by
"a D .aka/. Thus the paths of lengths 0 and 1 are in bijective correspondence with
the elements of Q0 and Q1 , respectively. A path of Q of length l 1 is called a
cycle whenever its source and target coincide. A cycle of length 1 in Q is called a
loop. The quiver Q without cycles is said to be acyclic.
Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 / be a finite quiver and K be a field. The path algebra KQ
of Q over K is the K-algebra whose underlying K-vector space has as its basis the
set of all paths .aj˛1 ; : : : ; ˛l jb/ of length l 0 in Q and the product of two basis
vectors .aj˛1 ; : : : ; ˛l jb/ and .cjˇ1 ; : : : ; ˇk jd / of KQ is defined by
.aj˛1 ; : : : ; ˛l jb/.cjˇ1 ; : : : ; ˇk jd / D ıbc .aj˛1 ; : : : ; ˛l ; ˇ1 ; : : : ; ˇk jd /;
where ıbc is the Kronecker delta. Therefore, the product of two paths ˛1 : : : ˛l
and ˇ1 : : : ˇk is equal to zero if t .˛l / 6D s.ˇ1 / and is equal to the composed path
˛1 : : : ˛l ˇ1 : : : ˇk if t .˛l / D s.ˇ1 /. The product of basis elements is extended
uniquely to arbitrary elements of KQ by the distributivity and the K-algebra re-
quirement .xy/ D .x/y D .x/y D x.y/ D x.y/ D .xy/, for x; y 2 KQ,
2 K. Observe also that KQ has the K-vector space decomposition
KQ D KQ0 ˚ KQ1 ˚ KQ2 ˚ ˚ KQl ˚
where, for each l 0, KQl is the subspace of KQ spanned by the set Ql of
all paths in Q of length l. Moreover, we have .KQl /.KQm / KQlCm for all
1. Algebras 7
l; m 0, because the product of a path of length l by a path of length m is either

zero or a path of length l C m. Hence KQ is an N-graded K-algebra.
Lemma 1.3. Let Q be a finite quiver and K a field. Then
P
(i) KQ is a K-algebra with the identity 1KQ D a2Q0 "a .
(ii) KQ is finite dimensional if and only if Q is an acyclic quiver.
P
Proof. (i) Since the quiver Q is finite, the sum a2Q0 "a of the trivial paths "a D
.aka/, a 2 Q0 , is an element of KQ. Moreover, for a path ˛1 : : : ˛l in Q from
b D s.˛1 / to c D t .˛l /, we have
X X
"a ˛1 : : : ˛l D "a ˛1 : : : ˛l D "b ˛1 : : : ˛l D ˛1 : : : ˛l ;
a2Q0 a2Q0
X X
.˛1 : : : ˛l / "a D ˛1 : : : ˛l "a D ˛1 : : : ˛l "c D ˛1 : : : ˛l :
a2Q0 a2Q0
P
Therefore, a2Q0 "a is indeed the identity 1KQ of KQ.
(ii) Assume that w D ˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l is a cycle in Q. Then, for each r 1, we
have a basis vector w r D .˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l /r , and hence KQ is infinite dimensional.
Therefore, if KQ is finite dimensional then the quiver Q is acyclic. Conversely,
if Q is an acyclic quiver, then Q contains only finitely many paths, because Q is
finite, and so KQ is finite dimensional.
Examples 1.4. Let K be a field.
(a) Let Q be the quiver
1 d ˛
consisting of a single vertex and a single loop. Then "1 ; ˛; ˛ 2 ; : : : ; ˛ l ; : : : is the

defining basis of the path algebra KQ, and the multiplication of basis vectors is
given by "21 D "1 , "1 ˛ l D ˛ l D ˛ l "1 and ˛ l ˛ k D ˛ lCk , for all l; k 1. Hence
KQ is isomorphic to the polynomial algebra KŒx in one variable x over K.
(b) Let Q be the Kronecker quiver
o ˛
1 o 2:
ˇ
Then "1 , "2 , ˛, ˇ is the defining basis of the path algebra KQ and the multiplication
table of the basis elements is
"1 "2 ˛ ˇ
"1 "1 0 0 0
"2 0 "2 ˛ ˇ
˛ ˛ 0 0 0
ˇ ˇ 0 0 0 :
Then a simple checking shows that KQ is isomorphic to the matrix K-algebra

² ³
K 0 a 0 ˇˇ
D a; b; c; d 2 K ;
K2 K .b; c/ d

where a K-algebra isomorphism f W KQ ! K 0
K2 K
is given on the basis elements
by

1 0 0 0
f ."1 / D ; f ."2 / D ;
.0; 0/ 0 .0; 0/ 1

0 0 0 0
f .˛/ D ; f .ˇ/ D :
.1; 0/ 0 .0; 1/ 0
In particular, it follows that for K D R the path algebra RQ is isomorphic to the

R-subalgebra
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
D ˇ
2 M2 .C/ a; b 2 R; c 2 C
C R c b
of the matrix algebra M2 .C/ of the R-algebra C of complex numbers. On the other
hand, for K D C, the path algebra CQ is not isomorphic to the C-subalgebra
² ³
C 0 a 0 ˇ
D 2 M2 .H/ ˇ a; b 2 C; c 2 H
H C c b
of the matrix algebra M2 .H/ of the quaternions H, because the left action and the
right action of C on H do not coincide.
(c) Let Q be the quiver
ˇ
o o / :
˛

1 2 3 4
Then "1 , "2 , "3 , "4 , ˛, ˇ, , ˇ˛ is the defining basis of the path algebra KQ, and
the multiplication basis elements table is
"1 "2 "3 "4 ˛ ˇ ˇ˛

"1 "1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
"2 0 "2 0 0 ˛ 0 0 0
"3 0 0 "3 0 0 ˇ ˇ˛
"4 0 0 0 "4 0 0 0 0
˛ ˛ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ˇ 0 ˇ 0 0 ˇ˛ 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ˇ˛ ˇ˛ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 :
1. Algebras 9
Then a simple checking shows that KQ is isomorphic to the matrix K-subalgebra

of M4 .K/ of the form
2 3 82 3 9
K 0 0 0 ˆ
ˆ a 0 0 0 >
>
6K K 0 0 7 <6x b 0 0 7 ˇˇ a; b; c; d 2 K; =
AD4 6 7 D 6 7 ˇ ;
K K K K 5 ˆ4y z c u 5 x; y; z; u 2 K > >
:̂ ;
0 0 0 K 0 0 0 d
where a K-algebra isomorphism f W KQ ! A is given on the basis elements by
2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 07 60 1 0 0 7 60 0 0 07
f ."1 / D 6 7 6 7 6
40 0 0 05 ; f ."2 / D 40 0 0 05 ; f ."3 / D 40 0 1 05 ;
7
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 3 2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 07 6 7 6 7
f ."4 / D 6 7 ; f .˛/ D 61 0 0 07 ; f .ˇ/ D 60 0 0 07 ;
40 0 0 05 40 0 0 0 5 40 1 0 05
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 07 60 0 0 07
f ./ D 6 7 6
40 0 0 15 ; f .ˇ˛/ D 41 0 0 05 :
7
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Observe that f .ˇ˛/ D f .ˇ/f .˛/.
Let Q be a finite quiver and K a field. Then the K-subspace
RQ D KQ1 ˚ KQ2 ˚ ˚ KQl ˚
of the path algebra KQ is a two-sided ideal, called the arrow ideal of KQ. Observe
that, for each l 1, we have
M
RQl
D KQm ;
ml
and hence RQ l
is the ideal of KQ generated by all paths in Q of length l. A
two-sided ideal I of KQ is said to be admissible if there exists m 2 such that
m
RQ I RQ
2
:
If I is an admissible ideal of KQ, then the pair .Q; I / is said to be a bound quiver.
The quotient algebra KQ=I is said to be the bound quiver algebra of the bound
quiver .Q; I /.
Lemma 1.5. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, and I an admissible ideal of KQ.
Then the bound quiver algebra KQ=I is a finite dimensional K-algebra.
P
Proof. Clearly, KQ=I is a K-algebra whose identity is the coset a2Q0 "a CI of
the identity of KQ. Since I is an admissible ideal of KQ, we have RQm
I RQ2
,
for some m 2. Hence every path ˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l of Q of length l m becomes
the zero element ˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l C I D 0 C I of KQ=I . Therefore, KQ=I is finite
dimensional.
Let Q be a finite quiver. By a relation in KQ we mean a K-linear combination
X
n
%D i wi
iD1
of paths w1 ; : : : ; wn in Q of length at least 2 having a common source and a common

target, with 1 ; : : : ; n 2 K.
Lemma 1.6. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, and I an admissible ideal of KQ.
Then I is generated by a finite number of relations %1 ; : : : ; %r in KQ.
Proof. Since I is an admissible ideal, we have RQ m
I RQ 2
, for some m 2.
Observe that there are at most finitely many paths in Q of a given length l 2.
m m
Hence KQ=RQ is a finite dimensional K-algebra and I =RQ is a two-sided ideal
of KQ=RQ , contained in the ideal RQ =RQ . Let u1 ; : : : ; us 2 I be such that
m 2 m
the cosets u1 C RQ m
; : : : ; us C RQ m
form a basis of the K-vector space I =RQ m
.
Moreover, let v1 ; : : : ; vr be all paths in Q of length m, if such paths exist. Clearly,
v1 ; : : : ; vr generate the ideal RQ m
, and belong to I , because RQm
I . Observe that
the elements u1 ; : : : ; us ; v1 ; : : : ; vr generate the ideal I of KQ. Multiplying all
elements u1 ; : : : ; us by the trivial paths "a D .aka/, a 2 Q0 , from left and right,
we obtain a finite set "a ui "b , a; b 2 Q0 , i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, v1 ; : : : ; vr , of relations in
KQ which generates the ideal I .
1 d ˛
and I D RQ m
for some m 2. Then clearly I is an admissible ideal of KQ
generated by ˛ m , and the bound quiver algebra KQ=I of .Q; I / is isomorphic to
the quotient polynomial algebra KŒx=.x m /.
(b) Let Q be the quiver
? @1
~~~ @@@˛
~~ @@
~~ @
3 o ˇ
2
and I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ˇ. Then I is an admissible ideal of KQ

4
containing RQ , and the associated bound quiver algebra KQ=I is a 9-dimensional
1. Algebras 11
K-algebra with a K-basis given by the cosets "1 C I , "2 C I , "3 C I , ˛ C I , ˇ C I ,

C I , ˇ C I , ˛ C I , ˇ ˛ C I .
2
t eKK ˇ
˛ tt KK
t KK
ytt
1 eKK 4
KK tt
K
K ttt
y t

3
and I be the ideal of KQ generated by the element ˇ˛ . Then I is an admissible
ideal of KQ (since RQ 3
D 0), and the bound quiver algebra KQ=I of .Q; I / is a 9-
dimensional K-algebra with a K-basis given by the cosets "N1 D "1 CI , "N2 D "2 CI ,
"N3 D "3 C I , "N4 D "4 C I , ˛N D ˛ C I , ˇN D ˇ C I , N D C I , N D C I , and
ˇN ˛N D ˇ˛ C I D C I D N N .
Consider the matrix K-subalgebra
2 3 82 3 9
K 0 0 0 ˆ
ˆ a 0 0 0 >
>
6K K 0 0 7 <6x b 0 0 7 ˇ a; b; c; d 2 K; =
AD4 6 7 D 6 7 ˇ
K 0 K 0 5 ˆ4y 0 c 0 5 x; y; z; t; u 2 K > >
:̂ ;
K K K K z t u d
of M4 .K/. Then there is a K-algebra isomorphism f W KQ=I ! A given on the

basis elements of KQ=I by
2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 07 6 7 6 7
f .N"1 / D 6 7 ; f .N"2 / D 60 1 0 07 ; f .N"3 / D 60 0 0 07 ;
40 0 0 05 40 0 0 0 5 40 0 1 05
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 3 2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 07 61 0 0 07 60 0 0 07
f .N"4 / D 6 7 N D6 7 N 6 7
40 0 0 05 ; f .˛/ 40 0 0 05 ; f .ˇ/ D 40 0 0 05 ;
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 07 60 0 0 07
f .N / D 6 7 6
41 0 0 05 ; f .N / D 40 0 0 05 ;
7
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
2 3
0 0 0 0
60 0 0 0 7
f .ˇN ˛/
N D6 7 N
40 0 0 05 D f .ˇ/f .˛/ N D f .N /f .N /:
1 0 0 0
(d) Let Q be the quiver

$ ˇ
˛ o
1 2
3
and I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ . Then I is an admissible ideal of KQ
4
containing RQ , and the bound quiver algebra KQ=I is a 7-dimensional K-algebra
with a K-basis given by the cosets "N1 D "1 C I , "N2 D "2 C I , ˛N D ˛ C I ,
˛N 2 D ˛ 2 C I , ˇN D ˇ C I , ˇN ˛N D ˇ˛ C I , ˇN ˛N 2 D ˇ˛ 2 C I .
Then KQ=I is isomorphic to the matrix K-algebra of the form

KŒx=.x 3 / 0
ƒD :
KŒx=.x 3 / K
Indeed, there is a K-algebra isomorphism f W KQ=I ! ƒ given on the basis

elements of KQ=I by
2
1N 0 0 0 xN 0 xN 0
f .N"1 / D ; f .N"2 / D N D
; f .˛/ ; f .˛N / D
2
;
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

N 0 0 N 0 0 N 0 0
f .ˇ/ D N ; f .ˇ ˛/N D ; f .ˇ ˛N / D 2
2
;
1 0 xN 0 xN 0
where 1N D 1 C .x 3 /, xN D x C .x 3 /.
(e) Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / be a finite quiver, K a field and I an admissible
ideal of KQ. Denote by Qop the opposite quiver Qop D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s 0 ; t 0 / of Q,
where, for ˛ 2 Q1 , s 0 .˛/ D t .˛/ and t 0 .˛/ D s.˛/. Moreover, let %1 ; : : : ; %r be
a finite set of relations in KQ generating the ideal I (see Lemma 1.6). Denote by
op op
%1 ; : : : ; %r the relations in KQop obtained by reversing the orientation of all paths
occurring in the relations %1 ; : : : ; %r , respectively. Then the ideal I op of KQop
op op
generated by %1 ; : : : ; %r is an admissible ideal of KQop , and the bound quiver
algebra KQ =I is isomorphic to the opposite algebra .KQ=I /op of the bound
op op
quiver algebra KQ=I .
2 Representations of algebras and modules

Let K be a field.
For a positive natural number n, we denote by GLn .K/ the subset of Mn .K/
consisting of all invertible matrices. Then GLn .K/ is a group with respect to
multiplication of matrices and the identity n n matrix In as the identity element.
Let G D .G; ; e/ be a finite group. Following F. G. Frobenius [Fro2], by a
representation of G over K we mean a group homomorphism ' W G ! GLn .K/
for some n 1. The integer n is called the degree of the representation '. Hence,
' assigns to any element g 2 G an invertible matrix '.g/ 2 GLn .K/ and '.gh/ D
'.g/'.h/, for all g; h 2 G, and '.e/ D In . Two representations ' W G ! GLn .K/
2. Representations of algebras and modules 13
and W G ! GLn .K/ are said to be equivalent if there exists a matrix C 2 GLn .K/
such that .g/ D C '.g/C 1 for all g 2 G.
Let A D .A; C; ; 0A ; 1A / be a finite dimensional K-algebra. By a represen-
tation of A over K we mean (see [Fro3]) a K-algebra homomorphism ˆ W A !
Mn .K/, for some n 1. The integer n is called the dimension of the represen-
tation ˆ. Hence, ˆ assigns to any element a 2 A a matrix ˆ.a/ 2 Mn .K/, and
ˆ.a C b/ D ˆ.a/ C ˆ.b/, ˆ.ab/ D ˆ.a/ˆ.b/, for all a; b 2 A, and ˆ.0A / D 0n ,
ˆ.1A / D In . Two representations ˆ W A ! Mn .K/ and ‰ W A ! Mn .K/ of A
over K (of the same dimension) are said to be equivalent if there exists a matrix
C 2 GLn .K/ such that ‰.a/ D C ˆ.a/C 1 for all a 2 A.
The following lemma describes the relationship between the representations of
groups and the representations of finite dimensional algebras.
Lemma 2.1. Let G beˇ a finite group and n a positive natural number. The restriction
map ˆ 7! ' D ˆˇG induces a bijection between the equivalence classes of the
representations of the group algebra KG of G over K of dimension n and the
equivalence classes of the representations of G over K of degree n.
Proof. Let ˆ W KG ! Mn .K/ be a representation of KG over K of dimension
n. Then the identity e of G is the identity element of KG, and hence ˆ.e/ D In .
Moreover, for g; h 2 G, we have ˆ.gh/ D ˆ.g/ˆ.h/. Thus ˆ.g/ˆ.g 1 / D
ˆ.gg 1ˇ / D ˆ.e/ D In , and so ˆ.g/ 2 GLn .K/. Therefore, the restriction
' D ˆˇG W G ! GLn .K/ is a representation of G of degree n.
Conversely, assume that ' W G ! GLn .K/ is a representation of G over K of
degree n. Consider the map ˆ W KG ! Mn .K/ defined by
X X
ˆ g g D g '.g/
g2G g2G
P
for an element g2G g g of KG. It follows immediately from definition of the
K-algebra structure
ˇ on KG that ˆ is a representation of KG of dimension n such
that ' D ˆˇG .
Observe that trivially two representations ˆ and ‰ of KGˇ of dimension ˇn are
equivalent if and only if the associated representations ' D ˆˇG and D ‰ ˇG of
G of degree n are equivalent.
Example 2.2. Let m 1 and be an element of K with m D 1. Consider the
cyclic group G D fe; g; g 2 ; : : : ; g m1 g of order m. Then, for any n 1, the map
'n W G ! GLn .K/ given by 'n .g k / D k In , for k 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g, defines
a representation of G of degree n. Observe also that the group algebra KG is
isomorphic to the K-algebra KŒx=.x m 1/.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an a basis of the K-vector
space A, and ˛ij k 2 K, i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the associated structure constants, that
is,
X
n
aj ak D ˛ij k ai
iD1
for all j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, let j 2 K, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, be such that
X
n
1A D j aj :
j D1
Following F. G. Frobenius [Fro4], [Fro5], consider the matrices

L.aj / D ŒL.aj /ik D Œ˛ij k ik 2 Mn .K/; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
R.al / D ŒR.al /ik D Œ˛ikl ik 2 Mn .K/; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng:
Therefore, L.aj / is the matrix of the K-linear map aj ./ W A ! A, aj .x/ D aj x,
for x 2 A, in the basis a1 ; : : : ; an . Similarly, R.al / is the matrix of the K-linear
map ./al W A ! A, .x/al D xal , for x 2 A, in the basis a1 ; : : : ; an . The matrices
L.aj / and R.al /, j; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng, determine K-linear maps L W A ! Mn .K/ and
R W A ! Mn .K/, respectively. Denote by Rt W A ! Mn .K/ the linear map such
that Rt .a/ D .R.a//t is the transpose of the matrix R.a/, for any a 2 A.
Lemma 2.3. The maps L; Rt W A ! Mn .K/ are representations of the algebra A
over K.
Proof. For j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have the equalities
X
n Xn
L.aj ak / D L ˛ij k ai D ˛ij k L.ai /
iD1 iD1
X
n hXn i
D ˛ij k Œ˛hil hl D ˛ij k ˛hil ;
hl
iD1 iD1
hX
n i hX
n i
L.aj /L.ak / D Œ˛hj i hi Œ˛ikl il D ˛hj i ˛ikl D ˛ikl ˛hj i :
hl hl
iD1 iD1
Then it follows from Lemma / D L.aj /L.ak / for all j; k 2

P 1.2 (i) that L.aj akP
f1; : : : ; ng. Hence, for a D jnD1 j aj and b D nkD1 k ak from A, we obtain
X
n X
n Xn X
n

L.ab/ D L j k aj ak D j k L aj ak
j D1 kD1 j D1 kD1
X
n X
n X
n X
n
D j k L.aj /L.ak / D j L.aj / k L.ak /
j D1 kD1 j D1 kD1
D L.a/L.b/:
Moreover, by Lemma 1.2 (ii), we also obtain that

X
n Xn X
n
L.1A / D L j aj D j L.aj / D j Œ˛ij k ik
j D1 j D1 j D1
hX
n i
D j ˛ij k D Œıik ik D In :
ik
j D1
Therefore, L W A ! Mn .K/ is a representation of A.

For k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have the equalities
X
n Xn
R.ak al / D R ˛ikl ai D ˛ikl R.ai /
iD1 iD1
X
n hXn i
D ˛ikl Œ˛hj i hj D ˛ikl ˛hj i ;
hj
iD1 iD1
hX
n i hX
n i
R.al /R.ak / D Œ˛hil hi Œ˛ij k ij D ˛hil ˛ij k D ˛ij k ˛hil :
hj hj
iD1 iD1
Applying again Lemma 1.2 (i), we obtain that R.ak al / D R.al /R.ak / for all
k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Hence, as above, we conclude that R.ab/ D R.b/R.a/ for all
a; b 2 A. This implies that Rt .ab/ D R.ab/t D .R.b/R.a//t D R.a/t R.b/t D
Rt .a/Rt .b/.
Moreover, by Lemma 1.2 (ii), we also obtain
X
n X
n X
n
R.1A / D R j aj D j R.aj / D j Œ˛ikj ik
j D1 j D1 j D1
hX
n i
D j ˛ikj D Œıik ik D In ;
ik
j D1
and hence Rt .1A / D R.1A /t D Int D In .

Therefore, Rt W A ! Mn .K/ is a representation of A.
Following F. G. Frobenius, the representation L W A ! Mn .K/ is called the first
(left) regular representation of A over K, and the representation Rt W A ! Mn .K/
is called the second (right) regular representation of A over K (see [Fro4], [Fro5]).
This depends on the choice of a K-basis a1 ; : : : ; an of the K-algebra A. But any
other choice of the K-basis of A leads to representations of A equivalent to L and
Rt , respectively (Exercise 12.1).
A new and fundamental view on the representation theory of algebras came from
two papers [Noe1] and [Noe2] by E. Noether who gave to the theory its modern
setting by interpreting representations as modules.
Let A be a K-algebra. Following E. Noether, a left A-module (or a left module

over A) is a pair .M; /, where M is a left K-vector space and W A M ! M ,
.a; m/ 7! a m (simply am), is a binary operation satisfying the conditions
(i) a.x C y/ D ax C ay,
(ii) .a C b/x D ax C bx,
(iii) .ab/x D a.bx/,
(iv) 1A x D x,
(v) a.x/ D .a/x D .ax/,
for all x; y 2 M , a; b 2 A, and 2 K. Dually, a right A-module (or a right module
over A) is a pair .M; /, where M is a right K-vector space and W M A ! M ,
.m; a/ 7! ma, is a binary operation satisfying the conditions
(i) .x C y/a D xa C ya,
(ii) x.a C b/ D xa C xb,
(iii) x.ab/ D .xa/b,
(iv) x1A D x,
(v) .x/a D x.a/ D .xa/,
for all x; y 2 M , a; b 2 A, and 2 K. We will denote by 0M the zero element
of a (left or right) A-module M . A (left or right) A-module M is said to be finite
dimensional if the dimension dimK M of the underlying K-vector space of M is
finite. Moreover, we denote by 0 the zero (left or right) A-module on the zero
K-vector space.
We note that there is a bijection between the left (respectively, right) modules
over a K-algebra A and the right (respectively, left) modules over the opposite
algebra Aop . Indeed, for a left (respectively, right) A-module M D .M; / the
corresponding right (respectively, left) Aop -module M op D .M; / is such that
x a D ax (respectively, a x D xa) for x 2 M , a 2 A.
Throughout, we identify a module .M; / with its underlying set M .
Let M and N be left (respectively, right) modules over a K-algebra A. Then a
K-linear map f W M ! N of left (respectively, right) K-vector spaces is said to be
an A-module homomorphism if f .ax/ D af .x/ (respectively, f .xa/ D f .x/a)
for all x 2 M and a 2 A. Moreover, if f is bijective, then f is called an A-module
isomorphism. Two A-modules M and N are said to be isomorphic if there exists
an A-module isomorphism f W M ! N (equivalently, g W N ! M ). In this case
we write M Š N .
The following proposition was the key observation of E. Noether.
Proposition 2.4. Let A be a K-algebra. There is a bijection between the equiva-

lence classes of representations of A over K of the dimension n and the isomorphism
classes of left A-modules of the dimension n.
Proof. Let ˆ W A ! Mn .K/ be a representation of A over K. Consider the left
K-vector space M D Mn1 .K/ consisting of all n 1 matrices of K. We define
the binary operation W A M ! M by ax D ˆ.a/x for a 2 A and x 2 M , where
the right side is the multiplication of matrices. Then for all a; b 2 A, x; y 2 M
and 2 K, the following equalities hold:
a.x C y/ D ˆ.a/.x C y/ D ˆ.a/x C ˆ.a/y D ax C ay;

.a C b/x D ˆ.a C b/x D .ˆ.a/ C ˆ.b// x D ˆ.a/x C ˆ.b/x D ax C bx;
.ab/x D ˆ.ab/x D .ˆ.a/ˆ.b// x D ˆ.a/ .ˆ.b/x/ D a.bx/;
1A x D ˆ.1A /x D In x D x;
a.x/ D ˆ.a/.x/ D .ˆ.a// x D .ˆ.a// x D ˆ.a/x D .a/x;
a.x/ D .ˆ.a// x D .ˆ.a/x/ D .ax/:
This defines on M a left A-module structure, denoted by Mˆ .

Let ˆ W A ! Mn .K/ and ‰ W A ! Mn .K/ be two representations of A over
K of the dimension n. Assume that ˆ and ‰ are equivalent. Then there exists
a matrix C 2 GLn .K/ such that ‰.a/ D C ˆ.a/C 1 for all a 2 A. Let, as
above, M D Mn1 .K/ and f W M ! M be the K-linear isomorphism given by
f .x/ D C x for all x 2 M . Then
af .x/ D ‰.a/.C x/ D .‰.a/C / x D .C ˆ.a// x D C .ˆ.a/x/ D f .ax/
for all a 2 A, x 2 M . Therefore, f defines an isomorphism f W Mˆ ! M‰ of left

A-modules. Conversely, assume that there exists an isomorphism f W Mˆ ! M‰
of left A-modules. Since Mˆ D Mn1 .K/ D M‰ as K-vector spaces, there exists
a matrix C 2 GLn .K/ such that f .x/ D C x for all x 2 Mn1 .K/. Moreover, for
any a 2 A and x 2 M D Mn1 .K/, we have
.C ˆ.a// x D C .ˆ.a/x/ D f .ax/ D af .x/ D ‰.a/.C x/ D .‰.a/C / x;
and hence C ˆ.a/ D ‰.a/C , or equivalently, ‰.a/ D C ˆ.a/C 1 . Therefore, the

representations ˆ and ‰ are equivalent.
Let N be a left A-module of dimension n. We show that N Š Mˆ for a
representation ˆ W A ! Mn .K/ of A over K of dimension n. Since dimK N D n,
there exists an isomorphism g W N ! M D Mn1 .K/ of K-vectorspaces. Then
we transport the left A-module structure from N to M by ax D g ag 1 .x/ for
all a 2 A and x 2 M . A direct checking shows that this defines a left A-module
structure on M , and clearly then g W N ! M is an isomorphism of left A-modules.
Fix now an element a 2 A and consider the K-linear map 'a W M ! M given
by 'a .x/ D ax for x 2 M . Then there exists a matrix ˆ.a/ 2 Mn .K/ such that
'a .x/ D ˆ.a/x for any matrix x 2 M D Mn1 .K/. Therefore, we defined a
map ˆ W A ! Mn .K/. Moreover, for a; b 2 A, 2 K, and x 2 M , we have the
equalities
ˆ.a C b/x D .a C b/x D ax C bx D ˆ.a/x C ˆ.b/x D .ˆ.a/ C ˆ.b// x;
ˆ.ab/x D .ab/x D a.bx/ D ˆ.a/ .ˆ.b/x/ D .ˆ.a/ˆ.b// x;
ˆ.0A /x D 0n x D 0 (D zero matrix in M );
ˆ.1A /x D 1A x D x D In x;
ˆ.a/x D .a/x D .ax/ D .ˆ.a/x/ D .ˆ.a// x;
and hence ˆ is a K-algebra homomorphism. Summing up, we have proved that
N Š Mˆ as left A-modules.
Although historically the left modules were more natural objects of study than
the right modules, in the modern representation theory of algebras and from tech-
nical reasons, the right modules became more popular. We will follow this trend
and concentrate on study of right modules.
Let A be a K-algebra and M be a right A-module. A K-subspace M 0 of M is
said to be a right A-submodule of M if xa 2 M 0 for all x 2 M 0 and a 2 A. Then the
K-vector space M=M 0 has a natural structure of a right A-module, called a factor
right A-module of M , given by .x C M 0 /a D xa C M 0 for x 2 M , a 2 A, and the
canonical K-linear epimorphism W M ! M=M 0 is an A-module homomorphism.
A submodule M 0 of M with M 0 ¤ M is called a proper submodule of M . For a
right ideal I of A, the set MI consisting of all finite sums x1 a1 C C xs as , where
x1 ; : : : ; xs 2 M and a1 ; : : : ; as 2 I , for some s 1, is an A-submodule of M . The
module M is said to be finitely generated if there exist elements x1 ; : : : ; xs 2 M
such that any element x of M has the form x D x1 a1 C C xs as for some
a1 ; : : : ; as 2 A. In such a case, the elements x1 ; : : : ; xs are called generators of
M . For A-submodules M1 ; : : : ; Ms of M we define M1 C C Ms to be the A-
submodule of M consisting of all sums x1 C Cxs , where x1 2 M1 ; : : : ; xs 2 Ms .
We note the following simple fact.
Proposition 2.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M a right A-module.
Then M is a finitely generated A-module if and only if M is a finite dimensional
A-module.
Proof. Recall that the field K is identified with the K-subalgebra of A consisting of
all elements of the form 1A D 1A , 2 K. Hence, if M is generated by elements
x1 ; : : : ; xr as a right K-vector space, then clearly M is generated by x1 ; : : : ; xr
as a right A-module. Conversely, assume that M is generated by some elements
m1 ; : : : ; ms as a right A-module. Let a1 ; : : : ; an be a K-basis of A. Then the set of
elements mi aj , i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, generates M as a (right) K-vector
space.
Let A be a K-algebra. For right A-modules M , N , we denote by HomA .M; N /

the set of all A-module homomorphisms from M to N . We note that HomA .M; N /
is a right K-vector space with respect to the addition .f; g/ 7! f C g given
by .f C g/.x/ D f .x/ C g.x/ for f; g 2 HomA .M; N / and x 2 M , and the
scalar multiplication .f; / 7! f given by .f /.x/ D f .x/ D f .x/ for
f 2 HomA .M; N /, 2 K and x 2 M . Obviously the zero homomorphism
0M;N which assigns to any element m 2 M the zero element 0N of N is the zero
element of HomA .M; N / with respect to C. If the modules M and N are finite
dimensional then the K-vector space HomA .M; N / is finite dimensional, since it
is a K-subspace of the K-vector space HomK .M; N / of all K-linear maps from
M to N . It is easy to check that for any triple L; M; N of right A-modules the
composition map
W HomA .M; N / HomA .L; M / ! HomA .L; N /;
.h; g/ 7! hg, for h 2 HomA .M; N / and g 2 HomA .L; M /, is K-bilinear. For a
right A-module M the K-vector space
EndA .M / D HomA .M; M /
of all A-module endomorphisms of M has a K-algebra structure with respect to

composition of maps, and whose identity is the identity map idM of M . For a
homomorphism f 2 HomA .M; N /, the kernel Ker f D fx 2 M j f .x/ D 0N g,
the image Im f D ff .x/ j x 2 M g, and the cokernel Coker f D N= Im f have
natural structures of right A-modules, and moreover the K-linear isomorphism
M= Ker f ! Im f , x C Ker f 7! f .x/, is an isomorphism of right A-modules.
The direct sum of right A-modules M1 ; : : : ; Mr , r 1, is defined to be the K-
vector space direct sum M1 ˚ ˚ Mr equipped with the right A-module structure
defined by .x1 ; : : : ; xr /a D .x1 a; : : : ; xr a/ for x1 2 M1 ; : : : ; xr 2 Mr , and a 2 A.
We denote the direct sum M ˚ ˚ M of r 1 copies of an A-module M by
M r . Moreover, for r D 0, we define M 0 to be the zero A-module.
A right A-module M is said to be the direct sum of right A-submodules
M1 ; : : : ; Mr , r 1, denoted by M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mr , if every element m 2 M has
a unique expression of the form m D m1 C Cmr with m1 2 M1 ; : : : ; mr 2 Mr .
Moreover, a right A-module M is said to be indecomposable if M is nonzero and
not a direct sum of two nonzero right A-submodules of M .
The following simple lemma is very useful.
Lemma 2.6. Let A be a K-algebra, M be a right A-module and M1 ; : : : ; Mr ,
r 1, right A-submodules of M . Then M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mr if and only if the
following conditions are satisfied:
(1) M D M1 C C Mr ,
P
(2) Mi \ j 2f1;:::;rgnfig Mj D 0 for each i 2 f1; : : : ; rg.
Proof. Clearly, M D M1 C C Mr is just the fact that every element m 2 M

has an expression of the form m D m1 C C mr with m1 2 M1 ; : : : ; mr 2 Mr .
Moreover, if m1 C C mr D m D m01 C C m0r are two expressions of m 2 M
with m1 ; m01 2 M1 ; : : : ; mr ; m0r 2 Mr , then, for each i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, we have
X 0 X
mi m0i D mj mj 2 Mi \ Mj :
j 2f1;:::;rgnfig j 2f1;:::;rgnfig
Hence the required equivalence follows.

We denote by Mod A the category of all right A-modules over a K-algebra A, that
is, the category whose objects are right A-modules, the morphisms are A-module
homomorphisms, and the composition of morphisms is the usual composition of
maps. Moreover, we denote by mod A the full subcategory of Mod A whose objects
are the finite dimensional (over K) right A-modules. We note that if A is a finite
dimensional K-algebra then, by Proposition 2.5, mod A is the category of all finitely
generated right A-modules.
The following proposition summarizes the properties of the categories Mod A
and mod A described above (we refer to [ML2] for background on abelian cate-
gories).
Proposition 2.7. Let A be a K-algebra. Then Mod A and mod A are abelian
K-categories.
We also note that every left A-module over a K-algebra A can be viewed as a
right Aop -module. Therefore, the category Mod Aop (respectively, mod Aop ) will
be identified with the category A-Mod of all (respectively, A-mod of all finite
dimensional) left A-modules.
For the categories mod A and mod Aop of finite dimensional K-algebras A we
have moreover the standard K-duality of module categories
D /
mod A o mod Aop
D
with 1mod A Š D B D and 1mod Aop Š D B D, where D D HomK .; K/. The
functor D W mod A ! mod Aop assigns to a module M in mod A the dual K-vector
space D.M / D HomK .M; K/ endowed with the left A-module structure given by
.a'/.m/ D '.ma/, for ' 2 HomK .M; K/, m 2 M , a 2 A, and to each morphism
f W M ! N in mod A the dual K-homomorphism D.f / W D.N / ! D.M / of left
A-modules such that D.f /. / D f for any 2 D.N / D HomK .N; K/. The
quasi-inverse functor D W mod Aop ! mod A assigns to a module X in mod Aop
the dual K-vector space D.X / D HomK .X; K/ endowed with the right A-module
structure given by .'a/.x/ D '.ax/, for ' 2 HomK .X; K/, x 2 X , a 2
A, and to each morphism g W X ! Y in mod Aop the dual K-homomorphism
D.g/ W D.Y / ! D.X / of right A-modules such that D.g/. / D g for any
2 D.Y / D HomK .Y; K/. Then the standard evaluation isomorphism eV W V !
DD.V / D HomK .HomK .V; K/; K/, for a finite dimensional K-vector space V ,
given by eV .x/.f / D f .x/, where x 2 V , f 2 D.V /, defines natural isomor-
phisms of functors 1mod A Š D B D and 1mod Aop Š D B D (in the sense of II.4).
For bound quiver algebras A D KQ=I of bound quivers .Q; I /, the categories
Mod A and mod A have a very useful description as the categories of K-linear
representations of .Q; I /, which we define below.
Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / be a finite quiver. A K-linear representation of Q (or
a representation of Q over K) is a system
M D .Ma ; '˛ /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 ;
briefly M D .Ma ; '˛ /, consisting of K-vector spaces Ma , a 2 Q0 , and K-linear
maps '˛ W Ms.˛/ ! M t.˛/ , ˛ 2 Q1 . The representation M is said to be finite
dimensional if each K-vector space Ma is finite dimensional.
Let M 0 D .Ma0 ; '˛0 /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 and M D .Ma ; '˛ /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 be K-linear
representations of the quiver Q. Then M 0 is said to be a subrepresentation of M
0 0
if Ma0 is a K-vector subspace of Ma , for any a 2 Q0 , and '˛0 W Ms.˛/ ! M t.˛/
0
is the restriction '˛ jMs.˛/0 of '˛ W Ms.˛/ ! M t.˛/ to Ms.˛/ , for any ˛ 2 Q1 .
Then the factor representation M 00 D M=M 0 of M by M 0 is defined as M 00 D
00
.Ma00 ; '˛00 /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 , where Ma00 D Ma =Ma0 for any a 2 Q0 , and '˛00 W Ms.˛/ !
00 00 0 0
M t.˛/ , for any ˛ 2 Q1 , is given by '˛ .x CMs.˛/ / D '˛ .x/CM t.˛/ for x 2 Ms.˛/ .
Let M D .Ma ; '˛ / and N D .Na ; ˛ / be two representations of Q over K. A
morphism (of representations) f W M ! N is a family f D .fa /a2Q0 of K-linear
maps fa W Ma ! Na , a 2 Q0 , such that ˛ fs.˛/ D f t.˛/ '˛ for any arrow ˛ 2 Q1 ,
or equivalently the square of K-linear maps
'˛
Ms.˛/ / M t.˛/
fs.˛/ f t .˛/

Ns.˛/
˛
/ N t.˛/
is commutative.
A morphism f D .fa /a2Q0 W M ! N of representations is called an iso-
morphism if all K-linear maps fa , a 2 Q0 , are isomorphisms. We denote by
HomQ .M; N / the set of all morphisms of representations from M to N . Observe
that HomQ .M; N / has a K-vector space structure given by f Cg D .fa Cga /a2Q0
and f D .fa /a2Q0 , for f D .fa /a2Q0 and g D .ga /a2Q0 in HomQ .M; N /,
and 2 K. Moreover, for any triple L, M , N of representations of Q over K the
composition map
W HomQ .M; N / HomQ .L; M / ! HomQ .L; N /;
which assigns to h D .ha /a2Q0 2 HomQ .M; N /, g D .ga /a2Q0 2 HomQ .L; M /
the homomorphism hg D .ha ga /a2Q0 2 HomQ .L; N /, is K-bilinear.
Finally, let f D .fa /a2Q0 2 HomQ .M; N / for representations M D .Ma ; '˛ /
and N D .Na ; ˛ / of Q over K. Then the kernel of f is defined as Ker f D
.Ker fa ; '˛0 /, where '˛0 W Ker fs.˛/ ! Ker f t.˛/ denotes the restriction of '˛ to
Ker fs.˛/ , the image of f is defined as Im f D .Im fa ; ˛0 /, where ˛0 W Im fs.˛/ !
Im f t.˛/ is the restriction of ˛ to Im fs.˛/ , and the cokernel of f is defined as
Coker f D .Coker fa ; N ˛ /, where N ˛ W Coker fs.˛/ ! Coker f t.˛/ is given by
N ˛ .x C Im fs.˛/ / D ˛ .x/ C Im f t.˛/ , for x 2 Ns.˛/ . Observe that Ker f is
a subrepresentation of M , Im f is a subrepresentation of N , and Coker f is the
factor representation of N by Im f . Moreover, if the representations M and N
are finite dimensional, then the representations Ker f , Im f and Coker f are finite
dimensional. Given two representations M D .Ma ; '˛ / and N D .Na ; ˛ / of Q
over K their direct sum is the representation

'˛ 0
M ˚ N D Ma ˚ Na ; :
0 ˛
A representation M of Q over K is said to be indecomposable if M is nonzero and

not isomorphic (as a representation of Q over K) to a direct sum L ˚ N of two
nonzero representations of Q over K.
We denote by RepK .Q/ the category of all K-linear representations of Q and the
morphisms of representations, and by repK .Q/ the full subcategory of RepK .Q/
consisting of all finite dimensional representations.
The following proposition summarizes our discussion above.
Proposition 2.8. Let Q be a finite quiver and K a field. Then RepK .Q/ and
repK .Q/ are abelian K-categories.
1
consisting of one vertex. Then RepK .Q/ is just the category Mod K of K-vector
spaces. Furthermore, the field K is a unique indecomposable representation in
RepK .Q/, up to isomorphism.
1 o
˛
2 :
Then the objects of RepK .Q/ are triples M D .M1 ; M2 ; '˛ W M2 ! M1 /, which
we write briefly as
'˛
M W M1 o M2
consisting of one K-linear map between vector spaces. We claim that the represen-
tations
Ko Ko 0o
1
0; K; K
are representatives of the isomorphism classes of all indecomposable representa-

tions in RepK .Q/. Observe that, if M is a representation in RepK .Q/ with '˛ an
isomorphism, then M is isomorphic to a direct sum of copies of the representation
Ko
1
K . Further, if Ker '˛ ¤ 0,
ˇ then taking a K-vector space decomposition
M2 D M20 ˚ Ker '˛ and '˛0 D '˛ ˇM 0 , we conclude that M is isomorphic to the
2
direct sum of representations
0
'˛
M1 o M20 ˚ 0 o Ker '˛ :
Finally, if Im '˛ ¤ M1 , then taking a K-vector space decomposition M1 D M10 ˚

Im '˛ , we conclude that M is isomorphic to the direct sum of representations
'˛
M10 o 0 ˚ Im '˛ o M1 :

1 d ˛.
Then the category RepK .Q/ is the category of endomorphisms of K-vector spaces
V1 D V g 'D'˛ :
In particular, the classification problem of objects in repK .Q/ up to isomorphism

is equivalent to the classification of matrices in Mn .K/, n 1, up to conjugation,
and hence to Frobenius normal forms of finite square matrices over K (see [Coh2],
Chapter 11, for details). In particular, if K is algebraically closed, then the following
representations
K n f Jn ./ ;
where Jn ./ is the Jordan block
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 1 0 07
6 7
60 0 1 07
6 7
Jn ./ D 6 : : : :
6 :: :: :: : : : : : ::: 7
7
6 7
40 0 0 15
0 0 0 0
for n 1, 2 K, give representatives of the isomorphism classes of all finite

dimensional indecomposable representations of Q over K. We note that this has
been proved by C. Jordan in 1870 [Jor].
(d) Let Q be the quiver
$ o ˇ
˛ :
1 2
Then the objects of RepK .Q/ are quadruples

M D M1 ; M2 ; '˛ W M1 ! M1 ; 'ˇ W M2 ! M1 ;
denoted briefly by
( 'ˇ
'˛ M1 o M2 ;
consisting of two vector spaces M1 , M2 , and two K-linear maps '˛ and 'ˇ . More-
over, a morphism f W M ! N of two representations consists of two K-linear maps
f1 W M1 ! N1 and f2 W M2 ! N2 such that f1 '˛ D ˛ f1 and f1 'ˇ D ˇ f2 ,
where N D .N1 ; N2 ; ˛ W N1 ! N1 ; ˇ W N2 ! N1 /, or equivalently the diagram
of K-linear maps
( 'ˇ
'˛ M1 o M2
f1 f2
(
N1 o
ˇ
˛ N2
is commutative. In particular, for the representations

% ( 1
( 0
Ko K o K o
1 0 1
XW 0 K; YW 01
00
2 K; ZW 01
00
2 K
in repK .Q/, we have a morphism f W X ! Y of representations given by the

commutative diagram in mod K
%
Ko
1
0 K

1
0 1
( 1

K2 o
0
01
00 K
with Ker f D 0 (hence f is a monomorphism), and a morphism g W Z ! X of

representations given by the commutative diagram in mod K

( 0
K2 o
1
01
00 K

01 1
%
Ko
1
0 K
with Im g D X (hence g is an epimorphism). Observe also that X, Y and Z

are indecomposable representations and Coker f and Ker g are isomorphic to the
representation
'
0 Ko 0:
Consider also the representation M in repK .Q/ of the form

( 10
K2 o
01
01
00 K 2:
We determine the endomorphism K-algebra EndQ .M /. Every endomorphism in
EndQ .M / is given by two matrices

a a12 b b12
A D 11 and B D 11
a21 a22 b21 b22
in M2 .K/ satisfying the conditions

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
ADA and A D B:
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Then A D B and a11 D a22 , a21 D 0. Therefore, we obtain isomorphisms of
K-algebras
² ³
ˇ
EndQ .M / Š ˇ ; 2 K Š KŒx=.x 2 /:
0
Moreover, a basis of the K-vector space EndQ .M / is formed by the identity mor-
phism idM of M and the morphism h given by the commutative diagram in mod K
of the form
( 10
K2 o
01
01
00 K2

01 01
00 00
( 10

K2 o
01
01
00 K2 .
Observe also that h2 D 0, and Ker h, Im h and Coker h are isomorphic to X . In
particular, h is neither a monomorphism nor an epimorphism in repK .Q/.
(e) Let Q be the Kronecker quiver
o ˛
1 o 2 :
ˇ
Then the objects of RepK .Q/ are the pairs

'˛
M1 oo M2
'ˇ
of K-linear maps between two K-vector spaces. For K D C, the problem of

a classification of the representations in repC .Q/ (up to isomorphism) has been
solved by L. Kronecker [Kro]. We only note that the family of representations
Jn .0/
o
Kn o K n;
In
for n 1, provides an infinite family of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable

representations in repK .Q/. We refer to [SS1], XI.4, for a complete description of
the indecomposable representations in repK .Q/ for an algebraically closed field K.
Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / be a finite quiver and I an admissible ideal of the path

algebra KQ of Q over a field K. Moreover, let M D .Ma ; '˛ /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 be a
representation in RepK .Q/. For any path w D ˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l of length l 1 in Q,
we define the K-linear map
'w D '˛l '˛l1 : : : '˛2 '˛1 W Ms.˛1 / ! M t.˛l /
called the evaluation map of M on the path w. Then for a K-linear combination
X
r
%D i wi
iD1
of paths in Q with a common source a and a common target b, we define the

K-linear map
X
r
'% D i 'wi W Ma ! Mb :
iD1
A representation M in RepK .Q/ is said to be bound by I , or satisfying the relations

of I , if we have '% D 0 for all relations % 2 I . It follows from Lemma 1.6 that the
ideal I is generated, as a two-sided ideal, by a finite set f%1 ; : : : ; %r g of relations.
Hence every relation % 2 I is of the form
X
s
%D j uj j vj
j D1
where j 2 K, uj , vj are paths in Q (possibly trivial), and j 2 f%1 ; : : : ; %r g, for

any j 2 f1; : : : ; sg. Since
X
s
'% D j 'vj 'j 'uj ;
j D1
we conclude that a representation M in RepK .Q/ is bound by I if and only if

'%1 D 0; : : : ; '%r D 0.
For a bound quiver .Q; I /, we denote by RepK .Q; I / (respectively, repK .Q; I /)
the full subcategory of RepK .Q/ (respectively, repK .Q/) consisting of the represen-
tations of Q bound by I . It follows immediately from the proof of Proposition 2.8
that RepK .Q; I / and repK .Q; I / are abelian K-categories. This follows also from
the following theorem.
Theorem 2.10. Let A D KQ=I , where Q is a finite quiver, K a field, and I is an

admissible ideal of KQ. Then there exists a K-linear equivalence of categories

F W Mod A
! RepK .Q; I /
which restricts to a K-linear equivalence of categories

F W mod A
! repK .Q; I /:
Proof. We construct a K-linear functor F W Mod A ! RepK .Q; I / and its quasi-
inverse functor G W RepK .Q; I / ! Mod A.
Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t /. For each vertex a 2 Q0 , the idempotent "a D .aka/
of KQ gives the idempotent ea D "a C I of A.
Let M be a module in Mod A. We associate to M the K-linear representation
F .M / D .Ma ; '˛ /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 of Q bound by I as follows. For each vertex a 2 Q0 ,
we set Ma D M ea , and, for each arrow ˛ 2 Q1 , we define '˛ W Ms.˛/ ! M t.˛/ to
be the K-linear map defined by '˛ .x/ D x ˛, N where x 2 Ms.˛/ , and ˛N D ˛ C I .
Observe that ˛N D es.˛/ ˛e N t.˛/ , and hence x ˛NPD xes.˛/ ˛e N t.˛/ 2 Me t.˛/ D M t.˛/ .
We show that F .M / is bound by I . Let % D m iD1 i wi be a relation from a vertex
a to a vertex b in I , and wi D ˛i;1 ˛i;2 : : : ˛i;li for i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Then we obtain,
for an element x 2 Ma , the equalities
X
m X
m X
m
'% .x/ D i 'wi .x/ D i '˛i;li : : : '˛i;1 .x/ D i .x ˛N i;1 : : : ˛N i;li /
iD1 iD1 iD1
X
m
Dx i ˛N i;1 : : : ˛N i;li D x %N D x0 D 0:
iD1
Let f W M ! N be a homomorphism in Mod A, and F .M / D .Ma ; '˛ /,

F .N / D .Na ; ˛ /. We define the morphism F .f / W F .M / ! F .N / of repre-
sentations of Q over K. For a vertex a 2 Q0 and x D xea 2 Mea D Ma ,
we have f .x/ D f .xea / D f .x/ea 2 Nea D Na , because f is a homomor-
phism of right A-modules. Hence the restriction fa of f to Ma gives a K-linear
map fa W Ma ! Na . We set F .f / D .fa /a2Q0 . For each arrow ˛ 2 Q1 and
x 2 Ms.˛/ , we have the equalities
f t.˛/ '˛ .x/ D f t.˛/ .x ˛/

N D f .x ˛/
N D f .x/˛N D fs.˛/ .x/˛N D ˛ fs.˛/ .x/:
Therefore, f t.˛/ '˛ D ˛ fs.˛/ for any arrow ˛ 2 Q1 , and hence F .f / is a mor-
phism in RepK .Q; I /. Clearly, F W Mod A ! RepK .Q; I / is a K-linear functor
and restricts to a K-linear functor F W mod A ! repK .Q; I /.
We define now a K-linear functor G W RepK .Q; I / ! Mod A which is quasi-
inverse of F . Let M D .Ma ;L '˛ / be a representation in RepK .Q; I /. Consider
the K-vector space G.M / D a2Q0 Ma . We define first a structure of the right
KQ-module on G.M /. Let x D .xa /a2Q0 belong to G.M /, and w be a path in Q.

Then xw is defined as follows. If w D "a is a trivial path, we set xw D x"a D xa .
For a path w D ˛1 ˛2 : : : ˛l of length l 1 in Q, consider the K-linear map
'
L w W '˛l : : : '˛1 W Ms.˛1 / ! M t.˛l / , and define xw to be the element of G.M / D
a2Q0 Ma whose only nonzero component is .xw/ t.˛l / D 'w .xs.˛1 / / 2 M t.˛l / .
The multiplication of elements of G.M / by paths of Q extends in an obvious way
to a right KQ-module. Since the representation M of Q is bound by I , for each
relation % in I , and each x 2 G.M /, we have x% D 0. Clearly, then G.M /I D 0.
Therefore, G.M / is a right A-module by the formula x.v CI / D xv for x 2 G.M /
and v 2 KQ.
Let now f D .fa /a2Q0 be a morphism from M D .Ma ; '˛ / to N D .Na ; ˛ /
in RepK .Q; I /. Consider the K-linear homomorphism
M M M
G.f / D fa W Ma ! Na :
a2Q0 a2Q0 a2Q0
We show that G.f / W G.M / ! G.N / is a homomorphism of right A-modules.

Indeed, take x D xa 2 Ma and wN D w C I for a path w in Q with source a 2 Q0
and target b 2 Q0 . Then we have the equalities
N D G.f /.xa w/
G.f /.x w/ N D fb 'w .xa / D w fa .xa / D fa .xa /wN D G.f /.x/w:
N
N D G.f /.x/wN for any element x 2 G.M / and

Clearly, then we have G.f /.x w/
wN 2 KQ=I , and our claim follows. Observe that if M belongs to repK .Q; I /
then G.M / belongs to mod A, because the quiver Q is finite. Consequently,
G W RepK .Q; I / ! Mod A is a K-linear functor which restricts to a K-linear
functor G W repK .Q; I / ! mod A. A standard checking shows that we have equiv-
alences of functors GF ! 1Mod A and F G ! 1RepK .Q;I / .
We note that the K-linear equivalence of categories F W Mod A ! RepK .Q; I /,

described above, carries the A-submodules (respectively, A-factor modules) into
K-linear subrepresentations (respectively, factor representations) of .Q; I /.
Corollary 2.11. Let Q be a finite acyclic quiver, K a field and A D KQ. Then
there exists a K-linear equivalence of categories

F W Mod A
! RepK .Q/

F W mod A
! repK .Q/:
Proof. Since Q is a finite and acyclic quiver, KQ is a finite dimensional K-algebra,

by Lemma 1.3 (ii). Then the statement follows from Theorem 2.10 for I D 0.
Examples 2.12. (a) Let Q be the quiver
1 d ˛
and I D RQm
, for some m 2, in KQ. Then RepK .Q; I / is the full subcategory
of RepK .Q/ consisting of all representations
V1 f '˛
satisfying the condition '˛m D 0. In particular, the representations
Kr f Jr .0/ ;
for r 2 f1; : : : ; mg, given by the nilpotent Jordan blocks Jr .0/ of degree r m,
form a complete set of representatives of the isomorphism classes of indecompos-
able representations in repK .Q; I /. Since KQ=I D KŒx=.x m /, these represen-
tations correspond, via the K-linear equivalence G W repK .Q; I / ! mod KQ=I
described in Theorem 2.10, to the indecomposable (right) KŒx=.x m /-modules
KŒx=.x r /, r 2 f1; : : : ; mg.
$ o ˇ
˛
1 2
and I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ 2 . Then I is an admissible ideal of KQ, and
the bound quiver algebra A D KQ=I is isomorphic to the matrix algebra

KŒx=.x 2 / 0
BD
KŒx=.x 2 / K
(compare Example 1.7 (d)). A simple analysis of indecomposable objects in

repK .Q; I /, invoking Examples 2.9 (b) and 2.12 (a), shows that the following 7
representations
' ' $
Ko Ko 0o
1
0 0; 0 K; K;

( ( 1
K2 o K2 o
0
01 01
00 0; 00 K;

( 0
( 10
K2 o K2 o
1 01
01 01
00 K; 00 K2
form a complete set of representatives of the isomorphism classes of indecompos-
able representations in repK .Q; I /. Then, applying Theorem 2.10, we conclude
that the number of pairwise nonisomorphic finite dimensional indecomposable right
B-modules is equal to 7.
3 The Jacobson radical

Let K be a field.
A right (respectively, left) ideal I of a K-algebra A is called maximal if I
is maximal, with respect to inclusion, in the set of all proper right (respectively,
proper left) ideals of A. We observe first that a K-algebra A admits maximal right
(respectively, maximal left) ideals, since the family of right ideals (respectively, left
ideals) of A different from A contains the zero ideal 0, and hence is nonempty.
The Jacobson radical (briefly, radical) rad A of a K-algebra A is the intersection
of all the maximal right ideals of A. It follows from the lemma below that rad A
is the intersection of all the maximal left ideals of A, and consequently rad A is a
two-sided ideal of A.
Lemma 3.1. Let A be a K-algebra. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) a 2 rad A.
(ii) For any b 2 A, the element 1A ab has a right inverse.
(iii) For any b 2 A, the element 1A ab has a two-sided inverse.
(iv) For any b 2 A, the element 1A ba has a two-sided inverse.
(v) For any b 2 A, the element 1A ba has a left inverse.
(vi) a belongs to the intersection of all maximal left ideals of A.
Proof. We abbreviate 1 D 1A . We prove first that (i) and (ii) are equivalent. Let
b 2 A. Suppose that the element 1 ab has no right inverse in A. Then there exists
a maximal right ideal I of A such that 1 ab 2 I , since .1 ab/A is a right ideal of
A different from A. Because a 2 rad A I , we obtain ab 2 I , and hence 1 2 I ,
a contradiction. This shows that 1 ab has a right inverse. Conversely, assume
a … rad A, and let I be a maximal right ideal of A such that a … I . Then I C aA
is a right ideal of A containing I as a proper subset, and hence A D I C aA. Thus
there exist x 2 I and b 2 A such that 1 D x C ab. But then x D 1 ab 2 I has
no right inverse, because I ¤ A.
The equivalence of (v) and (vi) can be proved in a similar way.
The equivalence of (iii) and (iv) follows from the following implications:
(a) if .1 cd /x D 1, then .1 dc/.1 C dxc/ D 1;
(b) if y.1 cd / D 1, then .1 C dyc/.1 dc/ D 1;
for c; d; x; y 2 A.
We prove now that (ii) implies (iii). Let b 2 A. By assumption (ii), there exists
c 2 A such that .1ab/c D 1. Then c D 1a.bc/. Applying (ii) to c, we obtain
3. The Jacobson radical 31
that 1 D cd for some d 2 A, and hence 1 D .1a.bc//d D d Cabcd D d Cab.

Therefore d D 1 ab and c is a left inverse of 1 ab.
The implication (v) ) (iv) follows in a similar way. Clearly, (iii) implies (ii)
and (iv) implies (v). The lemma is proved.
Corollary 3.2. Let A be a K-algebra. Then rad A is a two-sided ideal of A and
rad.A= rad A/ D 0.
Proof. The fact that rad A is a two-sided ideal follows from the equivalence of (i)
and (vi) in Lemma 3.1. For the second statement, observe that the maximal right
ideals of A= rad A are the ideals of the form I C rad A for maximal right ideals I
of A (containing rad A), and hence indeed rad.A= rad A/ D 0.
In fact, we will show in Section 6 (Lemma 6.11) that rad A is also the intersection
of all maximal two-sided ideals of A.
Let I be a two-sided ideal of a finite dimensional K-algebra A. For an integer
m 1, we denote by I m the two-sided ideal of A consisting of all finite sums of
elements of the form x1 x2 : : : xm , where x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xm 2 I . The ideal I is said to
be nilpotent if I m D 0 for some m 1. Observe that then every element x of I is
nilpotent, that is, x r D 0 for some r 1.
We will show that the Jacobson radical of a finite dimensional K-algebra is
nilpotent. It will follow from the following useful lemma, known as Nakayama’s
lemma.
Lemma 3.3. Let A be a K-algebra, M be a finitely generated right A-module, and
I rad A be a two-sided ideal of A. If MI D M , then M D 0.
Proof. Assume MI D M and M is generated by elements m1 ; : : : ; mr , that is,
M D m1 AC Cms A. We proceed by induction on r. If r D 1, then m1 A D m1 I
implies that m1 D m1 x1 for some x1 2 I . Hence m1 .1 x1 / D 0, and so m1 D 0,
because 1 x is right invertible, by Lemma 3.1. Therefore, M D 0. Assume that
r 2. Then M D MI D m1 I C C mr I implies that m1 D m1 x1 C m2 x2 C
C mr xr for some x1 ; : : : ; xr 2 I . Hence m1 .1 x1 / D m2 x2 C C mr xr , and
so m1 D m2 y2 C C mr yr 2 m2 A C C mr A, for y2 D x2 z; : : : ; yr D xr z,
where z is the right inverse of 1 x1 . Therefore, M D m2 A C C mr A, and, by
induction, we obtain M D 0.
Corollary 3.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then rad A is a nilpotent
ideal of A.
Proof. We have the chain of two-sided ideals of A,
A
rad A
.rad A/2

.rad A/i
.rad A/iC1
:
Since dimK A is finite, there exists m 1 such that .rad A/m D .rad A/mC1 .
Then .rad A/m D .rad A/m rad A, and, applying Lemma 3.3, we conclude that
.rad A/m D 0.
We will determine now the radical of the bound quiver algebra KQ=I of a
bound quiver .Q; I /. The following lemma will be essential.
Lemma 3.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and I be a nilpotent two-sided
ideal of A. Then
(i) I rad A.
(ii) If the algebra A=I is isomorphic to a product F1 Fn of division
K-algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fn , then I D rad A.
Proof. (i) Since I is a nilpotent ideal of A, we have I m D 0 for some m 1. Let
x 2 I and a be an element of A. Then ax 2 I , .ax/m D 0, and the equality

.1A ax/ 1A C ax C .ax/2 C C .ax/m1 D 1A
holds, and hence x 2 rad A, by Lemma 3.1. Therefore I rad A.

(ii) Assume A=I Š F1 Fn for some division K-algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fn .
Clearly, rad.F1 Fn / D 0, because F1 Fi1 0FiC1 Fn , for i 2
f1; : : : ; ng, are maximal right ideals of F1 Fn , and consequently rad.A=I / D
0. Consider the canonical surjective K-algebra homomorphism W A ! A=I
such that .a/ D a C I for any a 2 A. We claim that .rad A/ D rad.A=I /.
Indeed, if a 2 rad A and .b/ D b C I , with b 2 A, is an arbitrary element of
A=I , then c.1A ba/ D 1A for some element c 2 A, by Lemma 3.1. Hence,
.c/.1A=I .b/.a// D 1A=I and consequently .a/ is an element of rad.A=I /.
Since rad.A=I / D 0, we obtain .a/ D 0A=I , and so a 2 I . This shows that
rad A I , and hence I D rad A.
Lemma 3.6. Let Q be a finite quiver, I an admissible ideal of KQ, and RQ the
arrow ideal of KQ. Then rad KQ=I D RQ =I .
Proof. Since the ideal I is admissible, we have RQ m
I RQ2
for some m
2. Consider the canonical surjective K-algebra homomorphism f W KQ=RQ m
!
KQ=I . Observe that f .RQ =RQ / D RQ =I . Obviously, RQ =RQ is a nilpotent
m m
m
ideal of KQ=RQ , and hence RQ =I is a nilpotent ideal of KQ=I . Moreover, we
have canonical isomorphisms of algebras
ı Y

.KQ=I / .RQ =I / ! KQ=RQ ! Ka ;
a2Q0
where Ka D K for any vertex a 2 Q0 . Applying Lemma 3.5, we conclude that

rad KQ=I D RQ =I .
Corollary 3.7. Let Q be a finite acyclic quiver. Then rad KQ D RQ .
A K-algebra A is said to be local if A has a unique maximal right ideal, or
equivalently, A has a unique maximal left ideal, as it is shown in the lemma below.
Lemma 3.8. Let A be a K-algebra. The following conditions are equivalent.

(i) A is a local algebra.
(ii) A has a unique maximal left ideal.
(iii) rad A consists of all noninvertible elements of A.
(iv) The set of all noninvertible elements of A is a two-sided ideal of A.
(v) For any a 2 A, one of the elements a or 1A a is invertible.
(vi) A= rad A is a division algebra.
Proof. We abbreviate 1 D 1A and 1N D 1A= rad A . We prove first that (i) implies
(iii). Assume A is a local algebra. Then rad A is a unique maximal right ideal of
A. Hence a 2 rad A if and only if a has no right inverse. We claim that every
right inverse element a of A is invertible. Indeed, if ab D 1, then .1 ba/b D 0.
Observe that then b … rad A, because otherwise the element .1 ba/ is invertible,
by Lemma 3.1, and then b D 0, a contradiction. Thus b has a right inverse, and
consequently 1 ba D 0. This shows that a has a left inverse, and so a is invertible.
Therefore, we have proved that a 2 rad A if and only if a has no right inverse, if
and only if a is not invertible.
The fact that (ii) implies (iii) follows in a similar way. Clearly, (iii) implies (iv).
We show now that (iv) implies (v). Let I be a two-sided ideal of A consisting
of all noninvertible elements, and a 2 A. If a and 1 a are noninvertible, then a
and 1 a belong to I , and consequently 1 D a C .1 a/ 2 I , a contradiction.
Hence, a or 1 a is invertible.
Assume (v) hold. We claim that (i) hold. Indeed, suppose I and J are different
maximal right ideals of A. Then I C J is a right ideal of A with I as proper subset
of I C J , and hence I C J D A. Thus 1 D a C b for some a 2 I and b 2 J . By
(v) one of the elements a 2 I or 1 a D b 2 J is invertible, which is impossible
because I and J are different from A. Similarly we show that (v) implies (ii).
Consider the canonical K-algebra homomorphism W A ! A= rad A, .a/ D
a C rad A, for a 2 A. Assume (iii) holds. We show that A= rad A is a division
algebra, and so (vi) holds. Let .a/ D a C rad A be a nonzero element of A= rad A.
Then a … rad A, and hence a is an invertible element of A, by (iii). Hence ba D
1 D ab for some b 2 A, and consequently we obtain .b/.a/ D .ba/ D 1N D
.ab/ D .a/.b/, that is, .a/ is an invertible element of A= rad A. Assume
now that (vi) holds. We show that rad A is a maximal right ideal of A, and hence
(i) holds. Suppose rad A is properly contained in a maximal right ideal I of A, and
a 2 I n rad A. Then .a/ is a nonzero element of A= rad A, and hence .a/ is
invertible. Thus .a/.b/ D 1N for some b 2 A. Hence ab C rad A D 1 C rad A,
which implies that 1 D ab C x for some x 2 rad A. Then rad A I and ab 2 I
imply that 1 2 I , a contradiction with I ¤ A.
Corollary 3.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then A is a local algebra

if and only if every element of A is nilpotent or invertible.
Proof. Assume that a is a nilpotent element of A, say am D 0 for some m 1.
Observe that a is noninvertible. Indeed, if ab D 1A for some b 2 A, then we obtain
0 D am b m D a.a.: : : a.ab/b : : : /b/b D 1A , a contradiction. Moreover, we have
the equalities
.1A C a C C am1 /.1A a/ D 1A D .1A a/.1A C a C C am1 /;
and hence 1A a is an invertible element of A. Further, it follows from Corollary 3.4
that rad A is a nilpotent ideal of A, and hence every element of rad A is nilpotent.
Therefore, the asserted equivalence follows from Lemma 3.8.
Examples 3.10. (a) Let A D KŒx=.x m /, for some m 1. Then the principal
N of A generated by xN D x C .x m / is a unique maximal ideal of A, and
ideal .x/
consequently rad A D .x/.N In particular, A is a commutative local K-algebra.
(b) Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, I an admissible ideal of KQ, and
A D KQ=I . It follows from Lemma 3.6 that rad A D RQ =I and
Q Q A= rad A Š
a2Q0 Ka , where K a D K for any a 2 Q 0 . Observe also that a2Q0 Ka is a
division algebra if and only if jQ0 j D 1. Therefore, A is a local algebra if and only
if Q has only one vertex.
(c) Let F be a division K-algebra, n 2, and A be the K-subalgebra
2 3
F 0 0
6F F 0 7
6 7
Tn .F / D 6 : :: : : :: 7
4 :: : : :5
F F F
of the full matrix algebra Mn .F /, consisting of all triangular matrices Œaij 2
Mn .F / with aij D 0 for all 1 i < j n. Denote by In .F / the ideal of Tn .F /
consisting of all matrices Œaij 2 Mn .F / with aij D 0 for all 1 i j n.
Then In .F /n D 0 and Tn .F /=In .F / is isomorphic to the product F F of
n copies of F . Applying Lemma 3.5, we conclude that rad A D In .F /. Moreover,
A is not a local algebra.
Let ƒn .F / be the K-subalgebra of Tn .F / consisting of all matrices Œaij with
a11 D a22 D D ann . Then again rad ƒn .F / D In .F / but ƒn .F /= rad ƒn .F / Š
F is a division K-algebra. Therefore, ƒn .F / is a local K-algebra.
(d) Let ƒ be the matrix K-algebra

KŒx=.x 3 / 0
ƒD
KŒx=.x 3 / K
over a field K, considered in Example 1.7 (d), and

N
.x/ 0
J D ;
KŒx=.x 3 / 0

where .x/N is the principal ideal of KŒx=.x 3 / generated by xN D x C x 3 . Then J
is a two-sided ideal of ƒ such that J 4 D 0 and ƒ=J ! K K. Hence, applying
Lemma 3.5, we obtain that J D rad ƒ.
We exhibit now an important class of local algebras.
Lemma 3.11. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, I and admissible ideal of KQ,
and A D KQ=I . Moreover, let a be a vertex of Q0 and ea D "a C I the coset of
the trivial path "a of Q at a. Then ea Aea is a finite dimensional local K-algebra.
Proof. Clearly, ea Aea is a finite dimensional K-algebra with ea the identity 1eAe
of eAe. Moreover, we have a canonical isomorphism of K-algebras

ea Aea D ."a C I /.KQ=I /."a C I /
! "a .KQ/"a ="a I "a ;
where "a .KQ/"a is the K-algebra whose underlying K-vector space has as its
basis the set of all (oriented) cycles in Q throughout the vertex a, and clearly "a
is the identity of "a .KQ/"a . Moreover, since I is an admissible ideal of KQ,
we have RQ m
I for some m 2. Consider the two-sided ideal "a RQ "a of
"a .KQ/"a generated by all nontrivial cycles around a. Then we have ."a RQ "a /m
"a RQm
"a "a I "a and hence "a RQ "a ="a I "a is a nilpotent two-sided ideal of
"a .KQ/"a ="a I "a . Further, we have canonical isomorphisms of K-algebras
ı
."a .KQ/"a ="a I "a / ."a RQ "a ="a I "a /
! K."a C "a I "a / ! K:
Applying Lemma 3.5, we conclude that
"a RQ "a ="a I "a D rad ."a .KQ/"a ="a I "a / :
Then it follows from Lemma 3.8 that "a .KQ/"a ="a I "a is a local algebra. Finally,
we conclude that ea Aea is a local algebra and rad ea Aea D ea .rad A/ea .
An element e of a K-algebra A is called an idempotent if e 2 D e. Observe that

then 1A e is also an idempotent of A and e.1A e/ D 0A D .1A e/e, that is,
the idempotents e and 1A e are orthogonal. In general, two idempotents e and f
of A are called orthogonal if ef D 0A D f e. Moreover, an idempotent e of A is
said to be central if ea D ae for all elements a of A.
Every K-algebra A has always two trivial idempotents 0A and 1A , which are
central idempotents of A.
The following lemma provides a useful lifting property of idempotents modulo
the nilpotent ideals.
Lemma 3.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, B D A=I for a nilpotent

ideal I of A and W A ! B the canonical surjective K-algebra homomorphism.
Then the following assertions hold.
(i) For any pairwise orthogonal idempotents f1 ; : : : ; fn in B there exist pairwise

orthogonal idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en in A with .ei / D fi for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
(ii) Let e be an idempotent in A such that .e/ D f1 C C fn for pairwise
orthogonal idempotents f1 ; : : : ; fn in B. Then there exist pairwise orthogonal
idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en in A such that e D e1 C C en and .ei / D fi for
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. Let I m D 0A for a positive integer m, and for elements x1 ; : : : ; xn in A we
denote by hx1 ; : : : ; xn i the set of K-linear combinations of elements of the form
x1r1 : : : xnrn for nonnegative integers r1 ; : : : ; rn .
We shall show (i) by induction on n in the following stronger form:
For any pairwise orthogonal idempotents f1 ; : : : ; fn in B with fi D .xi /
for some xi 2 A and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, there exist pairwise orthogonal idempotents
e1 ; : : : ; en such that .ei / D fi and ei 2 hx1 ; : : : ; xn i for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
First consider the case n D 1.
Let f D .x/ D x C I for some x 2 A. Then .x/ D f D f 2 D
.x 2 / implies x x 2 2 I , and hence .x x 2 /m D 0A . On the other hand, by
Newton’s
Pm formula, we have .x
binomial
i1 m i1
x 2 /m D x m x mC1 y, where y D
iD1 .1/ i
x . Then we obtain x D x mC1 y and xy D yx. We claim
m
that the element e D .xy/m is a required idempotent of A with .e/ D f . Observe

first that e 2 hxi and
e D .xy/m D x m y m D x mC1 y mC1 D D x 2m y 2m D ..xy/m /2 D e 2 ;
and so e is an idempotent. Moreover, we have the equalities

x x m D x 1 x m1 D x.1 x/ 1 C x C C x m2

D x x 2 1 C x C C x m2 :
Hence x x 2 2 I forces x x m 2 I , and so .x/ D .x m /. Then we obtain the

equalities

f D .x/ D .x m / D x mC1 y D x mC1 .y/ D .x m / .x/.y/

D .x/.x/.y/ D x 2 .y/ D .x/.y/ D .xy/;
and hence the required claim
.e/ D ..xy/m / D ..xy//m D f m D f:
Assume that n > 1 and the assertion is true for n 1.

Let f1 ; : : : ; fn be pairwise orthogonal idempotents in B and fi D .xi /, for
some xi 2 A, i D 1; : : : ; n. It follows from the first part of the proof that there is
an idempotent an in A with fn D .an / and an 2 hxn i. Moreover, by induction
hypothesis, there exist pairwise orthogonal idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en1 in A such that

.ei / D fi and ei 2 hx1 ; : : : ; xn1 i for i 2 f1 : : : ; n 1g. Let
a D e1 C C en1 ; an0 D an aan an a C aan a:
Then, for i 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g, we have an0 ei D 0A D ei an0 , because aei D ei D ei a.

Further, we have the equalities
.a/.an / D .f1 C Cfn1 /fn D 0B ; .an /.a/ D fn .f1 C Cfn1 / D 0B ;
and hence
.an0 / D .an / .aan / .an a/ C .aan a/

D .an / .a/.an / .an /.a/ C .a/.an /.a/ D .an / D fn :
Therefore there is an idempotent en in A such that .en / D fn and en 2 han0 i, which

implies in particular that en ei D 0A D ei en for all i 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g. Moreover,
en 2 hx1 ; : : : ; xn i, because an0 2 ha; an i, a 2 he1 ; : : : ; en1 i and an 2 hxn i, and
hence an0 2 he1 ; : : : ; en1 ; xn i hx1 ; : : : ; xn1 ; xn i. Thus we have proved (i) in
the stronger form.
(ii) Assume that e 2 D e 2 A, .e/ D f1 C C fn and fi D .ai / for ai 2 A
and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, where f1 ; : : : ; fn are pairwise orthogonal idempotents in B.
Let di D eai e for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we obtain
.di / D .e/fi .e/ D .f1 C C fn /fi .f1 C C fn / D fi :
It follows from (i) in the stronger form that there are pairwise orthogonal idempo-
tents e1 ; : : : ; en in A such that .ei / D fi and ei 2 hd1 ; : : : ; dn i for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
In particular, we have ei 2 eAe, because di 2 eAe for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Now let
d D e1 C C en :
Clearly then d 2 D d . Further, because d 2 eAe, we have ed D d D de and

hence .e d /2 D e 2 ed de C d 2 D e d . Moreover, we conclude that
X
n X
n X
n X
n
.e d / D fi .ei / D fi fi D 0B :
iD1 iD1 iD1 iD1
Thus we have proved that e d is an idempotent belonging to I , which implies

that e d D 0A , because 0A is the only idempotent in the nilpotent ideal I of A.
Therefore e D e1 C C en as desired.
A K-algebra is said to be indecomposable if A is not isomorphic to a product
B C of two K-algebras B and C .
Lemma 3.13. Let A be a local K-algebra. Then A is an indecomposable K-

algebra.
Proof. Assume there exists an isomorphism of K-algebras f W B C ! A. Ob-

serve that for every pair of maximal right ideals M of B and N of C the products
M C and B N are maximal right ideals of B C , and such ideals exhaust all
maximal right ideals of B C . Then we conclude that
rad.B C / D ..rad B/ C / \ B .rad C / D .rad B/ .rad C /:
Hence we have an isomorphism of K-algebras
.B C /= rad.B C / ! .B= rad B/ .C = rad C /:
Observe that the algebra .B= rad B/ .C = rad C / is not a division algebra, because
.1B C rad B; 0C C rad C / is its nonzero and noninvertible element. Hence .B
C /= rad.B C / is not a division algebra. Since the isomorphism f W B C ! A
induces an isomorphism of K-algebras .B C /= rad.B C / ! A= rad A, we
conclude that A= rad A is not a division algebra. Applying now Lemma 3.8 we
obtain that A is not a local algebra.
Lemma 3.14. A K-algebra A is indecomposable if and only if the unique central

idempotents of A are the trivial idempotents 0A and 1A .
Proof. Assume there exists an isomorphism of K-algebras f W B C ! A. Then

.1B ; 0C / and .0B ; 1C / are nontrivial central idempotents of B C , and hence
f ..1B ; 0C // and f ..0B ; 1C // are nontrivial central idempotents of A whose sum
is 1A D f ..1B ; 1C //.
Conversely, assume that e is a nontrivial central idempotent of A. Then 1A e is
also a nontrivial central idempotent of A, eAe D eA D Ae and .1A e/A.1A e/ D
.1A e/A D A.1A e/ are K-algebras, with the identity elements e and 1A e,
respectively. Moreover, the map g W eAe .1A e/A.1A e/ ! A given by
g.exe; .1A e/y.1A e// D exe C .1A e/y.1A e/, for x; y 2 A, is an
isomorphism of K-algebras.
Proposition 3.15. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field and I an admissible ideal of

KQ. Then the bound quiver algebra KQ=I is indecomposable if and only if the
quiver Q is connected.
Proof. It follows from Lemmas 1.3 and 1.5 that the cosets ea D "a C I of the
trivial paths "a at the vertices a 2 Q0 of Q form
P a family of pairwise orthogo-
nal idempotents of KQ=I such that 1KQ=I D a2Q0 ea . Moreover, it follows
from Lemma 3.11 that ea Aea , a 2 Q0 , are local K-algebras. Then, applying
Lemma 3.13, we conclude that the algebras ea Aea , a 2 Q0 , are indecomposable.
Let e be a central idempotent of KQ=I . Since ea eeb D e.ea eb / D 0KQ=I for all
a ¤ b in Q0 , we obtain that
X X
e D 1KQ=I e1KQ=I D ea e eb
a2Q0 b2Q0
X X
D ea eeb D ea eea :
a;b2Q0 a2Q0
Observe that, for any a 2 Q0 , ea eea is a central idempotent of the algebra ea Aea ,
Pa D ea or ea eea D 0eAe D 0A , by Lemma 3.14. Therefore, e is of the
and so ea ee
form e D a20 ea , for a subset 0 of Q0 . Moreover, for any arrow ˛ 2 Q1 , we
have
X X
"a ˛ C I D e.˛ C I / D .˛ C I /e D ˛"a C I;
a20 a20
which shows that the source s.˛/ of ˛ and the target t .˛/ of ˛ belong simultaneously
to 0 or Q0 n 0 . Hence, e is a nontrivial central idempotent of KQ=I if and only
if Q is a disjoint union of two subquivers with the nonempty sets 0 and Q0 n 0
of vertices. Applying Lemma 3.14, we conclude that the K-algebra KQ=I is
indecomposable if and only if the quiver Q is connected.
Proposition 3.16. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then
the following statements hold.
(i) There are pairwise orthogonal central idempotents e1 ; : : : ; es of A such that
1A D e1 C C es , B1 D e1 A; : : : ; Bs D es A are indecomposable K-
algebras and two-sided ideals of A, and A D B1 ˚ ˚ Bs as two-sided
ideals of A.
(ii) Let B1 ; : : : ; Bs and B10 ; : : : ; B t0 be indecomposable K-algebras and two-sided
ideals of A such that
B1 ˚ ˚ Bs D A D B10 ˚ ˚ B t0
as two-sided ideals of A. Then s D t and there exists a permutation of

f1; : : : ; sg such that Bi D B0 .i/ for each i 2 f1; : : : ; sg.
Proof. (i) It follows from Lemma 3.14 that A is indecomposable if and only if the
identity 1A of A is the unique nonzero central idempotent of A. Then the claim
follows by induction on dimK A.
(ii) Observe that, for the given decompositions B1 ˚ ˚Bs D A D B10 ˚ ˚
B t , there exist central idempotents e1 ; : : : ; es and e10 ; : : : ; e t0 of A such that e1 ; : : : ; es
0
are pairwise orthogonal with 1A D e1 C Ces and B1 D e1 A; : : : ; Bs D es A, and

e10 ; : : : ; e t0 are pairwise orthogonal with 1A D e10 C Ce t0 and B10 D e10 A; : : : ; B t0 D
e t0 A. Moreover, since B1 ; : : : ; Bs ; B10 ; : : : ; B t0 are indecomposable K-algebras,

e1 ; : : : ; es ; e10 ; : : : ; e t0 are the unique central idempotents of B1 ; : : : ; Bs ; B10 ; : : : ; B t0 ,
respectively. Further, for each i 2 f1; : : : ; sg and j 2 f1; : : : ; tg, ei ej0 is a central
idempotent of A. Hence, for each i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, the equality ei D ei e10 C Cei e t0
forces that ei D ei ej0 D ej0 for exactly one j 2 f1; : : : ; tg. This shows that s D t and
0 0
there is a permutation of f1; : : : ; sg such that ei D e.i/ , and hence Bi D B.i/ ,
for any i 2 f1; : : : ; sg.
It follows from the above proposition that, for a finite dimensional K-algebra
A over a field K, there is a unique decomposition A D B1 ˚ ˚ Bs of A into
a direct sum of two-sided ideals B1 D e1 A; : : : ; Bs D es A, for central idem-
potents e1 ; : : : ; es of A with 1A D e1 C C es , and moreover B1 ; : : : ; Bs are
indecomposable K-algebras. The indecomposable K-algebras B1 ; : : : ; Bs in this
decomposition are called the blocks of A. Observe that for every indecomposable
module M in mod A we have the induced decomposition M D Me1 ˚ ˚ M es
in mod A, and hence M D M ei for exactly one i 2 f1; : : : ; sg and Mej D 0 for
j 2 f1; : : : ; sg n fi g. Clearly, then M is an indecomposable Bi -module, and we
say that M belongs to the block Bi of A.
We end this section with the following lemma.
Lemma 3.17. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K,
f W A ! B a surjective homomorphism of K-algebras, and I D Ker f . Then
(i) f induces the inclusion preserving bijection
˚ / ˚right ideals of B :
right ideals of A containing I o
(ii) f induces the inclusion preserving bijection

˚ / ˚left ideals of B :
left ideals of A containing I o
(iii) f induces the inclusion preserving bijection

˚ / ˚two-sided ideals of B :
two-sided ideals of A containing I o
(iv) If I is nilpotent then f .rad A/ D rad B and f 1 .rad B/ D rad A.

Proof. (i) Let J be a right ideal of B. Then f 1 .J / is a right ideal of A, because
f .xa/ D f .x/f .a/ 2 J for x 2 J and a 2 A. Moreover, I D f 1 .f0B g/
f 1 .J /. Further, for a right ideal L of A, f .L/ is a right ideal of B, because
B D f .A/. Finally, for right ideals L and N of A containing I , the equality
4. The Krull–Schmidt theorem 41
f .L/ D f .N / implies L D N . Indeed, for x 2 L, there exists y 2 N such that

f .x/ D f .y/, and hence y x 2 Ker f D I , so x 2 N , since I N . This
shows that L N . Similarly, we obtain that N L. Hence indeed L D N . This
completes the proof of (i).
The proofs of (ii) and (iii) are similar.
(iv) It follows from (i) that f induces a bijection between the set of all maximal
right ideals of A containing I and the set of all maximal right ideals of B. Moreover,
since I is a nilpotent ideal of A, applying Lemma 3.5, we obtain I rad A.
Therefore, f .rad A/ D rad B and f 1 .rad B/ D rad A.
4 The Krull–Schmidt theorem

In this section we show that every finite dimensional module over a finite dimen-
sional K-algebra A has a unique decomposition into a direct sum of indecomposable
modules. Let K be a field.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. A homomorphism u W L ! M in
mod A is called a section if there exists a homomorphism v W M ! L in mod A
such that vu D idL . Further, a homomorphism r W M ! N in mod A is said to
be a retraction if there exists a homomorphism s W N ! M in mod A such that
rs D idN . Observe that every section is a monomorphism and every retraction is
an epimorphism.
The following lemma provides examples of sections and retractions.
Lemma 4.1. Let u W L ! M and v W M ! N be two homomorphisms in mod A
such that vu is an isomorphism in mod A. Then u is a section and v is a retraction
in mod A.
Proof. Let w W N ! L be the inverse homomorphism of vu in mod A. Then
idL D w.vu/ D .wv/u and idN D .vu/w D v.uw/, and hence u is a section and
v is a retraction.
Lemma 4.2. Let f W M ! N and g W N ! M be two homomorphisms in mod A
such that gf D idM . Then N D Im f ˚ Ker g.
Proof. For an element y 2 N , we have y fg.y/ 2 Ker g, and hence y 2
Im f C Ker g. This shows N D Im f C Ker g. Moreover, if y 2 Im f \ Ker g,
then y D f .x/ for some x 2 M and x D gf .x/ D g.y/ D 0, and so y D 0.
Hence Im f \ Ker g D 0, and the claim follows.
The following lemma is known as the Fitting lemma.
Lemma 4.3. Let A be a K-algebra, M a finite dimensional right A-module, and
f 2 EndA .M /. Then there exists a natural number n such that M D Ker f n ˚
Im f n .
Proof. We have two chains of A-submodules of M :
Ker f Ker f 2 Ker f i Ker f iC1 ;
Im f
Im f 2

Im f i
Im f iC1
:
Since dimK M is finite, there exists a natural number n such that Ker f n D
Ker f nCk and Im f n D Im f nCk for all k 0. We show that M D Ker f n ˚
Im f n . Let x 2 M . Then f n .x/ D f 2n .y/ for some y 2 M . Hence x
f n .y/ 2 Kerf n , and we obtain x D .x f n .y// C f n .y/ 2 Ker f n C Im f n .
Moreover, if z 2 Ker f n \ Im f n , then z D f n .x/, for some x 2 M , and
0 D f n .z/ D f 2n .x/. Then Ker f n D Ker f 2n implies z D f n .x/ D 0.
Therefore, Ker f n \ Im f n D 0, and the claim follows.
Lemma 4.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a finite dimensional

right A-module. Then M is an indecomposable A-module if and only if EndA .M /
is a local K-algebra.
Proof. Assume that M is an indecomposable A-module. Take an endomorphism
f 2 EndA .M /. It follows from Lemma 4.3 that M has a decomposition M D
Ker f n ˚Im f n , for some n 1, as a right A-module. Since M is indecomposable,
we have either M D Ker f n and Im f n D 0, or Ker f n D 0 and M D Im f n .
Therefore, f is either a nilpotent or an invertible element of EndA .M /. Applying
Corollary 3.9 we conclude that EndA .M / is a local K-algebra.
Conversely, assume that EndA .M / is a local K-algebra. Suppose M decom-
poses as M D M1 ˚ M2 with M1 , M2 nonzero A-submodules of M . Denote by
u1 W M1 ! M and u2 W M2 ! M the canonical embeddings, and by p1 W M ! M1
and p2 W M ! M2 the canonical projections. Then idM D u1 p1 Cu2 p2 . It follows
from Lemma 3.8 that one of the endomorphisms u1 p1 and u2 p2 D idM u1 p1 is
an invertible element of EndA .M /. This is impossible since Im u1 p1 D M1 ¤ M
and Im u2 p2 D M2 ¤ M . Therefore M is an indecomposable A-module.
The following exchange property of decompositions of modules into direct sums

of submodules is very useful.
Lemma 4.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, M a finite dimensional right
A-module, and X1 an A-submodule of M . Assume
M D Y1 ˚ Y2
is a decomposition of M into a direct sum of A-submodules Y1 , Y2 , and the restric-

tion of the canonical projection p W M ! Y1 , for the decomposition M D Y1 ˚ Y2 ,
to X1 is an isomorphism from X1 to Y1 . Then we have a direct sum decomposition
M D X1 ˚ Y2 :
4. The Krull–Schmidt theorem 43
Proof. We first show that Y1 X1 C Y2 . Take y1 2 Y1 . Since p.X1 / D Y1 by

assumption, there exists x1 2 X1 such that y1 D p.x1 /. Moreover, x1 D y1 C y2
for some y2 2 Y2 , because M D Y1 ˚ Y2 . Then y1 D x1 y2 2 X1 C Y2 .
Hence Y1 X1 C Y2 , and then M D Y1 C Y2 X1 C Y2 M . Therefore,
M D X1 C Y2 . We claim that X1 \ Y2 D 0, and hence M D X1 ˚ Y2 . Indeed,
take an element x 2 X1 \ Y2 . Then p.x/ D 0, because x 2 Y2 . This forces x D 0
because by assumption the restriction of p to X1 is an isomorphism. Hence, indeed
X1 \ Y2 D 0.
The following theorem has been proved by W. Krull [Kru] and O. Schmidt
[Schm] (for groups with operators) on the basis of a theorem of R. Remak [Rem]
about the uniqueness of decompositions of finite groups as direct products of in-
decomposable subgroups. A proof of the Krull–Schmidt theorem invoking local
algebras has been proposed by G. Azumaya [Azu1] in 1950.
Theorem 4.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K.
(i) Every module M in mod A has a decomposition
M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mm ;
where M1 ; : : : ; Mm are indecomposable A-submodules of M .
(ii) Let M1 ; : : : ; Mm and N1 ; : : : ; Nn be indecomposable modules in mod A such

that there exists an isomorphism of A-modules
M1 ˚ ˚ Mm Š N1 ˚ ˚ Nn :
Then m D n and there exists a permutation of f1; : : : ; ng such that Mi Š

N.i/ for each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. (i) This follows because dimK M is finite for any module M in mod A.
(ii) We proceed by induction on m. For m D 1, the module N1 ˚ ˚ Nn
is indecomposable, and hence n D 1 and M1 Š N1 . Assume that m 2. Let
f W M1 ˚ ˚ Mm ! N1 ˚ ˚ Nn be an isomorphism of A-modules and g its
inverse. Then we obtain
M1 ˚ ˚ Mm D N10 ˚ ˚ Nn0 ;
where Nj0 D g.Nj / for each j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Denote by
uj W Nj0 ! M and pj W M ! Nj0 ;
j 2 f1; : : :L
; ng, the canonical embeddings and projections given by the
Lmdecomposi-
n 0 0 0
tion M D j D1 Nj . Moreover, let M D M1 ˚ M1 , where M1 D iD2 Mi , and
let u W M1 ! M , u0 W M10 ! M , p W M ! M1 , p 0 W M ! M10 be the associated

embeddings and projections, respectively. We obtain the equalities
X
n X
n
idM1 D pu D p idM u D p uj pj u D puj pj u:
j D1 j D1
Since M1 is indecomposable, the algebra EndA .M1 / is local, by Lemma 4.4. Then
it follows from Lemma 3.8 that the Jacobson radical rad EndA .M1 / of EndA .M1 /
consists of all noninvertible endomorphisms. Therefore, one of the endomorphisms
puj pj u 2 EndA .M1 /, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is an isomorphism. Without loss of gener-
ality, we may assume that v D pu1 p1 u is an isomorphism. In particular, it follows
from Lemma 4.1 that ˛ D p1 u W M1 ! N10 is a section and ˇ D pu1 W N10 ! M1
is a retraction in mod A. Since N10 is indecomposable, applying Lemma 4.2, we
conclude that ˛ W M1 ! N10 and ˇ W N10 ! M1 are isomorphisms.
L
Let N100 D jnD2 Nj0 . Then we have two decompositions
M1 ˚ M10 D M D N10 ˚ N100
of M into direct sums of A-submodules. Moreover, the restriction ˛ D p1 u of

the projection p1 W M ! N10 , for the decomposition M D N10 ˚ N100 , to M1 is an
isomorphism. Then it follows from Lemma 4.5 that there is a decomposition
M D M1 ˚ N100
of M into a direct sum of A-modules. Obviously then we have dimK M10 D

dimK N100 . Denote by p100 W M ! N100 the projection for the decomposition M D
M1 ˚N100 . We claim that the composition f D p100 u0 W M10 ! N100 is an isomorphism
of right A-modules. Since M10 and N100 have the same dimension over K, it is
enough to show that f is a monomorphism. Take x 2 M10 such that f .x/ D 0.
Then p100 .u0 .x// D 0 forces u0 .x/ 2 Ker p100 D M1 . On the other hand, u0 .x/ 2 M10
and M1 \ M10 D 0, because M D M1 ˚ M10 . Hence u0 .x/ D 0, and so x D 0,
since u0 is a monomorphism. Therefore, indeed f is a monomorphism.
Summing up we have proved that there exists an isomorphism of right A-
modules
Mm Mn
Mi D M10 ! N100 D Nj0 ;
iD2 j D2
and the wanted claim follows by the induction hypothesis.
Let A be a K-algebra and M be a right A-module. Then a right A-submodule X

of M is said to be a direct summand of M if M D X ˚ Y for a right A-submodule
Y of M .
5. Semisimple modules 45
Proposition 4.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, M a finite

dimensional right A-module, and M1 ; : : : ; Mm pairwise nonisomorphic indecom-
posable direct summands of M . Then M1 C C Mm is a direct sum and a direct
summand of M .
Proof. We proceed by induction on m. For m D 1, the claim is obvious because
M1 is a direct summand of M . Assume that m 2 and M1 C C Mm1 is a
direct sum and a direct summand of M . Then we have two decompositions of M ,
M1 ˚ ˚ Mm1 ˚ X D M D Mm ˚ Y
into a direct sum of A-submodules, for some A-submodules X and Y of M . Let
X D X1 ˚ ˚ Xr and Y D Y1 ˚ ˚ Ys
be decompositions of X and Y into direct sums of indecomposable A-submodules

X1 ; : : : ; Xr and Y1 ; : : : ; Ys , respectively. Hence, we have two decompositions
of M ,
M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mm1 ˚ X1 ˚ ˚ Xr ;
M D Mm ˚ Y1 ˚ ˚ Ys ;
into direct sums of indecomposable A-submodules. Since, by assumption, Mm ©

Mi for i 2 f1; : : : ; m 1g, it follows from Theorem 4.6 (and its proof) that r 1,
s D r C .m 2/ 1, and there exists j 2 f1; : : : ; rg such that the restriction of
the canonical projection pj W M ! Xj to Mm is an isomorphism. We may assume,
without loss of generality, that j D 1. Applying now Lemma 4.5 we obtain a
decomposition
M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mm1 ˚ Mm ˚ X2 ˚ ˚ Xr
of M into a direct sum of A-submodules. In particular, M1 C C Mm is a direct

sum and a direct summand of M .
5 Semisimple modules
Let A be a K-algebra over a field K. A right A-module S is said to be simple if S
is nonzero and any A-submodule of S is either 0 or S . A direct sum of simple right
A-modules is called a semisimple A-module.
The aim of this section is to describe the basic properties and structure of finite
dimensional semisimple modules over finite dimensional K-algebras. We start
with the important lemma proved by I. Schur in his dissertation [Schu1] from 1901,
which greatly simplified the representation theory of finite groups developed by F.
G. Frobenius in 1880s and 1890s.
Lemma 5.1. Let A be a K-algebra and S, T two simple right A-modules. Then
(i) HomA .S; T / D 0 unless S Š T ,
(ii) EndA .S / is a division K-algebra.
Proof. (i) Assume f W S ! T is a nonzero homomorphism of A-modules. Then

Ker f is a proper A-submodule of S , and hence Ker f D 0. Further, Im f is a
nonzero A-submodule of T , and hence Im f D T . Therefore, f is an isomorphism.
(ii) For S D T , it follows from (i) that every nonzero endomorphism in EndA .S /
is an isomorphism, and so EndA .S / is a division K-algebra.
Corollary 5.2. Let A be a K-algebra over an algebraically closed field K and S

be a finite dimensional simple right A-module. Then EndA .S / Š K.
Proof. Since S is a finite dimensional K-vector space, EndA .S / is a finite di-

mensional K-algebra. Take a nonzero endomorphism f 2 EndA .S /. Then f
is an isomorphism, and hence a K-linear automorphism of the K-vector space
S. Because K is algebraically closed, f has a nonzero eigenvalue 2 K, and
then f idS 2 EndA .S / is an endomorphism with nonzero kernel. Hence
f D idS , since S is a simple A-module. Therefore, the K-algebra homomor-
phism ' W K ! EndA .S /, given by './ D idS , is an isomorphism.
We note also the following simple fact.
Lemma 5.3. Let A be a K-algebra and M be a nonzero module in mod A. Then

M contains a simple right A-submodule S .
Proof. Take a nonzero A-submodule S of M of minimal dimension over K.
The following lemma provides a characterization of semisimple modules.
Lemma 5.4. Let A be a K-algebra and M be a nonzero module in mod A. Then

M is a semisimple A-module if and only if for any A-submodule N of M there
exists an A-submodule L of M such that M D L ˚ N .
Proof. Assume M is a semisimple A-module, say M D S1 ˚ ˚ Sn , where

S1 ; : : : ; Sn are simple A-modules. Let N be a nonzero A-submodule of M . Let
fSi1 ; : : : ; Sir g be a maximal family in the set fS1 ; : : : ; Sn g such that the intersection
of N with the module L D Si1 ˚ ˚ Sir is zero. Then for any t 2 f1; : : : ; ng n
fi1 ; : : : ; ir g, we have N \ .L C S t / ¤ 0, and hence .N C L/ \ S t ¤ 0, or
equivalently, S t L C N , because S t is a simple module. Therefore, we obtain
M L C N , and consequently M D L ˚ N .
The converse implication follows from Lemma 5.3 by induction on dimK M .

Corollary 5.5. Let A be a K-algebra and M be a semisimple module in mod A.

Then the following holds true.
(i) Every nonzero A-submodule of M is semisimple.
(ii) Every nonzero factor A-module of M is semisimple.
Proof. (i) Let N be a nonzero right A-submodule of M . Since M is a semisimple
right A-module, it follows from Lemma 5.4 that there exists a right A-submodule
L of M such that M D L ˚ N . Take now a right A-submodule Z of N . Then
Z is a right A-submodule of M and, applying Lemma 5.4 again, we conclude that
M D Y ˚ Z for a right A-submodule Y of M . Let X D N \ Y . Obviously X is
a right A-submodule of N such that X \ Z D N \ .Y \ Z/ D 0. We claim that
N D X CZ, and consequently N D X ˚Z. Let n 2 N . Since N M D Y ˚Z,
we have n D y C z for some y 2 Y and z 2 Z. Then y D n z 2 N , because
Z N , and so y 2 N \ Y . Hence, indeed N X C Z, and then N D X C Z.
Therefore, Z is a direct summand of N . Thus, by Lemma 5.4, N is a semisimple
module in mod A.
(ii) Let N be a proper right A-submodule of M and V D M=N the associated
factor module. Since M is a semisimple module in mod A, by Lemma 5.4, we have
M D L ˚ N for a right A-submodule L of N . Moreover, N ¤ M forces L ¤ 0,
and hence L is a semisimple module in mod A, by (i). Finally, observe that the
canonical epimorphism W M ! M=N , .m/ D m C M for any m 2 M , induces
an isomorphism of right A-modules L ! V . Therefore, V is a semisimple
module in mod A.
We describe now the structure of finite dimensional modules over the K-algebras
A= rad A. In particular, we will show that all such modules are semisimple.
Let A be a K-algebra. Two idempotents e1 ; e2 2 A are said to be orthogonal
if e1 e2 D 0A D e2 e1 . An idempotent e 2 A is said to be primitive if e is nonzero
and cannot be written as a sum e1 C e2 , where e1 and e2 are nonzero orthogonal
idempotents of A. Recall that 0A and 1A are called the trivial idempotents of A.
Lemma 5.6. Let A be a K-algebra and x a nonzero idempotent of A. The following
statements hold.
(i) Let e 2 xA be an idempotent of A different from 0A and x such that ex D e D
xe. Then x e is an idempotent of A, different from 0A and x, orthogonal to
e, and there is a nontrivial decomposition xA D eA ˚ .x e/A of xA into
a direct sum of right A-submodules.
(ii) Assume that xA D M ˚ N is a nontrivial decomposition of xA into a
direct sum of right A-submodules. Then there is a pair e; f of orthogonal
idempotents of A, different from 0A and x, such that x D eCf , ex D e D xe,
f x D f D xf , and M D eA, N D fA.
Proof. (i) Let e 2 xA be an idempotent of A different from 0A and x such that

ex D e D xe. Then .x e/2 D x 2 xe ex C e 2 D x 2 e e C e D x e
and e.x e/ D ex e 2 D e e D 0A , .x e/e D xe e 2 D e e D 0A .
Hence, x e is an idempotent of A different from 0A and x, orthogonal to e,
and eA, .x e/A are nonzero right A-submodules of xA. For any a 2 A, we
have xa D ea C .x e/a 2 eA C .x e/A, and hence xA D eA C .x e/A.
Moreover, if y 2 eA \ .x e/A, then y D eb D .x e/c for some b; c 2 A,
and then y D .x e/c D .x e/.x e/c D .x e/.eb/ D .xe e/b D 0A ,
because xe D e. Therefore, by Lemma 2.6, we have a nontrivial decomposition
xA D eA ˚ .x e/A of xA into a direct sum of right A-submodules.
(ii) We write x D e C f , with e 2 M and f 2 N . Clearly then eA M and
fA N . Moreover, for any a 2 A we have xa D ea C f a 2 eA C fA, and hence
xA D eACfA. Since xA D M ˚N we then conclude that M D eA and N D fA.
Observe also that there is a nontrivial decomposition AA D xA ˚ .1A x/A of AA
into a direct sum of right A-submodules. Indeed, 1A D x C .1A x/ implies AA D
xA C .1A x/A and xA \ .1A x/A D 0A , because xa D .1A x/b for a; b 2 A
forces xa D x.xa/ D x.1A x/b D .x x 2 /b D 0A , so the claim follows from
Lemma 2.6. Therefore, we obtain a decomposition AA D eA ˚ fA ˚ .1A x/A of
AA into a direct sum of A-submodules. Since 1A D xC.1A x/ D eCf C.1A x/,
we have e D 1A e D e 2 C f e C .1A x/e and f D 1A f D ef C f 2 C .1A x/f ,
and consequently e D e 2 , f e D 0A , .1A x/e D 0A , ef D 0A , f 2 D f ,
.1A x/f D 0A . In particular, we obtain that e D xe and f D xf . Further,
x D e C f then implies ex D e 2 C ef D e 2 D e and f x D f e C f 2 D f 2 D f .
Therefore, e and f are orthogonal idempotents of A, with ex D e D xe and
f x D f D xf . Finally, xA D M ˚ N with M D eA and N D fA nonzero
A-submodules of AA , so e and f are different from 0A and x.
We have the following immediate consequences of Lemma 5.6.
Lemma 5.7. Let A be a K-algebra. The following statements hold.
(i) If e is a nontrivial idempotent of A, then there is a nontrivial decomposition
AA D eA ˚ .1A e/A of AA into a direct sum of right A-submodules.
(ii) Assume that AA D M ˚ N is a nontrivial decomposition of AA into a direct
sum of right A-submodules. Then there is a pair e; f of nontrivial orthogonal
idempotents of A such that 1A D e C f and M D eA, N D fA.
For two idempotents e and x of a K-algebra A, we say that e is a summand of x,
and write e x, if ex D e D xe. Then it follows from Lemma 5.6 that, if e x,
then x D e C f where f is an idempotent of A, orthogonal to e, and a summand
of x. Clearly, every idempotent e of A is a summand of the trivial idempotent 1A .
Corollary 5.8. Let A be a K-algebra and e 2 A an idempotent. Then e is primitive
if and only if the right A-module eA is indecomposable.
Corollary 5.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then there is a decom-

position AA D e1 A ˚ ˚ en A of AA into a direct sum of indecomposable right
ideals, where e1 ; : : : ; en are pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A such
that 1A D e1 C C en . Moreover, every decomposition of AA into a direct sum
of indecomposable right A-submodules is of this form.
Corollary 5.10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of
pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A with 1A D e1 C Cen . Then there
is a decomposition AA D e1 A˚ ˚en A of A into a direct sum of indecomposable
right A-modules.
Corollary 5.11. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e a primitive idem-
potent of A. Then there are pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en
of A such that 1A D e1 C C en and e1 D e.
Proposition 5.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and B D A= rad A.
The following statements hold.
(i) Every nonzero right ideal I of B is a direct sum of simple right ideals of B of
the form eB, where e is a primitive idempotent of B. In particular, the right
B-module BB is semisimple.
(ii) Any nonzero module M in mod B is isomorphic to a direct sum of simple
right ideals of B of the form eB, where e is a primitive idempotent of B.
Proof. (i) Assume I is a nonzero right ideal of B. It follows from Lemma 5.3
that I contains a simple right B-submodule S . Consider the right B-submodule
S 2 of S consisting of all finite sums of elements of the form xy, with x; y 2 S .
We claim that S 2 ¤ 0. Indeed, suppose that S 2 D 0. Then for any x 2 S and
b 2 B we have .1B xb/.1B C xb/ D 1B , and so x 2 rad B, by Lemma 3.1.
Consequently, S rad B D 0, by Corollary 3.2, a contradiction. Hence S 2 is a
nonzero submodule of S, and so S 2 D S, because S is simple. Then there exists
x 2 S with xS ¤ 0, and hence S D xS, because xS is a right B-submodule of S.
In particular, x D xe for some e 2 S. Consider the homomorphism f W S ! S of
right B-modules given by f .y/ D xy for y 2 S . Since f .e/ D xe D x ¤ 0B ,
f is a nonzero homomorphism, and consequently an isomorphism, by Lemma 5.1.
Further, we have
f .e 2 e/ D f .e 2 / f .e/ D xee xe D xe xe D 0B ;
and hence e 2 e D 0B . Therefore, e is a nonzero idempotent of B, and S D eB. It
follows from Lemma 5.7 that BB D eB ˚.1B e/B, and hence I D S ˚.1B e/I .
Because dimK .1B e/I < dimK I , the statement (i) follows by induction on the
dimension of I .
(ii) Let M be a nonzero module in mod B. Let m1 ; : : : ; mr be elements of
M such that M D m1 B C C mr B. Consider the surjective epimorphism of
right B-modules ' W B r ! M given by '..b1 ; : : : ; br // D m1 b1 C C mr br

for .b1 ; : : : ; br / 2 B r . Then M Š B r = Ker '. It follows from (i) that B r is a
semisimple right B-module which is a direct sum of simple right ideals of the form
eB, where e is a primitive idempotent of B. Further, by Lemma 5.4, there exists a
right B-submodule L of B r such that B r D L ˚ Ker '. Applying Theorem 4.6,
we conclude that L and Ker ' are direct sums of simple right ideals of the form eB
for primitive idempotents e of B. Therefore, the module M , isomorphic to L, is
isomorphic to a direct sum of simple right ideals of B of the form eB, where e is a
primitive idempotent of B.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a module in mod A. The
Jacobson radical (briefly, radical) rad M of M is the intersection of all the maximal
right A-submodules of M . Observe that the radical rad AA of the right A-module
AA is the radical rad A of the algebra A.
We will describe basic properties of the radicals of modules as well as provide
another characterization of semisimple modules.
Proposition 5.13. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M , N be modules
in mod A. The following statements hold.
(i) An element m 2 M belongs to rad M if and only if f .m/ D 0 for any
f 2 HomA .M; S / and any simple right A-module S .
(ii) rad.M ˚ N / D rad M ˚ rad N .
(iii) If f 2 HomA .M; N /, then f .rad M / rad N .
(iv) rad M D M rad A.
(v) If L C rad M D M for a right A-submodule L of M , then L D M .
Proof. (i) Observe that if L is a maximal right A-submodule of M then M=L is a
simple right A-module, by Lemma 3.17 (i), and there is a canonical epimorphism
p W M ! M=L with Ker p D L. Conversely, for a nonzero homomorphism
f 2 HomA .M; S /, where S is a simple right A-module, Ker f is a maximal right
A-submodule of M . Then the claim (i) follows.
The statements (ii) and (iii) are direct consequences of (i).
We prove now that (iv) also holds. For any element m 2 M , consider the
homomorphism fm W A ! M of right A-modules defined by fm .a/ D ma for
a 2 A. Then it follows from (iii) that for a 2 rad A we have ma D fm .a/ 2
fm .rad A/ rad M , and consequently M rad A rad M . We show that also
rad M M rad A holds. Observe first that .M=M rad A/ rad A D 0. This allows
us to consider M=M rad A as a right module over the algebra A= rad A by the
multiplication
.m C M rad A/.a C rad A/ D ma C M rad A;

for m 2 M and a 2 A. It follows from Proposition 5.12 that every module in

mod.A= rad A/ is semisimple. Therefore, the right .A= rad A/-module M=M rad A
is a direct sum of simple .A= rad A/-modules. The radical rad S of every simple
module S is trivially zero. Then (ii) implies that the radical of any semisimple mod-
ule in mod A is also zero. Hence we conclude that rad.M=M rad A/ D 0. Consider
now the canonical epimorphism W M ! M=M rad A of right A-modules. Ap-
plying (iii) we obtain that .rad M / rad.M=M rad A/ D 0, and consequently
rad M Ker D M rad A. This shows that rad M D M rad A.
For (v), let L be a right A-submodule of M with L C rad M D M . Suppose
L ¤ M . Then L is contained in a maximal right A-submodule X of M , and we
obtain M D L C rad M X ¤ M , a contradiction. Hence L D M .
Corollary 5.14. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a module in
mod A. The following statements hold.
(i) The right A-module M= rad M is semisimple and it is a right module over
the K-algebra A= rad A.
(ii) If L is a right A-submodule of M such that M=L is a semisimple A-module,
then rad M L.
Proof. (i) We know from Proposition 5.13 that rad M D M rad A. Therefore,
.M= rad M / rad A D 0 and M= rad M is a right A= rad A-module by the action
.m C rad M /.a C rad A/ D ma C rad M , for m 2 M and a 2 A. Since, by
Proposition 5.12, every module in mod.A= rad A/ is semisimple, we conclude that
M= rad M is a semisimple right A= rad A-module, and consequently also a semisim-
ple right A-module.
(ii) Assume that L is a right A-submodule of M such that M=L is a semisimple
A-module. Let
W M ! M=L be the canonical epimorphism,
.m/ D m C L for
m 2 M . Then it follows from Proposition 5.13 (iii) that
.rad M / rad.M=L/ D
0, because M=L is semisimple. Hence rad M Ker
D L.
mod A. Then M is a semisimple module if and only if rad M D 0.
Proof. Observe that if S is a simple right A-module, then S ¤ S rad A, by Lem-
ma 3.3, and consequently S rad A D 0. Then rad S D S rad A D 0.
Let M be a semisimple A-module. Then M D S1 ˚ ˚ Sr , where S1 ; : : : ; Sr
are simple right A-modules. Applying Proposition 5.13 (ii), we then obtain rad M D
rad S1 ˚ ˚ rad Sr D 0. Conversely, assume that rad M D 0. Then, by Corol-
lary 5.14 (i), M D M= rad M is a semisimple A-module.
The following proposition describes the relation between the indecomposable
direct summands of a finite dimensional K-algebra A, regarded as a right A-module,
and the indecomposable direct summands of its factor algebra B D A= rad A,
regarded as a right B-module, observed already by T. Nakayama in his paper [Nak1]

from 1938.
Proposition 5.16. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, B D A= rad A, e a
nonzero idempotent of A and eN D e C rad A the associated idempotent of B. The
following conditions are equivalent.
(i) eA is an indecomposable right A-module.
(ii) e rad A is a unique maximal right A-submodule of eA.
N is a simple right B-module.
(iii) eB
Proof. It follows from Proposition 5.13 (iv) that e rad A D rad eA. Then e rad A
is a maximal right A-submodule of eA if and only if rad eA is a unique maximal
right A-submodule of eA. Since eB N Š eA=e rad A, the conditions (ii) and (iii) are
equivalent (see Lemma 3.17). Moreover, (iii) implies (i). Indeed, if eA D X ˚ Y
for nonzero right A-submodules X and Y of eA then, by Lemma 5.6, e D e1 C e2
for two orthogonal idempotents e1 and e2 different from e, and X D e1 A and
Y D e2 A. But then eBN D eN1 B ˚ eN2 B, with eN1 D e1 C rad A and eN2 D e2 C rad A,
is a decomposition of eB N into a direct sum of nonzero right B-submodules, a
N is a simple right B-module.
contradiction because eB
Assume now that (i) holds, that is, eA is indecomposable. Then, by Corol-
lary 5.8, e is a primitive idempotent of A. We claim that eB N is a simple right
B-module, and hence (iii) holds. Suppose that eB N is not simple. Then it follows
from Proposition 5.12 and Lemma 5.6 that eB N D f1 B ˚ f2 B, where f1 ; f2 are
nonzero idempotents of B such that eN D f1 C f2 and f1 f2 D 0B D f2 f1 . Ap-
plying Lemma 3.12, we conclude that there are idempotents e1 , e2 in A such that
e D e1 Ce2 , e1 e2 D 0A D e2 e1 , and f1 D e1 Crad A, f2 D e2 Crad A. Moreover,
applying Lemma 5.6, we obtain a decomposition eA D e1 A ˚ e2 A of eA into a
direct sum of nonzero right A-submodules, which contradicts indecomposability of
eA. Therefore, indeed eBN is a simple right B-module.
Corollary 5.17. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, e1 ; : : : ; en a set of
pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A with 1A D e1 C C en , and
B D A= rad A. Then every simple module S in mod B is isomorphic to a right
B-module ei A=ei rad A for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. Let eN1 D e1 C rad A; : : : ; eNn D en C rad A be the idempotents of B
associated to the idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en . It follows from Proposition 5.16 that
eN1 ; : : : ; eNn is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of B such that
1B D eN1 C C eNn and eN1 B; : : : ; eNn B are simple right B-modules. Moreover,
it follows from Corollary 5.10 that we have in mod B a direct sum decomposition
BB D eN1 B ˚ ˚ eNn B. Observe also that we have canonical isomorphisms of
right B-modules eNi B Š ei A=ei rad A, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. On the other hand, it
follows from Proposition 5.12 that every simple right B-module S is isomorphic to
a right B-module of the form f B for some primitive idempotent f of B. Moreover,
by Corollary 5.11, there exists a set f1 ; : : : ; fm of pairwise orthogonal primitive
idempotents of B such that 1B D f1 C C fm and f1 D f . Applying Corol-
lary 5.10 and Proposition 5.16, we conclude that there is in mod B a direct sum
decomposition BB D f1 B ˚ ˚ fm B, where f1 B; : : : ; fm B are simple right
B-modules. Therefore, by the Krull–Schmidt theorem (Theorem 4.6), we obtain
that f B D f1 B is isomorphic to a right B-module eNi B for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Obviously then S is isomorphic to ei A=ei rad A.
Summing up our discussion, we established that for a finite dimensional K-
algebra A the semisimple modules in mod A coincide with the (semisimple) mod-
ules in mod.A= rad A/, and are finite direct sums of simple right ideals of B D
N for primitive idempotents eN D e C rad A of B induced
A= rad A of the form eB,
by primitive idempotents e of A.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M a nonzero module in mod A.
We assign to M two natural semisimple A-modules
top.M / D M= rad M
called the top of M , and the sum

X
soc.M / D S;
S2SM
where SM is the set of all simple right A-submodules of M , called the socle of M .
Observe that rad soc.M / D soc.M / rad A D 0, and hence it follows from Corol-
lary 5.15 that soc.M / is indeed a semisimple right A-submodule of M . Therefore,
top.M / is the largest semisimple factor A-module of M (see Corollary 5.14 (ii))
while soc.M / is the largest semisimple A-submodule of M . Further, if f W M ! N
is a homomorphism in mod A, then f .rad M / rad N , by Proposition 5.13 (iii),
and hence we obtain the induced A-homomorphism top.f / W top.M / ! top.N /
given by top.f /.m C rad M / D f .m/ C rad N for m 2 M . Similarly, the re-
striction f to soc.M / induces an A-homomorphism soc.f / W soc.M / ! soc.N /,
since f .soc.M // is a semisimple A-submodule of N , by Corollary 5.5 (i), and so
is contained in soc.N /.
We obtain also the following useful characterizations of epimorphisms and
monomorphisms in mod A.
Lemma 5.18. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and f W M ! N a nonzero
homomorphism in mod A. Then
(i) f is an epimorphism if and only if top.f / is an epimorphism.
(ii) f is a monomorphism if and only if soc.f / is a monomorphism.
Proof. (i) Obviously if f is an epimorphism then top.f / is an epimorphism. Con-

versely, assume that top.f / is an epimorphism. Then we obtain Im f Crad N D N ,
and hence Im f D N , by Proposition 5.13 (v). Consequently,ˇ f is an epimorphism.
(ii) Clearly, if f is a monomorphism then soc.f / D f ˇsoc.M / is a monomor-
phism. Assume soc.f / is a monomorphism. Then we have soc.M / \ Ker f D 0,
and consequently Ker f D 0, because every nonzero finite dimensional right A-
module contains a simple A-submodule, by Lemma 5.3. Hence f is indeed a
monomorphism.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M a nonzero module in mod A. For
each i 1, we define radi M D M.rad A/i . It follows from Proposition 5.13 (iv)
that radi M D rad.radi1 M /, where rad0 M D M . Moreover, if radiC1 M D
radi M for some i 0 then .radi M / rad A D radiC1 M D radi M , and hence
radi M D 0, by Lemma 3.3. Further, we have radn M D 0 for some n 1,
because the radical rad A is nilpotent (Corollary 3.4). Observe also that if radi M ¤
radiC1
M then radi M= radiC1
M is ai semisimpleiC1 A-module.
Indeed, we have
i
rad rad M= rad iC1
M D M.rad A/ =M.rad A/ rad A D 0, and the claim
follows from Corollary 5.15. Summing up the above results, we have the decreasing
sequence of right A-submodules of M
M rad M rad2 M radn1 M radn M D 0
such that the modules radi M= radiC1 M , i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g, are semisimple
right A-modules. The sequence is called the radical series of M or the Loewy
series of M , and the number n is said to be the Loewy length of the module M , and
denoted by ``.M /. Moreover, ``.A/ is called the Loewy length of the algebra A.
Therefore, the semisimple modules in mod A are the modules of the Loewy length
one. The Loewy length of the zero module 0 in mod A is defined to be 0. We also
note that ``.A/ D ``.AA / D ``.A A/.
mod A. Then ``.M / ``.A/.
Proof. This follows from the equalities radi M D M.rad A/i for i 1.
The following direct consequence of Lemma 3.6 describes the Loewy length of
the bound quiver algebras.
Corollary 5.20. Let Q be a finite quiver and I an admissible ideal of the path
algebra KQ. Then ``.KQ=I / 1 is the length of the longest path in Q which does
not belong to I .
In particular, we obtain the following fact.
Corollary 5.21. Let Q be a finite acyclic quiver. Then ``.KQ/ 1 is the length of
the longest path in Q.
Examples 5.22. (a) Let Q be the quiver
1 o
˛
2;
K a field, and
S.1/ W K o 0, P W K o K , S.2/ W 0 o
1
K
the indecomposable representations in repK .Q/ (see Example 2.9 (b)). Then
S.1/ D soc.P / D rad P and S.2/ D top.P / D P = rad P:
Moreover, ``.P / D 2.
(b) Let K be a field, Q the quiver
$ ˇ
˛ o
1 2
and I the admissible ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 (see Examples 2.9 (d) and 2.12).
Consider the indecomposable representation

( 10
K2 o
01
MW 01
00 K2
in repK .Q; I /. Then we have the commutative diagrams

( 1
( 0
K2 o K2 o
0 1
01 01
00 K 00 K

10 1 10 0
01 0 01 1
( 10
( 10

K2 o K2 o
01 01
01
K2 , K2
01
00 00
of K-vector spaces, and hence

( 1
( 0
K2 o K2 o
0 1
YW 01
00 K and ZW 01
00 K
are maximal subrepresentations of M in repK .Q; I /. Clearly, these are the unique
maximal subrepresentations of M , and consequently
(
rad M D Y \ Z W 00 10 K2 o 0:
Moreover, '
S.1/ W 0 Ko 0
is a unique maximal subrepresentation of rad M and hence rad2 M D rad.rad M / D
S.1/. Hence ``.M / D 3 and S.1/ D soc.M /. Observe also that top.M / D
M= rad M D S.2/ ˚ S.2/, where
$ o
S.2/ W 0 K:
6 Semisimple algebras
In this section we prove the Wedderburn theorem from 1908 [Wed] describing the
structure of finite dimensional algebras over a field for which all finite dimensional
modules are semisimple, and characterize the semisimple group algebras of finite
groups. Let K be a field.
The following lemma will be useful.
Lemma 6.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then there exists an iso-
morphism of K-algebras A ! EndA .AA /.
Proof. Consider the map ' W A ! EndA .AA / given by 'a .x/ D ax for any
a; x 2 A. Observe that 'a 2 EndA .AA / for any a 2 A, because 'a .xb/ D
a.xb/ D .ax/b D 'a .x/b for x; b 2 A. Further, for a; b; x 2 A and 2 K, we
have
'aCb .x/ D .a C b/x D ax C bx D 'a .x/ C 'b .x/;

'a .x/ D .a/x D .ax/ D 'a .x/;
'0A .x/ D 0A x D 0A ;
'1A .x/ D 1A x D x D idA .x/;
'ab .x/ D .ab/x D a.bx/ D 'a .bx/ D 'a .'b .x// D .'a 'b /.x/;
and consequently ' W A ! EndA .AA / is a homomorphism of K-algebras. Further,

' is a monomorphism, because 'a D 'b forces a D 'a .1A / D 'b .1A / D b.
Finally, let f 2 EndA .AA / and take a D f .1A /. Then for any x 2 A, we have
f .x/ D f .1A x/ D f .1A /x D ax D 'a .x/, and hence f D 'a . This shows that
' is also an epimorphism.
Lemma 6.2. Let F be a finite dimensional division K-algebra, n a positive integer,
and Mn .F / the full n n matrix algebra over F . Then rad Mn .F / D 0.
Proof. The identity matrix In of Mn .F / has the canonical decomposition In D
E11 C E22 C C Enn as a sum of the diagonal elementary matrices Ei i ,
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, which are obviously pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents
of Mn .F /. For each r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
˚
Err Mn .F / D Œaij 2 Mn .F / j aij D 0 for i ¤ r :
We claim that Sr D Err Mn .F /, r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, are simple right Mn .F /-modules.

Fix r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Let A D Œaij be a nonzero element of Sr , and hence ars ¤ 0
for some s 2 f1; : : : ; ng. For each element 2 F and t 2 f1; : : : ; ng, consider the
matrix Est ./ 2 Mn .F / having coefficient on the position .s; t / and coefficient
0 elsewhere. Then, for each 2 F and t 2 f1; : : : ; rg, we obtain
1
Ert ./ D AEst ars 2 Err Mn .F / D Sr ;
6. Semisimple algebras 57
and consequently AMn .F / D Sr . Therefore, indeed S1 ; : : : ; Sn are simple right

Mn .F /-modules, Mn .F / is a semisimple right Mn .F /-module, and consequently
rad Mn .F / D 0, by Corollary 5.15.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A is called semisimple if rad A D 0.
The following theorem is the Wedderburn structure theorem of semisimple al-
gebras.
Theorem 6.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The following
conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is a semisimple K-algebra.
(ii) Every module in mod A is semisimple.
(iii) There exist positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-
algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fr such that
A Š Mn1 .F1 / Mnr .Fr /
as K-algebras.
Proof. Let A be a semisimple K-algebra. Then rad A D 0, A= rad A D A, and
hence every module in mod A is semisimple, by Proposition 5.12. Hence (i) implies
(ii).
Assume (ii) holds. Then AA is a semisimple module in mod A, and there exists
an isomorphism of right A-modules

! S1n1 ˚ S2n2 ˚ ˚ Srnr ;
AA
where S1 ; S2 ; : : : ; Sr are pairwise nonisomorphic simple right A-modules, n1 ,
n
n2 ; : : : ; nr are positive integers, and Sj j is the direct sum Sj ˚ ˚ Sj of nj
copies of Sj , for any j 2 f1; : : : ; rg. It follows from Lemma 5.1 that F1 D
EndA .S1 /; F2 D EndA .S2 /; : : : ; Fr D EndA .Sr / are finite dimensional division
K-algebras, and HomA .Si ; Sj / D 0 for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; rg, i ¤ j . Further, by
Lemma 6.1, the map ' W A ! EndA .AA / given by 'a .x/ D ax for a; x 2 A, is an
isomorphism of K-algebras. Therefore, we obtain K-algebra isomorphisms

! EndA .AA /
A ! EndA .S1n1 ˚ S2n2 ˚ ˚ Srnr /

! EndA .S1n1 / EndA .S2n2 / EndA .Srnr /

! Mn1 .F1 / Mn2 .F2 / Mnr .Fr /:

Hence (ii) implies (iii).
Assume now that there exists an isomorphism of K-algebras
Y
r
AŠ Mni .Fi /
iD1
for some positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-algebras

F1 ; : : : ; Fr . Observe that, if Mj is a maximal right ideal of Mnj .Fj /, then
1
jY Y
r
zj D
M Mni .Fi / Mj Mni .Fi /
iD1 iDj C1
Qr
is a maximal right ideal of iD1 Mni .Fi /. Therefore, we obtain
Y
r Yr

rad Mni .Fi / rad Mni .Fi / D 0;
iD1 iD1
Qr
by Lemma 6.2. Hence rad A Š rad iD1 Mni .Fi / D 0, and (iii) implies (i).

Corollary 6.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M a

semisimple module in mod A. Then EndA .M / is a semisimple K-algebra.
Proof. Since M is a semisimple module in mod A, there exists an isomorphism of

right A-modules

M ! S1n1 ˚ S2n2 ˚ ˚ Srnr ;
where S1 ; S2 ; : : : ; Sr are pairwise nonisomorphic simple right A-modules, and
n1 ; n2 ; : : : ; nr are positive integers. Then we have an isomorphism of K-algebras

EndA .M /
! Mn1 .F1 / Mn2 .F2 / Mnr .Fr /;
where F1 D EndA .S1 /; F2 D EndA .S2 /; : : : ; Fr D EndA .Sr / are finite dimen-
sional division K-algebras. Hence, it follows from Theorem 6.3 that EndA .M / is
a semisimple K-algebra.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A is called simple if 0 and A are unique two-sided

ideals of A.
As a consequence of Theorem 6.3 we obtain the following description of simple
algebras.
Corollary 6.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The fol-
lowing conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is a simple K-algebra.
(ii) There exists a positive integer n and a finite dimensional division K-algebra
F such that A Š Mn .F / as K-algebras.
Proof. Let A be a simple K-algebra. Then A is a semisimple K-algebra, because

rad A is a two-sided ideal of A, by Corollary 3.2. Moreover, A is an indecomposable
K-algebra, because otherwise there exists in A a nontrivial central idempotent e (see
Lemma 3.14) and eAe is a two-sided ideal of A different from 0 and A. Therefore,
it follows from Theorem 6.3 that A is isomorphic to matrix K-algebra Mn .F / for
some positive integer n and a finite dimensional division K-algebra F . Hence (i)
implies (ii).
In order to prove the implication (ii) ) (i), it is enough to show that the matrix
algebra Mn .F /, for a positive integer n and a finite dimensional division K-algebra
F , is a simple K-algebra. For i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, let Eij be the elementary matrix in
Mn .F / with 1F in the position .i; j / and 0F elsewhere. To show that Mn .F / is a
simple K-algebra, it is enough to show that for any nonzero element M 2 Mn .F /
the two-sided ideal I of Mn .F / generated by M is Mn .F /. Let M D Œaij 2
Mn .F / and a D ars ¤ 0 for some r; s 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
the element aEi i D Eir MEsi belongs to I . Since a ¤ 0, the diagonal elementary
matrices E11 ; : : : ; Enn belong to I . This shows that the identity matrix In of
Mn .F / belongs to I , and hence I D Mn .F /.
Corollary 6.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A is
a semisimple algebra if and only if A is isomorphic to a product A1 Ar of
simple K-algebras A1 ; : : : ; Ar .
Proposition 6.7. Let A be a finite dimensional simple K-algebra over a field K.
Then any two simple modules in mod A are isomorphic.
Proof. It follows from Corollary 6.5 that there exists a positive integer n and a finite
dimensional division K-algebra F such that A Š Mn .F / as K-algebras. Further,
by the proof of Lemma 6.2, we have a decomposition of right Mn .F /-modules
Mn .F / D S1 ˚ S2 ˚ ˚ Sr ;
where ˚
Sr D Err Mn .F / D Œaij 2 Mn .F / j aij D 0 for i ¤ r ;
r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, are simple right Mn .F /-modules. Observe also that, for any
r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, there is the canonical isomorphism S1 ! Sr of right Mn .F /-
modules given by the shift of the first row of any matrix in S1 to the r-th row of
the corresponding matrix in Sr . Observe also that dimK Sr D n dimK F for any
r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. On the other hand, since rad Mn .F / D 0, it follows from Proposi-
tion 5.12 that every simple module in mod Mn .F / is isomorphic to a module Sr ,
for some r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and hence to S1 . Since A Š Mn .F /, we conclude that
any two simple modules in mod A are isomorphic.
The following corollary provides an isomorphism criterion for finite dimensional
modules over simple algebras.
Corollary 6.8. Let A be a finite dimensional simple K-algebra over a field K and
M , N be nonzero modules in mod A. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) M Š N in mod A.
(ii) dimK M D dimK N .
Proof. Since A is a simple K-algebra, we conclude from Theorem 6.3 that every
module in mod A is semisimple. Moreover, by Proposition 6.7, every simple module
in mod A is isomorphic to a fixed simple right A-module S. Hence, there are
isomorphisms of right A-modules
M Š Sm and N Š Sn
for some positive integers m and n. Clearly, then we have dimK M D m dimK S
and dimK N D n dimK S. The equivalence of (i) and (ii) is now obvious.
We exhibit now some consequences of Theorem 6.3.
Corollary 6.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then
there exist positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-algebras
F1 ; : : : ; Fr such that
A= rad A Š Mn1 .F1 / Mnr .Fr /
as K-algebras. Moreover, if K is an algebraically closed field, then there is an

isomorphism of K-algebras
A= rad A Š Mn1 .K/ Mnr .K/:
Proof. This follows from Corollary 3.2, Theorem 6.3 and the fact that every finite
dimensional division K-algebra F over an algebraically closed field K is isomorphic
to K (see Exercise 12.38).
Corollary 6.10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over an algebraically
closed field K. Then A is semisimple K-algebra if and only if there is an isomor-
phism of K-algebras
A Š Mn1 .K/ Mnr .K/;
for some positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr .

For a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, we denote by J.A/ the
intersection of all maximal two-sided ideals of A.
Lemma 6.11. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then
rad A D J.A/.
Proof. We show first that rad A J.A/. Take a maximal two-sided ideal I of A.
Then it follows from Lemma 3.17 (iii) that B D A=I is a simple K-algebra. In
particular, B is a semisimple K-algebra, and hence B is a semisimple right B-
module. But then B is a semisimple right A-module, by Corollary 5.17. Then,
applying Corollary 5.15, we conclude that B rad A D 0, or equivalently, rad A I .
This shows that rad A J.A/. On the other hand, it follows from Lemma 3.17 (iii),
that every maximal two-sided ideal of A= rad A is of the form I = rad A for a maximal
two-sided ideal I of A, and consequently J.A/= rad A D J.A= rad A/. Since
A= rad A is a semisimple algebra, applying Theorem 6.3, we obtain that there exist
positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fr
such that
A= rad A Š Mn1 .F1 / Mnr .Fr /
as K-algebras. Then we obtain isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
Y
r Yr

J.A= rad A/ Š J Mni .Fi / D J Mni .Fi /
iD1 iD1

with J Mni .Fi / D 0 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, by Corollary 6.5. Hence, we
conclude that J.A= rad A/ D 0, which implies rad A D J.A/.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, M a module in mod A
and ƒM D EndA .M /. Then M has a natural structure of a left ƒM -module given
by f m D f .m/ for f 2 ƒM and m 2 M . Indeed, we have the equalities
.fg/m D .fg/.m/ D f .g.m// D f .gm/
for f; g 2 ƒM and m 2 M . Consider also the opposite endomorphism algebra

AM D Endƒop .M /op and the K-linear homomorphism
M
rM W A ! AM
given by rM .a/.m/ D ma for a 2 A and m 2 M . The map rM is well defined,

because we have the equalities
rM .a/.f m/ D rM .a/.f .m// D f .m/a D f .ma/ D f rM .a/.m/
for a 2 A, f 2 ƒM ; m 2 M . Moreover, rM is a homomorphism of K-algebras.

The following theorem, called the density theorem for semisimple algebras, is
very useful.
Theorem 6.12. Let A be a finite dimensional semisimple K-algebra over a field K
and M a module in mod A. The following statements hold.
(i) rM W A ! AM is an epimorphism of K-algebras.
(ii) rM W A ! AM is an isomorphism of K-algebras if and only if every simple

module in mod A is isomorphic to a direct summand of M .
Proof. Since A is a semisimple K-algebra, it follows from Theorem 6.3 that there
is an isomorphism of K-algebras
A Š Mn1 .F1 / Mn2 .F2 / Mnr .Fr /
for some positive integers n1 ; n2 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-algebras

F1 ; F2 ; : : : ; Fr . Then there exists central idempotents e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; er of A such that
1A D e1 C e2 C C er , A1 D e1 Ae1 , A2 D e2 Ae2 ; : : : ; Ar D er Aer , are blocks
of K-algebras of A with A D A1 A2 Ar , and there are isomorphisms of
K-algebras Ai Š Mni .Fi /, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; rg. Further, the right A-module M
has a decomposition
M D M1 ˚ M2 ˚ ˚ Mr ;
in mod A such that Mi D M ei is a right Ai -module, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; rg. We may
assume that there is s 2 f1; : : : ; rg such that Mi ¤ 0 for i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, and Mj D 0
for j 2 fs C 1; : : : ; rg (if s < r). Applying Theorem 6.3 and Proposition 6.7, we
conclude that, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, there exists a simple module Ui in mod Ai
m
with EndAi .Ui / Š Fi and a positive integer mi such that Mi Š Ui i in mod Ai .
Hence, we obtain isomorphisms of K-algebras
ƒM Š ƒM1 ƒM2 ƒMs
and ƒMi Š Mmi .Fi /, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; sg. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, we choose a
op op
simple module Vi in mod ƒMi . Then Endƒop .Vi / Š Fi and, by Proposition 6.7,
Mi
ki
for each i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, there exists a positive integer ki such that Mi Š Vi in
op
mod ƒMi . This leads to isomorphisms of K-algebras
AM Š AM1 AM2 AMs

op
and AMi D Endƒop .Mi /op Š Mki .Fi /op , for any i 2 f1; : : : ; sg. Moreover, we
Mi
have the equalities
mi
dimK Mi D dimK Ui D mi dimK Ui D mi ni dimK Fi ;
k
dimK Mi D dimK Vi i D ki dimK Vi D ki mi dimK Fi ;
and hence ki D ni , for any i 2 f1; : : : ; sg. Observe now that the K-algebra
homomorphism rM W A ! AM is the K-algebra homomorphism
Y
r Y
s
rM W A D Ai ! AMi D AM
iD1 iD1
given, for a D .a1 ; : : : ; ar / 2 A and m D .m1 ; : : : ; ms / 2 M , by rM .a/.m/ D

ma D .m1 a1 ; : : : ; ms as /. Consider now the restriction
Y
s Y
s
0
rM W Ai ! AMi D AM
iD1 iD1
of rM to A1 As . Moreover, we note that, for i 2 f1; : : : ; sg Ji D

fai 2 Ai j Mi ai D 0g is a two-sided ideal of Ai , different from Ai , because Mi ¤
0. Since A1 ; : : : ; As are simple K-algebras, we conclude that J1 D 0; : : : ; Js D 0.
0
This shows that rM is a monomorphism of K-algebras, and hence of K-vector
spaces. On the other hand, we have
Y
s Y
s Ys
dimK Ai D dimK Mni .Fi / D n2i dimK Fi
iD1 iD1 iD1
Y
s Y
s
D ki2 dimK Fi D dimK Mki .Fi /
iD1 iD1
Y
s
D dimK AMi D dimK AM :
iD1
0
Therefore, rM is an isomorphismQ of K-algebras. Clearly, then rM is an epimorphism
of K-algebras with Ker rM D riDsC1 Ai . Moreover, rM is an isomorphism of
K-algebras if and only if r D s, or equivalently, every simple module in mod A is
isomorphic to a direct summand of M . This proves (i) and (ii).
Corollary 6.13. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M
a semisimple module in mod A. Then rM W A ! AM is an epimorphism of K-
algebras.
Proof. Let B D A= rad A. We know from Corollary 3.2 that B is a semisimple
K-algebra. Moreover, the semisimplicity of M in mod A forces M rad A D 0, by
Corollary 5.15, and hence M is a semisimple module in mod B. Hence ƒM D
EndA .M / D EndB .M /, and consequently AM D Endƒop .M /op D BM . Finally,
M
we note that the K-algebra homomorphism rM W A ! AM is the composition of
the canonical K-algebra epimorphism A ! A= rad A D B with the K-algebra
homomorphism rM W B ! BM . Since, by Theorem 6.12 (i), rM W B ! BM is an
epimorphism of K-algebras, we conclude that rM W A ! AM is also an epimor-
phism of K-algebras.
Corollary 6.14. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, S a
simple module in mod A, F D EndA .S / the associated division K-algebra, and n
the positive integer such that S Š F n in mod F op . Then there is an epimorphism
of K-algebras A ! Mn .F /.
Proof. It follows from Corollary 6.13 that the K-algebra homomorphism

rS W A ! AS is an epimorphism. Since AS D EndF .S / Š EndF .F n / Š Mn .F /
the claim follows.
As a consequence of Theorem 6.3, we obtain another useful characterization of

local finite dimensional K-algebras.
Corollary 6.15. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A
is a local algebra if and only if 0A and 1A are the unique idempotents of A.
Proof. Assume A is a local algebra and e is an idempotent of A. Then 1A e is
an idempotent of A and e.1A e/ D 0A . It follows from Lemma 3.8 that one of
the elements e or 1A e is invertible in A. Then e.1A e/ D 0A yields e D 1A or
e D 0A .
Conversely, assume that 0A and 1A are the unique idempotents of A. Then it
follows from Lemma 3.12 that 0A Crad A and 1A Crad A are the unique idempotents
of the semisimple algebra A= rad A. Therefore, by Theorem 6.3, A= rad A is a
division algebra. Applying now Lemma 3.8 we conclude that A is a local algebra.

The following lemma describes the semisimple bound quiver algebras.

Lemma 6.16. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, I an admissible ideal of KQ.
The bound quiver algebra KQ=I is semisimple if and only if the set Q1 of arrows
of Q is empty.
Proof. It follows from Lemma 3.6 that rad.KQ=I / D RQ =I , where RQ is the
arrow ideal of KQ. Moreover, since I is an admissible ideal of KQ, we have
RQm
I RQ 2
for some m 2. Hence rad.KQ=I / D 0 if and only if RQ D 0,
or equivalently the set Q1 of arrows of Q is empty.
Q
Observe that KQ=I is semisimple if and only if KQ=I Š a2Q0 Ka , where
Ka D K for each vertex a 2 Q0 .
Lemma 6.17. Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0, m a positive integer, and
G be the cyclic group of order p m . Then the group algebra KG is not semisimple.
Proof. Observe first that KG is isomorphic to the truncated
polynomial algebra
m ˚ m
KŒx= x p . Indeed, let G D .g/ D e; g; g 2 ; : : : ; g p 1 , and consider the K-
algebra homomorphism ' W KŒx ! KG defined
by '.f .x// D f .g 1/ for any
polynomial f .x/ 2 KŒx. Then ' .x C 1/i D g i , for any i 2 f1; : : : ; p m 1g,
m m
and consequently ' is an epimorphism. Moreover, ' x p D .g 1/p D
m
g p 1 D 0, since K is of characteristic p > 0, and so ' induces
anmepimorphism
m
'N W KŒx= x p ! KG of K-algebras. Since dimK KŒx= x p D pm D
jGj D dimK KG, we conclude that 'N is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
m
We know from Example 3.10 (a) that A D KŒx= x p is a commutative local
K-algebra whose Jacobson
mradical
N generated
rad A is the unique maximal ideal .x/
by the coset xN D x C x p . In particular, rad A ¤ 0, because p 2 and m 1.
Therefore, KG is not a semisimple algebra.
The following theorem is known as Maschke’s theorem. H. Maschke proved

in 1889 [Mas] the semisimplicity of group algebras of finite groups over the field
of complex numbers. We refer to II.3 for the definition and properties of tensor
products of modules.
Theorem 6.18. Let G be a finite group and K be a field. Then the group algebra
KG is semisimple if and only if the characteristic of K does not divide the order
of G.
Proof. Let p be the characteristic of K.

Assume p divides the order jGj of G. Then, by the Cauchy theorem, the group
G contains an element g of order p. Denote by H the cyclic subgroup of order
p of G generated by g. Then the group algebra KH is a K-subalgebra of KG.
Moreover, it follows from Lemma 6.17 that KH is not a semisimple K-algebra.
We claim that then the algebra KG is not semisimple. Consider the canonical
inclusion
P mapi W KH
P ! KG and the K-linear map r W KG ! KH defined by
r g2G g g D h2H h h. Then i and r are homomorphisms of left and right
KH -modules with ri D idKH . Moreover, denote by W KH ! S D top.KH /
the canonical epimorphism of right KH -modules. We note that S is a simple right
KH -module, since KH is a local K-algebra (see Lemma 3.8 and Proposition 5.16).
Then we obtain the commutative diagram in mod KH
idKH ˝r
KH ˝KH KG / KH ˝KH KH ˛ / KH
˝idKG ˝idKH
idS ˝r ˇ
S ˝KH KG / S ˝KH KH /S,
where ˛ and ˇ are the canonical isomorphisms. Observe also that ˝ idKG is an
epimorphism of right KG-modules, because the functor ˝KH KG W mod KH !
mod KG is right exact.
Suppose now that KG is a semisimple K-algebra. Then, by Theorem 6.3 (Propo-
sition 5.12), every module in mod KG is semisimple. In particular, KH ˝KH
KG Š KG is a semisimple right KG-module, and, applying Lemma 5.4, we con-
clude that there is a decomposition KH ˝KH KG Š L ˚ N of right KG-modules,
where N D Ker. ˝ idKG / and L is isomorphic to Im. ˝ idKG / D S ˝KH KG.
Hence, there exists a homomorphism u W S ˝KH KG ! KH ˝KH KG of right
KG-modules with . ˝ idKG /u D idS˝KH KG . Clearly, then u is also a ho-
momorphism of right KH -modules. Consider now the homomorphism j D
˛.idKH ˝r/u.idS ˝i /ˇ 1 W S ! KH of right KH -modules. Then we obtain

the equalities
j D ˛.idKH ˝r/u.idS ˝i /ˇ 1 D ˇ. ˝ idKH /.idKH ˝r/u.idS ˝i /ˇ 1
D ˇ.idS ˝r/. ˝ idKG /u.idS ˝i /ˇ 1 D ˇ.idS ˝r/.idS ˝i /ˇ 1 D idS :
On the other hand, since KH Š KŒx=.x p / with p 2, we have
M
p1
soc.KH / D Kg p1 Kg i D rad KH:
iD1
Then, for any f 2 HomKH .S; KH /, we have f D 0, because Ker D rad KH .

This contradiction shows that KG is not a semisimple K-algebra.
Assume now that p does not divide jGj. We claim that then KG is a semisimple
K-algebra. By Theorem 6.3, it is sufficient to show that every module M in mod KG
is semisimple. Let M be a module in mod KG and N a KG-submodule of M .
We claim that there exists a KG-submodule L of M such that M D L ˚ N . This
will imply, by Lemma 5.4, that M is a semisimple right KG-module. Denote by
u W N ! M the inclusion map. Then u is a monomorphism of K-vector spaces
and there exists a K-linear map v W M ! N such that vu D idN . Since the order
jGj of G is by our assumption an invertible element of K, we have the K-linear
map f W M ! M defined by the formula
X
f .m/ D jGj1 v.mg 1 /g
g2G
for m 2 M . Then, for any m 2 M and h 2 G, we have

X
f .mh/ D jGj1 v .mh/g 1 g
g2G
X
1
D jGj v m hg 1 g
g2G
X 1
1
D jGj v m gh1 g
g2G
X 1 1
D jGj1 v m gh1 gh h
g2G
X
D jGj1 v mt 1 t h
t2G
D f .m/h;
and hence f is a homomorphism of right KG-modules. Moreover, for n 2 N , we
have X X
f .n/ D jGj1 v ng 1 g D jGj1 ng 1 g D n;
g2G g2G
7. The Jordan–Hölder theorem 67
because ng 1 2 N for any g 2 G and then v.ng 1 / D vu.ng 1 / D ng 1 . Hence

f W M ! M is a homomorphism of right KG-modules with f u D idN . Take
L to be the KG-submodule Ker f of M . Applying Lemma 4.2, we conclude that
M D Ker f ˚ Im u D L ˚ N .
Corollary 6.19. Let G be a finite group and K a field of characteristic 0. Then the
group algebra KG is semisimple.
7 The Jordan–Hölder theorem

Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. In Section 5 we have
proved that the simple modules in mod A coincide with the simple modules in
mod.A= rad A/ and are of the form eA=e rad A for primitive idempotents e of A.
In this section we show that every module in mod A may be obtained by iterated
extensions of simple modules.
We start with the following modular law.
Lemma 7.1. Let L N and Q be A-submodules of a module M in mod A. Then
.L C Q/ \ N D L C .Q \ N /.
Proof. Obviously we have L C .Q \ N / .L C Q/ \ N . Conversely, for
z D x C y with x 2 L, y 2 Q, z 2 N , we have y D z x 2 Q \ N , and hence
z D x C y 2 L C .Q \ N /. Therefore, .L C Q/ \ N L C .Q \ N / also holds.

The following Zassenhaus isomorphism theorem will be also crucial.
Theorem 7.2. Let V U and V 0 U 0 be A-submodules of a nonzero module M
in mod A. Then there exist canonical isomorphisms of right A-modules
.U C V 0 / \ U 0 U \ U0 .U 0 C V / \ U
Š Š :
.V C V 0 / \ U 0 .U 0 \ V / C .U \ V 0 / .V 0 C V / \ U
Proof. It is enough to establish the first isomorphism. Consider the inclusion map
'1 W U \ U 0 ! .U C V 0 / \ U 0 ;
the canonical epimorphism
'2 W .U C V 0 / \ U 0 ! .U C V 0 / \ U 0 =.V C V 0 / \ U 0 ;
and take
' D '2 '1 W U \ U 0 ! .U C V 0 / \ U 0 =.V C V 0 / \ U 0 :
We claim that ' is an epimorphism of right A-modules. Indeed, for u0 D u C v 0 2

.U C V 0 / \ U 0 , with u 2 U and v 0 2 V 0 , we have u D u0 v 0 2 U 0 , because
v 0 2 V 0 U 0 . Hence, u 2 U \ U 0 and '.u/ D u C .V C V 0 / \ U 0 D

.u0 v 0 / C .V C V 0 / \ U 0 D u0 C .V C V 0 / \ U 0 . Moreover, applying Lemma 7.1,
we obtain
Ker ' D .U \ U 0 / \ ..V C V 0 / \ U 0 / D .V C V 0 / \ U \ U 0

D .V C .V 0 \ U // \ U 0 D ..V 0 \ U / C V / \ U 0
D .V 0 \ U / C .V \ U 0 / D .U 0 \ V / C .U \ V 0 /:
Therefore, ' induces an isomorphism of right A-modules
U \ U0 U \ U0 .U C V 0 / \ U 0
D
! Im ' D :
.U 0 \ V / C .U \ V 0 / Ker ' .V C V 0 / \ U 0
Lemma 7.3. Let M be a nonzero module in mod A and L a proper right A-

submodule of M . Then the right A-module M=L is simple if and only if, for any
right A-submodule N of M with L N M , we have L D N or N D M .
Proof. Consider the canonical epimorphism p W M ! M=L of right A-modules.
Then, for any right A-submodule N of M with L N , p.N / D N=L is a
right A-submodule of M=L. Moreover,
every right A-submodule X of M=L is
of the form X D p p 1 .X / and p 1 .X / is a right A-submodule of M with
L D p 1 .0M C L/ p 1 .X /. Then the equivalence follows.
A chain 0 D M0 M1 M2 Mm1 Mm D M of A-submodules
of a nonzero module M in mod A is said to be a composition series of M if
Mi =Mi1 is a simple A-module for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. If it is the case, then
M1 =M0 ; M2 =M1 ; : : : ; Mm =Mm1 are called simple composition factors of M .
Proposition 7.4. Let M be a nonzero module in mod A. Then M admits a compo-
sition series 0 D M0 M1 Mm D M .
Proof. It follows from Lemma 5.3 that every nonzero module X in mod A contains
a simple A-submodule. Then the existence of a composition series of M follows
from Lemma 7.3, by induction on dimK M .
The following theorem is known as the Jordan–Hölder theorem, after C. Jordan
and O. Hölder who proved its version for finite groups. In fact, the Jordan–Hölder
theorem for representations of finite groups has been proved by A. Loewy in 1903
(see [Loe1], [Loe2]).
Theorem 7.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, M a nonzero
module in mod A, and
0 D M0 M1 M2 Mm1 Mm D M;
0 D N0 N1 N2 Nn1 Nn D M
two composition series of M . Then m D n and there exists a permutation of
f1; : : : ; mg such that Mi =Mi1 Š N .i/ =N .i/1 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg.
Proof. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, we have the chain
Mi1 D X0;i X1;i Xj;i Xn;i D Mi
of A-submodules of Mi , where Xj;i D .Nj CMi1 /\Mi for any j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; ng.
Since Mi =Mi1 is a simple A-module, by Lemma 7.3, we conclude that there exists
exactly one j D .i / 2 f1; : : : ; ng such that Mi1 D X0;i D X1;i D D Xj 1;i
and Xj;i D Xj C1;i D D Xn;i D Mi . Similarly, for each j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we
have the chain
Nj 1 D Y0;j Y1;j Yi;j Ym;j D Nj
of A-submodules of Nj , where Yi;j D .Mi CNj 1 /\Nj for any i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; mg.
Again, since Nj =Nj 1 is a simple A-module, there exists exactly one i D .j / 2
f1; : : : ; mg such that Nj 1 D Y0;j D Y1;j D D Yi1;j and Yi;j D YiC1;j D
D Ym;j D Nj . Moreover, from Theorem 7.2, we have isomorphisms of right
A-modules
Mi .N .i/ C Mi1 / \ Mi .Mi C N.i/1 / \ N.i/
D Š ;
Mi1 .N .i/1 C Mi1 / \ Mi .Mi1 C N.i/1 / \ N.i/
Nj .M.j / C Nj 1 / \ Nj .Nj C M.j /1 / \ M.j /

D Š :
Nj 1 .M.j /1 C Nj 1 / \ Nj .Nj 1 C M.j /1 / \ M.j /
Since N.i/1 Yi1;.i/ Yi; .i/ N .i/ and N.i/ =N.i/1 is a simple A-
module, it follows from Lemma 7.3 that N .i/1 D Yi1;.i/ and N.i/ D Yi;.i/ ,
and consequently i D .i / by definition of . Hence we have
Mi =Mi1 Š N .i/ =N.i/1
for all i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, and is the identity map on f1; : : : ; mg. Similarly, we
have the inclusions M.j /1 Xj 1;.j / Xj;.j / M.j / and M.j / =M.j /1
is a simple A-module. Applying Lemma 7.3 again, we conclude that M.j /1 D
Xj 1;.j / and M.j / D Xj;.j / , and consequently j D .j / by definition of .
Thus we have
Nj =Nj 1 Š M.j / =M.j /1
for all j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and is the identity map on f1; : : : ; ng.
It follows that W f1; : : : ; mg ! f1; : : : ; ng and W f1; : : : ; ng ! f1; : : : ; mg
are mutually inverse maps, and hence also m D n.
It follows from Theorem 7.5 that the number m of modules in a composition

series 0 D M0 M1 Mm D M of a nonzero module M in mod A depends
only on M ; it is called the length of M and is denoted by `.M /. Moreover, for a
simple module S in mod A, the number of simple composition factors Mi =Mi1 of
M isomorphic to S also depends only on M ; it is called the composition multiplicity
of S in M and is denoted by cS .M /. Therefore, if S1 ; : : : ; Sn is a complete
Pnof pairwise nonisomorphic simple modules in mod A, then we have `.M / D
set
iD1 cSi .M / for any module M in mod A. The length `.0/ of the zero module 0
in mod A is defined to be 0.
Lemma 7.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, M a module in mod A, and
N an A-submodule of M . Then
(i) `.M / D `.N / C `.M=N /.
(ii) cS .M / D cS .N / C cS .M=N / for any simple module S in mod A.
Proof. It follows from Lemmas 5.3 and 7.3 that the chain 0 N M of A-
submodules of M can be saturated to a composition series 0 D M0 M1
Mm D M of M with N D Mi for some i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; mg. Moreover, then
0 D Mi =Mi MiC1 =Mi Mm =Mi D M=N is a composition series of
M=N . Then the statements (i) and (ii) are direct consequences of Theorem 7.5.
Lemma 7.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, and M a nonzero module
in mod A. Then we have the inequalities
``.M / `.M / dimK M:
Proof. It follows from Lemmas 5.3 and 7.3 that, for the radical series
M rad M rad2 M radn1 M radn M D 0
of M , there exists a composition series
0 D M0 M1 M2 Mm1 Mm D M
of M , and a sequence 0 D j0 < j1 < < jn D m in f0; 1; : : : ; mg such that
radnr M D Mjr for any r 2 f0; 1; : : : ; ng, and hence we obtain ``.M / D n
m D `.M /. Moreover, we have dimK Mi1 < dimK Mi for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg,
and so `.M / D m dimK M .
Example 7.8. Let A be the path algebra KQ of the quiver
1 ^< 5
<< ˛
<<

<

QW 3o 4 ^<
<<
ˇ <<
ı <
2 6
over a field K. Accordingly to Corollary 2.11 we have a canonical equivalence of

categories mod KQ ! repK .Q/. Let M be the representation in repK .Q/ of the
form
K aB K
BB 1 0 1 ~~~
BB ~
B
1
~~~
2 o
1
MW K K `@@
| @@1
||| @@
}|| 0 1
K K.
The representations
K _> 0 0 _> 0
>> >>
>> >>
> >
S1 W 0o 0 <^ S2 W 0o 0 <^
<< <<
<< <<
< <
0 0 K 0
0 _> 0 0 ^< 0
>> <<
>> <<
> <
S3 W Ko 0 <^ S4 W 0o K _>
<< >>
<< >>
< >
0 0 0 0
0 ^< K 0 ^< 0
<< <<
<< <<
< <
S5 W 0o 0 _> S6 W 0o 0 _>
>> >>
>> >>
> >
0 0 0 K
are pairwise nonisomorphic simple representations in repK .Q/. Consider also the
subrepresentations of M
K À 0 0 ÀA 0
AA1 AA
AA A

XW Ko 0 ^= YW Ko 0 ^=
} == } ==
}} == }} ==
~}
} }~ } 1
0 0 K 0
K aC 0 K dHH 0
CC 1 0 HH1 0
CC HH

K2 o K.1; 1/ o

ZW 0 ^< RW K ^>
{ << vv >>
{{ << vv >>
}{{ 0 1 zvv 0 1
K 0 K 0
K dHH K K aC 0
HH1 0 ~ CC 1 0
HH ~~
1 CC
~
~ 1

K.1; 1/ o 2 o
1
TW K _@ UW K K _>
v @@ { >>
v
vv 0 1 @ {{ >>
zvv 1 @ }{{ 0 1
K K K 0
K aC K K aC 0
CC 1 0
CC 1 ~~
~
CC 1 0
CC ~~~
1
~~~ 1
~~~
K2 o K2 o
1 1
VW K `@ WW K `@
{ @@ { @@1
{{ @@ {{ @@
}{{ 0 1 }{{ 0 1
K 0 K K
K dII 0
II1 0
II

N W K.1; / o 0 <] , for 2 K;
uu <<
uu <<
zuu 0 1
K 0
where W K ! K.1; 1/ is given by ./ D .1; 1/ for 2 K.
The following chains are some composition series of M in repK .Q/:
0 S1 X X ˚ S2 Z U V M;
0 S1 X X ˚ S2 Z U W M;
0 S2 Y S1 ˚ Y Z U V M;
0 S2 Y S1 ˚ Y Z U W M;
0 S1 S1 ˚ S2 X ˚ S2 Z U V M;
0 S1 S1 ˚ S2 X ˚ S2 Z U W M;
0 S1 S1 ˚ S2 S1 ˚ Y Z U V M;
0 S1 S1 ˚ S2 S1 ˚ Y Z U W M;
0 S2 S1 ˚ S2 X ˚ S2 Z U V M;
0 S2 S1 ˚ S2 X ˚ S2 Z U W M;
0 S2 S1 ˚ S2 S1 ˚ Y Z U V M;
0 S2 S1 ˚ S2 S1 ˚ Y Z U W M:
8. Projective and injective modules 73
Observe that `.M / D 7 and cS1 .M / D 1, cS2 .M / D 1, cS3 .M / D 2, cS4 .M / D 1,

cS5 .M / D 1, cS6 .M / D 1. Moreover, we have ``.M / D 4, since 3 is the length
of the longest path in Q (see Corollary 5.21). We also note that dimK M D 7.
Observe that T , V and W are unique maximal subrepresentations of M , and
hence rad M D T \ V \ W D R. Further, N D N1 is a unique maximal
subrepresentation of R, and so N D rad R. Finally, S1 ˚ S2 is a unique maximal
subrepresentation of N , and hence rad N D S1 ˚ S2 . Therefore, the radical series
of M is of the form
M R N S1 ˚ S2 0:
Observe that top.M / D M= rad M Š S3 ˚ S5 ˚ S6 and soc.M / D S1 ˚ S2 . We

also note that N , 2 K, form a family of pairwise different subrepresentations
of M with top.N / Š S3 and soc.N / D S1 ˚ S2 . In particular, if the field K is
infinite, M admits infinitely many pairwise different composition series.
Example 7.9. Let F be a finite dimensional division K-algebra over a field K,

n a positive natural number and Mn .F / the full n n matrix algebra over F . It
follows from Lemma 6.2 (and its proof) that Mn .F / is a semisimple algebra having
a decomposition Mn .F / D S1 ˚ S2 ˚ ˚ Sn into a direct sum of simple right
ideals (modules), where
˚
Sr D Err Mn .F / D Œaij 2 Mn .F / j aij D 0 for i ¤ r ;
for each r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, by Proposition 5.12 and Corollary 5.17, ev-
ery simple right Mn .F /-module is isomorphic to a module Sr . In fact, for each
r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, there is a canonical isomorphism S1 ! Sr of right Mn .F /-
modules given by the shift of the first row of S1 onto the r-th row of Sr . There-
fore, the simple Mn .F /-modules S1 ; : : : ; Sn are isomorphic. Observe now that
dimK S1 D n dimK F and clearly `.S1 / D 1. In particular, for the right Mn .F /-
module Mn .F / D S1 ˚ ˚ Sn , we have
``.Mn .F // D 1; `.Mn .F // D n; dimK Mn .F / D n2 dimK F:
8 Projective and injective modules

The aim of this section is to describe the basic properties and structure of finite
dimensional projective and injective modules over finite dimensional K-algebras.
Let K be a field.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. A module F in mod A is called free
if F is isomorphic to a direct sum of copies of the module AA . A module P in
mod A is said to be projective if, for any epimorphism h W M ! N in mod A and
f 2 HomA .P; N /, there exists g 2 HomA .P; M / such that hg D f , that is,
making the following diagram commutative
P
g|||
|
|| f
~|h
|
M /N
(see also Exercise 12.22).
Lemma 8.1. Let P be a module in mod A. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) P is a projective module in mod A.
(ii) Every epimorphism h W M ! P in mod A is a retraction.
(iii) There exist a free module F and a module P 0 in mod A such that P ˚P 0 Š F .
Proof. Assume that P is a projective A-module and h W M ! P is an epimorphism

in mod A. Then there exists a homomorphism g W P ! M in mod A such that
hg D idP , and hence h is a retraction. Thus (i) implies (ii).
Assume (ii) holds. Let x1 ; : : : ; xm be a basis of the K-vector space P . Then
P D x1 A C C xm A and the map v W AAm ! P , given by v.a1 ; : : : ; am / D
x1 a1 C C xm am , for a1 ; : : : ; am 2 A, is an epimorphism of right A-modules.
It follows from our assumption that idP D vu for some u 2 HomA .P; AAm /. Then,
by Lemma 4.2, we obtain AAm D Im u ˚ Ker v. Since u is a section, it induces
an isomorphism P ! Im u. Therefore, we have P ˚ P 0 Š F for F D AAm and
P 0 D Ker v. Hence (ii) implies (iii).
Assume (iii) holds. Then there exists a free right A-module F D y1 A ˚
˚ ym A and homomorphisms r 2 HomA .F; P / and s 2 HomA .P; F / such that
rs D idP . Let h W M ! N be an epimorphism in mod A and f 2 HomA .P; N /.
Then there exist elements x1 ; : : : ; xm 2 M such that h.xi / D f r.yi / for any
i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Consider the homomorphism w W F ! M of right A-modules
such that w.yi / D xi for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Then we have hw D f r, and
consequently hg D f for g D ws 2 HomA .P; M /. This shows that P is a
projective A-module. Hence (iii) implies (i).
The following proposition describes the structure of finite dimensional projec-

tive modules over finite dimensional algebras.
Proposition 8.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e1 ; : : : ; en a set of

primitive idempotents of A with 1A D e1 C C en . Then
(i) AA D e1 A ˚ ˚ en A is a decomposition of AA into a direct sum of

indecomposable projective right A-modules.
(ii) Every nonzero projective module P in mod A is a direct sum P D P1 ˚ ˚

Pm , where each module Pj , j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, is isomorphic to a module ei A
with i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. It follows from Corollary 5.10 and Lemma 8.1 that e1 A; : : : ; en A are inde-
composable projective modules in mod A, and hence (i) holds.
For (ii), let P be a projective module and P D P1 ˚ ˚ Pm a decomposition
of P into a direct sum of indecomposable A-submodules. Since P is projective,
it follows from Lemma 8.1 that there exists a module P 0 such that P ˚ P 0 is
isomorphic to AAt for some t 1. Decomposing P 0 D P10 ˚ ˚ Pr0 into a direct
sum of indecomposable A-submodules we obtain
P1 ˚ ˚ Pm ˚ P10 ˚ ˚ Pr0 Š .e1 A ˚ ˚ en A/t :
Applying Theorem 4.6, we obtain that each module Pj , j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, is indeed
isomorphic to a module ei A with i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Our next aim is to associate to a module M in mod A a minimal epimorphism
P .M / ! M in mod A with P .M / a projective module. We start with some useful
concepts.
An A-submodule L of a module M in mod A is said to be superfluous if, for
every A-submodule X of M with L C X D M , the equality X D M holds. Then
a nonzero epimorphism h W M ! N in mod A with Ker h a superfluous submodule
of M is said to be a minimal epimorphism.
It follows from Proposition 5.13 (v) that the radical rad M of any module M
in mod A is a superfluous A-submodule of M , and consequently the canonical
epimorphism hM W M ! M= rad M D top.M / is a minimal epimorphism.
The following characterization of minimal epimorphisms in mod A is useful.
Lemma 8.3. Let h W M ! N be a nonzero epimorphism in mod A. Then h is a
minimal epimorphism if and only if, for any homomorphism g W L ! M in mod A
with hg an epimorphism, g is also an epimorphism.
Proof. Assume that h is a minimal epimorphism and g W L ! M is a homo-
morphism in mod A such that hg W L ! N is an epimorphism. Since hg is an
epimorphism, for any m 2 M , there exists x 2 L such that h.m/ D hg.x/, and
hence mg.x/ 2 Ker h. This implies that Ker hCIm g D M . By our assumption,
Ker h is a superfluous A-submodule of M , and then Im g D M . Therefore, g is an
epimorphism.
Conversely, assume that the epimorphism h W M ! N has the stated property.
Let X be an A-submodule of M such that Ker h C X D M , and consider the
inclusion map g W X ! M . Then the composed homomorphism hg W X ! N
is an epimorphism, and hence, by our assumption, g is an epimorphism. This
implies that X D M , and consequently Ker h is a superfluous A-submodule of M .
Therefore, h is a minimal epimorphism.
An epimorphism h W P ! M in mod A is said to be a projective cover of M if

P is a projective A-module and h is a minimal epimorphism.
(i) For any nonzero module M in mod A there exists a projective cover
h W P .M / ! M:
Moreover, the induced homomorphism top.h/ W top.P .M // ! top.M / of

semisimple modules in mod A is an isomorphism.
(ii) For any projective cover h0 W P 0 ! M of a nonzero module M in mod A
there exists an isomorphism g W P 0 ! P .M / in mod A such that hg D h0 .
Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents of A
with 1A D e1 C C en (see Corollary 5.9). Then eN1 D e1 C rad A; : : : ; eNn D
en C rad A is a set of primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents of the semisimple
algebra B D A= rad A with 1B D eN1 C C eNn . Moreover, it follows from
Proposition 5.16 that, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, rad ej A D ej rad A is a unique
maximal right A-submodule of ej A and top.ej A/ Š eNj B is simple. Clearly, then
the canonical epimorphism j W ej A ! top.ej A/ is a projective cover in mod A
with top.j / W top.ej A/ ! top.ej A/ the identity map.
Let M be a module in mod A. Then top.M / D M= rad M is by Corollary 5.15
a semisimple right A-module and a semisimple right B-module. Then, by Propo-
sition 5.16 and Corollary 5.17, there exist isomorphisms of right B-modules

top.e1 A/r1 ˚ ˚ top.en A/rn
! .eN1 B/r1 ˚ ˚ .eNn B/rn
! top.M /;
for some r1 0; : : : ; rn 0. We take P .M / D .e1 A/r1 ˚ ˚ .en A/rn .

Then P .M / is a projective right A-module and there exists a homomorphism
h W P .M / ! M of right A-modules such that the diagram
P .M /
h /M
hP .M / hM
top.h/
top.P .M // / top.M / ,
where hP .M / and hM are two canonical minimal epimorphisms, is commutative.

Moreover, top.h/ is an isomorphism, by our choice of P .M /. Then hM h D
top.h/hP .M / is an epimorphism, and hence h is an epimorphism, because hM is
a minimal epimorphism. Moreover, Ker h Ker hM h D Ker top.h/hP .M / D
Ker hP .M / , because top.h/ is an isomorphism, and consequently we obtain
Ker h .rad e1 A/r1 ˚ ˚ .rad en A/rn D rad P .M /:

Since rad P .M / is a superfluous A-submodule of P .M /, Ker h is also a super-

fluous A-submodule of P .M /. Therefore, the epimorphism h W P .M / ! M is a
projective cover of M in mod A.
(ii) Let h0 W P 0 ! M be a projective cover of a module M in mod A. Since the
map in the projective cover h W P .M / ! M , constructed above, is an epimorphism,
the projectivity of P 0 implies that there is a homomorphism g W P 0 ! P .M / in
mod A such that hg D h0 . Then, since hg D h0 is surjective, the minimality of h
forces that g W P 0 ! P .M / is an epimorphism in mod A. Interchanging the role
of P 0 and P .M /, we conclude in a similar way that there exists an epimorphism
f W P .M / ! P 0 in mod A such that h0 f D h. Then we get the inequalities
dimK P .M / dimK P 0 dimK P .M /, and so dimK P .M / D dimK P 0 . There-
fore, g W P 0 ! P .M / is an isomorphism.
Corollary 8.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then the functor
top W mod A ! mod A induces a bijection between the isomorphism classes of the
nonzero projective modules in mod A and the isomorphism classes of the semisimple
modules in mod A.
Proof. It follows from Corollary 5.15 that a module M in mod A is semisimple if
and only if M Š top.M /. Then, by Theorem 8.4 (i), for a semisimple module M
in mod A and its projective cover h W P .M / ! M in mod A, P .M / is a projective
module in mod A and top.h/ W top.P .M // ! top.M / is an isomorphism in mod A.
Moreover, it follows from Theorem 8.4 (ii), that two semisimple modules M and
N in mod A are isomorphic if and only if their projective covers P .M / and P .N /
are isomorphic. Finally, observe also that, for a projective module P in mod A,
top.P / is a semisimple module in mod A and P Š P .top.P //.
As a special case, we get the following bijection, noted by T. Nakayama in [Nak1]
(without use of projective modules, introduced later in the book [CE] by H. Cartan
and S. Eilenberg (see also the paper [NaNa] by H. Nagao and T. Nakayama)).
top W mod A ! mod A induces a bijection between the isomorphism classes of
the indecomposable projective modules in mod A and the isomorphism classes of
the simple modules in mod A.
Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents in A
such that 1A D e1 C C en . It follows from Proposition 8.2 that a module P in
mod A is an indecomposable projective module if and only if P is isomorphic to a
module of the form ei A, for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Similarly, by Corollary 5.17, a
module S in mod A is a simple module if and only if S is isomorphic to a module
of the form ei A=ei rad A D top.ei A/, for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, by
Theorem 8.4, two simple modules ei A=ei rad A and ej A=ej rad A are isomorphic
if and only if the indecomposable projective modules ei A and ej A are isomorphic.

Let A be a K-algebra, e 2 A an idempotent, and M a module in Mod A. Then

the K-vector space eAe D feae j a 2 Ag is a finite dimensional K-algebra with
identity e. Observe that eAe is a K-subalgebra of A if and only if e D 1A . The
K-vector space M e D fme j m 2 M g is a right eAe-module by .me/.eae/ D
meae for m 2 M and a 2 A. Moreover, the K-vector space HomA .eA; M / is
a right eAe-module by the action .' eae/.x/ D '.eaex/ for x 2 eA, a 2 A,
' 2 HomA .eA; M /.
Lemma 8.7. Let A be a K-algebra, e 2 A an idempotent, and M be a module in
Mod A. Then the K-linear map
e
M W HomA .eA; M / ! M e;
defined by M
e
.'/ D '.e/ D '.e/e for ' 2 HomA .eA; M /, is an isomorphism of
right eAe-modules.
Proof. For ' 2 HomA .eA; M / and eae 2 eAe, we have the equalities Me
.'eae/ D
.'eae/.e/ D '..eae/e/ D '.eae/ D '.e.eae// D '.e/eae D M .'/eae, and
e
e
hence M is a homomorphism of right eAe-modules. Consider the K-linear map
M
e
W Me ! HomA .eA; M / defined by M e
.me/.ea/ D mea for m 2 M and
a 2 A. Then, for m 2 M , a; b 2 A, we have the equalities
e
e
M ..me/.ebe//.ea/
D
M
e
.mebe/.ea/ D mebea D e
M .me/.ebea/ D M .me/ebe .ea/, and hence
e e e
M is a homomorphism of right eAe-modules. We check that M and M are mutu-
ally inverse maps. For ' 2 HomA .eA; M / and a 2 A, we have M M .'/.ea/ D
e e
M .'.e/e/.ea/ D '.e/ea D '.ea/, and hence M M D id HomA .eA;M / . Sim-

e e e
ilarly, for m 2 M , we have M M .me/ D M .me/.e/ D me, and hence

e e e
M D idMe .
e e
M
Corollary 8.8. Let A be a K-algebra and e 2 A an idempotent. Then the map
e
eA W EndA .eA/ ! eAe is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
In particular, we obtain the following consequence of the above corollary,
Lemma 4.4 and Corollary 5.8.
Corollary 8.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e 2 A an idempotent.
Then e is a primitive idempotent of A if and only if eAe is a local K-algebra.
Similarly, we have the following facts.
Lemma 8.10. Let A be a K-algebra, e 2 A an idempotent, and M a module in
Mod Aop . Then the K-linear map
e
ıM W HomAop .Ae; M / ! eM
defined by ıM
e
. /D .e/ D e .e/ for 2 HomAop .Ae; M / is an isomorphism
of left eAe-modules.
Corollary 8.11. Let A be a K-algebra and e 2 A an idempotent. Then the map

e
ıAe W EndAop .Ae/op ! eAe is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
The following lemma is also very useful.
Lemma 8.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e; f two primitive

idempotents of A. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) eA and fA are nonisomorphic as right A-modules.
(ii) eAf D e.rad A/f .
(iii) fAe D f .rad A/e.
(iv) Ae and Af are nonisomorphic as left A-modules.
Proof. It follows from Corollary 5.8 and Proposition 5.16 that eA and fA are in-
decomposable projective right A-modules, and the radicals rad.eA/ D e rad A and
rad.fA/ D f rad A are their unique maximal right A-submodules, respectively.
Moreover, by Lemma 8.1 (ii), every epimorphism g W eA ! fA or h W fA ! eA is
a retraction, and consequently an isomorphism. Therefore, eA and fA are noniso-
morphic as right A-modules if and only if HomA .eA; fA/ D HomA .eA; f rad A/,
or equivalently, HomA .fA; eA/ D HomA .fA; e rad A/. From Lemma 8.7, this is
equivalent to fAe D f .rad A/e, or equivalently, to eAf D e.rad A/f . In a similar
way, using Lemma 8.10, we prove that Ae and Af are nonisomorphic as left A-
modules if and only if eAf D e.rad A/f , or equivalently, fAe D f .rad A/e.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. A module E in mod A is said to be

injective if, for any monomorphism u W M ! N in mod A and w 2 HomA .M; E/,
there exists v 2 HomA .N; E/ such that w D vu, that is, making the following
diagram commutative
u /
M N
|||
|
w
|| v
~||
E
(see also Exercise 12.23).
Lemma 8.13. Let E be a module in mod A. The following conditions are equiva-
lent.
(i) E is an injective module in mod A.
(ii) Every monomorphism f W E ! M in mod A is a section.

Proof. Assume E is an injective A-module and f W E ! M is a monomorphism

in mod A. Then there exists a homomorphism g W M ! E such that gf D idE ,
and hence f is a section. Thus (i) implies (ii).
Conversely, assume that (ii) holds. Let u W M ! N be a monomorphism in
mod A and w 2 HomA .M; E/. Consider the factor module W D V =U , where V D
E ˚ N and U is the A-submodule of V of the form f.w.m/; u.m// j m 2 M g.
Then we obtain a commutative diagram
M
u /N
w g
f
E /W ,
where f .x/ D .x; 0/ C U , for x 2 E, and g.y/ D .0; y/ C U , for y 2 N .

Observe that indeed f w.m/ gu.m/ D ..w.m/; 0/ C U / ..0; u.m// C U / D
.w.m/; u.m// C U D 0 C U , and hence f w.m/ D gu.m/ for any m 2 M . We
claim that f is a monomorphism. Let x 2 E and f .x/ D 0. Then .x; 0/ 2 U , and
so .x; 0/ D .w.m/; u.m// for some m 2 M . Hence x D w.m/ and u.m/ D 0.
Because u is a monomorphism, we obtain m D 0, and consequently x D w.m/ D
0. Thus f is a monomorphism in mod A, and hence a section. Let h W W ! E be
a homomorphism in mod A with hf D idE . Then for v D hg W N ! E we have
vu D hgu D hf w D w. This shows that E is an injective A-module. Therefore
(ii) implies (i).
The following injectivity criterion proved by R. Baer [Bae] is very useful.
Lemma 8.14. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and E a module in mod A.

The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) E is an injective module in mod A.
(ii) For every right ideal I of A and ' 2 HomA .I; E/, there exists an element
2 HomA .A; E/ such that '.a/ D .a/ for all a 2 I .
Proof. Assume E is an injective module in mod A, I a right ideal of A, and

u W I ! A the inclusion homomorphism of right A-modules. Then, for every
homomorphism ' W I ! E in mod A, there exists a homomorphism W A ! E
such that ' D u. Clearly, then '.a/ D .u.a// D .a/ for all a 2 A. Hence
(i) implies (ii).
Conversely, assume that (ii) holds. Let u W M ! N be a monomorphism in
mod A and w 2 HomA .M; E/. Observe that Im u is a right A-submodule of N ,
u W M ! Im u is an isomorphism in mod A and, for v0 D wu1 2 HomA .Im u; E/,
we have w D v0 u. Consider now a maximal right A-submodule X of N containing
Im u and with the property that there exists v 2 HomA .X; E/ such that w D vu. We
claim that X D N , and consequently E is an injective module in mod A. Assume

that X ¤ N , and let n 2 N n X . Consider the set
I D fa 2 A j na 2 X g:
Observe that I is a right ideal of A, since X is a right A-submodule of N . We

define ' 2 HomA .I; E/ by '.a/ D v.na/ for all a 2 I . Then it follows from
our assumption (ii) that there exists 2 HomA .A; E/ such that .a/ D '.a/ for
all a 2 I . Consider now the right A-submodule Y D X C nA of N and the map
f W Y ! E given by f .x C na/ D v.x/ C .a/ for x 2 X and a 2 A. We show
that f is well defined. Indeed, let x C na D x 0 C na0 , for some x; x 0 2 X and
a; a0 2 A. Then n.a a0 / D x 0 x 2 X , and so a a0 2 I . Hence we obtain
v.n.a a0 // D '.a a0 / D .a a0 /. This leads to the equalities
.v.x/ C .a// .v.x 0 / C .a0 // D v.x x 0 / C .a a0 /

D v.x x 0 / C v.n.a a0 //
D v..x C na/ .x 0 C na0 // D v.0/ D 0;
as required. Then f 2 HomA .Y; E/, because v and are homomorphisms of right
A-modules. Moreover, for m 2 M , we have f u.m/ D f .u.m/Cn0/ D vu.m/ D
w.m/, and so f u D w. This contradicts the maximality of X , since X is a proper
right A-submodule of Y . Therefore, X D N , and (ii) implies (i).
A right A-submodule X of a module M in mod A is said to be essential if
X \Y ¤ 0 for any nonzero right A-submodule Y of M . Then a nonzero monomor-
phism u W L ! M in mod A is said to be a minimal monomorphism if Im u is an
essential right A-submodule of M .
It follows from Lemma 5.3 that the socle soc.M / of any nonzero module M in
mod A is an essential submodule of M , and consequently the canonical monomor-
phism uM W soc.M / ! M is a minimal monomorphism.
The following characterization of minimal monomorphisms in mod A is very
useful.
Lemma 8.15. Let u W L ! M be a nonzero monomorphism in mod A. Then u is
a minimal monomorphism if and only if, for any homomorphism v W M ! N in
mod A with vu a monomorphism, v is a monomorphism.
Proof. Assume that u is a minimal monomorphism in mod A and v W M ! N
is a homomorphism in mod A such that vu W L ! N is a monomorphism. This
implies that Im u \ Ker v D 0, and consequently Ker v D 0, because Im u is, by
assumption, an essential right A-submodule of M . Thus v is a monomorphism.
Conversely, assume that the monomorphism u W L ! M has the stated property.
Let X be a right A-submodule of M such that Im u \ X D 0. Consider the factor
module N D M=X and the canonical epimorphism v W M ! N , v.m/ D m C X
for m 2 M . Then the composed homomorphism vu W L ! N is a monomorphism,

because Im u \ Ker v D Im u \ X D 0. Hence, by assumption, v is a monomor-
phism. This implies that X D 0. Therefore, Im u is an essential right A-submodule
of M , and u is a minimal monomorphism.
A monomorphism u W M ! E in mod A is said to be an injective envelope of

M if E is an injective A-module and u is a minimal monomorphism.
We describe now the structure of injective modules in mod A and show that
every nonzero module in mod A admits a unique injective envelope.
We agreed to identify the category A-mod of finite dimensional left A-modules
with the category mod Aop of finite dimensional right mod Aop -modules, where Aop
is the opposite K-algebra of A. Moreover, we have the standard duality
D /
mod A o mod Aop
D
with 1mod A Š D B D and 1mod Aop Š D B D, where D D HomK .; K/.

Applying the duality D, we will now transfer the main results on the projective
modules in mod Aop , described above, to the corresponding dual results on the
injective modules in mod A.
We start with a general proposition.
Proposition 8.16. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and D the standard

duality between mod A and mod Aop .
(i) A module E in mod A is injective if and only if the module D.E/ in mod Aop
is projective.
(ii) A module P in mod A is projective if and only if the module D.P / in mod Aop
is injective.
(iii) A module S in mod A is simple if and only if the module D.S / in mod Aop is
simple.
(iv) A module M in mod A is semisimple if and only if the module D.M / in

mod Aop is semisimple.
(v) For every nonzero module M in mod A, we have D.top M / Š soc.D.M //

and D.soc M / Š top.D.M //.
(vi) u W L ! M is a minimal monomorphism in mod A if and only if
D.u/ W D.M / ! D.L/
is a minimal epimorphism in mod Aop .

(vii) h W M ! N is a minimal epimorphism in mod A if and only if

D.h/ W D.N / ! D.M /
is a minimal monomorphism in mod Aop .
Proof. This is straightforward and left to the reader.
In particular, the following characterization of injective modules in mod A fol-
lows from Lemma 8.1 (for modules in mod Aop ).
Lemma 8.17. Let E be a module in mod A. Then E is an injective module if and
only if there exists a module E 0 in mod A such that E ˚ E 0 Š D.A A/m for some
m 1.
Further, Theorem 8.4 for modules in mod Aop is transferred to the following
theorem for modules in mod A.
(i) For any nonzero module M in mod A there exists an injective envelope
u W M ! E.M /
such that the induced homomorphism soc.u/ W soc.M / ! soc.E.M // is an
isomorphism.
(ii) For any injective envelope u0 W M ! E 0 of a nonzero module M in mod A
there exists an isomorphism f W E.M / ! E 0 in mod A such that f u D u0 .
We will present now a more detailed description of the injective modules in
mod A.
Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents in A such
that 1A D e1 C C en . Obviously then e1 ; : : : ; en is a set of primitive pair-
wise orthogonal idempotents in Aop with 1Aop D e1 C C en . We know from
Proposition 5.16 and Corollary 8.6 that, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, Aei D ei Aop is
an indecomposable projective left A-module (right Aop -module) and top.Aei / D
Aei =.rad A/ei is a simple left A-module. Further, it follows from Proposition 8.2
that every finite dimensional projective left A-module P is isomorphic to a di-
rect sum of indecomposable projective left A-modules of the form Aei with i 2
f1; : : : ; ng. Similarly, every finite dimensional semisimple left A-module is iso-
morphic to a direct sum of simple left A-modules of the form Aei =.rad A/ei with
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Observe also that the right A-module D.A A/ has a decomposition
D.A A/ D D.Ae1 ˚ ˚ Aen / D D.Ae1 / ˚ ˚ D.Aen /
into a direct sum of indecomposable injective modules in mod A.
The following transfer of Proposition 8.2 describes the structure of finite dimen-
sional injective modules over finite dimensional algebras.
Proposition 8.19. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e1 ; : : : ; en be a set

of primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents in A with 1A D e1 C C en . Then
every nonzero injective module E in mod A is a direct sum E D E1 ˚ ˚ Em ,
where each module Ej , j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, is isomorphic to a module D.Aei / with
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
We have also the following transfers of Corollaries 8.5 and 8.6.

soc W mod A ! mod A induces a bijection between the isomorphism classes of the
nonzero injective modules in mod A and the isomorphism classes of the semisimple
modules in mod A.

soc W mod A ! mod A induces a bijection between the isomorphism classes of
the indecomposable injective modules in mod A and the isomorphism classes of the
simple modules in mod A.
A prominent role in our further considerations will be played by the following

lemma.
Lemma 8.22. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e1 ; : : : ; en a set of

primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents in A with 1A D e1 C C en . Then
soc.D.Aei // Š ei A=ei rad A D top.ei A/ for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. Fix i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. It follows from Proposition 8.16 (v) that soc D.Aei / Š
D.top.Aei // D D.Aei =.rad A/ei /. Since soc D.Aei / is a simple right A-module,
in order to show that it is isomorphic to top.ei A/, it is enough to prove that there is a
nonzero homomorphism ei A ! D.Aei =.rad A/ei / of right A-modules. Applying
Lemma 8.7, we obtain isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
HomA .ei A; D.Aei =.rad A/ei // Š D.Aei =.rad A/ei /ei Š D.ei Aei =ei .rad A/ei /:
Furthermore, ei Aei is a local K-algebra with the Jacobson radical rad ei Aei D
ei .rad A/ei , by Corollary 8.9, because the idempotent ei is primitive. It follows
that ei Aei =ei .rad A/ei ¤ 0, and consequently D .ei Aei =ei .rad A/ei / ¤ 0.
We will illustrate now the results presented above in two special and extreme
cases.
Lemma 8.23. Let A D Mn .F / be the full n n matrix algebra over a finite di-
mensional division K-algebra F . Then the nonzero projective, nonzero injective
and semisimple modules in mod A coincide. Moreover, there is only one indecom-
posable module in mod A up to isomorphism.
Proof. The elementary diagonal matrices Ei i , i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, form a set of orthog-
onal primitive idempotents of A with In D E11 C C Enn . Then, as shown in
Example 7.9, every indecomposable module in mod A is simple and of the form
˚
Err A D Œaij 2 A j aij D 0 for i ¤ r ;
which is the r-th row of A, for some r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Observe also that for any
r; s 2 f1; : : : ; ng the canonical map 'r;s W Err A ! Ess A which shifts the r-th row
of A to the s-th row of A is an isomorphism of right A-modules. Clearly, then the
projective, injective and semisimple modules in mod A coincide, and there is in
mod A exactly one indecomposable module (up to isomorphism).
In fact we have another characterization of semisimple algebras completing the

Wedderburn structure theorem (Theorem 6.3).
Corollary 8.24. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The
(i) A is a semisimple algebra.
(ii) Every module in mod A is projective.
(iii) Every module in mod A is injective.

Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents in A
such that 1A D e1 C C en .
Assume A is a semisimple algebra. Then we conclude as above, by Proposi-
tion 5.12 and Corollary 5.17, that every indecomposable module in mod A is simple
and isomorphic to a module of the form ei A, for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover,
then P .ei A/ D ei A D E.ei A/ D D.Aei /. Therefore, (i) implies (ii) and (iii).
Assume that every module in mod A is projective. Then, by Lemma 8.1, for each
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the canonical epimorphism ei A ! top.ei A/ D ei A=ei rad A is a
retraction, and consequently an isomorphism, because ei A is indecomposable (see
Lemma 4.2). Therefore, ei rad A D 0 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and hence rad A D 0.
This shows that (ii) implies (i).
Assume that every module in mod A is injective. Then, by Lemma 8.13, for
each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the canonical monomorphism D.Aei =.rad A/ei / ! D.Aei /
is a section, and consequently an isomorphism, because D.Aei / is indecomposable.
Therefore .rad A/ei D 0 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and hence rad A D 0. This proves
that (iii) implies (i).
Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / be a finite quiver, I an admissible ideal of the path

algebra KQ over a field K, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver alge-
bra. It follows from Lemma 1.5, Lemma 3.11 and Corollary 8.9 that A is a finite
dimensional K-algebra and the cosets ea D "a C I of the trivial paths "a in Q,
a 2 QP 0 , form a set of primitive pairwise orthogonal idempotents of A such that

1A D a2Q0 ea . We proved in Theorem 2.10 that there exists a canonical K-
linear equivalence of categories F W mod A ! repK .Q; I /, where repK .Q; I / is
the category of finite dimensional representations of the bound quiver .Q; I / over
K. We will describe now the simple, semisimple, projective and injective modules
in mod A in terms of the representations in repK .Q; I /, and the associated represen-
tations in repK .Q; I / will be called the simple, projective, injective representations
of .Q; I /, respectively. For a vertex a 2 Q0 , we denote by S.a/ the representation
.S.a/b ; '˛ /b2Q0 ;˛2Q1 of .Q; I / defined as
´
K if b D a,
S.a/b D
0 if b ¤ a,
and '˛ D 0 for all arrows ˛ 2 Q1 .
Lemma 8.25. Let A D KQ=I be the bound quiver algebra over a field K associ-
ated to a bound quiver .Q; I /. The following statements hold.
(i) For any a 2 Q0 , S.a/ is a simple representation in repK .Q; I / corresponding

to the top of the indecomposable projective module ea A in mod A.
(ii) The representations S.a/, a 2 Q0 , form a complete set of pairwise noniso-

morphic simple representations in repK .Q; I /.
Proof. Clearly, S.a/, a 2 Q0 , are pairwise nonisomorphic simple representations

in repK .Q; I /. Moreover, the equivalence functor F W mod A ! repK .Q; I /,
defined in the proof of Theorem 2.10, assigns to the simple top ea A=ea rad A of
the indecomposable projective right A-module ea A the simple representation S.a/
in repK .Q; I /. This proves the statement (i). The statement (ii) then follows from
Theorem 2.10 and Corollary 8.6.
We obtain the following immediate corollary.
Corollary 8.26. Let A D KQ=I be the bound quiver algebra of a bound quiver
.Q; I / over a field K and M D .Ma ; '˛ /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 a nonzero representation in
repK .Q; I /. Then the representation M is semisimple if and only if '˛ D 0 for all
arrows ˛ 2 Q1 .
Proof. It follows from Lemma 8.25 that M is a semisimple

L representation of .Q; I /
if and only if M is isomorphic to the direct sum a2Q0 S.a/dimK Ma of simple
representations, or equivalently, '˛ D 0 for all ˛ 2 Q1 .
The following proposition describes the projective and injective representations

in the categories repK .Q; I /.
Proposition 8.27. Let A D KQ=I be the bound quiver algebra of a bound quiver
.Q; I / over a field K.
(i) For each a 2 Q0 , the indecomposable projective representation P .a/ in
repK .Q; I / corresponding to the indecomposable projective right A-module
ea A is of the form
P .a/ D .P .a/b ; '˛ /b2Q0 ;˛2Q1 ;
where P .a/b is the K-vector space generated by all cosets wN D w C I , with

w the paths in Q from a to b, and for an arrow ˛ W b ! c in Q, the K-linear
map '˛ W P .a/b ! P .a/c is given by the right multiplication by ˛N D ˛ C I .
(ii) For each a 2 Q0 , the indecomposable injective representation I.a/ in
repK .Q; I / corresponding to the indecomposable injective right A-module
D.Aea / is of the form
I.a/ D .I.a/b ; '˛ /b2Q0 ;˛2Q1 ;
where I.a/b is the dual of the K-vector space generated by all cosets wN D
w C I , with w the paths in Q from b to a, and for an arrow ˛ W b ! c
in Q, the K-linear map '˛ W I.a/b ! I.a/c is given by the dual of the left
multiplication by ˛N D ˛ C I .
Proof. It follows from the definition of the equivalence functor F W mod A !
repK .Q; I /, given in Theorem 2.10, that, for vertices a; b 2 Q0 , we have
P .a/b D .ea A/eb D ea Aeb D ea .KQ=I /eb D "a .KQ/"b ="a I "b :
Moreover, if ˛ W b ! c is an arrow in Q, then '˛ W ea Aeb ! ea Aec is given by the

right multiplication by the coset ˛N D ˛ C I , that is, if wN is the coset w C I of a
path w from a to b in Q, then '˛ .w/ N D wN ˛.
N This proves (i).
(ii) Similarly as above, for vertices a; b 2 Q0 , we have
I.a/b D D.Aea /eb D D.eb Aea / D D."b .KQ/"a ="b I "a /:
Moreover, if ˛ W b ! c is an arrow in Q, then '˛ W D.eb Aea / ! D.ec Aea / is

N D f .˛N w/
defined by '˛ .f /.w/ N for f 2 D.eb Aea / D HomK .eb Aea ; K/ and w a
path from c to a in Q, where ˛N D ˛ C I , wN D w C I . This proves (ii).
Corollary 8.28. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field and I an admissible ideal of
KQ. Then, for each a 2 Q0 , we have in repK .Q; I / the equalities
top P .a/ D S.a/ D soc I.a/:
Proof. This follows from Lemmas 8.22 and 8.25 and Proposition 8.27.
Corollary 8.29. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, I an admissible ideal of KQ,

and A D KQ=I .
(i) The modules Pa D ea A (respectively, representations P .a/), a 2 Q0 , form a
complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules
in mod A (respectively, representations in repK .Q; I /).
(ii) The modules Ia D D.Aea / (respectively, representations I.a/), a 2 Q0 ,
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable injective
modules in mod A (respectively, representations in repK .Q; I /).
Proof. This is a direct consequence of Theorem 2.10, Corollaries 8.6, 8.21 and
8.28, Lemma 8.25 and Proposition 8.27.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. It follows from The-
orems 8.4 and 8.18 that for every module M in mod A there exist a projective
cover P .M / ! M and an injective envelope M ! E.M /, and both are uniquely
determined (up to isomorphism) by the top top.M / and the socle soc.M / of M ,
respectively. In order to obtain more precise information on the structure of a mod-
ule M in mod A, longer approximations of M by projective and injective modules
in mod A are needed in general. This leads to projective and injective resolutions
of M which we introduce now.
hn1 hn
A sequence ! Xn1 ! Xn ! XnC1 ! (infinite or finite)
of homomorphisms in mod A is called exact if Ker hn D Im hn1 for any n. In
particular
u r
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
is called a short exact sequence if u is a monomorphism, r is an epimorphism and
Im u D Ker r. It follows from Lemma 4.2 (see Exercise 12.16) that u is a section
if and only if r is a retraction, and if v 2 HomA .M; L/ and s 2 HomA .N; M /
are such that vu D idL and rs D idN , then there are direct sum decompositions
Im u ˚ Ker v D M D Im s ˚ Ker r. In such a case, we say that the above short
exact sequence splits, or is splittable.
Following [CE] by a projective resolution of a module M in mod A we mean
an exact sequence in mod A of the form
dnC1 dn d1 d0
! PnC1 ! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0;
where all modules Pn , n 2 N, are projective. Such a projective resolution is said to
d0
be a minimal projective resolution of M in mod A if P0 ! M is a projective cover
and dn W Pn ! Im dn is a projective cover for any n 1. Dually, by an injective
resolution of a module M in mod A we mean an exact sequence in mod A of the
form
d0 d1 dn d nC1
0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 ! ! In1 ! In ! InC1 ! ;
where all modules In , n 2 N, are injective. Such an injective resolution of M is

d0
said to be a minimal injective resolution of M in mod A if M ! I0 is an injective
envelope and Im d n ,! In is an injective envelope for any n 1.
Proposition 8.30. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a nonzero
module in mod A. Then M admits a minimal projective resolution and a minimal
injective resolution in mod A.
Proof. We define, applying Theorem 8.4, a minimal projective resolution of M in
mod A
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
d0
inductively on n 0 as follows: P0 ! M is a projective cover of M , and,
dn
for n 1, Pn ! Pn1 is the composition of a projective cover Pn ! Ker dn1
with the canonical embedding Ker dn1 ,! Pn1 . Similarly, we define, applying
Theorem 8.18, a minimal injective resolution of M in mod A
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In !
d0
inductively on n 0 as follows: M ! I0 is an injective envelope of M , and,
dn
for n 1, In1 ! In is the composition of the canonical epimorphism In1 !
In1 = Im d n1 D Coker d n1 with an injective envelope Coker d n1 !In .
Lemma 8.31. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a nonzero module
in mod A. For any two minimal projective resolutions
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0;
N
dn N
d2 d1 N d0 N
! Pxn ! Pxn1 ! ! Px2 ! Px1 ! Px0 ! M ! 0
of M in mod A, there exist isomorphisms fn W Pn ! Pxn , n 2 N, in mod A such
that dN0 f0 D d0 and dNnC1 fnC1 D fn dnC1 for n 2 N.
Proof. This is a direct consequence of Theorem 8.4 (ii).
Lemma 8.32. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a nonzero module
in mod A. For any two minimal injective resolutions
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In ! ;
N0
d N1d N2
d d Nn
0 ! M ! IN0 ! IN1 ! IN2 ! ! INn1 ! INn !
of M in mod A, there exist isomorphisms gn W In ! INn , n 2 N, in mod A such that
g0 d 0 D dN 0 and dN nC1 gn D gnC1 d nC1 for n 2 N.
Proof. This is a direct consequence of Theorem 8.18 (ii).
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M be a nonzero

module in mod A. The projective dimension pdA M of M is defined as follows:
pdA M D n 2 N if there exists a finite minimal projective resolution
dn d2 d1 d0
0 ! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
of M in mod A with Pi ¤ 0 for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, or pdA M D 1 if M does not admit

a finite minimal projective resolution in mod A. Observe that, by Proposition 8.30
and Lemma 8.31, pdA M is well defined. The injective dimension idA M of M is
defined as follows: idA M D m 2 N if there is a finite minimal injective resolution
d0 d1 d2 dm
0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! Im1 ! Im ! 0
of M in mod A with Ii ¤ 0 for i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, or idA M D 1 if M does not

admit a finite minimal injective resolution in mod A. Note that, by Proposition 8.30
and Lemma 8.32, idA M is well defined. For the zero module 0 in mod A, we set
pdA 0 D 0 and idA 0 D 0.
Observe that for a module M in mod A, we have pdA M D 0 (respectively,
idA M D 0) if and only if M is projective (respectively, injective) in mod A.
Examples 8.33. (a) Let A D KQ be the path algebra of the quiver
QW 1 o
˛
2 :
Then, by Lemma 8.25 and Proposition 8.27, the representations
S.1/ W K o 0 and S.2/ W 0 o K
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic simple representations in repK .Q/,

the representations
P .1/ W K o P .2/ W K o
1
0 and K
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective repre-

sentations in repK .Q/, and the representations
I.1/ W K o I.2/ W 0 o
1
K and K
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable injective repre-

sentations in repK .Q/. It follows also from Example 2.9 (b) that S.1/ D P .1/,
P .2/ D I.1/ and S.2/ D I.2/ form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic
indecomposable representations in repK .Q/. Moreover, the canonical exact se-

quence
0 ! S.1/ ! P .2/ ! S.2/ ! 0
is a minimal projective resolution of S.2/ and a minimal injective resolution of
S.1/ in mod A. Then, identifying mod A D repK .Q/, we obtain pdA S.2/ D 1 and
idA S.1/ D 1. Obviously, we have pdA S.1/ D 0, pdA P .2/ D 0, idA I.1/ D 0,
and idA S.2/ D 0.
(b) Let A D KŒx=.x m /, for some m 2. Then A is a unique indecomposable
projective module in mod A, S D A= rad A D K is a unique simple module in
mod A, and the canonical epimorphism W A ! A= rad A D S is a projective
cover of S in mod A. Moreover, we have a projective cover p W A ! rad AD .x/,
N
xN D x C .x /, given by p.a/ D xa
m
N for a 2 A, and Ker p D xN m1
Š S.
Therefore, S admits an infinite minimal projective resolution in mod A
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! S ! 0
with Pn D A for any n 2 N, d0 D , d2n1 W P2n1 ! P2n2 the composition

of p with the inclusion homomorphism u W rad A ,! A, and d2n W P2n ! P2n1
the composition of with the canonical monomorphism w W S ! soc.A/ ,! A,
for n 2 N n f0g. In particular, we have pdA S D 1. Similarly, A is a unique inde-
composable injective module in mod A and S admits an infinite minimal injective
resolution in mod A,
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! S ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In ! ;
where In D A for any n 2 N, d 0 D w, d 2n1 W I2n1 ! I2n is the composition

up, and d 2n W I2n ! I2nC1 is the composition w, for n 2 N n f0g. In particular,
we have idA S D 1.
(c) Let A D KQ=I , where Q is the quiver
$ ˇ
˛ o
1 2
and I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 (see Examples 2.9 (d), 2.12 (b) and 5.22 (b)).
It follows from Lemma 8.25 and Proposition 8.27 that the representations
' $ o
S.1/ W 0 Ko 0 and S.2/ W 0 K
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic simple representations in

repK .Q; I /, the representations

( ( 0
K2 o K2 o
1
P .1/ W 01
00 0 and P .2/ W 01
00 K
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective repre-

sentations in repK .Q; I /, and the representations

( 10
$
K2 o 0o
01
I.1/ W 01
00 K2 and I.2/ W K
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable injective repre-

sentations in repK .Q; I /. We identify mod A with repK .Q; I /. Observe that
S.1/ D soc.P .1// D rad P .1/, and hence S.1/ admits an infinite minimal projec-
tive resolution
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! S.1/ ! 0;

where Pn D P .1/ for any n 2 N, d0 D .Œ 0 1 ; 0/ and dn D 00 10 ; 0 for
n 2 N n f0g, and consequently pdA S.1/ D 1. On the other hand, S.2/ admits a
finite minimal projective resolution in mod A of the form
q2 p2
0 ! P .1/ ! P .2/ ! S.2/ ! 0

where p2 D .Œ 0 0 ; 1/ and q2 D 10 01 ; 0 , hence pdA S.2/ D 1. Further, S.2/ D
I.2/ is injective, and hence idA S.2/ D 0. We determine a minimal injective
resolution of S.1/ in mod A D repK .Q; I /. Observe that the injective envelope
u1 W S.1/ ! I.1/ of S.1/ is given by the diagram of K-vector spaces
%
0 Ko 0

1
0
( 10

K2 o
01
01
00 K2
and hence Coker u1 D I.1/= Im u1 is the direct sum of S.2/ and the representation
'
Ko
1
XW 0 K.
Denote by q1 W I.1/ ! S.2/ the composition of the canonical epimorphism I.1/ !

Coker u1 D S.2/˚X with the projection S.2/˚X ! S.2/. Since soc.X / D S.1/,
X admits an injective envelope v W X ! I.1/ given by the diagram of K-vector
spaces
%
Ko
1
0 K

1 1
0 0
( 10

K2 o
01
K2 ,
01
00
9. Hereditary algebras 93
Then Coker v D I.1/= Im v is isomorphic to X , and the canonical epimorphism

w W I.1/ ! X with Ker w D Im v is given by the diagram of K-vector spaces

( 10
K2 o
01
01
00 K2

01 01
%
Ko
1
0 K.
Summing up, we conclude that S.1/ admits an infinite minimal injective resolution
in mod A
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! S.1/ ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In !
where I0 D I.1/, I1 D I2 D I.2/˚I.1/, In D I.1/ for n 2 Nnf0; 1; 2g, d 0 D u1 ,

d 1 D Œ vw
q1
, d 2 D 1I.2/
0 vw
0
, d 3 D Œ 0 vw , and d n D vw for n 2 N n f0; 1; 2; 3g,
and consequently idA S.1/ D 1.
(d) Let n 2 be a natural number, K a field and A D K .n/=I.n/, where
.n/ is the quiver
˛1 ˛2 ˛n1 ˛n
o o o ::: o o o
0 1 2 n2 n1 n
and I.n/ is the ideal in K .n/ generated by the paths ˛i ˛i1 for all i 2 f2; : : : ; ng.
Then we have in mod A short exact sequences
ui vi
0 ! S.i 1/ ! P .i / ! S.i / ! 0;
where vi W P .i / ! S.i / are projective covers and ui W S.i 1/ ! P .i / D I.i 1/

are injective envelopes in mod A, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, S.0/ is sim-
ple projective and S.n/ is simple injective. We conclude that pdA S.i / D i and
idA S.i / D n i for any i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; ng.
9 Hereditary algebras
In this section we introduce hereditary algebras and describe some of their proper-
ties.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A is said to be
right hereditary if any right ideal of A is projective as a right A-module. Similarly,
A is said to be left hereditary if any left ideal of A is projective as a left A-module.
Finally, A is said to be hereditary if A is left and right hereditary. We note that,
by Corollary 8.24, all finite dimensional semisimple K-algebras over a field K are
hereditary algebras.
We present now characterizations of right hereditary algebras.
(i) A is right hereditary.
(ii) Every right A-submodule of a free module F in mod A is projective.
(iii) Every right A-submodule of a projective module P in mod A is projective.
(iv) The radical rad P of any indecomposable projective module P in mod A is
projective.
(v) pdA M 1 for any module M in mod A.
Proof. We first prove that (i) implies (ii). Assume F is a free module in mod A. Then
F is isomorphic to .AA /m for some positive integer m. Hence F D x1 A˚ ˚xm A,
where xi A Š AA , for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Let M be a right A-submodule of F .
We claim that M is isomorphic to a direct sum of right L ideals of A, and hence is
projective. Consider the right A-submodules Nr D riD1 xi A, r 2 f1; : : : ; mg, of
F . Moreover, let N0 D 0. Observe that Nr D Nr1 ˚ xr A as a right A-module
for any r 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Hence every element x 2 Nr has a unique presentation of
the form x D y C xr ax with y 2 Nr1 and ax 2 A. For each r 2 f1; : : : ; mg,
we denote by fr W M \ Nr ! A the homomorphism of right A-modules defined
by fr .x/ D ax for any x 2 M \ Nr . Observe that then we have in mod A a short
exact sequence
ur fr
0 ! M \ Nr1 ! M \ Nr ! Lr ! 0;
where Lr D Im fr and ur is the inclusion homomorphism. Since Lr is a right

ideal of A, it follows from the assumption that Lr is a projective right A-module,
and consequently fr is a retraction, by Lemma 8.1. Hence, fr gr D idLr for
some gr W Lr ! M \ Nr in mod A. Applying Lemma 4.2, we conclude that
M \ Nr D Ker fr ˚ Im gr D .M \ Nr1 / ˚ Vr , where Vr D Im gr is isomorphic
to Lr as a right A-module. L
In order to prove the claim, it is sufficient to show that M D m
rD1 Vr . Observe
that we have the increasing chain of right A-submodules of M
0 D M \ N0 M \ N1 M \ Nm1 M \ Nm D M:
Hence we may assign to every nonzero element Px 2 M the least index sx 2

f1; : : : ; mg such that x 2 M \ Nsx . Let V D m rD1 Vr . Clearly V M . We
claim that V D M . Suppose that V ¤ M . Take the least index s 2 f1; : : : ; mg such
that s D sx for some element x 2 M n V . Then x 2 M \ Ns D .M \ Ns1 / ˚ Vs ,
and so x D y C z with y 2 M \ Ns1 and z 2 Vs . Moreover, y ¤ 0, because
x … V , and hence z ¤ 0, by the choice of s. Hence we have y D x z 2 M
and y … V , since x … V and z 2 V . Therefore, y is an element of M P n V with

sy < s, which contradicts the minimality of s. Hence, indeed M D V D m rD1 Vr .
Assume now that v1 C C vm D 0 for some elements v1 2 V1 ; : : : ; vm 2 Vm .
Then vm D .v1 C Cvm1 / 2 .M \Nm1 /\Vm D 0, so vm D 0. We conclude
by the descending induction that vr D 0 forL any r 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Summing up,
m
we have proved the desired equality M D rD1 Vr , and consequently that (i)
implies (ii).
We show now that (ii) implies (iii). Let P be a projective module in mod A and
M be a right A-submodule of P . It follows from Lemma 8.1 that there exist a free
module F and a module P 0 in mod A such that P ˚ P 0 Š F . Then the module
M is isomorphic to a right A-submodule N of F . Since, by assumption (ii), N
is projective we conclude that M is also a projective right A-module, and so (ii)
implies (iii).
Observe that the implication (iii) ) (i) is obvious, and consequently the condi-
tions (i), (ii) and (iii) are equivalent.
Next we show that the conditions (iii) and (iv) are also equivalent. Clearly, (iii)
implies (iv). Assume that (iv) holds. Let P be a projective module in mod A and M
be a right A-submodule of P . We prove that M is a projective right A-module, by
induction on d D dimK P . For d D 1, P is a simple projective right A-module, and
hence M , equal 0 or P , is projective. Assume d 2. We may write P D Q ˚ R
for right A-submodules Q and R of P , where Q is indecomposable. We denote by
p W P ! Q the canonical projection and by u W M ! P the inclusion homomor-
phism. Assume first that p.M / D Q. Then pu W M ! Q is an epimorphism, and
hence a retraction, because Q is projective (see Lemma 8.1). Thus .pu/v D idQ
for some homomorphism v W Q ! M . Applying Lemma 4.2, we conclude that
M D Im v ˚ Ker pu, where Im v Š Q. Observe also that Ker pu D M \ R R.
Since dimK R D d dimK Q < d , we obtain by the inductive assumption that
Ker pu D M \ R is projective. Since Im v, isomorphic to Q, is projective, we
conclude that M is a projective right A-module. Assume now that p.M / ¤ Q.
Then M .rad Q/ ˚ R, where dimK ..rad Q/ ˚ R/ < d . Moreover, it follows
from (iv) that rad Q is projective. Then, by the inductive assumption, we conclude
that M is projective.
We prove now that (iii) implies (v). Indeed, let M be a module in mod A and
h W P .M / ! M a projective cover of M in mod A. Then Ker h is a right A-
submodule of P .M /, and so (iii) implies that Ker h is projective. Hence M admits
a minimal projective resolution in mod A of the form
d1 d0
0 ! P1 ! P0 ! L ! 0
with P0 D P .M /, P1 D Ker h, d0 D h, and d1 the inclusion homomorphism.

This shows that pdA M 1.
Finally, observe that (v) implies (iv). Let P be an indecomposable projective

module in mod A. Then we have in mod A the canonical short exact sequence
u h
0 ! rad P ! P ! top.P / ! 0;
h
where P ! top.P / is the canonical projective cover of the simple module top.P /
and u is the inclusion homomorphism. Then pdA top.P / 1 forces rad P to be
projective. Hence indeed (v) implies (iv).
The following theorem provides characterizations of left hereditary algebras in
terms of right modules.
(i) A is left hereditary.
(ii) Every factor module of an injective module E in mod A is injective.
(iii) The socle factor E= soc.E/ of any indecomposable injective module E in
mod A is injective.
(iv) idA M 1 for any module M in mod A.
Proof. Consider the standard duality D D HomK .; K/
D /
mod A o mod Aop :
D
Then a module E in mod A is injective if and only if the associated module

D.E/ in mod Aop is projective (see Proposition 8.16). Further, a homomorphism
f W M ! N in mod A is an epimorphism (respectively, minimal epimorphism) if
and only if D.f / W D.N / ! D.M / is a monomorphism (respectively, minimal
monomorphism) in mod Aop . Moreover, for an indecomposable injective module
E in mod A, the canonical short exact sequence
0 ! soc.E/ ! E ! E= soc.E/ ! 0
in mod A leads to the short exact sequence
0 ! D.E= soc.E// ! D.E/ ! D.soc.E// ! 0
in mod Aop , where D.E/ is an indecomposable projective module and D.soc.E//

is a simple module, and consequently D.E= soc.E// Š rad D.E/ in mod Aop .
Since A is left hereditary, Aop is right hereditary and hence Theorem 9.1 holds
for Aop . Then, applying the duality D, we conclude the required equivalences of
(i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) for A.
The following third theorem clarifies the relationship between the left hereditary
and right hereditary algebras.
Theorem 9.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A is
left hereditary if and only if A is right hereditary.
Proof. We will show that if A is right hereditary then A is left hereditary. Observe
that the converse implication follows then from the fact that Aop right hereditary
implies Aop left hereditary.
Assume that A is a right hereditary algebra. Let v W M ! N be an epimorphism
in mod A with M an injective right A-module. We claim that then N is an injective
module. Then, applying Theorem 9.2, we obtain that A is a left hereditary algebra.
In order to show that N is an injective module in mod A, we apply Baer’s
Lemma 8.14. Let I be a right ideal of A and u W I ! A be the inclusion homomor-
phism. Take a homomorphism ' W I ! N in mod A. Since A is right hereditary, by
assumption, we conclude that the right ideal I of A is a projective module in mod A,
and there exists a homomorphism f W I ! M such that vf D '. Further, there
exists a homomorphism g W A ! M such that gu D f , because M is injective.
Summing up, for the composed homomorphism D vg W A ! N in mod A, we
obtain the equalities u D .vg/u D v.gu/ D vf D ', and so N is injective, by
Lemma 8.14.
Corollary 9.4. Let A be a finite dimensional hereditary K-algebra over a field K.
(i) Every nonzero homomorphism between indecomposable projective modules
in mod A is a monomorphism.
(ii) For every indecomposable projective module P in mod A, EndA .P / is a di-
vision K-algebra.
(iii) Every nonzero homomorphism between indecomposable injective modules in
mod A is an epimorphism.
(iv) For every indecomposable injective module E in mod A, EndA .E/ is a division
K-algebra.
Proof. (i) Let f W P ! Q be a nonzero homomorphism in mod A, with P and
Q indecomposable projective modules. Then we have the canonical short exact
sequence
0 ! Ker f ! P ! Im f ! 0
in mod A. Since Im f is a right A-submodule of Q, it follows from Theorem 9.1
that Im f is projective, and consequently P Š Im f ˚ Ker f , by Lemmas 4.2
and 8.1. Since Im f ¤ 0 and P is indecomposable, we obtain Ker f D 0, or
equivalently, f is a monomorphism.
(ii) Let P be an indecomposable projective module in mod A. Then it fol-

lows from (i) that every 0 ¤ f 2 EndA .P / is a monomorphism, and hence an
isomorphism. This shows that EndA .P / is a division K-algebra.
The statements (iii) and (iv) follow in a similar way, or from (i) and (ii) by
Proposition 8.16.
The following theorem provides a wide class of finite dimensional hereditary

algebras.
Theorem 9.5. Let K be a field and Q be a finite acyclic quiver. Then the path
algebra KQ is a hereditary algebra.
Proof. We note that, by Lemma 1.3, A is a finite dimensional K-algebra and the
set "a , a 2 Q0 , of all trivial paths of Q
P is a complete set of pairwise orthogonal
primitive idempotents of A with 1A D a2Q0 "a . Moreover, Aop D KQop , where
clearly Qop is a finite acyclic quiver. Hence, by Theorem 9.3, in order to show
that A is a hereditary algebra, it is enough to prove that A is a right hereditary
algebra. We will show that the radical of any indecomposable projective module
in mod A is also projective. This will imply, by Theorem 9.1, that A is right
hereditary. We identify mod A with repK .Q/. It follows from Proposition 8.27
that, for each a 2 Q0 , the indecomposable projective right A-module "a A is the
representation P .a/ D .P .a/b ; '˛ /b2Q0 ;˛2Q1 , where P .a/b is the K-vector space
whose basis is formed by all paths in Q from a to b, and, for an arrow ˛ in Q
with b D s.˛/ and c D t .˛/, the K-linear map '˛ W P .a/b ! P .a/c is given
by the right multiplication by ˛. Then rad P .a/ D .P .a/b ; '˛ /b2Q0 ;˛2Q1 where
P .a/a D 0, P .a/b D P .a/b for all b 2 Q0 n fag, and '˛ D '˛ for any
arrow in Q with s.˛/ ¤ a. Let ˇ1 ; : : : ; ˇr be all arrows of Q with a D s.ˇi / for
i 2 f1; : : : ; rg. Observe now that every path w in Q with a D s.w/ is of the form
w D ˇi u for a path u in Q with t .ˇi / D s.u/, uniquely determined by w. Then it
follows that
Mr
rad P .a/ D P .t .ˇi //;
iD1
and consequently rad P .a/ is projective.
In fact, we have also the following converse theorem.
Theorem 9.6. Let K be a field, Q a finite quiver, I an admissible ideal of the path
algebra KQ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. The following
(i) A is a hereditary algebra.
(ii) I D 0 and the quiver Q is acyclic.

Proof. Observe that the implication (ii) ) (i) follows from Theorem 9.5, because
the zero ideal in KQ is admissible if and only if the quiver Q is acyclic. Hence we
have to show that (i) implies (ii).
Assume that A is a hereditary algebra. We identify mod A with repK .Q; I /.
Then it follows from Proposition 8.27 that the indecomposable projective mod-
ule P .a/ in mod A associated to the vertex a 2 Q0 is of the form P .a/ D
.P .a/b ; '˛ /b2Q0 ;˛2Q1 , where P .a/b is the K-vector space generated by all cosets
wN D w C I , with w the paths in Q from a to b, and for an arrow ˛ from b to c in
Q, the K-linear map '˛ W P .a/b ! P .a/c is given by the right multiplication by
˛N D ˛ C I . In particular, we have dimK P .a/b D dimK "a .KQ/"b dimK "a I "b
for any b 2 Q0 . Further, for each arrow in Q, we have a nonzero homomorphism
of right A-modules f W P .t . // ! P .s.// which assigns to the coset uN D u C I
of a path u in Q from t . / to a vertex b, the coset N uN D u C I of the path u
from s./ to b. Further, f is not an isomorphism, because N D C I belongs to
rad.KQ=I / (see Lemma 3.6).
We claim now that the quiver Q is acyclic. Indeed, suppose Q contains a cycle
˛1 ˛2 ˛m
a D a0 ! a1 ! a2 ! ! am1 ! am D a:
Then we obtain a cycle
f˛m f˛2 f˛1

P .a/ D P .am / ! P .am1 / ! ! P .a2 / ! P .a1 / ! P .a0 / D P .a/
of nonzero nonisomorphisms in mod A between the indecomposable projective A-

modules. Further, by Corollary 9.4, we obtain that f˛m ; : : : ; f˛2 ; f˛1 are proper
monomorphisms, which gives the proper monomorphism f˛1 f˛2 : : : f˛m W P .a/ !
P .a/, a contradiction.
We prove now that I D 0. Assume I ¤ 0. Since the quiver Q is acyclic and
finite, we may number the vertices of Q such that Q0 D f1; : : : ; ng and for any
path from a to b in Q we have a > b. Then there is a least a in Q0 such that
"a I "b ¤ 0 for some b 2 Q0 . In particular, there is in Q a path from a to b, and
consequently rad P .a/ ¤ 0. Let ˇ1 ; : : : ; ˇr be all arrows of Q with a D s.ˇi /
for each i 2 f1; : : : ; rg. Since A is a right hereditary algebra, we know from
Theorem 9.1 that rad P .a/ is a projective right A-module. Then we conclude that
M
r
rad P .a/ D P .t .ˇi //:
iD1
It follows from our choice of a that " t.ˇi / I "c D 0, and consequently we have
dimK P .t.ˇi //ec D dimK " t.ˇi / .KQ/"c , for any i 2 f1; : : : ; rg and c 2 Q0 . We
then conclude that

X
r
dimK P .a/ D 1 C dimK rad P .a/ D 1 C dimK P .t .ˇi //
iD1
X
r
D1C dimK " t.ˇi / .KQ/ D 1 C dimK rad "a .KQ/
iD1
D dimK "a .KQ/:
This leads to a contradiction, because

X X
dimK P .a/ D dimK P .a/ec ; dimK "a .KQ/ D dimK "a .KQ/"c ;
c2Q0 c2Q0
dimK P .a/ec D dimK "a .KQ/"c dimK "a I "c for any c 2 Q0 ;
and "a I "b ¤ 0.
10 Nakayama algebras
In this section we describe the structure of module categories of Nakayama algebras,
for which every indecomposable module has a unique composition series.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. A nonzero module M
in mod A is said to be uniserial if its submodule lattice is a chain. Observe that
every uniserial module M in mod A has a unique composition series, and hence
has a simple socle and a simple top. In particular, a uniserial module M in mod A
is necessarily indecomposable. The following proposition gives a characterization
of uniserial modules.
Proposition 10.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M
be a nonzero module in mod A. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) M is a uniserial module.
(ii) The radical series of M is a composition series of M .
(iii) ``.M / D `.M /.
Proof. Let M rad M rad2 M radn1 M radn M D 0 be the
radical series of M , and so n D ``.M /.
We prove that (i) implies (ii) by induction on `.M /. Assume M is a uniserial
module and `.M / D m. If m D 1 then M is a simple module, rad M D 0, and
the statement (ii) is obvious. Assume m 2 and (ii) holds for every uniserial
module N in mod A with `.N / < m. Observe that rad M is a uniserial submodule
of M with `.rad M / < `.M /, and hence rad M rad2 M radn M D 0
10. Nakayama algebras 101
is a composition series of rad M . Moreover, rad M is a unique maximal right A-

submodule of M , because M is uniserial. Hence M rad M rad2 M
radn1 M radn M D 0 is a composition series of M . Therefore, (i) implies (ii).
Obviously (ii) implies (iii). We show that (iii) implies (i). Assume ``.M / D
`.M /. Then it follows from Lemma 7.3 that, for each i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g,
radi M= radiC1 M is a simple right A-module, and consequently radiC1 M is a
maximal right A-submodule of radi M . Since radiC1 M D rad.radi M / is the in-
tersection of all maximal right A-submodules of radi M , we conclude that radiC1 M
is a unique maximal right A-submodule of radi M . In particular, rad M is a unique
maximal right A-submodule of M . Let N be a right A-submodule of M different
from M and 0. Then N rad M . Let i be a maximal element of f1; : : : ; n 1g
such that N radi M . Because radiC1 M is a unique maximal right A-submodule
of radi M and N is not contained in radiC1 M , we infer that N D radi M . There-
fore, the radical series of M is formed by all right A-submodules of M , and so M
is a uniserial module. Hence (iii) implies (i).
A finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is called a Nakayama algebra

if every indecomposable projective module in mod A and in mod Aop is uniserial. It
follows from Proposition 8.16 that a finite dimensional K-algebra A is a Nakayama
algebra if and only if all indecomposable projective modules and all indecomposable
injective modules in mod A are uniserial modules. Clearly, A is a Nakayama algebra
if and only if Aop is a Nakayama algebra.
We also note that the semisimple algebras, described in Section 6, are trivially
Nakayama algebras, because their indecomposable finite dimensional modules are
simple.
Lemma 10.2. Let A be a finite dimensional Nakayama K-algebra and J be a

proper two-sided ideal of A. Then A=J is also a Nakayama algebra.
Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A

such that 1A D e1 C C en . We may assume (without loss of generality) that
e1 ; : : : ; em , for some m n, are all idempotents from fe1 ; : : : ; en g which do not
belong to J . Hence the cosets eN1 D e1 C J; : : : ; eNm D em C J form a set of
pairwise orthogonal idempotents of AN D A=J such that 1AN D eN1 C C eNm . It
follows from Proposition 8.2 that a module P in mod A (respectively, mod Aop D
A-mod) is an indecomposable projective module if and only if P is isomorphic
to a module ei A (respectively, Aei ) for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then a module
Q in mod AN (respectively, mod ANop D A-mod) N is an indecomposable projective
module if and only if Q is isomorphic to a module eNi AN Š ei A=ei J (respectively,
ANeNi Š Aei =Jei ) for some i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Since A is a Nakayama algebra, the
modules e1 A; : : : ; en A and Ae1 ; : : : ; Aen are uniserial A-modules. Clearly, then
N : : : ; eNm AN and ANeN1 ; : : : ; ANeNm are uniserial A-modules
eN1 A; N (see Lemma 3.17), and
N
consequently A D A=J is a Nakayama algebra.
We exhibit now a wide class of Nakayama algebras.

Theorem 10.3. Let Q be a finite connected quiver, K a field, I an admissible ideal
of the path algebra KQ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra.
Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is a Nakayama algebra.
(ii) Q is one of the following two quivers
o
˛1
o
˛2
o
˛3
: : : o ˛i 1 o ˛i
: : : o ˛n2 o ˛n1 ;
1 2 3 i n1 n
1
˛n 1 ˛1
n " 2
B
˛n1 ˛2

n 1 Q 3
˛n2 ˛3

d
˛i q ˛i 1
i
with n 1 vertices.
Proof. Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t /. We first show that (i) implies (ii).
Assume A is a Nakayama algebra. Observe that Q is of one of the forms
presented in (ii) if and only if, for each vertex a 2 Q0 , there exists at most one
arrow ˛ 2 Q with a D s.˛/ and at most one arrow with a D t . /. Suppose Q
admits a vertex i and two different arrows ˛ and ˇ with s.˛/ D i D s.ˇ/. Let J be
the ideal of A D KQ=I generated by the cosets N D C I of all arrows 2 Q1
different from ˛ and ˇ and the idempotents ea D "a C I for a 2 Q0 different from
i , j D t.˛/ and k D t .ˇ/. Consider the quotient algebra B D A=J . Then B is
the path algebra K of the quiver of one of the forms
j o
˛ ˇ
/k or
˛ // j D k :
i i
ˇ
It follows from Lemmas 3.6 and 10.2 that B is Nakayama K-algebra with .rad B/2 D
0. On the other hand, applying Proposition 8.27, we conclude that for the in-
decomposable projective representation P .i / in repK . / we have rad P .i / D
S.j / ˚ S.k/ D K˛ ˚ Kˇ, where S.j / and S.k/ are the simple representa-
tions in repK . / at the vertices j and k, respectively. Therefore, P .i / is not a
10. Nakayama algebras 103
uniserial representation, and hence the indecomposable projective B-module eNi B,

for eNi D ei C J , is not a uniserial right B-module, a contradiction. We have proved
that every vertex a 2 Q0 is the source of at most one arrow of Q. Observe also that
Aop D KQop =I op is also a Nakayama algebra, and hence every vertex a of Qop is
the source of at most one arrow of Qop . This implies that every vertex a 2 Q0 is
the target of at most one arrow of Q. Consequently, (i) implies (ii).
Assume now that Q is one of the quivers presented in (ii). Then applying
Lemma 3.6 and Proposition 8.27, we conclude that, for each vertex a 2 Q0 , the
radical series of the indecomposable projective representation P .a/ in repK .Q; I /
at the vertex a is a composition series of P .a/. Invoking now the equivalence
mod A ! repK .Q; I /, established in Theorem 2.10, and Proposition 10.1, we
obtain that every indecomposable projective module in mod A is uniserial. Observe
also that Aop Š A because Q coincides with Qop , and hence every indecomposable
projective module in mod Aop is uniserial. Therefore, A is a Nakayama algebra.
This shows that (ii) implies (i).
Lemma 10.4. Let A be a finite dimensional Nakayama K-algebra and P be an

indecomposable projective module in mod A with ``.P / D ``.AA /. Then P is an
injective module in mod A.
Proof. Let u W P ! E.P / be an injective envelope of P in mod A. Since A is a
Nakayama algebra, P is a uniserial module. In particular, the socle soc.P / of P
is simple. Then the socle soc.E.P // of E.P / is simple, because u is an essential
monomorphism inducing the isomorphism soc.u/ W soc.P / ! soc.E.P //, and
consequently E.P / is an indecomposable injective module in mod A. Therefore,
E.P / is a uniserial module and we obtain the inequalities
``.AA / D ``.P / D `.P / `.E.P // D ``.E.P // ``.AA /;
by Corollary 5.19 and Proposition 10.1. Hence, `.P / D `.E.P //, and this forces
u to be an isomorphism.
Theorem 10.5. Let A be a finite dimensional Nakayama K-algebra over a field K.

Then every indecomposable module M in mod A is isomorphic to a module of the
form P = radm P for some indecomposable projective module P in mod A and an
integer m with 1 m ``.P /.
Proof. Observe first that, if P is an indecomposable projective module in mod A
and m 2 f1; : : : ; ``.P /g, then P = radm P is a uniserial module, and hence inde-
composable.
Let M be an indecomposable module in mod A, and m D ``.M /. Then
M radm A D radm M D 0, and hence M has a natural structure of a right
.A= radm A/-module via m.a C radm A/ D ma for m 2 M and a 2 A. Moreover,
by Lemma 10.2, A= radm A is a Nakayama algebra with ``.A= radm A/ D m. Let
h W Px ! M be a projective cover of M in mod.A= radm A/, and Px D Px1 ˚ ˚ Pxn

a decomposition of Px into a direct sum of indecomposable projective modules in
mod.A= radm A/. Then we obtain the inequalities
˚
m D ``.M / max ``.Px1 /; : : : ; ``.Pxn / ``.A= radm A/ D m:
For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, denote by hi W Pxi ! M the restriction of h to Pxi . Since
A= radm A is a Nakayama algebra, Px1 ; : : : ; Pxn are uniserial modules. Hence, if
hi W Pxi ! M is not aP monomorphism, then ``.Im hi / D ``.Pxi = Ker hi / ``.Pxi /
1. Moreover, M D niD1 Im hi , and so
``.M / maxf``.Im h1 /; : : : ; ``.Im hn /g:
Hence, there exists r 2 f1; : : : ; ng such that ``.Pxr / D m D ``.Im hr /, and then
hr is a monomorphism. It follows then from Lemma 10.4 that Pxr is an injec-
tive module in mod.A= radm A/, and consequently hr W Pxr ! M is a section
(see Lemma 8.13). Then M D Im hr ˚ M 0 for an A-submodule M 0 of M , by
Lemma 4.2. This forces M D Im hr because M is indecomposable and Im hr ¤ 0.
Therefore, hr W Pxr ! M is an isomorphism in mod.A= radm A/. We also note that
Pxr D eA=e radm A for a primitive idempotent e of A. Hence P D eA is an
indecomposable projective module in mod A and P = radm P D eA=e radm A is
isomorphic to M in mod A= radm A, and so in mod A.
The following characterization of Nakayama algebras, proved by T. Nakayama

in [Nak3], is an immediate consequence of Theorem 10.5.
Corollary 10.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A

is a Nakayama algebra if and only if every indecomposable module in mod A is
uniserial.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is said to be of finite repre-

sentation type if the number of isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules
in mod A is finite.
Theorem 10.7. Let A be a finite dimensional Nakayama K-algebra over a field K.

Then A is of finite representation type and the number of isomorphism classes of
indecomposable modules in mod A is equal to
X
n
``.Pi /;
iD1
where P1 ; : : : ; Pn is a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable

projective right A-modules.
11. The Grothendieck group and the Cartan matrix 105
Proof. It follows from Theorem 10.5 that every indecomposable module M in

mod A is isomorphic to a module P = radm P for some indecomposable projec-
tive module P in mod A and an integer m with 1 m ``.P /. We know also
from Theorem 8.4 and Corollary 8.6 that, for an indecomposable projective mod-
ule P in mod A and an integer r 2 f1; : : : ; ``.P /g, the canonical epimorphism
P ! P = radr P is a projective cover. Since A is a Nakayama algebra, the radical
series of P is its unique composition series, and hence P = radr P is uniserial with
r D ``.P = radr P / D `.P = radr P / for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ``.P /g. Then, for two
indecomposable projective modules P and Q in mod A and r 2 f1; : : : ; ``.P /g,
s 2 f1; : : : ; ``.Q/g, we have P = radr P Š Q= rads Q in mod A if and only if
r D s and P Š Q in mod A. It follows from Proposition 8.2 that the number
of isomorphism classes of indecomposable projective modules in mod A is finite.
Therefore, A is of finite representation type and the number of isomorphism classes
of indecomposable modules in mod A equals to ``.P1 / C C ``.Pn /, for a com-
plete set P1 ; : : : ; Pn of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective right
A-modules.
11 The Grothendieck group and the Cartan matrix

Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The Grothendieck group
of A is the abelian group K0 .A/ D F=F0 , where F is the free abelian group having
as Z-basis the set of isomorphism classes fM g of modules M in mod A and F0 is
the subgroup of F generated by the elements fM g fLg fN g given by all short
exact sequences
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
in mod A. We denote by ŒM the image of the isomorphism class fM g of a module

M in mod A via the canonical group epimorphism F ! F=F0 D K0 .A/. We also
note that F is a set because for each module M in mod A there exists an epimorphism
Am ! M , for some positive integer m.
Theorem 11.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and let
S1 ; : : : ; Sn be a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic simple modules in mod A.
Then the Grothendieck group K0 .A/ of A is a free abelian group and ŒS1 ; : : : ; ŒSn
form a Z-basis of K0 .A/.
Proof. Let M be a module in mod A and 0 D M0 M1 Mm D M be

a composition series of M . For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we abbreviate by ci .M / the
composition multiplicity cSi .M / of the simple module Si in M . Observe that, for
each j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, we have the short exact sequence
0 ! Mj 1 ! Mj ! Mj =Mj 1 ! 0
with Mj =Mj 1 a simple module in mod A. Then it follows from the definition of
K0 .A/ that
X
m Xn
ŒM D ŒMj =Mj 1 D ci .M /ŒSi :
j D1 iD1
Therefore, ŒS1 ; : : : ; ŒSn generate the abelian group K0 .A/. Observe that we may
assign to M the vector c.M / D .c1 .M /; : : : ; cn .M // in Nn Zn . Clearly,
if M Š N in mod A, then c.M / D c.N /. Therefore, c induces a unique
group homomorphism c W K0 .A/ ! Zn and e1 D c.S1 /; : : : ;P en D c.Sn / form
a canonical Z-basis ofP Zn . Hence, if r1 ; : : : ; rn 2 Z and niD1 ri ŒSi D 0,
n
then .r1 ; : : : ; rn / D c iD1 ri ŒSi D 0, and consequently ŒS1 ; : : : ; ŒSn are
Z-linearly independent in K0 .A/. It follows that K0 .A/ is a free abelian group
with Z-basis ŒS1 ; : : : ; ŒSn , and c W K0 .A/ ! Zn is an isomorphism of abelian
groups.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Let P1 ; : : : ; Pn be
a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules in
mod A. It follows from Corollary 8.6 that S1 D P1 = rad P1 ; : : : ; Sn D Pn = rad Pn
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic simple modules in mod A. For
a module M in mod A, the vector c.M / D cS1 .M /; : : : ; cSn .M / is called the
composition vector of M . The Cartan matrix of A is the n n matrix CA D Œcij 2
Mn .Z/, where cij D cSi .Pj / is the composition multiplicity of Si in Pj , for all
i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Therefore, the j -th column
of CA is given by the transpose
c.Pj /t of the composition vector c.Pj / D cS1 .Pj /; : : : ; cSn .Pj / of Pj . We give
also an alternative description of the coefficients of the Cartan matrix CA of A.
Observe first that, by Lemma 5.1, F1 D EndA .S1 /; : : : ; Fn D EndA .Sn / are finite
dimensional division K-algebras. We note that then
A= rad A Š Mm1 .F1 / Mmn .Fn /
for some positive integers m1 ; : : : ; mn , by Theorem 6.3. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
we set ƒi D EndA .Pi /. Observe that ƒi is a local finite dimensional K-algebra,
because Pi is indecomposable (see Lemma 4.4). Moreover, we have the canonical
embedding HomA .Pi ; rad Pi / ! ƒi of K-vector spaces given by the inclusion
map rad Pi ,! Pi .
Lemma 11.2. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
(i) rad ƒi D HomA .Pi ; rad Pi /;
(ii) ƒi = rad ƒi Š Fi .
Proof. Since Pi is indecomposable projective, rad Pi is a unique maximal right A-
submodule of Pi , by Propositions 5.16 and 8.2. Further, by Lemmas 4.2 and 8.1, an
endomorphism f 2 EndA .Pi / D ƒi is noninvertible if and only if Im f rad Pi .
11. The Grothendieck group and the Cartan matrix 107
Then the equality rad ƒi D Homƒ .Pi ; rad Pi / follows from Lemma 3.8. Observe
that for any f 2 EndA .Pi / D ƒi we have a commutative diagram in mod A,
0 / rad Pi / Pi i
/ Si /0
f0 f fN

0 / rad Pi / Pi i
/ Si / 0,
where f 0 is the restriction of f to rad Pi and fN is given by fN.x Crad Pi / D f .x/C

rad Pi , for any x 2 Pi . Observe also that fN D 0 if and only if Im f rad Pi .
Moreover, since Pi is projective, for any g 2 EndA .Si / there exists f 2 EndA .Pi /
such that g D fN. Therefore, the map EndA .Pi / ! EndA .Si / defined above is
a K-algebra epimorphism which induces an isomorphism ƒi = rad ƒi ! Fi of
K-algebras.
For i 2 f1; : : : ; ng and a module M in mod A, the vector space HomA .Pi ; M /
has the natural structure of a right ƒi -module given by the composition gf , for
g 2 HomA .Pi ; M / and f 2 ƒi D EndA .Pi /.
Lemma 11.3. Let M be a module in mod A, and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then the com-
position multiplicity cSi .M / of Si in M is the length `ƒi .HomA .Pi ; M // of the
module HomA .Pi ; M / in mod ƒi .
Proof. Let 0 D M0 M1 Mm D M be a composition series of M in
mod A. Then we obtain a chain
0 D HomA .Pi ; M0 / HomA .Pi ; M1 / HomA .Pi ; Mm / D HomA .Pi ; M /
of right ƒi -submodules of HomA .Pi ; M /. Moreover, for each j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, the
short exact sequence
0 ! Mj 1 ,! Mj ! Mj =Mj 1 ! 0
in mod A induces the short exact sequence
0 ! HomA .Pi ; Mj 1 / ! HomA .Pi ; Mj / ! HomA .Pi ; Mj =Mj 1 / ! 0
in mod ƒi . Furthermore, since Mj =Mj 1 is a simple right A-module, we obtain

that HomA .Pi ; Mj =Mj 1 / Š HomA .Pi ; Si / in mod ƒi if Mj =Mj 1 Š Si , and
HomA .Pi ; Mj =Mj 1 / D 0 if Mj =Mj 1 © Si .
Observe also that HomA .Pi ; Si / is a simple right ƒi -module generated by the
canonical epimorphism i W Pi ! Pi = rad Pi D Si in mod A. Indeed, for any
nonzero homomorphism g 2 HomA .Pi ; Si /, there exists f 2 EndA .Pi / such that
g D i f , because Pi is projective and g is an epimorphism. Therefore, the required
equality `ƒi .HomA .Pi ; M // D cSi .M / holds.
Corollary 11.4. For i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
cij D `ƒi .HomA .Pi ; Pj //:
The following proposition shows that the Cartan matrix of a bound quiver algebra
is easy to determine.
Proposition 11.5. Let K be a field, Q D .Q0 ; Q1 / a finite quiver, I an admissible
ideal of KQ, and A D KQ=I . Then
CA D Œcab a;b2Q0 ;
where cab D dimK eb Aea D dimK ."b .KQ/"a ="b I "a / for all a; b 2 Q0 .
Proof. The simple right A-modules Sa D ea A=ea rad A corresponding to the sim-
ple representations S.a/ in repK .Q; I /, via the K-linear equivalence F W mod A !
repK .Q; I / established in Theorem 2.10, are one-dimensional K-vector spaces.
Further, by Corollary 8.29, the right A-modules ea A, corresponding to the rep-
resentations P .a/ of .Q; I / over K (via the functor F ), form a complete set of
pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules in mod A. Then the
required description of CA follows from Proposition 8.27 and the fact that the K-
linear equivalence functor F W mod A ! repK .Q; I / carries the composition series
in mod A into the composition series in repK .Q; I /.
Corollary 11.6. Let K be a field, Q D .Q0 ; Q1 / a finite acyclic quiver and

A D KQ. Then
CA D Œcab a;b2Q0 ;
where cab is the number of pairwise different paths in Q with source b and target
a, for all a; b 2 Q0 .
Proof. It follows from Proposition 11.5, since, for I D 0, dimK "b .KQ/"a is the
number of pairwise different paths in Q with source b and target a, for all vertices
a; b 2 Q0 .
We end this section with a distinguished property of the Cartan matrices of the
bound quiver algebras of acyclic bound quivers.
Proposition 11.7. Let K be a field, Q a finite acyclic quiver, I an admissible ideal
of KQ, and A D KQ=I . Then det CA D 1.
Proof. Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / and jQ0 j D n. Since the quiver Q is acyclic,
there exists a bijection W Q0 ! f1; : : : ; ng such that, for each arrow ˛ 2 Q1 ,
we have .s.˛// > .t .˛//. Observe that such a bijection may be constructed
as follows. Take a vertex a 2 Q0 which is a sink in Q, that is, there is no arrow
˛ 2 Q1 with a D s.˛/. Define .a/ D 1. Next consider the full subquiver
12. Exercises 109
Q.a/ of Q having Q0 n fag as the set of vertices. If n 2, then Q.a/ contains

a sink b, and we set .b/ D 2. We continue this process and the claim follows
by induction on n D jQ0 j. Therefore, without loss of generality, we may assume
that Q0 D f1; : : : ; ng and, for every arrow j ! i in Q, we have j > i . From
Proposition 11.5 we have CA D Œcij i;j 2Q0 , where cij D dimK "j .KQ/"i ="j I "i
for all vertices i; j 2 Q0 . It follows from our assumption that
(1) ci i D 1 for any i 2 Q0 ;
(2) cij D 0 for any i; j 2 Q0 with i > j .
Obviously then det CA D 1.
12 Exercises
1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, a1 ; : : : ; an and b1 ; : : : ; bn
two bases of the K-vector space, and ˛ij k ; ˇij k 2 K, i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the
associated structure constants such that
X
n X
n
aj ak D ˛ij k ai and bj bk D ˇij k bi
iD1 iD1
for all j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Denote by L, L x (respectively, Rt , R

xt ) the first (re-
spectively, second) regular representations of A over K associated to the bases
a1 ; : : : ; an and b1 ; : : : ; bn , respectively. Prove that:
x are equivalent.
(a) The representations L and L
xt are equivalent.
(b) The representations Rt and R
2. Let Q be the quiver
o ˛
1 o 2
ˇ
and KQ the path algebra of Q over a field K. For each element a 2 K consider
the elements e1;a D "1 C ˛ C aˇ and e2;a D "1 ˛ aˇ, where "1 and "2 are the
trivial paths of Q at the vertices 1 and 2, respectively. Prove that e1;a and e2;a are
orthogonal primitive elements of KQ such that 1KQ D e1;a C e2;a .
3. Let K be a field, Q the quiver
ˇ
o o
˛
;
1 2 3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver
algebra. Consider the elements of A
f1 D ."1 C ˛/ C I; f2 D ."2 ˛ ˇ/ C I; f3 D ."3 C ˇ/ C I;
where "1 ; "2 ; "3 are the trivial paths of Q at the vertices 1; 2; 3, respectively. Prove
that f1 ; f2 ; f3 are pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A with 1A D f1 C
f2 C f3 .
2
eKK ˇ
˛ ttt KK
t KK
ytt
o
o ;
1 3 4
I1 the ideal in KQ generated by , I2 the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛,
and A1 D KQ=I1 , A2 D KQ=I2 the associated bound quiver algebras. Prove that
the K-algebras A1 and A2 are isomorphic.
oo
˛
o :
1 ˇ 2 3
For each element a 2 K, consider the ideal Ia in KQ generated by ˛ C aˇ, and
the associated bound quiver algebra ƒa D KQ=Ia . Show that the K-algebras ƒa ,
a 2 K, are pairwise isomorphic.
2
eKK ˇ
˛ ttt KK
tt KK
yt o 5 ;
1 eKK t
KK t
K
K ytt
tt 4

3
I1 the ideal in KQ generated by
ˇ˛, I2 the ideal in KQ generated by
ˇ˛ C
,
and A1 D KQ=I1 , A2 D KQ=I2 the associated bound quiver algebras. Prove that
dimK A1 D dimK A2 but the K-algebras A1 and A2 are nonisomorphic.
2 @@ 3 4
@@ ~~~
@ˇ
˛ @@ ~~
~~
1
and KQ the path algebra of Q over a field K. Prove the following:
(a) KQ is isomorphic to the matrix K-algebra
2 3 82 3 9
K 0 0 0 ˆ
ˆ a 0 0 0 >
>
6K K 0 0 7 <6x b 0 0 7 ˇ =
6 7D 6 7 ˇ a; b; c; d; x; y; z 2 K :
4K 0 K 0 5 ˆ4y 0 c 0 5 >
:̂ >
;
K 0 0 K z 0 0 d
12. Exercises 111
(b) The representations
0? 0 0 K? 0 0 0 ?? K 0 0= 0 K
?? ?? ?? ==
?? ?? ?? ==

K 0 0 0
KA 0 0 0? K 0 0? 0 K K B K K
AA ?? ?? }} BB 0 ||
AA ??1 ?? } BB1 |
1 ~}} 1 1 ! }|| 1

0 1
K K K K2
KA K 0 KA 0 K 0? K K KA K K
AA AA } ?? } AA }
AA1 AA }}} ??1 }}} AA1 }}}
1 1 ~} 1 ~} 1 1 ~} 1
K K K K
form a complete family of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable representations
in repK .Q/.
(c) Describe the K-vector spaces HomQ .M; N / for all representations M and
N listed in (b).
$ ˇ z
˛ o
1 2
and I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 4 , 4 , and ˇ˛ ˇ. Prove that the bound
quiver algebra KQ=I is isomorphic to the matrix K-algebra
² ³
KŒx=.x 4 / 0 a 0 ˇˇ
D a; b; c 2 KŒx=.x / :
4
KŒx=.x 4 / KŒx=.x 4 / b c
1 O
˛ / 2
ˇ

4 o
3
and I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ˇ.
(a) Describe the isomorphism classes of indecomposable representations in

repK .Q; I /.
(b) Let M be the representation in repK .Q; I / of the form

110
KO 3
000
/ K2
2 3
00
41 05 01

01
K2 o
1
K.
0
Decompose M into a direct sum of indecomposable representations in

repK .Q; I /.
6

ˇ
/ ˛ / o o ı
1 2 3 4 5
and A D KQ the path algebra of Q over a field K. Consider the representation M
in repK .Q/ of the form
K 22 1 0 3
41 15
2 3 01 2 3
10 00
1 40 15
41 05 0
K
0
/ K2 00
/ K3 o 01
K o 2
1
K.
(a) Prove that EndQ .M /

! K, and hence M is an indecomposable represen-
tation in repK .Q/.
(b) Find a composition series and simple composition factors of the right A-
module G.M / associated to M via the equivalence functor G W repK .Q/ !
mod A, described in the proof of Theorem 2.10.
(c) Find the radical series of the A-module G.M /.
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~~~~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~

0 O
ˇ3 ˛3

3,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛1 ˇ2 , ˛1 ˇ3 , ˛2 ˇ1 , ˛2 ˇ3 , ˛3 ˇ1 , ˛3 ˇ2 , ˇ1 ˛1 ˇ2 ˛2 ,
ˇ2 ˛2 ˇ3 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra.
12. Exercises 113
(a) Show that in mod A the projective modules coincide with the injective mod-
ules.
(b) Determine the Cartan matrix CA of A and show that CA is nonsingular.
1 _@@@ ~? 5
@@@@˛1 ˇ5 ~~~~~
@@@@ ~
ˇ1 @@@ ~~~~˛5

/ ~~~
~? o
˛2 ~~~~ 3
@
4 _@@@@@@@@ˇ6
~~~~ @@
˛6 @@@
~~~~~ ˇ2
2 6,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ1 ˛1 , ˇ2 ˛2 , ˇ5 ˛5 , ˇ6 ˛6 , ˛1 ˇ2 ,

˛2 ˇ1 , ˛1 , ˛2 , ˇ1 , ˇ2 , ˛5 ˇ6 , ˛6 ˇ5 , ˛5 , ˛6 , ˇ5 , ˇ6 , and A D KQ=I the
associated bound quiver algebra.
(a) Prove that in mod A the projective modules coincide with the injective mod-
ules.
(b) Determine the Cartan matrix CA of A.
(c) Show that CA is singular.

$ z
˛ ˇ
1
and I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ 2 , ˇ 2 , ˛ˇ ˇ˛. For each positive integer m,
consider the representation in repK .Q; I / of the form
& x
M.m/ W .m/
'˛ K m˚K m 'ˇ
.m/
;
where '˛.m/ and 'ˇ.m/ are the 2m2m-matrices

0 0 0 0
'˛.m/ D ; 'ˇ.m/ D ;
Im 0 Jm .0/ 0
where Im is the m m identity matrix and Jm .0/ is the m m Jordan block with
0 on the diagonal.
Prove that M.m/, m 1, form a family of pairwise nonisomorphic indecom-
posable representations in repK .Q; I /.
14. Let G D Z2 Z2 be the Klein four group and KG the group algebra of G
over a field K. Prove that KG is of finite representation type if and only if K is of
characteristic different from 2.
15. Let Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / be a finite quiver, I an admissible ideal of the path

algebra KQ over a field K, and M D .Ma ; '˛ /a2Q0 ;˛2Q1 a representation in
repK .Q; I /.
(a) Determine the radical rad M of M .
(b) Determine the top top.M / of M .
(c) Determine the socle soc.M / of M .
16. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and

f g
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
a short exact sequence in mod A. Prove that f is a section in mod A if and only if
g is a retraction in mod A.
17. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u v w
p q
0 /X /Y /Z /0
a commutative diagram in mod A with exact rows. Prove that, if any two of u; v; w
are isomorphisms, then the third one is also an isomorphism.
f g
18. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, and X
!Z Y
homomorphisms in mod A. Consider the fibered product (pull-back)
X Z Y D f.x; y/ 2 X ˚ Y j f .x/ D g.y/g

f0 g0
of X and Y over Z, via f and g, and the maps X X Z Y ! Y given by
f 0 .x; y/ D x and g 0 .x; y/ D y for any .x; y/ 2 X Z Y . Prove the following:
(a) X Z Y is a module in mod A and f 0 , g 0 are homomorphisms in mod A.

u v
(b) For every homomorphism X M ! Y in mod A with f u D gv there
exists exactly one homomorphism h W M ! X Z Y in mod A such that
u D f 0 h and v D g 0 h (the universal property of the fibered product).
12. Exercises 115
19. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and let

f g
0!L
!M
!N !0
be a short exact sequence in mod A.
(a) Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A and M N V the fibered
product of M and V over N , via g and v. Show that there is a commutative
diagram in mod A
/L i / M N V v0 /V /0
0
idL g0 v
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
with exact rows.

(b) Let
j
0 /L /W ˛ /V /0
idL ˇ v
f g
0 /L /M/0 /N
be a commutative diagram in mod A with exact rows. Show that there is
an isomorphism h W W ! M N V in mod A such that i D hj , ˛ D v 0 h,
ˇ D g 0 h.
u v
20. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, and X Z !
Y
homomorphisms in mod A. Consider the fibered sum (push-out)
X ˚Z Y D X ˚ Y = f.u.z/; v.z// j z 2 Zg
u0 v0
of X and Y over Z, via u and v, and the maps X ! X ˚Z Y Y given by
u0 .x/ D .x; 0/ and v 0 .y/ D .0; y/, where .x; y/ is the image of .x; y/ under the
canonical epimorphism X ˚ Y ! X ˚Z Y . Prove the following statements.
(a) X ˚Z Y is a module in mod A and u0 , v 0 are homomorphisms in mod A.
f g
(b) For every homomorphism X ! N Y in mod A with f u D gv there
exists exactly one homomorphism h W X ˚Z Y ! N in mod A such that
f D hu0 and g D hv 0 (the universal property of the fibered sum).
21. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and let
f g
0!L
!M
!N !0
be a short exact sequence in mod A.
(a) Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A and U ˚L M the fibered sum

of U and M over L, via u and f . Show that there is a commutative diagram
in mod A
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u f0 idN
u0
p
0 /U / U ˚L M /N /0
with exact rows.
(b) Let
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u idN
q
0 /U /W /0 /N
be a commutative diagram in mod A with exact rows. Show that there is an
isomorphism h W U ˚V M ! W in mod A such that D hu0 , D hf 0 ,
p D qh.
22. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and P a projective
module in mod A. Prove that for any epimorphism h W M ! N in Mod A and
f 2 HomA .P; N / there exists g 2 HomA .P; M / such that hg D f .
23. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and E an injective
module in mod A. Prove that for any monomorphism u W M ! N in Mod A and
w 2 HomA .M; E/ there exists v 2 HomA .N; E/ such that w D vu.
24. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M a module in
mod A.
(a) Assume
dm d2 d1 d0
0 ! Pm ! Pm1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
is a finite projective resolution of M in mod A. Prove that m pdA M .
(b) Assume pdA M D 1. Prove that every projective resolution of M in mod A
is infinite.
25. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M a module in
mod A.
(a) Assume
d0 d1 d2 dm
0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! Im1 ! Im ! 0
is a finite injective resolution of M in mod A. Prove that m idA M .
12. Exercises 117
(b) Assume idA M D 1. Prove that every injective resolution of M in mod A is

infinite.
2
_@
~ @@ ˇ
˛ ~~ @@
~~ @@
~
~
1 _@ 4
@@ ~~
@@ ~
@@ ~~
~~

3,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛ , and A D KQ=I (see Example 1.7 (c)).
Prove the following statements:
(a) There are exactly 11 isomorphism classes of indecomposable representations

in repK .Q; I /, and hence A is of finite representation type.
(b) pdA M 2 and idA M 2 for any module M in mod A.
(c) There exist indecomposable modules L and N in mod A such that pdA N D 2
and idA L D 2.
2
_@
~ @@ ˇ
˛ ~~ @@
~~ @@
~
~
1 _@ 4
@@ ~~
@@ ~
@@ ~~
~~

3
and A D KQ. Prove the following statements:
(a) A is of infinite representation type.
(b) pdA M 1 and idA M 1 for any module M in mod A.
28. Let K be a field, Q be a finite acyclic quiver, I an admissible ideal of KQ, and
A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Denote by d the length of the
longest path in Q. Prove that pdA M d and idA M d for every module M in
mod A.
29. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Prove that A is

an indecomposable K-algebra if and only if for every indecomposable projec-
tive modules P and Q in mod A there is a sequence of indecomposable projec-
tive modules P D P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pm1 ; Pm D Q, m 2, in mod A such that
HomA .Pi ; PiC1 / ¤ 0 or HomA .PiC1 ; Pi / ¤ 0 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; m 1g.

˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 ˛5 ˛6
o o o o o o ;
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I the ideal in KQ generated by the paths ˛4 ˛3 ˛2 ˛1 and ˛5 ˛4 ˛3 and A D KQ=I .
(a) Describe the isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules in mod A (re-

spectively, indecomposable representations in repK .Q; I /).
(b) Describe the pdA M and idA M for any indecomposable module M in mod A.

1
?~ @@
˛3 ~~ @@˛1
~~ @@
~ ~ @
3 o ˛2
2,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛1 ˛2 , ˛2 ˛3 ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 and ˛3 ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛1 , and

A D KQ=I .

(b) Prove that the projective modules and the injective modules in mod A coin-
cide.
(c) Prove that pdA M D 1 and idA M D 1 for any indecomposable nonpro-
jective module M in mod A.

1
?~ @@
˛3 ~~ @@˛1
~~ @@
~ ~ @
3 o ˛2
2,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛1 and ˛3 ˛1 ˛2 , and A D KQ=I .

12. Exercises 119

(b) Prove that there exist indecomposable modules X and Y in mod A such that
X is projective but noninjective and Y is injective but nonprojective.
(c) Describe the pdA M and idA M for any indecomposable module M in mod A.
33. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D 2 M2 .C/ ˇ a 2 R; b; c 2 C ;
C C c b
² ³
C 0 a 0 ˇ
BD D ˇ
2 M2 .C/ a; c 2 C; b 2 R :
C R c b
(a) Show that A and B are nonisomorphic R-subalgebras of M2 .C/.

(b) Show that B is isomorphic to the opposite algebra Aop of A.
(c) Determine the Cartan matrices CA and CB .
(d) Prove that neither A nor B is isomorphic to a bound quiver R-algebra RQ=I
of a bound quiver .Q; I /.
(e) Prove that A and B are hereditary R-algebras.
34. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
ƒD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a; b 2 R; c 2 H
H R c b
be the R-subalgebra of M2 .H/. Prove that ƒ is isomorphic to the path algebra RQ

of the quiver Q of the form
˛1
o
˛2
o
1 o ˛3 2.
˛4
o
35. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a 2 R; b; c 2 H ;
H H c b
² ³
H 0 a 0 ˇ
BD D 2 M2 .H/ ˇ a; c 2 H; b 2 R :
H R c b
(a) Show that A and B are nonisomorphic R-subalgebras of M2 .H/.

(b) Show that B is not isomorphic to the opposite algebra Aop of A.
(d) Prove that neither A nor B is isomorphic to a bound quiver algebra RQ=I of a
bound quiver .Q; I /.
36. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a 2 R; b 2 C; c 2 H ;
H C c b
² ³
C 0 a 0 ˇ
BD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a 2 C; b 2 R; c 2 H :
H R c b
(a) Show that A and B are nonisomorphic R-subalgebras of M2 .C/.

(b) Show that B is not isomorphic to the opposite algebra Aop of A.
(d) Prove that neither A nor B is isomorphic to a bound quiver algebra RQ=I of a
bound quiver .Q; I /.
37. Let F , G, L be finite field extensions of a field K such that F L and G L.
Let ² ³
F 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .L/ a 2 F; b 2 G; c 2 L :
L G c b
(a) Prove that A is a hereditary K-algebra.

(b) Determine the K-dimensions and the lengths of the indecomposable projective
modules in mod A.
(c) Determine the K-dimensions and the lengths of the indecomposable injective
modules in mod A.
(d) Determine the Cartan matrix CA .
38. Let F be a finite dimensional division K-algebra over an algebraically closed
field K. Prove that the canonical K-algebra homomorphism K ! F is an isomor-
phism.
12. Exercises 121
39. Prove that a finite dimensional commutative K-algebra over a field K is a

product of finitely many finite dimensional commutative local K-algebras.
40. Let K be a field, n a positive integer, and A D K K the product of n
copies of the field K. Prove that there are exactly n pairwise different K-algebra
homomorphisms from A to K.
41. Let K be a field, f .x/ a polynomial in KŒx of degree 1, and .f .x// the
principal ideal of KŒx generated by f .x/. Prove that the K-algebra KŒx=.f .x//
is semisimple if and only if f .x/ has no multiple irreducible factors.
42. Let K be a field of characteristic ¤ 2, and a; b 2 K n f0g. Consider the
4-dimensional vector space V with basis 1, i, j , k. Moreover, define on V the
K-bilinear multiplication with 1 being its identity and the multiplications of the
remaining basis elements as follows:
ij D j i D k; j k D kj D bi; ki D i k D aj;

i D a;
2
j D b;
2
k D ab:
2

Then V together with this multiplication is denoted by a;b
K
and called a generalized
quaternion algebra over K. Prove that

(a) a;b
K
is a simple K-algebra whose center is K;

(b) a;b
K
is a division K-algebra if and only if 1 D 2 D 3 D 0 is the unique
solution of the equation 21 D a22 C b23 in K.
43. Let K be a field of characteristic ¤ 2, and a; b 2 K nf0g. Consider the quotient
algebra H D KhX; Y i=.X 2 a; Y 2 b; X Y C YX / of polynomial K -algebra
KhX; Y i in two noncommuting variables X , Y by the a;bideal
generated by X 2 a,
Y b, XY C YX . Show that H is isomorphic to K .
2
44. Let K be a field of characteristic ¤ 2, and a; b; c 2 K n f0g. Prove that there

exist isomorphisms of K-algebras
! ! !
ac 2 ; b a; b a; bc 2
Š Š :
K K K
45. Let a; b 2 R n f0g. Prove that

(a) a;b
R
is isomorphic as an R-algebra to one of the R-algebras
! !
1; 1 1; 1
and H D I
R R
1;1 1;1
(b) R
Š M2 .R/ Š
R
as R-algebras.
1;2
46. Prove that F D Q
is a division Q-algebra and L D Q ˚ QŒi and
M D Q ˚ QŒj are nonisomorphic maximal subfields of Q.
47. Prove that there exist isomorphisms of Q-algebras
! !
1; 2 1; 2
Š M2 .Q/ Š :
Q Q
48. Let H D R ˚ Ri ˚ Rj ˚ Rk be the quaternion R-algebra, G D f1; 1; i; i;

j; j; k; kg the associated quaternion group of order 8, and RG the group algebra
of G over R. Prove that there exists an isomorphism of R-algebras RG Š H R
R R R.
Chapter II
Morita theory
The aim of this chapter is to introduce the Morita theory of equivalences and dualities
between some categories. The revolutionary paper [Mor] in 1958 by K. Morita was
the first to successfully apply the notion of category to modules. In the middle of the
1960s, Morita’s work was exhibited by H. Bass in [Bas1], [Bas2], and had become
popular. The equivalence theory is now one of the fundamental theories in many
branches of mathematics, and the duality theory includes many known dualities,
for example, as shown in [Mor], the Pontrjagin duality for locally compact abelian
groups. We show in this chapter an essential part of the Morita theory related to
module categories over finite dimensional algebras over a field. We refer to the
original paper [Mor] of K. Morita for more details.
1 Categories and functors

A category C is a triple C D .Ob C; HomC ; B/, where Ob C is called the class of
objects of C, HomC is called the class of morphisms of C, and B is a partial binary
operation on morphisms of C satisfying the following conditions:
(1) for each pair of objects X; Y of C, a set HomC .X; Y /, called the set of morphisms
from X to Y , is associated, and if .X; Y / ¤ .Z; U / then the intersection of the
sets HomC .X; Y / and HomC .Z; U / is empty;
(2) for each triple of objects X; Y; Z of C, the operation
B W HomC .Y; Z/ HomC .X; Y / ! HomC .X; Z/
is defined, g B f is called the composition of f 2 HomC .X; Y / and g 2

HomC .Y; Z/, and the following two properties are satisfied:
(a) h B .g B f / D .h B g/ B f for all f 2 HomC .X; Y /, g 2 HomC .Y; Z/,

h 2 HomC .Z; U /,
(b) for each object X of C, there is an element idX 2 HomC .X; X /, called the
identity morphism of X , such that f B idX D f and idX Bg D g for all
f 2 HomC .X; Y / and g 2 HomC .Z; X /.
We will frequently abbreviate the composition g B f of morphisms f and g in

C to gf . Moreover, we will call an element f 2 HomC .X; Y / a morphism from
X to Y , and usually write it as f W X ! Y .
124 Chapter II. Morita theory
For a category C, we define the opposite category C op of C to be the category

with the same objects as C, with HomCop .X; Y / D HomC .Y; X / for all objects X
and Y of Cop , and the composition
Bop W HomCop .Y; Z/ HomCop .X; Y / ! HomCop .X; Z/
of morphisms in Cop is defined by g Bop f D f B g for f 2 HomCop .X; Y / D
HomC .Y; X/ and g 2 HomCop .Y; Z/ D HomC .Z; Y /. For a morphism f W X !
Y in C, we denote by f op W Y ! X the morphism in Cop associated to f . Observe
also that .Cop /op D C.
A category C0 is called a subcategory of a category C if the following conditions
are satisfied:
(1) the class Ob C0 of objects of C0 is a subclass of the class Ob C of objects of C;
(2) for each pair of objects X; Y of C0 , HomC0 .X; Y / is a subset of HomC .X; Y /;
(3) the composition of morphisms in C0 is the same as in C;
0
(4) for each object X of C0 , the identity morphism idX of X in C0 coincides with
the identity morphism idX of X in C.
A subcategory C0 of a category C is said to be a full subcategory of C if
HomC0 .X; Y / D HomC .X; Y / for all objects X; Y of C0 . For a field K, a cat-
egory C is said to be a K-category if, for each pair of objects X; Y of C, the set
HomC .X; Y / is equipped with a K-vector space structure such that the composition
B of morphisms in C is K-bilinear.
Let C and D be two categories. A covariant functor T W C ! D from C to D
is defined by assigning to each object X of C an object T.X / of D, and to each
morphism h W X ! Y in C a morphism T.h/ W T.X / ! T.Y / in D such that the
(1) T.idX / D idT.X/ for each object X of C;
(2) for each pair of morphisms f W X ! Y and g W Y ! Z in C, the equality
T.g B f / D T.g/ B T.f / holds in D.
A contravariant functor T W C ! D from C to D is defined by assigning to each
object X of C an object T.X / of D, and to each morphism h W X ! Y in C
a morphism T.h/ W T.Y / ! T.X / in D such that the following conditions are
satisfied:
(1) T.idX / D idT.X/ for each object X of C;
(2) for each pair of morphisms f W X ! Y and g W Y ! Z in C, the equality
T.g B f / D T.f / B T.g/ holds in D.
Throughout this chapter, K will denote a field and by a K-category we mean a
full subcategory of Mod A or Mod Aop over a K-algebra A.
2. Bimodules 125
2 Bimodules
Let A, B and C be K-algebras.
An .A; B/-bimodule M , denoted by A MB when we stress the sides of the oper-
ation of rings, is a K-vector space which is a left A-module and a right B-module
and satisfies the associativity condition
a.xb/ D .ax/b
for x 2 M; a 2 A; b 2 B. In this case, a.xb/ is also denoted by axb. In
particular, an .A; A/-bimodule is called an A-bimodule. Every right A-module
M is a .K; A/-bimodule, where the structure of left K-module on M is given by
m D m D m.1A / for 2 K and m 2 M . Similarly, every left A-module N
is an .A; K/-bimodule, where the structure of right K-module on N is given by
n D n D .1A /n for 2 K and n 2 N .
Let M be a right A-module. For an endomorphism u of MA , we write
ux D u.x/; .u/x D u.x/; .u/x D u.x/
for x 2 M and 2 K. Then, from the definition of homomorphisms of A-modules
it holds that
u.x C y/ D ux C uy; .u C v/x D ux C vx;
.vu/x D v.ux/; idM x D x;
.u/x D .u/.x/ D u.x/ D u.x/;
for all u; v 2 EndA .M /; x 2 M , 2 K, where idM denotes the identity endomor-
phism of M . This shows that the action of u 2 EndA .M / on the left of the right
A-module M makes M into a left EndA .M /-module. Moreover, the associativity
condition u.xa/ D .ux/a holds, because u.xa/ D u.x/a for all x 2 M and a 2 A.
Thus M may be regarded as an .EndA .M /; A/-bimodule.
For a left A-module N , an endomorphism u 2 EndAop .N / satisfies, by defini-
tion, u.ax/ D au.x/ for x 2 M and a 2 A. We define u and u for 2 K
by .u/.x/ D u.x/ and .u/.x/ D u.x/ for x 2 N , respectively. In order to
visualize the associativity, we write the endomorphism u on the right of the left
A-module N , and then the fact that u is an endomorphism of A N is expressed
by .ax/u D a.xu/. Note that x.vu/ D .vu/.x/ D v.u.x// D .xu/v for all
u; v 2 EndA .N /, and hence, for the opposite algebra EndA .N /op D .EndA .N /; /
(see Example I.1.1(g)), the associativity condition x.u v/ D .xu/v holds. Thus,
as in the case of the right A-module M , it is easy to see that N becomes an
.A; EndA .N /op /-bimodule.
There is an important relation between a direct sum decomposition of a module
and a set of pairwise orthogonal idempotents of the endomorphism algebra of the
module. The following lemma is a generalization of Corollaries I.5.9 and I.5.10 on
an algebra to the endomorphism algebra of a module.
Lemma 2.1. Let A be a K-algebra, M be a right A-module and B D EndA .M /.

The following statements hold for the (B; A)-bimodule M .
(i) For a set of pairwise orthogonal idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en of B with
1B D e1 C C en ;
M is the direct sum

M D e1 M ˚ ˚ en M
of A-submodules e1 M; : : : ; en M of M .
(ii) For a decomposition of M into a direct sum of A-submodules
M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mn ;
there is a set of pairwise orthogonal idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en of B such that

1B D e1 C C en and ei M D Mi for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Moreover, in this case, it holds that Mi Š Mj as right A-modules if and only
if Bei Š Bej as left B-modules.
Proof. (i) Assume that 1B D e1 C C en is a sum of pairwise orthogonal idem-
potents of B. Then M D e1 M C C en M , because, for m 2 M , we have
m D 1B m D .e1 C C en /m D e1 m C C en m 2 e1 M C C en M . To show
that the sum is direct, take x1 2 e1 M; : : : ; xn 2 en M such that x1 C C xn D 0.
Then 0 D ei .x1 C C xn / D ei e1 x1 C C ei en xn D xi for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
because xj D ej xj for each j 2 f1; : : : ; ng and Pnthe idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en are
pairwise
Ln orthogonal. It therefore follows that iD1 ei M is indeed a direct sum
iD1 ei M .
(ii) Assume that M is a direct sum of A-submodules M1 ; : : : ; Mn , and let
ui W Mi ! M and pi W M ! Mi be the canonical injection and canonical projec-
tion, respectively, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Letting ei D ui pi , it is easy to see that these
mappings satisfy the equalities
pi ui D idMi ; 1B D u1 p1 C C un pn ;
ei2 D .ui pi /.ui pi / D ui .pi ui /pi D ui idMi pi D ei ;
ei ej D .ui pi /.uj pj / D ui .pi uj /pj D 0 for i ¤ j;
and ei M D ui pi .M / D ui .Mi / D Mi , for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.

Assume now that there is an isomorphism ˇ W Bei ! Bej of left B-modules, for
some i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and ˇ 1 W Bej ! Bei is the inverse of ˇ. Let b D ˇ.ei /
and b 0 D ˇ 1 .ej /. Then it holds that b D ei bej ; b 0 D ej b 0 ei ; bb 0 D ei and
b 0 b D ej , because bb 0 D bˇ 1 .ej / D ˇ 1 .bej / D ˇ 1 .b/ D ˇ 1 .ˇ.ei // D ei
and b 0 b D b 0 ˇ.ei / D ˇ.b 0 ei / D ˇ.b 0 / D ˇˇ 1 .ej / D ej . Now consider the K-
linear maps ˛ W ei M ! ej M and ˛ 0 W ej M ! ei M being the left multiplications bL0
2. Bimodules 127
and bL by b 0 and b, respectively, that is, bL0 .ei m/ D b 0 ei m D b 0 m and bL .ej n/ D

bej n D bn for m; n 2 M . Observe that in fact ˛ and ˛ 0 are homomorphisms
of right A-modules. Moreover, ˛ 0 ˛ D idei M and ˛˛ 0 D idej M . Indeed, since
bb 0 D ei and b 0 b D ej , we have ˛ 0 ˛ D bL bL0 D .bb 0 /L D ei L which is the
identity on ei M , and similarly ˛˛ 0 D bL0 bL D .b 0 b/L D ej L is the identity on
ej M . Thus ˛ is an isomorphism of right A-modules with the inverse ˛ 0 .
Conversely, assume that there is an isomorphism ˛ W ei M ! ej M of right A-
modules, for some i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and ˛ 1 W ej M ! ei M is the inverse of ˛.
Let b 0 D uj ˛pi and b D ui ˛ 1 pj .
Then b and b 0 belong to B and
b D ei bej ; b 0 D ej b 0 ei ; bb 0 D ei ; b 0 b D ej :
Indeed, we have the equalities
b 0 D uj idMj ˛ idMi pi D uj .pj uj /˛.pi ui /pi
D .uj pj /.uj ˛pi /.ui pi / D ej b 0 ei ;
and
bb 0 D .ui ˛ 1 pj /.uj ˛pi / D ui ˛ 1 .pj uj /˛pi D ui ˛ 1 ˛pi D ui pi D ei ;
and similarly b D ei bej and b 0 b D ej . Consider the K-linear maps ˇ W Bei !
0
Bej and ˇ 0 W Bej ! Bei being the right multiplications bR and bR by b and b 0 ,
0
respectively, that is, bR .xei / D xei b D xb and bR .yej / D yej b D yb 0 for
0
x; y 2 B. Then ˇ and ˇ 0 are homomorphisms of left B-modules and, as above, we

have ˇ 0 ˇ D idBei and ˇˇ 0 D idBej . This shows that ˇ is an isomorphism of left
B-modules.
Lemma 2.1 is particularly important for a direct sum decomposition of a module
into indecomposable submodules, in which case the statement is as follows.
Corollary 2.2. Let A be a K-algebra and M be a right A-module. Then M is a
direct sum M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mn of indecomposable A-submodules if and only if
there is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en in EndA .M /
with 1EndA .M / D e1 C C en . In this case, we may take the decomposition and
the set of idempotents such that Mi D ei M for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
For two bimodules A MB and A NC , the K-vector space HomAop .M; N / of all
homomorphisms from A M to A N has a .B; C /-bimodule structure defined by
.bf c/.x/ D f .xb/c
for all f 2 HomA .M; N /; b 2 B; c 2 C and x 2 M . Similarly, two bimodules
0 0 0 0
B MA ; C NA induce a (C; B)-bimodule structure on HomA .M ; N / defined by
.cgb/.x/ D cg.bx/
for all g 2 HomA .M 0 ; N 0 /; b 2 B; c 2 C , and x 2 M 0 .

For an idempotent e 2 A and a .B; A/-bimodule M , eA is an .eAe; A/-bimodule
and HomA .eA; M / is a .B; eAe/-bimodule. By Lemma I.8.7 there is a K-linear
isomorphism
Me
W HomA .eA; M / ! M e;
e
given by M .'/ D '.e/ for ' 2 HomA .eA; M /, which is in fact an isomorphism
of .B; eAe/-bimodules. Indeed, we have Me
.b'/ D .b'/.e/ D b'.e/ D bM e
.'/
and M .'a/ D .'a/.e/ D '.a/ D '.e/a D M .'/a, for all b 2 B, a D eae 2
e e
eAe and ' 2 HomA .eA; M /.

Therefore we have proved the following bimodule version of Lemma I.8.7.
Lemma 2.3. Let A; B be K-algebras and M be a .B; A/-bimodule. Then, for an

idempotent e 2 A, the K-linear map
e
M W HomA .eA; M / ! M e;
given by Me
.'/ D '.e/ for ' 2 HomA .eA; M /, is an isomorphism of .B; eAe/-
bimodules.
In particular, M D M
1
W HomA .A; M / ! M , for 1 D 1A , is an isomorphism
of .B; A/-bimodules.
The next lemma says that, for a finite set of right A-modules X1 ; : : : ; Xn ,
Ln fi 2 Hom
there is a bijective correspondence between the families A .Xi ; M /; i 2
f1; : : : ; ng, and the homomorphisms f 2 HomA L
iD1 Xi ; M , under the rela-
tion f ui D fi for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, where ui W Xi ! jnD1 Xj is the canonical
injection.
Lemma 2.4. Let A and B be K-algebras. Let X1 ; : : : ; Xn and Y1 ; : : : ; Yn be

right B-modules, and let M be an (A; B)-bimodule. Then there exist canonical
isomorphisms
Mn M n
HomB Xi ; M Š HomB .Xi ; M /
iD1 iD1
of left A-modules, and

M n Mn
HomB M; Yi Š HomB .M; Yi /
iD1 iD1
of right A-modules.
Proof. We shall
Lexhibit the first isomorphism.
n
Let X D iD1 i and let ui W Xi ! X and pi W X ! Xi , i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
X
be the canonical injections and projections, respectively. For a homomorphism
2. Bimodules 129
f 2 HomB .X; M / let
M
n
.f / D .f u1 ; : : : ; f un / 2 HomB .Xi ; M /;
iD1
and, for fi 2 HomB .Xi ; M /; i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, let
%.f1 ; : : : ; fn / D f1 p1 C C fn pn 2 HomB .X; M /:

Ln
Litn is easy to see that both W HomB .X; M / !
Then iD1 HomB .Xi ; M / and
%W iD1 HomB .Xi ; M / ! HomB .X; M / are homomorphisms of left A-modules,
and % and % are the identity homomorphisms. This implies that is an isomor-
phism of left A-modules. The second isomorphism is defined in a similar way.

Now we start to study some functors induced from a bimodule.

Let A MB be an .A; B/-bimodule. The functor
HomB .M; / W Mod B ! Mod A
assigns to a right B-module X the right A-module HomB .M; X / and carries a
homomorphism u 2 HomB .X; Y / onto the homomorphism
HomB .M; u/ W HomB .M; X / ! HomB .M; Y /
in Mod A, defined by HomB .M; u/.f / D uf for all f 2 HomB .M; X /. For
a right B-module X , the right A-module structure on HomB .M; X / is given by
.f a/.m/ D f .am/ for a 2 A, m 2 M and f 2 HomB .M; X /. Observe that then
.f a/.mb/ D f .a.mb// D f ..am/b/ D f .am/b D .f a/.m/b for b 2 B, and
HomB .M; u/.f a/ D u.f a/ D .uf /a D HomB .M; u/.f /a, since .u.f a//.m/ D
u..f a/.m// D u.f .am// D .uf /.am/ D ..uf /a/.m/, which shows that f a is a
homomorphism of right B-modules and HomB .M; u/ is a homomorphism of right
A-modules. Moreover, it holds that
HomB .M; idX / D idHomB .M;X/
and
HomB .M; vu/ D HomB .M; v/ HomB .M; u/;
for two consecutive homomorphisms u W X ! Y and v W Y ! Z in Mod B. This
shows that HomB .M; / is a covariant functor from Mod B to Mod A.
Similarly, we have the covariant functor
HomAop .M; / W Mod Aop ! Mod B op

which assigns to each left A-module X the left B-module HomAop .M; X / and car-
ries each homomorphism u 2 HomAop .X; Y / in Mod Aop onto the homomorphism
HomAop .M; u/ W HomAop .M; X / ! HomAop .M; Y /
in Mod B op , defined by HomAop .M; u/.f / D uf for all f 2 HomAop .M; X /.
For a left A-module X, the left B-module structure on HomAop .M; X / is given
by .bf /.m/ D f .mb/ for b 2 B, m 2 M and f 2 HomAop .M; X /. Observe
that then .bf /.am/ D f ..am/b/ D f .a.mb// D af .mb/ D a.bf /.m/ for
a 2 A, and HomAop .M; u/.bf / D u.bf / D b.uf / D b HomAop .M; u/.f / for u 2
HomAop .X; Y /, since .u.bf //.m/ D u..bf /.m// D u.f .mb// D .uf /.mb/ D
.b.uf //.m/ for m 2 M , which shows that bf is a homomorphism of left A-modules
and HomAop .M; u/ is a homomorphism of left B-modules. Moreover,
HomAop .M; idX / D idHomAop .M;X/
and
HomAop .M; uv/ D HomAop .M; u/ HomAop .M; v/;
for two consecutive homomorphisms u W X ! Y and v W Y ! Z in Mod Aop .
Hence, HomAop .M; / is a covariant functor from Mod Aop to Mod B op .
Further, we have the contravariant functor
HomB .; M / W Mod B ! Mod Aop ;
which assigns to a right B-module X the left A-module HomB .X; M / and carries
a homomorphism u 2 HomB .X; Y / in Mod B onto the homomorphism
HomB .u; M / W HomB .Y; M / ! HomB .X; M /
in Mod Aop , defined by HomB .u; M /.g/ D gu for all g 2 HomB .Y; M /. For
a right B-module X, the left A-module structure on HomB .X; M / is given by
.af /.x/ D af .x/ for a 2 A, x 2 X and f 2 HomB .X; M /. Observe that
then .af /.xb/ D af .xb/ D a.f .x/b/ D .af .x//b D .af /.x/b for b 2 B,
and hence af is a homomorphism of right B-modules. Moreover, for a 2 A,
u 2 HomB .X; Y / and g 2 HomB .Y; M /, we have HomB .u; M /.ag/ D .ag/u D
a.gu/ D a HomB .u; M /.g/, since ..ag/u/.x/ D .ag/.u.x// D a.g.u.x/// D
a.gu/.x/ for x 2 X , which shows that HomB .u; M / is a homomorphism of left
A-modules. Obviously, it holds that
HomB .idX ; M / D idHomB .X;M /
and
HomB .vu; M / D HomB .u; M / HomB .v; M /;
for two consecutive homomorphisms u W X ! Y and v W Y ! Z in Mod B.
Therefore, HomB .; M / is a contravariant functor from Mod B to Mod Aop .
2. Bimodules 131
Finally, we have the contravariant functor
HomAop .; M / W Mod Aop ! Mod B
which assigns to a left A-module X the right B-module HomAop .X; M / and carries
a homomorphism u 2 HomAop .X; Y / in Mod Aop onto the homomorphism
HomAop .u; M / W HomAop .Y; M / ! HomAop .X; M /
in Mod B op , defined by HomAop .u; M /.g/ D gu for all g 2 HomAop .Y; M /. For
a left A-module X , the right B-module structure on HomAop .X; M / is given by
.f b/.x/ D f .x/b for b 2 B, x 2 X and f 2 HomAop .X; M /. Observe that then
.f b/.ax/ D f .ax/b D .af .x//b D a.f .x/b/ D a.f b/.x/ for a 2 A, and so
f b is a homomorphism of left A-modules. Further, for b 2 B, u 2 HomAop .X; Y /
and g 2 HomAop .Y; M /, we have HomAop .u; M /.gb/ D .gb/u D .gu/b D
HomAop .u; M /.g/b, since ..gb/u/.x/ D .gb/.u.x// D g.u.x//b D .gu/.x/b D
..gu/b/.x/ for x 2 X , which shows that HomAop .u; M / is a homomorphism of
right B-modules. Hence HomAop .; M / is a contravariant functor from Mod Aop
to Mod B.
In case A MB is finite dimensional as a K-vector space, HomB .M; X / and
HomB .X; M / are also finite dimensional for all finite dimensional right B-modules
X. This ensures that HomB .M; / and HomB .; M / induce functors from mod B
to mod A and from mod B to mod Aop , respectively. Similarly, HomAop .M; / and
HomAop .; M / define functors from mod Aop to mod B op and from mod Aop to
mod B, respectively.
The covariant and contravariant functors HomB .M; /, HomAop .M; /,
HomB .; M / and HomAop .; M /, defined above, are called hom functors.
Let F W A ! B be a covariant functor between K-categories. The functor F is
said to be K-linear if, for any modules X; Y 2 A, the induced mapping
HomA .X; Y / ! HomB .F .X /; F .Y //
is K-linear. For example, as seen above, the hom functors on the categories of
modules over K-algebras defined by bimodules are K-linear.
Given a short exact sequence in A
f g
0 ! X ! Y ! Z ! 0;
any K-linear covariant functor F W A ! B transforms it into a sequence

F .f / F .g/
0 ! F .X / ! F .Y / ! F .Z/ ! 0
in B with F .g/F .f / D F .gf / D F .0Z / D 0. The functor F is said to be left

exact if the above transformed sequence is exact at both F .X / and F .Y /, while
F is said to be right exact if the transformed sequence is exact at both F .Y / and

F .Z/. An exact functor is by definition left and right exact. A contravariant functor
G W A ! B is said to be left exact (respectively, right exact) if the covariant functor
G 0 W Aop ! B is left exact (respectively, right exact), where G 0 is the functor such
that G 0 .X/ D G.X / and G 0 .f op / D G.f / for all objects X and morphisms f op
in Aop .
Lemma 2.5. Let A and B be K-algebras. For an .A; B/-bimodule M , the hom
functors
HomB .M; / W Mod B ! Mod A; HomB .; M / W Mod B ! Mod Aop ;

HomAop .M; / W Mod Aop ! Mod B op ; HomAop .; M / W Mod Aop ! Mod B
are left exact.
Proof. We shall show the left exactness of HomB .M; / only, and the proofs of
the remaining statements are left to the reader (Exercise 8.7).
f g
Let 0 ! X ! Y ! Z ! 0 be an exact sequence of right B-modules.
Since f is a monomorphism, f u D 0 implies u D 0 for any homomorphism
u 2 HomB .M; X /. This shows that HomB .M; f / is a monomorphism in Mod A.
Next, to show the exactness of the sequence
HomB .M;f / HomB .M;g/

HomB .M; X / ! HomB .M; Y / ! HomB .M; Z/
in Mod A, we have to show that the image of HomB .M; f / coincides with the kernel
of HomB .M; g/. It is clear that Im HomB .M; f / Ker HomB .M; g/ because
gf D 0 and hence HomB .M; g/ HomB .M; f / D HomB .M; gf / D 0. For each
u 2 Ker HomB .M; g/, we have gu D 0, and hence there is a homomorphism v 2
HomB .M; X/ such that u D f v, because Im f D Ker g and f is a monomorphism
M
}}}
v}
}} u
~ }f
} g
0 /X /Y /Z / 0.
This implies that u D HomB .M; f /.v/, and so the inclusion Ker HomB .M; g/
Im HomB .M; f / holds. Hence we obtain Im HomB .M; f / D Ker HomB .M; g/.
Therefore, the functor HomB .M; / W Mod B ! Mod A is left exact.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, M a finite dimensional right A-module

and
f g
0 ! X ! Y ! Z ! 0
3. Tensor products of modules 133
a short exact sequence in mod A. Then M is a .K; A/-bimodule. It follows from

Lemma 2.5 that the induced sequence of K-vector spaces
HomA .M;f / HomA .M;g/
0 ! HomA .M; X / ! HomA .M; Y / ! HomA .M; Z/ ! 0
is exact in mod A if and only if it is exact at HomA .M; Z/, which is equivalent to
saying that any homomorphism from M to Z in mod A can be lifted to Y along g.
Similarly, the sequence
HomA .g;M / HomA .f;M /
0 ! HomA .Z; M / ! HomA .Y; M / ! HomA .X; M / ! 0
of K-vector spaces is exact if and only if it is exact at HomA .X; M /, or equivalently,

any homomorphism from X to M in mod A can be extended to Y along f . Thus we
have the following functorial characterization of projective and injective modules
in mod A.
Proposition 2.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a finite di-

mensional right A-module. The following statements hold.
(i) M is projective in mod A if and only if the induced covariant functor

HomA .M; / W mod A ! mod K is exact.
(ii) M is injective in mod A if and only if the induced contravariant functor

HomA .; M / W mod A ! mod K is exact.
3 Tensor products of modules

Let A be a K-algebra, X a right A-module and Y a left A-module. We shall
construct a K-vector space X ˝A Y .
Consider the K-vector space F D KfX Y g with the basis consisting of all
ordered pairs .x; y/ from the product X Y , and let F0 be the K-vector subspace
of F generated by all elements of the form
.x C x 0 ; y/ .x; y/ .x 0 ; y/;
.x; y C y 0 / .x; y/ .x; y 0 /;
.xa; y/ .x; ay/; .x; y/ .x; y/;
for all x; x 0 2 X; y; y 0 2 Y; a 2 A and 2 K. We consider the factor space
X ˝A Y D F=F0
of F by F0 , and denote by x ˝ y the element .x; y/ C F0 of X ˝A Y given by

.x; y/ 2 X Y . Then, the following equalities hold:
.x C x 0 / ˝ y D x ˝ y C x 0 ˝ y;
x ˝ .y C y 0 / D x ˝ y C x ˝ y 0 ;
.xa/ ˝ y D x ˝ .ay/; .x ˝ y/ D .x/ ˝ y;
for x; x 0 2 X , y; y 0 2 P
Y , a 2 A and 2 K. The elements of X ˝A Y are
expressions of the form niD1 xi ˝ yi , with xi 2 X; yi 2 Y . The K-vector space
X ˝A Y is called the tensor product of X and Y over A, and is also denoted by
X ˝ Y (without the ring A) if there is no ambiguity.
For a K-vector space V , a map W X Y ! V is said to be A-bilinear
provided, for any x 2 X and y 2 Y , the induced maps .x; / W Y ! V and
.; y/ W X ! V are K-linear, and .xa; y/ D .x; ay/ for any a 2 A. Clearly
the canonical map W X Y ! X ˝A Y , defined by .x; y/ D x ˝ y, for
x 2 X and y 2 Y , is A-bilinear. Observe that we may extend a K-bilinear map
W X Y ! V to a K-linear map N from F D KfX Y g to V naturally by
X
m Xm
N i .xi ; yi / D i .xi ; yi /;
iD1 iD1
Pm
for all iD1 i .xi ; yi / 2 F , which is uniquely determined by . Then the A-
N 0 / D 0.
bilinearity of is nothing else than .F
Proposition 3.1. Let X be a right A-module, Y a left A-module, V a K-vector space
and W X Y ! V be an A-bilinear map. Then there exists a unique K-linear
map ' W X ˝A Y ! V such that '.x ˝ y/ D .x; y/ for all x 2 X; y 2 Y .
Pm Pm Pm
Proof. We put ' iD1 xi ˝yi D iD1 .xi ; yi /, for an element PmiD1 xi ˝yi 2
Pn˝A Y0, and0 verify that ' is well defined.
X Pm For this, Pnthat 0 iD10 xi ˝ yi D
assume
j D1 xj ˝ yj in X ˝A Y . Since iD1 .xi ; yi / D j D1 .xj ; yj / , we have
X
m X
n
.xi ; yi / .xj0 ; yj0 / 2 F0 ;
iD1 j D1
which is contained in the kernel of N as noticed above. It follows that
X
m X
n
.xi ; yi / D .xj0 ; yj0 /;
iD1 j D1
Pm Pn
0 0

and hence ' iD1 xi ˝ yi D ' j D1 xj ˝ yj , which ensures that ' is well
defined.
Observe that two K-linear maps ' W X ˝A Y ! V and W X ˝A Y ! V
coincide if and only if '.x ˝ y/ D .x ˝ y/ for all elements x ˝ y 2 X ˝A Y .
This shows the uniqueness of '.
The property of the tensor product presented in Proposition 3.1 is often called
the universal property of tensor product, expressed by the property of the canonical
map W X Y ! X ˝A Y : for any A-bilinear map W X Y ! V there exists
a unique K-linear map ' W X ˝A Y ! V with D ', that is, the following
diagram is commutative:
/
X YL X ˝A Y
LLL
LLL
LLL
'
L%
V.
Let A MB be an (A; B)-bimodule, X be a right A-module and Y be a left B-

module. The tensor products X ˝A M and M ˝B Y then have a right B-module
and a left A-module structure, respectively, with the operations of elements of A
and B such that
.x ˝ m/b D x ˝ .mb/; a.m ˝ y/ D .am/ ˝ y
for all x 2 X, y 2 Y , m 2 M , a 2 A, b 2 B. Moreover, an (A; C )-bimodule A XC

and a (C; B)-bimodule C YB make X ˝C Y an (A; B)-bimodule by the formula
a.x ˝ y/b D .ax/ ˝ .yb/
for all x 2 X; y 2 Y; a 2 A; b 2 B.
Lemma 3.2. For a right A-module XA , an (A; B)-bimodule A YB and a left B-
module B Z, the canonical mapping
'X;Y;Z W .X ˝A Y / ˝B Z ! X ˝A .Y ˝B Z/;
given by 'X;Y;Z ..x ˝ y/ ˝ z/ D x ˝ .y ˝ z/, for all x 2 X , y 2 Y , z 2 Z, is a

K-linear isomorphism.
Proof. For a fixed z 2 Z, let z W X Y ! X ˝A .Y ˝B Z/ be the map defined
by
z .x; y/ D x ˝ .y ˝ z/
for all x 2 X; y 2 Y . The A-bilinearity of z is an immediate consequence of
the property of tensor product. Hence, by Proposition 3.1, there is a K-linear map
'z W X ˝A Y ! X ˝A .Y ˝B Z/ with 'z .x ˝ y/ D x ˝ .y ˝ z/ for x 2 X; y 2 Y .
Next let .w; z/ D 'z .w/ for all w 2 X ˝A Y and z 2 Z. As easily seen, this is a
B-bilinear map from .X ˝A Y / Z to X ˝A .Y ˝B Z/. Applying Proposition 3.1
again, we conclude that there is a K-linear map
'X;Y;Z W .X ˝A Y / ˝B Z ! X ˝A .Y ˝B Z/
such that 'X;Y;Z ..x ˝ y/ ˝ z/ D x ˝ .y ˝ z/ for all x 2 X; y 2 Y; z 2 Z.

Similarly, there is a K-linear map
X;Y;Z W X ˝A .Y ˝B Z/ ! .X ˝A Y / ˝B Z
such that X;Y;Z .x ˝ .y ˝ z// D .x ˝ y/ ˝ z for all x 2 X, y 2 Y , z 2 Z.

Clearly, 'X;Y;Z and X;Y;Z are mutually inverse.
We turn now our attention to the functors induced by tensor products.

Let A MB be an (A; B)-bimodule. For a homomorphism u W X ! Y of right
A-modules, we define a homomorphism of right B-modules
u ˝A M W X ˝A M ! Y ˝A M
by .u˝A M /.x ˝m/ D u.x/˝m for all x 2 X; m 2 M , which is also well defined
by Proposition 3.1. Then, for the identity endomorphism idX on X , idX ˝A M is
the identity endomorphism on X ˝A M , and it holds that
.vu/ ˝ M D .v ˝ M /.u ˝ M /
for any consecutive homomorphisms u W X ! Y and v W Y ! Z in Mod A. Thus

we have the covariant functor
˝A M W Mod A ! Mod B
which assigns to a right A-module X the right B-module X ˝A MB , and carries a

homomorphism u in Mod A to the homomorphism u ˝A M in Mod B.
Similarly, we have the functor
M ˝B W Mod B op ! Mod Aop
such that .M ˝B /.Y / D M ˝B Y and .M ˝B /.v/ D M ˝B v for a left

B-module Y and a homomorphism v in Mod B op . The covariant functors ˝A M
and M ˝B are called tensor functors.
We note that, if A and B are finite dimensional K-algebras and A MB an (A; B)-
bimodule of finite dimension over K, then we have also the tensor functors
˝A M W mod A ! mod B and M ˝B W mod B op ! mod Aop :
Lemma 3.3. Let A and B be K-algebras. For an (A; B)-bimodule M , the induced
tensor functors
˝A M W Mod A ! Mod B; M ˝B W Mod B op ! Mod Aop
are right exact.

Proof. We shall show that ˝A M is right exact. For a short exact sequence
f g
0!X
!Y
! Z ! 0 in Mod A, we have to show that
fN gN
X ˝A M ! Z ˝A M ! 0
! Y ˝A M
is an exact sequence in Mod B, where fN D f ˝A M , gN D g ˝A M . The exactness

at Z ˝A M is easy. Indeed, any element z ˝ m of Z ˝A M is the image of some
y ˝ m under g, N where y 2 Y is an element with g.y/ D z. Note that such a choice
of y is possible because g is surjective by assumption. Then the claim follows by
the K-linearity of gN and general form of elements of Y ˝A M and Z ˝A M .
The exactness at Y ˝A M means Im fN D Ker g. N Observe that Im fN Ker gN
follows from the fact that gf D 0 and gN fN D .gf / ˝A M D 0. In order to show the
converse inclusion Ker gN Im fN, we shall show that for the canonical surjective
homomorphism
˛ W Y ˝A M ! .Y ˝A M /= Im fN;
given by ˛.y ˝m/ D y ˝mCIm fN for y 2 Y and m 2 M , there is a K-linear map
ˇ W Z ˝A M ! .Y ˝A M /= Im fN such that ˛ D ˇ g. N The inclusion Ker gN Im fN
then follows, because ˛.Ker g/ N D ˇ g.Ker
N N D 0 and so Ker gN Ker ˛ D Im fN.
g/
To define the map ˇ we use the universal property for the tensor product. Consider
the map
W Z M ! .Y ˝A M /= Im fN;
given by .z; m/ D ˛.y ˝ m/, for z 2 Z; m 2 M , and y 2 Y with g.y/ D z.
Observe that is well defined. Indeed, for any y 0 2 Y with g.y 0 / D z, we have
y y 0 2 Ker g and hence y y 0 2 Im f , because Im f D Ker g. Hence, we can
write y y 0 D f .x/, for some x 2 X . Then we obtain
˛..y y 0 / ˝ m/ D ˛.f .x/ ˝ m/ D ˛.fN.x ˝ m// 2 ˛.Im fN/ D 0:
Thus ˛..y y 0 /˝m/ D 0 and so ˛.y ˝m/ D ˛.y 0 ˝m/. This shows that ˛.y ˝m/
does not depend on a choice of y with g.y/ D z, and so is well defined. Next
we show that is A-bilinear. Indeed, for any z; z 0 2 Z, take y; y 0 2 Y with
g.y/ D z; g.y 0 / D z 0 , and observe that the equalities
.z C z 0 ; m/ D ˛..y C y 0 / ˝ m/ D ˛.y ˝ m/ C ˛.y 0 ˝ m/ D .z; m/ C .z 0 ; m/;
.za; m/ D ˛.ya ˝ m/ D ˛.y ˝ am/ D .z; am/;

hold for all m 2 M; a 2 A. Furthermore, we have
.z; m C m0 / D ˛.y ˝ .m C m0 // D ˛.y ˝ m/ C ˛.y ˝ m0 / D .z; m/ C .z; m0 /
for all m; m0 2 M . Therefore, by Proposition 3.1, there exists a K-linear map

ˇ W Z ˝A M ! .Y ˝A M /= Im fN such that ˛ D ˇ g.N Hence, Im fN D Ker g. N
Corollary 3.4. Let B be a K-algebra and A a K-subalgebra of B. Then B is an

A-bimodule and we have the right exact functors
˝A B W Mod A ! Mod B and B ˝A W Mod Aop ! Mod B op :
Moreover, if the K algebras A and B are finite dimensional, then we have also the
right exact functors
˝A B W mod A ! mod B and B ˝A W mod B op ! mod Aop :
Let A be a K-algebra, X a right A-module and Y a left A-module. Since A is

an A-bimodule, we conclude that X ˝A A is a right A-module and A ˝A Y is a left
A-module with .x ˝ a/b D x ˝ ab and b.a ˝ y/ D ba ˝ y for all a; b 2 A; x 2 X
and y 2 Y . In fact, the following facts hold.
Lemma 3.5. Let A be a K-algebra. The following statements hold.
(i) For any right A-module X, there is a canonical isomorphism of right A-
modules 'X W X ˝A A ! X .
(ii) For any left A-module Y , there is a canonical isomorphism of left A-modules
' Y W A ˝A Y ! Y .
Proof. (i) Let X be a right A-module. Then the K-linear map 'NX W X A ! X given
by 'NX .x; a/ D xa, for x 2 A and a 2 A, is A-bilinear. Hence, by Proposition 3.1,
there is a K-linear map 'X W X ˝A A ! X such that 'X .x ˝ a/ D xa for x 2 X
and a 2 A. Observe also that 'X ..x ˝ a/b/ D 'X .x ˝ ab/ D x.ab/ D .xa/b D
'X .x ˝ a/b for x 2 X and a; b 2 A, and so 'X is a homomorphism of right
A-modules. Consider now the K-linear homomorphism 'X0 W X ! X ˝A A given
by 'X0 .x/ D x ˝ 1 for x 2 X . Then 'X0 is a homomorphism of right A-modules,
because 'X0 .xa/ D xa ˝ 1 D x ˝ a D .x ˝ 1/a D 'X0 .x/a for x 2 X and
a 2 A. Finally, observe that 'X0 'X D idX˝A A and 'X 'X0 D idX . Therefore 'X is
an isomorphism of right A-modules.
The proof of (ii) is similar.
The tensor products of modules allow us also to consider important classes of
algebras.
Example 3.6. (a) Let K be a field and A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An , n 2, be K-algebras.
Then the tensor product
A1 ˝K A2 ˝K ˝K An
is a K-algebra with the multiplication given by
.a1 ˝ a2 ˝ ˝ an /.b1 ˝ b2 ˝ ˝ bn / D .a1 b1 ˝ a2 b2 ˝ ˝ an bn /

for a1 ; b1 2 A1 , a2 ; b2 2 A2 , : : : , an ; bn 2 An , and the identity
1A1 ˝K A2 ˝K ˝K An D 1A1 ˝K 1A2 ˝K ˝K 1An :
Moreover, the K-algebra A1 ˝K A2 ˝K ˝K An is finite dimensional if and only

if the K-algebras A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; An are finite dimensional. Further, if this is the case,
then
dimK .A1 ˝K A2 ˝K ˝K An / D .dimK A1 /.dimK A2 / : : : .dimK An /
(see Exercise 8.3).

In the special case, A1 D A2 D D An D A, we set
A˝n D A ˝K A ˝K ˝K A
for the tensor product of n-copies of the K-algebra A over K, with n 2, and call
the n-th tensor algebra of A.
(b) Let A be a K-algebra over a field K and M be an A-bimodule. We may
consider the family of A-bimodules TAn .M /, n 0, defined as TA0 .M / D A,
TA1 .M / D M and TAn .M / D M ˝A M ˝A ˝A M the tensor product of n
copies of the A-bimodule M for n 2. Then the K-vector space (in fact also an
A-bimodule)
M1
TA .M / D TAn .M /
nD0
is a K-algebra, called the tensor algebra of M over A. The multiplication in TA .M /

is given by
.x1 ˝ ˝ xm /.y1 ˝ ˝ yn / D x1 ˝ ˝ xm ˝ y1 ˝ ˝ yn
for x1 ˝ ˝ xm 2 TAm .M /, y1 ˝ ˝ yn 2 TAn .M /, with m; n 1, and
a.x1 ˝ ˝ xm / D .ax1 / ˝ ˝ xm ; .x1 ˝ ˝ xm /a D x1 ˝ ˝ .xm a/;
for a 2 A D TA0 .M /, x1 ˝ ˝xm 2 TAm .M /, m 1, and the K-algebra structure

of A. Clearly then the identity 1A of A is the identity 1TA .M / of TA .M /. Moreover,
consider also the quotient algebra
SA .M / D TA .M /=IA .M /
of TA .M / by the two-sided ideal IA .M / generated by all elements x ˝ y y ˝ x

with x; y 2 M . Then SA .M / is a commutative K-algebra, called the symmetric
algebra of M over A. We note also that as K-vector space
1
M
SA .M / D SAn .M /;
nD0

where SAn .M / D TAn .M / C IA .M / =IA .M /, for any n 0, SA0 .M / Š A and
SA1 .M / Š M .
In particular, for a K-vector space V over a field K, we have the tensor al-
gebra TK .V / of V over K and the symmetric algebra SK .V / of V over K (see
Exercises 8.4 and 8.5 for universal properties of TK .V / and SK .V /).
Let A and B be K-algebras. We denote by Bimod.A; B/ the category of all
.A; B/-bimodules, that is, the category whose objects are the .A; B/-bimodules,
the morphisms are homomorphisms of .A; B/-bimodules, and the composition of
morphisms is the usual composition of maps. By a homomorphism f W M ! N
of .A; B/-bimodules we mean a K-linear homomorphism f W M ! N such that
f .amb/ D af .m/b for all a 2 A, b 2 B and m 2 M . Moreover, we denote
by bimod.A; B/ the full subcategory of Bimod.A; B/ whose objects are the finite
dimensional (over K) .A; B/-bimodules. For A D B, we will write Bimod A and
bimod A instead of Bimod.A; A/ and bimod.A; A/, respectively.
Proposition 3.7. Let A and B be K-algebras. Then there exists a K-linear equiv-
alence of categories
F W Mod.Aop ˝K B/ ! Bimod.A; B/
F W mod.Aop ˝K B/ ! bimod.A; B/:
Proof. Let M be a right .Aop ˝K B/-module. Then F .M / is the .A; B/-bimodule
whose underlying K-vector space is M and the .A; B/-bimodule structure is given
by amb D m.a ˝ b/ for any a 2 A, b 2 B and m 2 M . Observe that, for a; c 2 A,
b; d 2 B and m 2 M , we have the equalities
a.cmd /b D .cmd /.a ˝ b/ D .m.c ˝ d //.a ˝ b/ D m..c ˝ d /.a ˝ b//
D m.ac ˝ db/ D .ac/m.db/:
Clearly, every .A; B/-bimodule is of the form F .M / for some right .Aop ˝K B/-
module M . Further, for any homomorphism f W M ! N of right .Aop ˝K B/-
modules, the K-linear homomorphism F .f / D f W F .M / ! F .N / is a homo-
morphism of .A; B/-bimodules, because
f .amb/ D f .m.a ˝ b// D f .m/.a ˝ b/ D af .m/b;
for a 2 A, b 2 B and m 2 M .
4 Adjunctions and natural isomorphisms

Let A and B be K-categories and let F and G be covariant functors from A to B.
A natural transformation of functors ' W F ! G assigns to each object X of A a
4. Adjunctions and natural isomorphisms 141
morphism 'X W F .X / ! G.X / in B such that, for every morphism f W X ! Y in

A, the following diagram in B is commutative:
'X
F .X / / G.X /
F .f / G.f /

F .Y / / G.Y / .
'Y
In case the morphism 'X is an isomorphism for all X of A, ' is called a natural
isomorphism of functors. The identity functor 1A of A satisfies 1A .X / D X and
1A .f / D f for all objects X and morphisms f of A. The composite GF of two
covariant functors F W A ! B and G W B ! C is defined by
.GF /.X / D G.F .X // and .GF /.f / D G.F .f //
for all objects X and morphisms f of A.

Now let F W A ! B and G W B ! A be covariant K-linear functors. A triple
hF; G; 'i is said to be an adjunction from A to B if, for any objects X of A and Y
of B, there is a K-linear isomorphism
'X;Y W HomB .F .X /; Y / ! HomA .X; G.Y //
which is natural in both arguments X and Y , that is, for any morphisms u W X 0 ! X
in A and v W Y ! Y 0 in B, the following diagram in Mod K is commutative:
'X;Y
HomB .F .X /; Y / / HomA .X; G.Y //
Hom.F .u/;v/ Hom.u;G.v//

'X 0 ;Y 0
HomB .F .X 0 /; Y 0 / / HomA .X 0 ; G.Y 0 // .
An adjunction hF; G; 'i is often abbreviated to hF; Gi, and called an adjoint pair,
and ' is called an adjunction between F and G, while F is called a left adjoint for
G and G is called a right adjoint for F . We shall briefly recall some basic facts on
the adjunctions. For more details we refer to the book [ML2].
Let hF; G; 'i be an adjunction from A to B. For any object X of A, the image
of the identity idF .X/ 2 HomB .F .X /; F .X // under 'X;F .X/ is denoted by
X ,
that is,

X D 'X;F .X/ .idF .X/ / W X ! GF .X /:
The morphisms
X , for all objects X of A, yield a natural transformation
W 1A !
GF of functors called a unit, which determines the adjunction ' by the following
relation
'X;Y .u/ D G.u/
X
for all morphisms u 2 HomB .F .X /; Y /. In fact, from the commutative square

'X;F .X/
HomB .F .X /; F .X // / HomA .X; GF .X //
HomB .F .X/;u/ HomA .X;G.u//

'X;Y
HomB .F .X /; Y / / HomA .X; G.Y // ,
we have

'X;Y .u/ D 'X;Y HomB .F .X /; u/ .idF .X/ /

D HomA .X; G.u//'X;F .X/ .idF .X/ / D G.u/
X :
Dually, for an object Y of B, let "Y be the inverse image of idG.Y / under 'G.Y /;Y ,
that is,
1
"Y D 'G.Y /;Y .idG.Y / / W F G.Y / ! Y:
As before, the morphisms "Y , for all objects Y of B, yield a natural transformation
" W F G ! 1B of functors, called a counit, and
1
'X;Y .v/ D "Y F .v/
for all v 2 HomA .X; G.Y //. Observe also that the following equalities hold:
idG.Y / D 'G.Y /;Y ."Y / D 'G.Y /;Y HomB .F G.Y /; "Y /.idF G.Y / /
D HomA .G.Y /; G."Y //'G.Y /;F G.Y / .idF G.Y / / D G."Y /
G.Y / :
Hence, the composed natural transformation of functors

G G."/
G."/
G W G ! .GF /G D G.F G/ ! G
is the identity transformation of G.

Lemma 4.1. Any two left adjoints for a functor are naturally isomorphic.
Proof. Let hF; G; 'i and hF 0 ; G; ' 0 i be adjunctions from A to B and
W 1A ! GF
and
0 W 1A ! GF 0 their units, respectively. For an object X of A, consider the
following K-linear maps:
0
'X;F 0 .X/ 'X;F 0 .X /
HomB .F 0 .X /; F 0 .X// ! HomA .X; GF 0 .X // HomB .F .X /; F 0 .X //
0
'X;F .X/ 'X;F .X/
HomB .F .X /; F .X// ! HomA .X; GF .X // HomB .F 0 .X /; F .X //:
For
˛X D .'X;F 0 .X/ /1 .

X
0
/ W F .X / ! F 0 .X /
and
ˇX D .' 0X;F .X/ /1 .
X / W F 0 .X / ! F .X /;
we have
0 0 0
G.ˇX /
X D 'X;F .X/ .ˇX / D
X ; G.˛X /
X D 'X;F 0 .X/ .˛X / D
X ;
and hence

X D G.ˇX / .G.˛X /
X / D .G.ˇX /G.˛X //
X
D G.ˇX ˛X /
X D 'X;F .X/ .ˇX ˛X /:
Therefore, we have

'X;F .X/ idF .X/ D 'X;F .X/ .ˇX ˛X /:
Since 'X;F .X/ is an isomorphism, it follows that idF .X/ D ˇX ˛X . Similarly,

0
'X;F 0 .X/ idF 0 .X/ D
X D 'X;F 0 .X/ .˛X ˇX /
and hence idF 0 .X/ D ˛X ˇX . Thus ˛X W F .X / ! F 0 .X / is an isomorphism in B

and ˇX is its inverse, for any object X of A. Moreover, ˛X is natural in X , and hence
˛ W F ! F 0 is a natural isomorphism of functors. Indeed, since
0 W 1A ! GF 0 is
a natural transformation of functors, for any morphism f W X ! Y in A, we have
0Y f D GF 0 .f /
X 0
. Then we have the equalities
'X;F 0 .Y / .F 0 .f /˛X / D GF 0 .f /'X;F 0 .Y / .˛X / D GF 0 .f /

X
0
0
D
Y f D 'Y;F 0 .Y / .˛Y /f D 'X;F 0 .Y / .˛Y F .f //;
and so F 0 .f /˛X D ˛Y F .f /, because 'X;F 0 .Y / is an isomorphism.

Similarly, using counits, one proves that the following lemma holds.
Lemma 4.2. Any two right adjoints for a functor are naturally isomorphic.
An important example of an adjunction is provided by ˝ and Hom. Let A and
B be K-algebras, and A MB be an .A; B/-bimodule. Consider the functors
˝A M W Mod A ! Mod B; HomB .M; / W Mod B ! Mod A:
For a right A-module X and a right B-module Y , define the K-linear homomor-
phism
'M .X; Y / W HomB .X ˝A M; Y / ! HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //
by the formula
'M .X; Y /.f / .x/ .m/ D f .x ˝ m/
for f 2 HomB .X ˝A M; Y /; x 2 X; m 2 M . We claim that 'M .X; Y / is

natural in X and Y . Indeed, for any homomorphisms u 2 HomA .X 0 ; X / and
v 2 HomB .Y; Y 0 /, consider the diagram
'M .X;Y /
HomB .X ˝A M; Y / / HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //
HomB .u˝A M;v/ HomA .u;HomB .M;v//

HomB .X 0 ˝A M; Y 0 / / HomA .X 0 ; HomB .M; Y 0 // .
'M .X 0 ;Y 0 /
For all f 2 HomB .X ˝A M; Y /; x 0 2 X 0 ; m 2 M , we have the equalities

.HomA .u; HomB .M; v//'M .X; Y //.f / .x 0 / .m/

D v 'M .X; Y /.f /.u.x 0 //.m/ D v.f .u.x 0 / ˝ m//
D .vf .u ˝A M //.x 0 ˝ m/

D ..'M .X 0 ; Y 0 / HomB .u ˝A M; v//.f //.x 0 / .m/:
Therefore, we obtain that
HomA .u; HomB .M; v//'M .X; Y / D 'M .X 0 ; Y 0 / HomB .u ˝A M; v/:
Hence we know that
'M .; / W HomB . ˝A M; / ! HomA .; HomB .M; //
is a natural transformation of functors, where both HomB . ˝A M; / and

HomA .; HomB .M; // are functors from Mod A Mod B to Mod K. Observe
that, in the case that A MB is finite dimensional over K, both HomB . ˝A M; /
and HomA .; HomB .M; // induce functors from mod A mod B to mod K.
The following theorem, called the adjoint theorem, asserts that the functors
˝A M and HomB .M; / form an adjoint pair.
Theorem 4.3. Let A and B be K-algebras and M be an .A; B/-bimodule. For any
right A-module X and any right B-module Y , the K-linear map
'M .X; Y / W HomB .X ˝A M; Y / ! HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //
is an isomorphism and natural in X and Y .

Proof. In order to show that 'M .X; Y / is an isomorphism, consider the K-linear
map
0
'M .X; Y / W HomA .X; HomB .M; Y // ! HomB .X ˝A M; Y /
defined by 0
'M .X; Y /.g/ .x ˝ m/ D g.x/.m/
0
for g 2 HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //; x 2 X and m 2 M . This map 'M .X; Y /
is well defined by the universal property of the tensor product (Proposition 3.1).
0
Let ' D 'M .X; Y / and ' 0 D 'M .X; Y /, for simplicity. We show that ' 0 ' and
0
' ' are the identity maps on HomB .X ˝A M; Y / and HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //,
respectively. By definition of ' and ' 0 , we have
0
.' '/.f / .x ˝ m/ D ' 0 '.f / .x ˝ m/ D '.f /.x/ .m/ D f .x ˝ m/
for all f 2 HomB .X ˝A M; Y /; x 2 X and m 2 M . Hence .' 0 '/.f / D f for all

f 2 HomB .X ˝A M; Y /, which implies that ' 0 ' D idHomB .X ˝A M;Y / . Similarly,

.'' 0 /.g//.x/ .m/ D '.' 0 .g//.x/ .m/ D ' 0 .g/.x ˝ m/ D .g.x//.m/
for all x 2 X; m 2 M and g 2 HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //, which implies that
.'' 0 /.g/ D g for all g 2 HomA .X; HomB .M; Y //, and hence we obtain ' ' 0 D
idHomA .X;HomB .M;Y // . This shows that ' D 'M .X; Y / is an isomorphism, and
natural in X and Y , as we have proved above.
Lemma 4.4. Let A and B be K-algebras, and let hF; Gi be an adjoint pair between
Mod A and Mod B. Then F .A/ is an .A; B/-bimodule and there exist natural
isomorphisms of functors
F Š ˝A F .A/; G Š HomB .F .A/; /:
Proof. Let ' be the adjunction defining the adjoint pair hF; Gi. Hence, for a right
A-module X and right B-module Y , we have the K-linear isomorphism
'X;Y W HomB .F .X /; Y / ! HomA .X; G.Y //;
which is natural in X and Y . Taking the right A-module AA as X , we obtain then

the composite K-linear isomorphism
'A;Y
G.Y /
HomB .F .A/; Y / ! HomA .A; G.Y // ! G.Y /;
where G.Y / W HomA .A; G.Y // ! G.Y / is the isomorphism of right A-modules
defined by G.Y / .f / D f .1/ for all f 2 HomA .A; G.Y // (see Lemma 2.3).
Moreover, G.Y / is natural in Y . Hence, to conclude that G Š HomB .F .A/; / as
functors from Mod B to Mod A, it suffices to show that F .A/ has a left A-module
structure and 'A;Y W HomB .F .A/; Y / ! HomA .A; G.Y // is a homomorphism of
right A-modules, where the right A-module structures on HomB .F .A/; Y / and
HomA .A; G.Y // are induced from the left A-module structure of F .A/ and the
left A-module structure of A, respectively. Observe also that every element of
HomA .AA ; AA / is of the form aL for some a 2 A, where aL W AA ! AA is the left
multiplication by a, that is, aL .x/ D ax for all x 2 A.
Now, the algebra homomorphism
F W HomA .A; A/ ! HomB .F .A/; F .A//
makes F .A/ a left A-module by the action
ax D F .aL /.x/
0
for all a 2 A and x 2 F .A/. Note that .aa0 /x D F ..aa0 /L /.x/ D F .aL aL /.x/ D
0 0 0 0
.F .aL /F .aL //.x/ D F .aL /.F .aL /.x// D a.a x/ for all a; a 2 A and x 2
F .A/. Then F .A/ becomes an .A; B/-bimodule, because .ax/b D F .aL /.x/b D
F .aL /.xb/ D a.xb/, for all a 2 A; b 2 B and x 2 F .A/.
The following commutative diagram implies that 'A;Y is a homomorphism of
right A-modules
'A;Y
HomB .F .A/; Y / / HomA .A; G.Y //
HomB .F .aL /;Y / HomA .aL ;G.Y //

'A;Y
HomB .F .A/; Y / / HomA .A; G.Y // .
Indeed, for f 2 HomB .F .A/; Y / and x 2 F .A/, we have
.f a/.x/ D f .ax/ D f .F .aL /.x// D .HomB .F .aL /; Y /.f //.x/;
and hence f a D HomB .F .aL /; Y /.f /. Therefore, from the commutativity of the
above diagram, we conclude that

'A;Y .f a/ D 'A;Y HomB .F .aL /; Y / .f /
D .HomA .aL ; G.Y //'A;Y /.f / D HomA .aL ; G.Y //.'A;Y .f //:
On the other hand,

.HomA .aL ; G.Y //'A;Y /.f / .x/ D .'A;Y .f //.aL .x//
D .'A;Y .f //.ax/ D .'A;Y .f /a/.x/
for all x 2 A, which implies that .HomA .aL ; G.Y //'A;Y /.f / D 'A;Y .f /a. Con-
sequently we have 'A;Y .f a/ D 'A;Y .f /a. Thus 'A;Y is a homomorphism of right
A-modules as desired.
Hence, the functors HomB .F .A/; / and G from Mod B to Mod A are naturally
isomorphic. We know from Theorem 4.3 that the functor ˝A F .A/ W Mod A !
Mod B is left adjoint to the functor HomB .F .A/; / W Mod B ! Mod A, and so is
left adjoint to the functor G. Since by assumption the functor F W Mod A ! Mod B
is left adjoint to G, applying Lemma 4.1, we conclude that the functors F and
˝A F .A/ from Mod A to Mod B are naturally isomorphic.
Other important natural K-linear isomorphisms, invoking the hom and tensor
functors, are given by projective modules. Let A and B be K-algebras and P be
a left A-module. For an (A; B)-bimodule X and a right B-module Y , we consider
the K-linear map
P .X; Y / W HomB .X; Y / ˝A P ! HomB .HomAop .P; X /; Y /
given by the formula

P .X; Y /.f ˝ p/ .u/ D f .u.p//
for all f 2 HomB .X; Y /; u 2 HomAop .P; X / and p 2 P . Here, HomB .X; Y / is
a right A-module induced from the left A-module X and HomAop .P; X / is a right
B-module induced from the right B-module X , and the map P .X; Y / is well
defined by the universal property of the tensor product (Proposition 3.1).
Similarly, for a (B; A)-bimodule X and a left B-module Y , we consider the
K-linear map
0
P .Y; X / W HomB op .Y; X / ˝A P ! HomB op .Y; X ˝A P /
given by the formula

0

P .Y; X /.g ˝ p/ .y/ D g.y/ ˝ p
for all g 2 HomB op .Y; X /; p 2 P and y 2 Y . Here, HomB op .Y; X / is a right

A-module induced from the right A-module X and X ˝A P is a left B-module
induced from the left B-module X , and the map P0 .Y; X / is well defined by the
universal property of the tensor product.
Theorem 4.5. Let A, B and C be K-algebras and P a finite dimensional .A; C /-

bimodule such that P is projective in mod Aop . Then the following statements
hold.
(i) For an (A; B)-bimodule X and a right B-module Y , the K-linear map
P .X; Y / W HomB .X; Y / ˝A P ! HomB .HomAop .P; X /; Y /
is an isomorphism of right C -modules and natural in X and Y .
(ii) For a (B; A)-bimodule X and a left B-module Y , the K-linear map
0
P .Y; X / W HomB op .Y; X / ˝A P ! HomB op .Y; X ˝A P /
is an isomorphism of right C -modules and natural in X and Y .

Proof. We shall give the proof only for (i), and leave to the reader to verify the
statement (ii) (see Exercise 8.39).
It is clear that P .X; Y / is a homomorphism of right C -modules, and it is
straightforward to check the naturality of P .X; Y / in X and Y . The proof that
P .X; Y / is an isomorphism will be divided into three steps. Before starting the
proof, observe that the mapping P .X; Y / is defined for an arbitrary left A-module
P (without projectivity), and in that case, for fixed modules X and Y , P .X; Y /
is a natural transformation in P .
First, consider the case when P D A. It is easy to check that the composition
HomB .ˇ; Y / A .X; Y /˛ of the homomorphisms
˛ A .X;Y /
HomB .X; Y / !
HomB .X; Y / ˝A A ! HomB .HomAop .A; X /; Y /
HomB .ˇ;Y /
! HomB .X; Y /
is the identity homomorphism idHomB .X;Y / , where ˛ and ˇ W X !
HomAop .A; X /
are canonical K-linear isomorphisms such that
˛.f / D f ˝ 1A ; ˇ.x/.a/ D ax;
for all f 2 HomB .X; Y /; x 2 X; a 2 A. Indeed, for f 2 HomB .X; Y / and
x 2 X, we have
..HomB .ˇ; Y / A .X; Y /˛/.f //.x/ D .HomB .ˇ; Y /. A .X; Y /.f ˝ 1A ///.x/
D . A .X; Y /.f ˝ 1A //.ˇ.x//
D f .ˇ.x/.1A // D f .1A x/ D f .x/:
Since ˛ and HomB .ˇ; Y / are isomorphisms, it follows that the homomorphism
1 1
A .X; Y / D HomB .ˇ; Y / ˛ is an isomorphism.
Next, consider the case when P is a free A-module, that is, P is isomorphic to a
direct sum of finitely many copies of A A. The fact that P .X; Y / is an isomorphism
then follows by the naturality of P .X; Y / in P and the fact shown above that
A .X; Y / is an isomorphism.
Finally, let F be a finite dimensional free left A-module and u W P ! F and
v W F ! P homomorphisms in mod Aop with vu D idP the identity on P (see
Lemma I.8.1). Then we have the diagram of K-vector spaces
P .X;Y /
?xY / ˝A P ! HomB .Hom?Axop .P; X /; Y /
HomB .X;
??
u1y?v1
??
u2y?v2
HomB .X; Y / ˝A F ! HomB .HomAop .F; X /; Y /

F .X;Y /
such that
u2 P .X; Y / D F .X; Y /u1 ; v2 F .X; Y / D P .X; Y /v1 ;
where
u1 D HomB .X; Y / ˝A u; v1 D HomB .X; Y / ˝A v;
u2 D HomB .HomAop .u; X /; Y /; v2 D HomB .HomAop .v; X /; Y /:
Let N P .X; Y / D v1 1
F .X; Y / u2 . Then, we obtain the equalities
N P .X; Y / P .X; Y / D .v1 1
F .X; Y / /.u2 P .X; Y //
1
D .v1 . F .X; Y / /. F .X; Y /u1 /
D v1 . F .X; Y /1 F .X; Y //u1

D v1 u1 D HomB .X; Y / ˝ vu
D HomB .X; Y / ˝ idP D idHomB .X;Y /˝A P :
Similarly, we show that P .X; Y / N P .X; Y / D v2 u2 D idHomB .HomAop .P;X/;Y / .

Therefore, P .X; Y / is an isomorphism.
Corollary 4.6. Let A and B be K-algebras and P a finite dimensional (A; B)-
bimodule such that P is projective in mod Aop .
(i) For a right A-module X , the K-linear map
P .X / W
X ˝A P ! HomA .HomAop .P; A/; X /;

defined by P .X /.x ˝ p/ .u/ D xu.p/ for x 2 X; p 2 P and u 2
HomAop .P; A/, is an isomorphism of right B-modules and natural in X .
(ii) The K-linear map
0
W HomAop .P; A/ ˝A P ! EndAop .P /;
P

defined by P0 .u ˝ p/ .p 0 / D u.p 0 /p for u 2 HomAop .P; A/ and p; p 0 2 P ,
is an isomorphism of B-bimodules.
Proof. Observe that P .X / is the composition of isomorphisms of right B-modules
ˇ ˝A P P .A;X/
X ˝A P ! HomA .A; X / ˝A P ! HomA .HomAop .P; A/; X /;
0
and P is the composition of isomorphisms of B-bimodules
0
P .P;A/ HomAop .P;/
HomAop .P; A/ ˝A P ! HomAop .P; A ˝A P / ! HomAop .P; P /;
where ˇ W X ! HomA .A; X / is the canonical isomorphism of right A-modules
(as in the proof of Theorem 4.5 (i)), W A ˝A P ! P is the canonical isomor-
phism of left A-modules from Lemma 3.5 (ii), and P .A; X /, P0 .P; A/ are the
isomorphisms defined in Theorem 4.5. The observation shows that P .X / is an
isomorphism of right B-modules and P0 is an isomorphism of B-bimodules.
Similarly, we conclude that the following fact holds.

Corollary 4.7. Let A and B be K-algebras and P be a finite dimensional (B; A)-
bimodule such that P is projective in mod A. Then, for a left A-module X , the
K-linear map
'P .X / W P ˝A X ! HomAop .HomA .P; A/; X /

defined by 'P .X /.p ˝ x/ .u/ D u.p/x for p 2 P; x 2 X and u 2 HomA .P; A/,
is an isomorphism of left B-modules and natural in X .
Proposition 4.8. Let A be a K-algebra and P a finite dimensional projective right
A-module. Then the following statements hold.
(i) HomA .P; A/ is a projective left A-module.

(ii) The K-linear map
P W P ! HomAop .HomA .P; A/; A/;

defined by P .p/ .u/ D u.p/ for all p 2 P; u 2 HomA .P; A/, is an
isomorphism of right A-modules.
Proof. (i) It follows from Lemma I.8.1 that there exists a free module F D .AA /n ,
for some positive integer n, and homomorphisms u W P ! F and v W F ! P of
right A-modules with vu D idP . Then the composition of the induced K-linear
homomorphisms
HomA .v;A/ HomA .u;A/
HomA .P; A/ ! HomA .F; A/ ! HomA .P; A/
is the identity on HomA .P; A/ and hence, by Lemma I.4.2, the left A-module
HomA .P; A/ is isomorphic to a direct summand of the left A-module HomA .F; A/.
Hence, by Lemma I.8.1, HomA .P; A/ is a projective left A-module, because the
left A-module HomA .F; A/ is isomorphic to the free left A-module .A A/n .
(ii) Since P is a finite dimensional .K; A/-bimodule, by Corollary 4.7 we
have that 'P .A/ W P ˝A A ! HomAop .HomA .P; A/; A/ is an isomorphism of
left K-modules, and hence of K-vector spaces. Let ˛ W P ! P ˝A A be the
canonical isomorphism of right A-modules, hence of K-vector spaces, defined by
˛.p/ D p ˝ 1A for p 2 P . Observe
now that P is the composition 'P .A/˛,
because .'P .A/˛/.p/ .u/ D 'P .A/.p ˝ 1A / .u/ D u.p/1A D P .p/.u/, for
p 2 P and u 2 HomA .P; A/. This shows that P is an isomorphism of K-vector
spaces. Further, we have, for p 2 P , u 2 HomA .P; A/ and a 2 A, the equalities
P .pa/.u/ D u.pa/ D .au/.p/ D P .p/.au/ D. P .p/a/ .u/;
and so P .pa/ D P .p/a. Hence, P is an isomorphism of right A-modules.

5. Progenerators 151
Corollary 4.9. Let A and B be K-algebras and P a finite dimensional (B; A)-
bimodule such that P is projective in mod A. Then, for any right A-module X , the
K-linear map
0
P .X / W
X ˝A HomA .P; A/ ! HomA .P; X /;

defined by P0 .X /.x ˝u/ .p/ D xu.p/ for x 2 X; u 2 HomA .P; A/ and p 2 P ,
is an isomorphism of right B-modules and natural in X .
Proof. Let P D HomA .P; A/, which is an (A; B)-bimodule. By Proposition 4.8,
the left A-module P is projective and P W P ! HomAop .P ; A/ is an isomor-
phism of right A-modules. On the other hand, by Corollary 4.6, P .X / W X ˝A
P ! HomA .HomAop .P ; A/; X / is an isomorphism of right B-modules. Thus
we have the composed isomorphism of right B-modules
P .X/
‰P .X / W X ˝A HomA .P; A/ ! HomA .HomAop .P ; A/; X /
HomA . P ;X/
! HomA .P; X /;
such that
‰P .X /.x ˝ u/ .p/ D xu.p/
for all x 2 X; u 2 HomA .P; A/; p 2 P . Hence P0 .X / D ‰P .X / is an isomor-
phism of right B-modules. The naturality of P0 .X / in X follows by the naturality
of ‰P .X/ in X .
5 Progenerators
We shall now introduce generators of a K-category and characterize them, aiming
to develop the Morita theory.
Let C be a K-category. An object M of C is called a generator of C if, for
any two different morphisms f; g 2 HomC .X; Y /, there exists a morphism h 2
HomC .M; X/ such that f h ¤ gh, or equivalently, for any nonzero morphism
f 2 HomC .X; Y /, there is a morphism h 2 HomC .M; X / with f h ¤ 0. We
note that this is equivalent to saying that the functor HomC .M; / W C ! Mod K
is faithful (see Section 6). Obviously, an object M of a full K-subcategory D of C
is a generator of D if M is a generator of C. The following lemma is an immediate
consequence of the definition of generator.
Lemma 5.1. Let C be a K-category and M an object of C. The following statements
hold.
(i) If M is a generator of C and X an object of C , then the direct sum M ˚ X
is a generator of C.
(ii) M is a generator of C if M m is a generator of C for some positive integer m.

Lemma 5.2. A K-algebra A is a generator of Mod A. In particular, if A is finite
dimensional, then A is also a generator of mod A.
Proof. For modules X , Y in Mod A and 0 ¤ f 2 HomA .X; Y /, take an element
˛ 2 X with f .˛/ ¤ 0. Then, for the left multiplication ˛L W A ! X by ˛, ˛L .a/ D
˛a, for a 2 A, we have f ˛L ¤ 0, because .f ˛L /.1A / D f .˛L .1A // D f .˛/ ¤ 0.
Hence A is a generator of Mod A. In case A is finite dimensional, A belongs to
the full subcategory mod A of Mod A and hence obviously A is a generator of
mod A.

mensional right A-module. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) M is a generator of Mod A.
(ii) M is a generator of mod A.
(iii) For any module X in mod A, there is an epimorphism from M n to X , for some
positive integer n.
(iv) There is an epimorphism from M n to the right A-module AA , for some positive
integer n, or equivalently,
M n Š AA ˚ N
in mod A, for some positive integer n and a right A-module N .
(v) M has a projective direct summand P D P1 ˚ ˚ Pm , where P1 ; : : : ; Pm is
a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules
in mod A.
Proof. (i) ) (ii) This is trivial, because M is in mod A and mod A is a full subcat-
egory of Mod A.
(ii) ) (iii) Let X be a module in mod A and N be the A-submodule of X
generated by the images of all homomorphisms f 2 HomA .M; X /, that is,
X
N D f .M /:
f 2HomA .M;X/
Since N is a finite dimensional, hence finitely generated A-module,

Pn there are ho-
momorphisms P f1 ; : : : ; fn 2 HomA .M; X / such that N D iD1 fi .M /. Indeed,
let N D jr D1 xj A for some x1 ; : : : ; xr 2 X . Then each xj is contained in a
Prj
submodule P f .M /, where rj is a positive integer and fjk 2 HomA .M; X /.
kD1 jk
Hence N D j;k fjk .M /. It is then enough to take as f1 ; : : : ; fn the finite set
ffjk gj;k .
Ln
Now let Mi , i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, P
be copies of MA and ' W iD1 Mi ! X Lbe a ho-
n n
momorphism L such that '.m/ D iD1 fi .mi / for m D .m 1 ; : : : ; mn / 2 iD1 Mi .
Clearly, '. niD1 Mi / D N . We claim that ' is surjective. For this, to the contrary,
suppose that ' is not surjective, and let g W X ! X=N be the canonical homo-
morphism with g.x/ D x C N for x 2 X. Notice that g.N / D 0. Since g is
nonzero, by the definition of a generator, there is a homomorphism f W M ! X
in mod A such that gf ¤ 0. It follows that 0 ¤ gf .M / D g.f .M // g.N /,
which implies that g.N / ¤ 0, a contradiction.
(iii) ) (iv) The first part of (iv) follows trivially from (iii), and the second part
is a consequence of Lemma I.8.1.
(iv) ) (v) We may take direct summands ej A of A, j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, which
form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective right A-
modules. Assume that there is an isomorphism M n Š A ˚ N of right A-modules,
for some positive integer n and a right A-module N . Then, by the Krull–Schmidt
theorem (Theorem I.4.6), for each j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, M has a direct summand Pr.j /
isomorphic to ej A. Clearly, the set Pr.1/ ; : : : ; Pr.m/ is a complete set of pairwise
nonisomorphic indecomposable projectiveP modules. Therefore, it follows from
Proposition I.4.7 that the sum P D jmD1 Pr.j / is a direct sum and a direct summand
of M . L
(v) ) (i) Let P D jmD1 Pj be a direct summand of M , where P1 ; : : : ; Pm is
a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules in
mod A. Then, by Proposition I.8.2, AA is isomorphic to a direct summand of P r
for some positive integer r. Therefore, by Lemmas 5.1 and 5.2, P r and so P are
generators of Mod A. Since P is a direct summand of M , applying Lemma 5.1
again, we conclude that M is a generator of Mod A.
Lemma 5.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Let P1 ; : : : ; Pm be a com-
plete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules in mod A,
and P D P1 ˚ ˚ Pm . Then P is a projective generator of mod A, and P is
isomorphic to a module eA for some idempotent e of A.
Proof. Each Pi is isomorphic to a direct summand ei A of AA , where ei is a prim-
itive idempotent of A. Then the set e1 A; : : : ; em A is a complete set of pairwise
nonisomorphic
Pm projective modules. Hence, by Proposition I.4.7, the submodule
iD1 ie A of AA is a direct sum of e1 A; : : : ; em A and a direct summand of A.
Moreover, for e D e1 C C em , we have
P Š e1 A ˚ ˚ em A D e1 A C C em A D eA:
However, AA is clearly isomorphic to a direct summand of P r , for some positive

integer r, which implies, by Proposition 5.3, that P is a generator of mod A.
A finite dimensional right A-module M is called a progenerator of mod A if
M is both a generator and a projective A-module. The progenerator P of mod A
defined in Lemma 5.4 does not depend, up to isomorphism, on a choice of a complete

set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules, and we call it
a minimal progenerator of mod A. Indeed, let P10 ; : : : ; Pm0 be another complete
set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules of mod A, and
let P 0 D P10 ˚ ˚ Pm0 . Here, from the definition of the “complete set”, it
should be noted that the number of the Pj0 ’s is the same as the number of the Pi ’s,
and, moreover, each Pj0 is isomorphic to exactly one Pi . This implies that P 0 is
isomorphic to P , and we conclude that a minimal progenerator of mod A is uniquely
determined up to isomorphism.
A right module M over a finite dimensional K-algebra A is said to be faithful
if M a ¤ 0 for any nonzero element a 2 A. Obviously, the right A-module AA is
faithful. The following lemma shows that every faithful module in mod A involves
the right A-module A.
Lemma 5.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. A finite dimensional right

A-module M is faithful if and only if AA is isomorphic to an A-submodule of M r ,
for some positive integer r, that is, there is an exact sequence in mod A of the form
0 ! A ! M r :
Pr
Proof. Since M is finite dimensional over K, we may write M D iD1 mi K
for some m1 ; : : : ; mr 2 M . Let f W A ! M r be the homomorphism of right
A-modules defined by f .a/ D .m1 a; : : : ; mr a/ for a 2 A. Now suppose that M is
a faithful module. We claim that f is a monomorphism. For this, let Pf .a/ D 0 for
some a 2 A. Then, mi a D 0, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, so that M a D riD1 mi aK D
0. This holds only for a D 0, because by the assumption M is a faithful right
A-module.
Conversely, assume that there is a monomorphism f W A ! M r in mod A, for
some r, and take a 2 A with M a D 0. Then f .A/a .M r /a D .M a/r D 0, and
hence f .Aa/ D f .A/a D 0. Since f is injective, it follows that Aa D 0, and so
a D 0. This shows that M is faithful.
Corollary 5.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and u W AA ! E.AA / an

injective envelope of AA in mod A. Then E.AA / is a faithful right A-module.
Applying Lemma 5.5 and the standard duality D W mod A ! mod Aop , for a
finite dimensional K-algebra A, we obtain the following fact.
Corollary 5.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then a finite dimensional

right A-module M is faithful if and only if there is an epimorphism from D.M /r
to D.A/ of left A-modules, for some positive integer r, where D D HomK .; K/.
As a direct consequence of Proposition 5.3 and Lemma 5.5 we obtain also the
following property of generators.
Corollary 5.8. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then every generator M

of mod A is faithful.
As is seen in the next example, the converse of Corollary 5.8 is not true in
general. See Exercise 8.46 for a finite dimensional K-algebra A whose all faithful
finite dimensional right A-modules are generators of mod A.
Example 5.9. Let

K 0
AD
K K
be the algebra of the lower triangular 2 2 matrices over a field K, and let

1 0 0 0 0 0
e1 D ; e2 D ; aD :
0 0 0 1 1 0
Then it is easy to see that e2 A is a faithful right A-module. Namely, there is a

monomorphism A D e1 A ˚ e2 A ! e2 A ˚ e2 A from the right A-module A to the
direct sum e2 A ˚ e2 A of 2 copies of e2 A, which assigns to .x; y/ 2 e1 A ˚ e2 A
the element .ax; y/ 2 e2 A ˚ e2 A. On the other hand, e2 A is not a generator of
mod A. Indeed, if e2 A is a generator of mod A, then, by Proposition 5.3, a direct
sum .e2 A/r of finitely many copies of e2 A has a direct summand isomorphic to AA .
Then, by the Krull–Schmidt theorem (Theorem I.4.6), e2 A has to be isomorphic to
the direct summand e1 A of A, which is not possible.
Let A and B be K-algebras and B MA be a (B; A)-bimodule. Then we have two

canonical homomorphisms of K-algebras
./L W B ! EndA .MA / and ./R W A ! EndB op .B M /op
such that bL .x/ D bx and aR .x/ D xa for b 2 B, a 2 A, x 2 M . We say that

B MA has the double centralizer property if ./L and ./R are isomorphisms of
K-algebras. Moreover, we say that a right A-module MA has the double centralizer
property if M regarded as an .EndA .M /; A/-bimodule has the double centralizer
property, or equivalently, the correspondence A ! EndEndA .M /op .M /op ; a 7! aR ,
is an isomorphism of K-algebras. We may also introduce the double centralizer
property for left A-modules. Namely, a left A-module A N has the double centralizer
property when the right Aop -module NAop has the double centralizer property. We
note that, if a right A-module M has the double centralizer property, then the left
EndA .M /-module M has the double centralizer property (see Exercise 8.29).
K. Morita [Mor] proved the following fundamental theorem which plays an
important role for the Morita equivalence theorem, in which the terminology “gen-
erator” was first introduced by H. Bass [Bas1] from the category theoretical view
point.
Theorem 5.10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, M be a module in mod A,

and let B be the endomorphism algebra EndA .M /. Then the following conditions
hold.
(i) If MA is projective, then B M is a generator of mod B op .
(ii) MA is a generator of mod A if and only if B M is projective and MA has the
double centralizer property.
Proof. (i) Assume that MA is projective. Then, by Proposition I.8.2, there is in
mod A an isomorphism of the form
An Š M ˚ X;
for a positive integer n and a right A-module X . Applying the functor HomA .; M /
to this isomorphism, we obtain isomorphisms of left B-modules
.B M /n Š B HomA .An ; M / Š B HomA .M; M / ˚ B HomA .X; M /
D B B ˚B HomA .X; M /:
Hence it follows from Proposition 5.3 that B M is a generator of mod B op .
(ii) Assume that MA is a generator of mod A. Then it follows from Propo-
sition 5.3 that there is a positive integer n and an isomorphism M n Š A ˚ X in
mod A for an A-module X . Applying HomA .; M / to this isomorphism, we obtain
isomorphisms in mod B op
B n D HomA .M n ; M / Š HomA .A; M / ˚ HomA .X; M / Š B M ˚ HomA .X; M /:
This implies that B M is a projective left B-module. Next we shall show that the
canonical homomorphism of K-algebras D ./R W A ! EndB op .M /op is an
isomorphism. Notice that is a monomorphism, because MA is a faithful right
A-module, by Corollary 5.8. Hence, it suffices to show that is an epimorphism.
Take homomorphisms ˛i 2 HomA .M; A/, i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, such that
Œ˛1 : : : ˛n W M1 ˚ ˚ Mn ! A
is surjective, where M1 ;P : : : ; Mn are copies of MA . Moreover, let mi 2 Mi , i 2
f1; : : : ; ng, be such that niD1 ˛i .mi / D 1A . For any x 2 M and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
let ˇi .x/ be the endomorphism of MA P D x˛i .y/ for y 2 M .
such that ˇi .x/.y/P
Then ˇ1 .x/; : : : ; ˇn .x/ 2 B and x D P niD1 x˛i .mi / D niD1 ˇi .x/.mi /: Now,
for any f 2 EndB op .M /op , taking a D niD1 ˛i .f .mi // 2 A, we obtain
X
n X
n X
n
f .x/ D f .ˇi .x/.mi // D f .ˇi .x/mi / D ˇi .x/f .mi /
iD1 iD1 iD1
Xn Xn
D x˛i .f .mi // D x ˛i .f .mi // D xa;
iD1 iD1
6. Morita equivalence 157
where ˇi .x/f .mi / D ˇi .x/.f .mi // by the definition of the left B-module structure
on M . Thus f .x/ D .a/.x/ for all x 2 M , and hence f D .a/, which shows
that D ./R is surjective.
Conversely, assume that B M is projective and W A ! EndB op .M /op is an
isomorphism of K-algebras. Then, by (i), M is a generator of mod EndB op .M /op ,
and hence of mod A, because of the isomorphism W A ! EndB op .M /op .
The following proposition is a direct consequence of Theorem 5.10.
Proposition 5.11. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras and M be a finite
dimensional (B; A)-bimodule. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) MA is a progenerator of mod A and the canonical map
./L W B ! EndA .M /
is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
(ii) BM is a progenerator of mod B op and the canonical map
./R W A ! EndB op .M /op
is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
6 Morita equivalence
Let A and B be K-categories and let F and G be K-linear covariant functors
from A to B. A natural transformation of functors W F ! G is called a natural
equivalence or natural isomorphism when the morphism X W F .X / ! G.X / is
an isomorphism for all objects X of A and then the inverse morphism X1 is a
component of a natural isomorphism 1 W G ! F of functors. In this case, we
write F Š G. Two K-categories A and B are said to be equivalent provided that
there exist functors F W A ! B and G W B ! A such that the composite GF is
naturally isomorphic to the identity functor 1A on A and the composite F G is
naturally isomorphic to the identity functor 1B on B. In that case, F and G are
called (a pair of ) equivalences or mutually inverse equivalences between A and B.
Moreover, we will also say that F W A ! B is an equivalence of categories and G
is a quasi-inverse functor for F .
Any covariant K-linear functor F W A ! B defines a K-linear homomorphism
FX;Y W HomA .X; Y / ! HomB .F .X /; F .Y //;
for any pair of objects X; Y of A, which assigns to a morphism u W X ! Y in A
the morphism F .u/ W F .X / ! F .Y / in B. If this homomorphism is injective or
surjective, the functor F is said to be faithful or full, respectively. Moreover, the
functor F is said to be dense if any object of B is isomorphic to one of the form
F .X/ for some object X of A.
Proposition 6.1. Let A and B be K-categories and F W A ! B a covariant K-

linear functor. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) F is an equivalence of categories.
(ii) F is faithful, full, and dense.
Proof. Assume that F is an equivalence of categories, G W B ! A is a quasi-inverse
functor for F , and W GF ! 1A and W F G ! 1B are natural equivalences of
functors. We will show that the functors F and G are faithful, full, and dense.
The density of F and G is obvious because we have the natural isomorphisms
Y W F G.Y / ! Y , for all objects Y of B, and X W GF .X / ! X , for all
objects X of A.
We will show now that the functor F is faithful. Let u; v be morphisms from X to
Y in A satisfying F .u/ D F .v/. Then, by the natural isomorphism W GF ! 1A ,
there is the commutative diagram in A for t 2 fu; vg,
X
GF .X / /X
GF .t/ t

GF .Y / /Y.
Y
Hence we obtain u D Y GF .u/X1 D Y GF .v/X1 D v. Similarly, we show that

the functor G is also faithful.
Next, we show that the functor F is full. Let w W F .X / ! F .Y / be any
morphism in B and let u be the composite Y G.w/X1 , so we have in A the
commutative diagram
X
GF .X / /X
G.w/ u

GF .Y / / Y.
Y
On the other hand, since u D Y GF .u/X1 , it follows that
Y GF .u/X1 D Y G.w/X1 ;
and therefore G.w/ D G.F .u//. This implies that w D F .u/, because the func-
tor G is faithful. Hence the functor F is full. Using the natural isomorphism
W F G ! 1B and the fact that the functor F is faithful, we show similarly that
the functor G is also full. In particular, we conclude that (i) implies (ii).
Conversely, assume that the functor F W A ! B is faithful, full and dense.
We will define a quasi-inverse functor G W B ! A for F . Since the functor F is
dense, we may fix for any object Y of B an object XY of A and an isomorphism

Y W F .XY / ! Y in B. We define G.Y / D XY . Moreover, since the functor F
is faithful and full, we may choose for any morphism g W Y ! Y 0 in B a unique
morphism f W XY ! XY 0 such that F .f / D 1 Y 0 gY , that is, the following
diagram in B,
Y
F .XY / /Y
F .f / g
Y 0
F .XY 0 / / Y0,
is commutative. Then we define G.g/ D f . Obviously this defines a covariant

K-linear functor G W B ! A, and the family Y W F G.Y / ! Y of isomorphisms
in B, for all objects Y of B, defines a natural equivalence W F G ! 1B of functors.
We define now a natural equivalence of functors W GF ! 1A as follows. For
any object X of A, we define YX D F .X /. Observe that F .X/ D YX is the
morphism
YX W F .GF .X // D F G.YX / ! YX D F .X /:
Since the functor F is faithful and full, there is a unique isomorphism X W GF .X / !
X in A such that F .X / D F .X/ D YX . Let f W X ! X 0 be a morphism in A.
We claim that the following diagram in A,
X
GF .X / /X
GF .f / f
X 0
GF .X 0 / / X0 ,
is commutative. Since W F G ! 1B is a natural isomorphism of functors, we

have in B the commutative diagram
F .X /
F G.F .X // / F .X /
F G.F .f // F .f /
F .X 0 /
F G.F .X 0 // / F .X 0 / .
Moreover, we have F .X / D F .X/ and F .X 0 / D F .X 0 / . Hence we obtain the

equalities
F .f X / D F .f /F .X / D F .f /F .X/

D F .X 0 / F G.F .f // D F .X 0 /F .GF .f //
D F .X 0 GF .f //;
and then the required equality f X D X 0 GF .f /, because the functor F is faithful.

Therefore, the family of isomorphisms X W GF .X / ! X , for all objects X of A,
defines a natural isomorphism W GF ! 1A of functors. Summing up, G is a
quasi-inverse functor for F . This shows that (ii) implies (i).
We also note the following fact.

Lemma 6.2. Let F W A ! B and G W B ! A be covariant K-linear functors
between K-categories such that GF Š 1A and F G Š 1B . Then F is a left adjoint
for G, and G is a left adjoint for F .
Proof. Let W GF ! 1A and W F G ! 1B be natural isomorphisms of functors.
Observe that, for any objects X of A and Y of B, we have natural K-linear
isomorphisms
HomB .F .X /; Y / W HomB .F .X /; F G.Y // ! HomB .F .X /; Y /;
FX;G.Y / W HomA .X; G.Y // ! HomB .F .X /; F G.Y //;

because the functor F is faithful and full. Then the composed isomorphisms
1 1
FX;G.Y / Hom B .F .X /; Y / W HomB .F .X /; Y / ! HomA .X; G.Y //
are natural in X and Y , and consequently F is a left adjoint for G. Similarly, we

prove that G is a left adjoint for F .
Two K-algebras A and B are said to be Morita equivalent if the categories

Mod A and Mod B are equivalent, and a functor F W Mod A ! Mod B defining
such an equivalence is called a Morita equivalence. As is shown later, in the
case when A; B are finite dimensional K-algebras, the existence of an equivalence
between Mod A and Mod B is equivalent to the existence of an equivalence between
mod A and mod B. Thus we also call an equivalence between mod A and mod B a
Morita equivalence.
The following simple lemma shows that an isomorphism of K-algebras induces
a Morita equivalence of the associated module categories.
Lemma 6.3. Let f W A ! B be an isomorphism of K-algebras. Then we have a
canonical equivalence
Ff W Mod B ! Mod A
of categories.
Proof. For a module M in Mod B, we define the module Mf D Ff .M / in Mod A
as follows: Mf D M as K-vector space and m a D mf .a/ for any m 2 M
and a 2 A. Observe that, for any homomorphism u W M ! N in Mod B, m 2
M and a 2 A, we have u.m/ a D u.m/f .a/ D u.mf .a// D u.m a/, and
so u D Ff .u/ W Ff .M / ! Ff .N / is a homomorphism in Mod A. Obviously,

Ff .vu/ D Ff .v/Ff .u/ for all homomorphisms u W M ! N and v W N ! L in
Mod B, and Ff .idM / D idFf .M / for any module M in Mod B. Hence, we have a
covariant K-linear functor
Ff W Mod B ! Mod A:
Let g W B ! A be the inverse homomorphism for f . Then g induces the

covariant K-linear functor
Fg W Mod A ! Mod B;
and the equalities Ff Fg D 1Mod A and Fg Ff D 1Mod B hold. In particular,

Ff W Mod B ! Mod A is an equivalence of categories.
Properties of a module or a homomorphism are said to be Morita invariant if
they are preserved under all Morita equivalences. Properties of an algebra A are
also said to be Morita invariant if they are true for all algebras Morita equivalent
to A.
Lemma 6.4. Let A and B be Morita equivalent K-algebras and F W Mod A !
u v
Mod B be a Morita equivalence. Moreover, let 0 ! X !
Y !
Z ! 0 be a short
exact sequence in Mod A. Then
F .u/ F .v/
0 ! F .X / ! F .Y / ! F .Z/ ! 0
is a short exact sequence in Mod B.

Proof. Let G W Mod B ! Mod A be a functor quasi-inverse to F and W GF !
1Mod A and W F G ! 1Mod B the associated equivalences of functors. Then we
have the following commutative diagram in Mod A,
G.F .u// G.F .v//
0 / G.F .X // / G.F .Y // / G.F .Z// /0
X Y Z

0 /X u /Y v /Z / 0,
with the vertical homomorphisms being isomorphisms. Then the upper sequence
is exact, because the lower one is exact by assumption. We will show now that the
sequence
F .u/ F .v/
0 ! F .X / ! F .Y / ! F .Z/ ! 0
in Mod B is also exact.
The exactness at F .X / is equivalent to saying that F .u/ is a monomorphism.
To show it, let w W W ! F .X / be a homomorphism in Mod B with F .u/w D 0.
Then G.F .u//G.w/ D G.F .u/w/ D 0, which implies that G.w/ D 0, because
G.F .u// is injective. Since G is faithful, by Proposition 6.1, it follows that w D 0.
Hence, F .u/ is indeed a monomorphism.
Next, to show the exactness at F .Y /, we have to show that Im F .u/ D Ker F .v/.
The inclusion Im F .u/ Ker F .v/ is clear, because F .v/F .u/ D F .vu/ D 0. We
will show now that Ker F .v/ Im F .u/. Take an element y 2 Ker F .v/, and con-
sider the right B-module W D yB and the canonical embedding w W W ! F .Y /
of right B-modules. Then F .v/w D 0 because Im w Ker F .v/. Hence
G.F .v//G.w/ D G.F .v/w/ D 0. Since Ker G.F .v// D Im G.F .u//, we con-
clude that there is a homomorphism t W G.W / ! G.F .X // in Mod A such that
G.w/ D G.F .u//t. Moreover, t D G.s/ for some homomorphism s W W ! F .X /
in Mod B, because the functor G W Mod B ! Mod A is full, by Proposition 6.1.
Then G.w/ D G.F .u//t D G.F .u//G.s/ D G.F .u/s/ implies w D F .u/s,
because G is a faithful functor. Therefore, we obtain that y 2 Im w D Im F .u/s
Im F .u/, and so Ker F .v/ Im F .u/, as required.
The exactness at F .Z/ is equivalent to saying that F .v/ is surjective. To show
it, let w W F .Z/ ! V be a homomorphism in Mod B with wF .v/ D 0. Then
G.w/G.F .v// D 0, and hence G.w/ D 0, because G.F .v// is surjective. Since
the functor G is faithful, it follows that w D 0. This ensures that F .v/ is surjective.

Lemma 6.4 asserts that the exactness of a sequence of homomorphisms is Morita
invariant. In particular, monomorphisms, epimorphisms, and isomorphisms are
Morita invariant. Thus the isomorphism classes of modules over an algebra A are
in 1-1 correspondence with the isomorphism classes of modules over an algebra B
Morita equivalent to A. Other important Morita invariant properties are described
below.
Proposition 6.5. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras, and F W Mod A !
Mod B be a Morita equivalence. Then F induces an equivalence of categories
F W mod A ! mod B
such that `.M / D `.F .M // for every nonzero module M in mod A.

Proof. It follows from Lemma I.7.7 that mod A is the full subcategory of Mod A
(respectively, mod B is the full subcategory of Mod B) consisting of all modules
of finite length. Therefore, it suffices to show that `.M / D `.F .M // for every
nonzero module M in mod A.
Let S be a simple module in mod A. We prove that F .S / is a simple module in
mod B. Observe that F .S/ is a nonzero B-module. Indeed, if F .S / D 0 then the
trivial homomorphism u W 0 ! S in mod A induces an isomorphism F .u/ W F .0/ !
F .S/ in Mod B, and consequently u is an isomorphism in mod A, because the
functor F is faithful (Proposition 6.1). This contradicts the fact that the simple
A-module S is nonzero. Let N be a nonzero B-submodule of F .S /, and v W N !

F .S/ be the canonical inclusion homomorphism. Since the functor F is dense
(Proposition 6.1), there exists a module X in Mod A such that F .X / is isomorphic
to N in Mod B. Hence, we have in Mod B a composed monomorphism g D
vw W F .X/ ! F .S/, for an isomorphism w W F .X / ! N in Mod B. Further,
g D F .f / for a homomorphism f W X ! S , because the functor F is also full
(Proposition 6.1). Then g ¤ 0 forces f ¤ 0, and so f is an epimorphism, because
S is a simple module in Mod A. Then g D F .f / is an epimorphism in Mod B, by
Lemma 6.4, and hence v W N ! F .S/ is an epimorphism in Mod B. This shows
that N D F .S /, and so F .S/ is a simple right B-module.
Let M be a nonzero module in mod A and take a composition series
0 D M0 M1 Mm D M
of M in mod A. Then `.M / D m and there exist in mod A short exact sequences
ui vi
0 ! Mi ! MiC1 ! MiC1 =Mi ! 0
such that MiC1 =Mi are simple right A-modules, for i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g. Then
it follows from Lemma 6.4 and the above considerations that there exist in Mod B
short exact sequences
F .ui / F .vi /
0 ! F .Mi / ! F .MiC1 / ! F .MiC1 =Mi / ! 0
such that F .MiC1 =Mi / are simple right B-modules, for i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g.
Consider now the family of B-submodules of F .M / D F .Mm /,
Ni D Im F .um1 / : : : F .uiC1 /F .ui / D Im F .um1 : : : uiC1 ui /;
i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g. Then we obtain a chain of B-submodules
0 D N0 N1 Nm1 Nm D F .M /
of F .M / such that, for i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g, Ni Š F .Mi / and NiC1 =Ni Š

F .MiC1 /=F .Mi / Š F .MiC1 =Mi / in Mod B, which implies that this chain is a
composition series of F .M /. In particular, we obtain `.F .M // D m D `.M / by
the Jordan–Hölder Theorem I.7.5.
Proposition 6.6. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras and F W Mod A !

Mod B be a Morita equivalence. Then for every nonzero module M in mod A the
following equivalences hold.
(i) M is a simple module in mod A if and only if F .M / is a simple module in

mod B.
(ii) M is an indecomposable module in mod A if and only if F .M / is an inde-

composable module in mod B.
(iii) M is a projective module in mod A if and only if F .M / is a projective module

in mod B.
(iv) M is an injective module in mod A if and only if F .M / is an injective module

in mod B.
(v) M is a generator in mod A if and only if F .M / is a generator in mod B.
(vi) Let M1 ; : : : ; Mn be nonzero modules in mod A. Then M Š M1 ˚ ˚ Mn

in mod A if and only if F .M / Š F .M1 / ˚ ˚ F .Mn / in mod B.
Proof. Let G W Mod B ! Mod A be a functor such that there exist natural isomor-
phisms of functors W GF ! 1Mod A and W F G ! 1Mod B . Then it follows
from Proposition 6.5 that we have the induced functors F W mod A ! mod B,
G W mod B ! mod A, and the equivalences of functors W GF ! 1mod A and
W F G ! 1mod B .
(i) This follows from Proposition 6.5 because M ¤ 0, F .M / ¤ 0 and `.M / D
`.F .M //.
(ii) Since the functor F is faithful and full, the K-linear homomorphism
FM;M W HomA .M; M / ! HomB .F .M /; F .M //, induced by F , is an isomor-
phism of K-algebras. Therefore EndA .M / is a local K-algebra if and only if
EndB .F .M // is a local K-algebra. Then (ii) follows from Lemma I.4.4.
(iii) Assume M is projective in mod A. We show that F .M / is projective in
mod B. Let u W X ! Y be an epimorphism and w W F .M / ! Y a homomorphism
in mod B. Since the functor G W mod B ! mod A carries, by Lemma 6.4, epimor-
phisms to epimorphisms, we conclude that G.u/ W G.X / ! G.Y / is an epimor-
phism in mod A. Further, we have in mod A an isomorphism M W G.F .M // ! M ,
and so G.F .M // is a projective module in mod A. Hence there exists a homomor-
phism v 0 W G.F .M // ! G.X / in mod A such that G.u/v 0 D G.w/. Since the
functor G W mod B ! mod A is full, we have v 0 D G.v/ for some homomorphism
v W F .M / ! X in mod B. Therefore, we obtain that G.uv/ D G.u/G.v/ D
G.u/v 0 D G.w/, which implies uv D w, because G is faithful. This shows that
indeed F .M / is a projective module in mod B. Similarly, one proves that if F .M /
is projective in mod B then G.F .M // is projective in mod A, and consequently M
is projective in mod A, because G.F .M // Š M in mod A.
(iv) This is proved by the dual arguments to ones used in (iii).
(v) Assume M is a generator of mod A. We show that F .M / is a generator
of mod B. Let Y be a module in mod B. Since F is a dense functor from mod A
to mod B, there is a module X in mod A such that Y Š F .X / in mod B. It
follows from the assumption on M and Proposition 5.3 that there is a positive
integer n and an epimorphism f W M n ! X in mod A. Hence, by Lemma 6.4,
we obtain the epimorphism F .f / W F .M n / ! F .X / in mod B. Then we have an

epimorphism F .M /n ! Y in mod B, because F .M /n Š F .M n / and Y Š F .X /
in mod B. Applying Proposition 5.3 we conclude that F .M / is a generator of
mod B. Similarly, we show that, if F .M / is a generator of mod B, then M is a
generator of mod A, because M Š G.F .M // in mod A.
(vi) Since F is an equivalence of categories, we conclude that F .M1 /; : : : ,
F .Mn / are nonzero modules in mod B.
Assume that M Š M1 ˚ ˚ Mn in mod A. We will show that F .M / Š
F .M1 /˚ ˚F .Mn / in mod B. Observe that there exist epimorphisms pi W M !
Mi and monomorphisms ui W Mi ! M with pi ui D idMi , for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, such
that e1 D u1 p1 ; : : : ; en D un pn are pairwise orthogonal idempotents of EndA .M /
and 1EndA .M / D idM D e1 C Cen . Then f1 D F .e1 /; : : : ; fn D F .en / are pair-
wise orthogonal idempotents of EndB .F .M // such that 1EndB .F .M // D idF .M / D
f1 C C fn . Applying Lemma 2.1, we conclude that F .M / is a direct sum
F .M / D f1 F .M / ˚ ˚ fn F .M / of B-submodules f1 F .M /; : : : ; fn F .M /.
Hence, in order to show that F .M / Š F .M1 / ˚ ˚ F .Mn / in mod B, it is
enough to prove that fi F .M / Š F .Mi / in mod B for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Fix
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. From the equality idMi D pi ui , we obtain idF .Mi / D F .idMi / D
F .pi ui / D F .pi /F .ui /, and hence F .ui / W F .Mi / ! F .M / is a monomorphism
and F .pi / W F .M / ! F .Mi / is an epimorphism in mod B. Moreover, fi F .M / D
F .ei /F .M / D F .ui pi /.F .M // D F .ui /.F .pi /.F .M /// D F .ui /.F .Mi //,
and so fi F .M / is the image of F .ui /. This shows that F .ui / defines an isomor-
phism F .Mi / ! fi F .M / of right B-modules, as required.
The sufficiency part of (vi) follows similarly by applying the quasi-inverse func-
tor G of F .
The next theorem is the first half of the Morita equivalence theorem which
asserts that a progenerator defines a Morita equivalence.
Theorem 6.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and P be a progenerator of
mod A. Then A is Morita equivalent to the endomorphism algebra B D EndA .P /
and, regarding P as a (B; A)-bimodule, the functors
HomA .P; / W Mod A ! Mod B;

HomB .HomA .P; A/; / W Mod B ! Mod A
define a Morita equivalence between Mod A and Mod B. Moreover, their restric-
tions to mod A and mod B define also an equivalence between mod A and mod B.
Proof. The last assertion follows by Proposition 6.5.
Let F D HomA .P; / and G D HomB .HomA .P; A/; /. We show that there
are natural isomorphisms of functors GF Š 1Mod A and F G Š 1Mod B . Since P is
a progenerator of mod A, it follows from Theorem 5.10 that B P is a progenerator of
mod B op and PA has the double centralizer property. In particular, B P is a projective
module in mod B op and there is a canonical isomorphism A

! EndB op .B P /op of
K-algebras. Applying Theorem 4.5 and Lemma I.8.7, we obtain isomorphisms of
right A-modules
HomA .P; A/ ˝B P Š HomA .HomB op .P; P /; A/
Š HomA .HomB op .P; P /op ; A/
Š HomA .A; A/ Š A:
Then, for every module X in Mod A, by Theorem 4.3 we obtain isomorphisms of
right A-modules
G.F .X // D HomB .HomA .P; A/; HomA .P; X //
Š HomA .HomA .P; A/ ˝B P; X /
Š HomA .A; X / Š X;
which are natural in X . This shows that there is a natural isomorphism of functors
GF Š 1Mod A .
It follows from Corollary 4.9 that there is a canonical isomorphism of right
B-modules
P ˝A HomA .P; A/ ! HomA .P; P / D B:
Then, applying Theorem 4.3 and Lemma I.8.7, we obtain, for every module Y in
Mod B, isomorphisms of right B-modules
F .G.Y // D HomA .P; HomB .HomA .P; A/; Y //
Š HomB .P ˝A HomA .P; A/; Y /;
Š HomB .B; Y / Š Y;
which are natural in Y . This proves that there is a natural isomorphism of functors
F G Š 1Mod B .
The next theorem is the second half of the Morita equivalence theorem which
asserts that a Morita equivalence determines a progenerator.
Theorem 6.8. Let A and B be Morita equivalent finite dimensional K-algebras
and let F W Mod A ! Mod B and G W Mod B ! Mod A be a Morita equivalence
pair. Then the following statements hold.
(i) There is a progenerator P of mod A such that B and EndA .P / are isomorphic
as K-algebras and, regarding P as a (B; A)-bimodule, there are natural
F Š HomA .P; / Š ˝A HomA .P; A/;
G Š HomB .HomA .P; A/; / Š ˝B P:
(ii) There is a progenerator Q of mod B such that A and EndB .Q/ are isomorphic
as K-algebras and, regarding Q as an (A; B)-bimodule, there are natural
F Š HomA .HomB .Q; B/; / Š ˝A Q;

G Š HomB .Q; / Š ˝B HomB .Q; B/:
(iii) For any progenerators B PA and A QB satisfying (i) and (ii), there are (A; B)-
bimodule isomorphisms
A QB Š A HomA .P; A/B Š A HomB op .P; B/B ;
and there are (B; A)-bimodule isomorphisms
B PA Š B HomB .Q; B/A Š B HomAop .Q; A/A :
Proof. Observe first that, by Lemma 6.2, F is left adjoint and right adjoint for G.
(i) Let P D G.B/. Applying Lemma 4.4 to the adjoint pair of functors
hG; F i we conclude that the functor F is naturally isomorphic to the hom func-
tor HomA .P; / and the functor G is naturally isomorphic to the tensor functor
˝B P . Further, by Lemma 5.4, B is a progenerator of mod B. Then, applying
Proposition 6.6, we obtain that P D G.B/ is a progenerator of mod A. Observe
also that the K-algebras B and EndA .P / are isomorphic. Indeed, there are canon-
ical isomorphisms of K-algebras B ! EndB .B/, which assigns to an element
b 2 B the left multiplication bL of B by b, and EndB .B/ ! EndA .G.B// D
EndA .P /, induced by the faithful and full functor G (see Proposition 6.1). It fol-
lows then from Theorem 6.7 that HomA .P; / W Mod A ! Mod EndA .P / and
HomB .HomA .P; A/; / W Mod EndA .P / ! Mod A form a pair of Morita equiv-
alences between Mod A and Mod EndA .P /. Moreover, Mod B is equivalent to
Mod EndA .P /, because B Š EndA .P /. In particular, Lemma 6.2 implies that the
functor F Š HomA .P; / is left adjoint for the functors HomB .HomA .P; A/; /
and ˝B P . Then, making use of Lemma 4.2, we conclude that the functors
HomB .HomA .P; A/; / and ˝B P from Mod B to Mod A are naturally isomor-
phic. Finally, by Theorem 4.3, the functor ˝A HomA .P; A/ W Mod A ! Mod B
is left adjoint for the functor HomB .HomA .P; A/; / W Mod B ! Mod A. Hence,
by Lemma 4.1, the functors HomA .P; / and ˝A HomA .P; A/ are naturally
isomorphic.
(ii) This is an immediate consequence of (i), for B replacing A and Q D F .A/.
(iii) Let B PA and A QB be progenerators of mod A and mod B, respectively,
satisfying the conditions (i) and (ii). We will show that there are .A; B/-bimodule
isomorphisms
A QB Š A HomA .P; A/B Š A HomB op .P; B/B :

It follows from (i) and (ii) that, for every right A-module X , we have isomorphisms
of right B-modules
X ˝A Q Š F .X / Š X ˝A HomA .P; A/;
which are natural in X , and hence are isomorphisms of .EndA .X /; B/-bimodules.

Taking now X D A, we obtain isomorphisms of .A; B/-bimodules
A QB Š A .A ˝A Q/B Š A .A ˝A HomA .P; A//B Š A HomA .P; A/B :
Since B PA is a progenerator of mod A, then it follows from Theorem 5.10 that B P

is a projective left B-module. Applying now Corollary 4.6 we conclude that, for
every module Y in mod B, there is an isomorphism of right A-modules
Y ˝B P Š HomB .HomB op .P; B/; Y /;
which is natural in Y , and so the functors ˝B P and HomB .HomB op .P; B/; /
from Mod B to Mod A are naturally isomorphic. Further, it follows from Theo-
rem 4.3 that the functor ˝A HomB op .P; B/ W Mod A ! Mod B is left adjoint
for the functor HomB .HomB op .P; B/; /, and hence for the functor ˝B P . On
the other hand, it follows from (i) that the functor ˝A HomA .P; A/ W Mod A !
Mod B is also left adjoint for the functor ˝B P . Therefore, applying Lemma 4.1,
we conclude that the functors ˝A HomB op .P; B/ and ˝A HomA .P; A/ from
Mod A to Mod B are naturally isomorphic. Then we obtain isomorphisms of
.A; B/-bimodules
A HomB op .P; B/B Š A .A ˝A HomB op .P; B//B Š A .A ˝A HomA .P; A//B

Š A HomA .P; A/B :
The required .B; A/-bimodule isomorphisms
B PA Š B HomB .Q; B/A Š B HomAop .Q; A/A
follow from the above considerations, by exchanging A with B and B PA with A QB .

Proposition 6.9. Let A and B be Morita equivalent finite dimensional K-algebras.
Then there is a 1-1 correspondence between the isomorphism classes of Morita
equivalences F W Mod A ! Mod B and the isomorphism classes of (B; A)-bimod-
ules P such that P is a progenerator of mod A with the double centralizer property,
via natural isomorphisms of functors F Š HomA .P; / from Mod A to Mod B.
Proof. Assume that P and P 0 are (B; A)-bimodules which are progenerators of
mod A and have the double centralizer property. Then it follows from Theorem 6.7
that F D HomA .P; / and F 0 D HomA .P 0 ; / are Morita equivalences from
Mod A to Mod B. Further, assume that P and P 0 are isomorphic as (B; A)-
bimodules, and let u W P 0 ! P be an isomorphism of (B; A)-bimodules. Then
the family HomA .u; X / W HomA .P; X / ! HomA .P 0 ; X / of homomorphisms in
Mod B, for all modules X in Mod A, defines a natural isomorphism of functors
F D HomA .P; / and F 0 D HomA .P 0 ; / from Mod A to Mod B.
Conversely, assume that F and F 0 are isomorphic Morita equivalences from
Mod A to Mod B. Then, by Theorem 6.8, there exist (B; A)-bimodules P and P 0
such that
(a) P and P 0 are progenerators of mod A;
(b) B Š EndA .P / and B Š EndA .P 0 / as K-algebras;
(c) the functors G D ˝B P and G 0 D ˝B P 0 from Mod B to Mod A are the
quasi-inverse functors for F and F 0 , respectively.
Moreover, it follows from Theorem 5.10 that P and P 0 have the double centralizer
property. In particular, since the functors F and F 0 are naturally isomorphic, we
conclude from (c) that the functors G and G 0 are also naturally isomorphic. Let
W G ! G 0 be a natural isomorphism of functors. We will show that P and P 0 are
isomorphic as (B; A)-bimodules. We know from Lemma 3.5 that there are canonical
0
isomorphisms of left B-modules ' P W B ˝B P ! P and ' P W B ˝B P 0 ! P 0
0
given by ' P .b ˝ p/ D bp and ' P .b ˝ p 0 / D bp 0 , for b 2 B, p 2 P and p 0 2 P 0 .
0
In fact, since P and P 0 are (B; A)-bimodules, ' P and ' P are isomorphisms of
(B; A)-bimodules. Consider the composed isomorphism of right A-modules
P 0
B 'P
f W P ! B ˝B P ! B ˝B P 0 ! P 0 ;
where P D .' P /1 . We claim that f is also an isomorphism of left B-modules.
PB .1B ˝ p/ D 1B ˝ f .p/ for any p 2 P . Indeed, letting
Observe first that
B .1B ˝ p/ D siD1 bi ˝ pi0 for some bi 2 B and pi0 2 P 0 , i 2 f1; : : : ; sg, we
have
Xs X
s
X s
bi ˝ pi0 D 1B ˝ bi pi0 D 1B ˝ bi pi0 D 1B ˝ p 0 ;
iD1 iD1 iD1
0
Ps 0
for p D iD1 bi pi . Hence, we obtain B .1B ˝ p/ D 1B ˝ p 0 . But then
0 0 0
f .p/ D ' P B P
.p/ D ' P B .1B ˝ p/ D ' P .1B ˝ p 0 / D p 0 :
Therefore, we get B .1B ˝ p/ D 1B ˝ f .p/. Further, for b 2 B, we have in
Mod A the commutative diagram
bL ˝idP 'P
B ˝B P / B ˝B P /P
B B f
bL ˝idP 0 'P
0
B ˝B P 0 / B ˝B P 0 / P0 ,
where bL is the left multiplication by b. Then we obtain, for b 2 B and p 2 P , the

equalities
P
f ' .bL ˝ idP / .1B ˝ p/ D f ' P .b ˝ p/ D f .bp/;
0 0
' P .bL ˝ idP 0 /B .1B ˝ p/ D ' P .bL ˝ idP /.1B ˝ f .p//
0
D ' P .b ˝ f .p// D bf .p/:
Hence f .bp/ D bf .p/, and so f is a homomorphism of left B-modules. Therefore,

f is an isomorphism of (B; A)-bimodules.
We note that it follows from the proofs of Theorems 6.7 and 6.8 that their
statements hold for Mod A and Mod B replaced by mod A and mod B.
We sum up below some basic properties of finite dimensional progenerators
over finite dimensional K-algebras.
Proposition 6.10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, P a progenerator of

mod A and B D EndA .P /. Then the following statements hold.
(i) HomA .P; A/ and HomB op .P; B/ are progenerators of mod B.
(ii) HomA .P; A/ Š HomB op .P; B/ as (A; B)-bimodules.
(iii) A Š EndB .HomA .P; A// Š EndAop .HomB op .P; B//op as K-algebras.
(iv) B Š EndAop .HomA .P; A//op Š EndB .HomB op .P; B// as K-algebras.
Proposition 6.11. For two finite dimensional K-algebras A and B, the following
(i) Mod A and Mod B are equivalent.

(ii) Mod Aop and Mod B op are equivalent.
(iii) mod A and mod B are equivalent.
(iv) mod Aop and mod B op are equivalent.
Proof. Assume (iii). Taking into account the note preceding Proposition 6.10, by the
Morita equivalence Theorem 6.8 for mod A and mod B, the statement (iii) implies
the existence of a (B; A)-bimodule P such that PA is a progenerator of mod A with
B Š EndA .P /. By Proposition 5.11, the left B-module P is then a progenerator
of mod B op and Aop D EndB op .P /. Hence (ii) follows by the Morita equivalence
Theorem 6.7. Further, the implication (ii) ) (iv) follows by Proposition 6.5. Thus
we have proved the implications (iii) ) (ii) ) (iv). This immediately implies,
invoking again Proposition 6.5, (iv) ) (i) ) (iii), because .Aop /op D A and
.B op /op D B.
The following criterion makes it easy to recognize Morita equivalences.
Lemma 6.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, and let X; Y and Z be

modules in mod A such that Y Š Z as right A-modules. Then the endomorphism
K-algebras EndA .X ˚ Y ˚ Z/ and EndA .X ˚ Y / are Morita equivalent.
Proof. Let M D X ˚ Y ˚ Z, N D X ˚ Y , B D EndA .M / and C D EndA .N /.

Notice that B and C are finite dimensional K-algebras, because M and N are
finite dimensional right A-modules. We denote by uX W X ! M , uY W Y ! M ,
uZ W Z ! M the canonical embeddings and by pX W M ! X , pY W M ! Y ,
pZ W M ! Z the canonical projections, for the direct sum decomposition M D
X ˚ Y ˚ Z of M . Let eX D uX pX ; eY D uY pY and eZ D uZ pZ . Then
eX ; eY ; eZ are pairwise orthogonal idempotents of B and 1B D eX C eY C eZ .
For e D eX C eY there are canonical K-algebra isomorphisms
' W C ! eBe; '.c/ D uX˚Y cpX˚Y for c 2 C;

W eBe ! C; .ebe/ D pX˚Y ebeuX˚Y for b 2 B;
where uX˚Y and pX˚Y are the canonical injection and canonical projection, re-
spectively, for the direct sum decomposition M D .X ˚ Y / ˚ Z of M . It is easily
verified that
e D eX˚Y D uX˚Y pX˚Y ; 1C D pX˚Y uX˚Y ;
and ' and ' are identities on C and eBe, respectively. Hence C is isomorphic
to EndB .eB/, because eBe Š EndB .eB/ as K-algebras (see Corollary I.8.8). On
the other hand, B D eX B ˚ eY B ˚ eZ B and eY B Š eZ B as right B-modules. In
fact, there are in mod B isomorphisms
eY B Š HomA .M; Y / Š HomA .M; Z/ Š eZ B;
where the middle isomorphism is induced by the assumption that Y and Z are
isomorphic right A-modules. Putting P D eB we therefore obtain an epimorphism
P 2 ! BB in mod B, and hence, by Proposition 5.3, the projective right B-module
P is a generator of mod B. Thus we have proved that C is isomorphic to the
endomorphism algebra EndB .P / of a progenerator P of mod B. Therefore, it
follows from Theorem 6.7 that the algebras B and C are Morita equivalent.
As a prototype of Morita equivalence may be considered the Wedderburn struc-

ture theorem (Theorem I.6.3).
Lemma 6.13. Let F be a finite dimensional division K-algebra, n a positive integer,

and Mn .F / the full n n matrix algebra over F . Then Mn .F / is Morita equivalent
to F .
Proof. The identity In of Mn .F / has the canonical decomposition In D E11 C

E22 C C Enn as a sum of the diagonal elementary matrices Ei i , i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
which are pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of Mn .F /. It follows from
the proof of Lemma I.6.2 that
Mn .F / D S1 ˚ S2 ˚ ˚ Sn
˚
where Sr D Err Mn .F / D Œaij 2 Mn .F / j aij D 0 for i ¤ r , r 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
are simple right Mn .F /-modules. Moreover, by Lemma I.8.23, Sr Š S1 in
mod Mn .F / for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Hence, Mn .F / Š S1n as right Mn .F /-
modules, and consequently, by Proposition 5.3, the simple module S1 is a pro-
generator of mod Mn .F /. Therefore, it follows from Theorem 6.7 that Mn .F / is
Morita equivalent to EndMn .F / .S1 /, which is isomorphic to F . This shows that
Mn .F / and F are Morita equivalent.
Corollary 6.14. Let A be a finite dimensional semisimple K-algebra. Then A is
Morita equivalent to a product F1 Fr of finite dimensional division K-
algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fr .
Proof. It follows from the Wedderburn structure theorem (Theorem I.6.3) that
there exist positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-algebras
F1 ; : : : ; Fr such that A Š Mn1 .F1 / Mnr .Fr / as K-algebras. Then it fol-
lows from Lemma 6.13 that A is Morita equivalent to F1 Fr (see also
Exercise 8.11).
Corollary 6.15. Let A be a finite dimensional simple K-algebra. Then A is Morita
equivalent to a finite dimensional division K-algebra F .
Proof. It is a direct consequence of Corollary I.6.5 and Lemma 6.13.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and take a minimal progenerator eA of
mod A with e 2 D e 2 A (see Lemma 5.4). For example, e may be taken as follows:
let
X
s1 X
sn Xn X si
1A D e1j C C enj D eij
j D1 j D1 iD1 j D1
be a decomposition of the identity 1A of A into the sum of pairwise orthogonal

primitive idempotents eij , where
eij A Š eik A for j; k 2 f1; : : : ; si g; eij A 6Š ei 0 k A for i ¤ i 0 ;

P
and then let e D niD1 ei1 . By the Morita equivalence theorem (Theorem 6.7), A
and eAe, isomorphic to EndA .eA/, are Morita equivalent. The algebra Ab D eAe
is called the basic algebra of A, which is uniquely determined by A, up to algebra
isomorphism, because it is the endomorphism algebra of a minimal progenerator
which is uniquely determined up to isomorphism, by Lemma 5.4. In particular,

an algebra A is said to be basic if A Š Ab , which is equivalent to saying that the
identity 1A of A is a sum of orthogonal primitive idempotents e1 ; : : : ; en such that
ei A 6Š ej A for all i ¤ j from f1; : : : ; ng. The notion of the basic algebra was
first introduced by C. Nesbitt and W. M. Scott [NeSc] in 1941. The result observed
above is stated as follows.
Theorem 6.16. Every finite dimensional K-algebra A is Morita equivalent to its
basic algebra Ab .
Lemma 6.17. Let Q be a finite quiver, I an admissible ideal of the path algebra
KQ of Q over K. Then the bound quiver algebra KQ=I is a basic algebra.
Proof. It follows from Lemmas I.1.3 and I.1.5 that A D KQ=I is a finite dimen-
sional K-algebra and the cosets ea D "a C I of the trivial paths "a at the vertices
P2 Q0 of Q form a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A with
a
ea D 1A . Moreover, the indecomposable projective modules ea A, a 2 Q0 , are
pairwise nonisomorphic (see Corollary I.8.29). Therefore, A D KQ=I is a basic
algebra.
Corollary 6.18. Let Q be a finite acyclic quiver. Then the path algebra KQ of Q
over K is a finite dimensional basic algebra.
The following proposition gives a characterization of finite dimensional basic
K-algebras.
Proposition 6.19. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then A is a basic
K-algebra if and only if A= rad A is isomorphic to a product F1 Fn of finite
dimensional division K-algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fn .
Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of pairwise orthogonal idempotents of A such that
1A D e1 C C en , and B D A= rad A. Then the cosets eN1 D e1 C rad A; : : : ; eNn D
en C rad A form a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of B with
1B D eN1 C C eNn , e1 A; : : : ; en A are indecomposable projective modules in mod A
with AA D e1 A ˚ ˚ en A and eN1 B; : : : ; eNn B are simple projective modules in
mod B with BB D eN1 B ˚ ˚ eNn B, by Corollary I.5.10 and Proposition I.5.16.
Moreover, for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have ei A Š ej A in mod A if and only if
eNi B Š eNj B in mod B (see Corollary I.8.6). Therefore, A is a basic K-algebra if
and only if the simple right B-modules eN1 B; : : : ; eNn B are pairwise nonisomorphic,
or equivalently, the semisimple algebra B D A= rad A is isomorphic to the product
F1 Fn of finite dimensional division K-algebras F1 D EndB .eN1 B/ Š
eN1 B eN1 ; : : : ; Fn D EndB .eNn B/ Š eNn B eNn .
Proposition 6.20. Let A and B be finite dimensional basic K-algebras. Then A
and B are Morita equivalent if and only if A and B are isomorphic.
Proof. It follows from Lemma 6.3 that if A and B are isomorphic K-algebras then
A and B are Morita equivalent.
Conversely, assume that A and B are Morita equivalent, and let F W Mod A !
Mod B be an equivalence functor. Then, by Theorem 6.7, the restriction of F
to mod A induces an equivalence F W mod A ! mod B of the categories of finite
dimensional modules. Since A is a basic K-algebra, it follows from Lemma 5.4 that
AA is a minimal progenerator of mod A. Applying Proposition 6.6 we then conclude
that F .AA / is a progenerator of mod B. Further, since F is a faithful and full K-
linear functor (see Proposition 6.1) and AA is a direct sum of pairwise nonisomorphic
indecomposable right A-submodules, it follows from Proposition 6.6 that F .AA /
is a direct sum of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable right B-submodules of
F .AA /, and consequently F .AA / is a minimal progenerator of mod B. Obviously
then F .AA / Š BB in mod B (see Lemma 5.4). Therefore, we obtain a sequence of
isomorphisms of K-algebras
A Š EndA .AA / Š EndB .F .AA // Š EndB .BB / Š B;
using Lemma I.6.1 and the fact that F is faithful and full.
The following corollary shows that the Morita equivalence classes of finite
dimensional K-algebras are uniquely determined by the isomorphism classes of
basic finite dimensional K-algebras.
Corollary 6.21. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras. Then A and B are
Morita equivalent if and only if the basic algebras Ab and B b are isomorphic.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 6.16 that A is Morita equivalent to its basic algebra
Ab and B is Morita equivalent to its basic algebra B b . Then the equivalence is a
direct consequence of Proposition 6.20.
We end this section with the general form of finite dimensional K-algebras
which are Morita equivalent to a fixed finite dimensional basic K-algebra.
Corollary 6.22. Let ƒ be a finite dimensional basic K-algebra and let ƒ D P1 ˚
˚ Pn be a decomposition of ƒ into a direct sum of indecomposable right ƒ-
modules, and A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then A is Morita equivalent to
ƒ if and only if A is isomorphic to an algebra of the form
M
n
ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n// WD Endƒ Pim.i/
iD1
for a sequence m.1/; : : : ; m.n/ of positive integers.

Proof. It follows from Proposition 5.3 and Lemma 5.4 that P is a progenerator of
L
mod ƒ if and only if P is isomorphic to a module of the form niD1 Pim.i/ for a
sequence m.1/; : : : ; m.n/ of positive integers. Then the required equivalence is a
direct consequence of the Morita equivalence theorems (Theorems 6.7 and 6.8).
7. Morita–Azumaya duality 175
We note that ƒ Š Endƒ .ƒ/ is a basic algebra of every algebra of the form
ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n//.
7 Morita–Azumaya duality
Let C and D be K-categories. We say that a pair of contravariant functors S W C ! D
and T W D ! C defines a (functorial) duality between C and D if the composites
T S and S T are naturally isomorphic to the identity functors 1C on C and 1D on D,
respectively. In this case, the functors S and T are called (a pair of ) dualities.
A contravariant functor S W C ! D may be regarded as a covariant functor
S 0 W Cop ! D or S 00 W C ! Dop such that S.X / D S 0 .X / for each object X of C
and S.f / D S 0 .f op / W S.X / ! S.X 0 / for each morphism f W X 0 ! X in C, and
S.X/ D S 00 .X / for each object X 2 C and S.f / D S 00 .f /op W S.X / ! S.X 0 / for
each morphism f W X 0 ! X in C. Under these notations, the contravariant functors
S W C ! D and T W D ! C define a duality between C and D if and only if the
covariant functors S 00 W C ! Dop and T 0 W Dop ! C define an equivalence between
C and Dop .
There is another useful interpretation of a duality in the case when C D mod A
and D D mod B op for finite dimensional K-algebras A and B. Let D0 D
HomK .; K/ be the standard duality between mod B and mod B op . Then two
contravariant functors D1 W mod A ! mod B op and D2 W mod B op ! mod A de-
fine a duality if and only if the composites F D D0 D1 W mod A ! mod B and
G D D2 D0 W mod B ! mod A define an equivalence between mod A and mod B,
which we may visualize as
D1 D0
/ /
mod A o mod B op o mod B :
D2 D0
It should be noted that we have to restrict the duality to the category of finite
dimensional modules, while the Morita equivalence involves the category of all
modules. An example suggesting this restriction is given in Exercise 8.44.
S. Eilenberg and S. Mac Lane [EM] observed in 1945 that the Pontrjagin dual-
ity [Pon], which assigns to a locally compact abelian group X the locally compact
abelian group Hom.X; R=Z/ of continuous homomorphisms from X to the one
dimensional torus R=Z, is in fact a duality for the category of locally compact
abelian groups and continuous homomorphisms. The functorial duality was es-
tablished axiomatically in 1950s by S. Mac Lane [ML1] and D. A. Buchsbaum
[Buc].
Let C be a K-category. An object M of C is called a cogenerator of C if,
for any two different morphisms f; g 2 HomC .X; Y /, there exists a morphism
h 2 HomC .Y; M / such that hf ¤ hg, or equivalently, for any nonzero morphism
f 2 HomC .X; Y /, there exists a morphism h 2 HomC .Y; M / such that hf ¤ 0.
By the definitions of a generator and a cogenerator, an object M of C is a cogen-

erator of C if and only if M is a generator of Cop , and if and only if the functor
HomC .; M / W C ! Mod K is faithful.
The following lemma is an immediate consequence of the definition of cogen-
erator (see Lemma 5.1).
Lemma 7.1. Let C be a K-category and M be an object of C. The following
statements hold.
(i) If M is a cogenerator of C and X is an object of C, then the direct sum M ˚X
is a cogenerator of C.
(ii) M is a cogenerator of C if M m is a cogenerator of C for some positive
integer m.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and let D be the standard duality
HomK .; K/ between mod Aop and mod A. Recall from Proposition I.8.16 that,
the duality D carries a projective or injective module X in mod Aop to an injective
or projective module in mod A, respectively. Moreover, since D.f / ¤ 0 for any
nonzero homomorphism f in mod Aop , a generator in mod Aop is transferred by
D to a cogenerator in mod A. Applying D, the statements in the Section 5 on
generators in mod Aop thus are transferred to the corresponding dual statements on
cogenerators of mod A.
The following lemma and proposition are the dual statements of Lemma 5.2 and
Proposition 5.3.
Lemma 7.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then D.A/ is an injective
cogenerator of mod A.
mensional right A-module. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) M is a cogenerator of mod A.
(ii) For any module X in mod A, there is a monomorphism from X to M n , for
some positive integer n.
(iii) There is a monomorphism from the right A-module D.A/ to M n , for some
positive integer n, or equivalently
M n Š D.A/ ˚ X
in mod A, for some positive integer n and a right A-module X .

(iv) M has an injective direct summand E D E1 ˚ ˚Em , where E1 ; : : : ; Em is
a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable injective modules
in mod A.
The following fact, a special case of Proposition 7.3, shows the structure of
injective cogenerators.
Corollary 7.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, S1 ; : : : ; Sn be a complete
set of pairwise nonisomorphic simple right A-modules, and M be a finite dimen-
sional injective right A-module. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) M is a cogenerator of mod A.
(ii) Each Si ; i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is isomorphic to a right A-submodule of M .
(iii) M is isomorphic to a direct sum E.S1 /r1 ˚ ˚ E.Sn /rn , for some posi-
tive integers r1 ; ; rn , where E.S1 /; : : : ; E.Sn / are injective envelopes of
S1 ; : : : ; Sn in mod A.
The following proposition is the dual of Proposition 5.11.
Proposition 7.5. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras and M be a finite
dimensional (B; A)-bimodule. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) MA is an injective cogenerator of mod A and the canonical map ./L W B !
EndA .M / is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
(ii) BM is an injective cogenerator of mod B op and the canonical map ./R W A !
EndB op .M /op is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
Considering the equivalent conditions in Corollary 7.4, we define an injective co-
generator Q of mod A to be minimal if QA is isomorphic to a direct sum of indecom-
posable injective right A-modules E.S1 /; : : : ; E.Sm /, where S1 ; : : : ; Sm is a com-
plete set of pairwise nonisomorphic simple right A-modules. Then D.E.S1 //; : : : ;
D.E.Sm // form a complete set of pairwise non-isomorphic indecomposable pro-
jective left A-modules, hence A P D D.E.S1 // ˚ ˚ D.E.Sm // Š D.QA / is a
minimal progenerator of mod Aop . A right A-module QA is then a minimal injective
cogenerator of mod A if and only if D.QA / is a minimal progenerator of mod Aop ,
and is uniquely determined up to isomorphism.
The case when M D A in Corollary 7.4 is especially important and, as it is
shown in the next proposition, the equivalent conditions in Corollary 7.4 are then
always satisfied by A.
Proposition 7.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. The following conditions
are equivalent.
(i) The left A-module A A is injective.
(ii) The right A-module AA is injective.
Moreover, in these cases, the A-modules A A and AA are injective cogenerators of
mod Aop and mod A, respectively.
Proof. Let 1A D e1 C C en be a decomposition of 1A into sum of pairwise

orthogonal primitive idempotents of A, and, by changing the indices (if necessary),
we may assume that e1 A; : : : ; em A (or equivalently, Ae1 ; : : : ; Aem ), m n, is
a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules of
mod A (respectively, mod Aop ). Let e D e1 C C em . Then, by Lemma 5.4, eA
and Ae are minimal progenerators of mod A and mod Aop , respectively. Applying
the standard duality D D HomK .; K/, we conclude that D.Ae/A and A D.eA/
are then minimal injective cogenerators of mod A and mod Aop , respectively. By
the left-right symmetry, it is enough to show (i) ) (ii) only.
Assume that A A is injective. Then A Ae is injective, as a direct summand of A A,
and hence D.Ae/A is projective. Therefore, D.Ae/A is a direct sum of pairwise
nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules D.Aei /, i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. By
Lemma 5.4, D.Ae/A is then a minimal progenerator of mod A, and hence D.Ae/ Š
eA as right A-modules, which implies that eA is an injective cogenerator of mod A.
This ensures that AA is an injective cogenerator of mod A as desired, because AA
is isomorphic to a direct summand of an injective right A-module .eA/r , for some
positive integer r, and AA contains eA (as a direct summand) being a cogenerator
of mod A.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A is said to be selfinjective if A A or AA is an

injective A-module, or equivalently, both A A and AA are injective A-modules.
Lemma 7.7. Let S W C ! D be a duality of K-categories and X be an object of

C. Then the following equivalences hold.
(i) X is a generator of C if and only if S.X / is a cogenerator of D.
(ii) X is a cogenerator of C if and only if S.X / is a generator of D.
Proof. Since the covariant functor S 00 W C ! Dop associated to S is an equivalence

of K-categories, we easily conclude that X is a generator of C if and only if S 00 .X /
is a generator of Dop , and if and only if S.X / is a cogenerator of D. Similarly, X
is a cogenerator of C if and only if S 00 .X / is a cogenerator of Dop , and if and only
if S.X/ is a generator of D.
Lemma 7.8. Let S W C ! D and T W D ! C define a duality of K-categories.

Then, for any objects X of C and Y of D, there is a K-linear isomorphism
Y;X W HomD .Y; S.X // ! HomC .X; T .Y //;
which is natural in X and Y .
Proof. Recall that the naturality of Y;X in X and Y means by definition that the
diagram
Y 0 ;X 0
HomD .Y 0 ; S.X 0 // / HomC .X 0 ; T .Y 0 //
Hom.v;S.u// Hom.u;T .v//

HomD .Y; S.X // / HomC .X; T .Y //
Y;X
is commutative for all morphisms u W X ! X 0 of C and v W Y ! Y 0 of D.

Now consider the equivalences S 00 W C ! Dop and T 0 W Dop ! C, associated
to S and T . Then, by Lemma 6.2, the pair of functors hS 00 ; T 0 i is an adjunction.
Hence there is a K-linear isomorphism
'X;Y W HomDop .S 00 .X /; Y / ! HomC .X; T 0 .Y //;
for any objects X of C and Y of D , which is natural in X and Y . Since by definition

S 00 .X/ D S.X /, T 0 .Y / D T .Y / and HomD .Y; S.X // D HomDop .S 00 .X /; Y /, we
have the K-linear isomorphism
Y;X W HomD .Y; S.X // ! HomC .X; T .Y //
such that Y;X .f / D 'X;Y .f op / for all f 2 HomD .Y; S.X //, and its naturality
in X and Y is a direct translation of the naturality of 'X;Y in X and Y . (Deduce
the above commutative diagram from the corresponding commutative diagram for
'X;Y .)
Applying Lemma 7.8 to the standard duality HomK .; K/ between mod A and
mod Aop for a finite dimensional K-algebra A, we have the following lemma.
Lemma 7.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then, for any modules X
in mod A and Y in mod Aop , there is a K-linear isomorphism
HomA .X; HomK .Y; K// ! HomAop .Y; HomK .X; K//;
which is natural in X and Y .
The next fact shows that the standard duality D D HomK .; K/ preserves the
double centralizer property of a module.
Lemma 7.10. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras, and M an (A; B)-
bimodule with the double centralizer property. Then the (B; A)-bimodule D.M / D
HomK .M; K/ has the double centralizer property.
Proof. By the double centralizer property of M we have isomorphisms of K-

algebras

˛ W A
! EndB .M /; ˇ W B ! EndAop .M /op
such that ˛.a/.m/ D am and ˇ.b/.m/ D mb for all a 2 A; b 2 B and m 2 M .

Then, by the duality D D HomK .; K/ between mod A and mod Aop , we have the
composed K-algebra isomorphism
ˇ D
W B
! EndAop .M /op
! EndA .HomK .M; K//
such that .b/.u/ D bu for all b 2 B; u 2 HomK .M; K/. Indeed, for b 2
B and u 2 HomK .M; K/, we have .b/.u/ D .D.ˇ.b///.u/ D D.bR /.u/ D
Hom.bR ; K/.u/ D ubR , where bR 2 EndA .M / is the right multiplication by
b 2 B, and hence ..b/.u//.m/ D .ubR /.m/ D u.mb/ D .bu/.m/ for all
m 2 M , which implies that .b/.u/ D bu.
Similarly, we have the composed K-algebra isomorphism
˛ D
0 W A !
EndB .M /
! EndB op .HomK .M; K//op
such that 0 .a/.u/ D ua for all a 2 A; u 2 HomK .M; K/.

A typical example of dualities is provided by the correspondence of the form
XR 7! S HomR .X; U /, for a bimodule S UR over rings R; S. We have already used
often the duality X 7! HomK .X; K/ for finite dimensional K-vector spaces, that is,
K-modules. The duality by the correspondence X 7! X D HomA .X; A/, that is,
X Š X , for all finite dimensional modules X over a finite dimensional selfinjec-
tive algebra A, was developed mainly by T. Nakayama [Nak2], M. Hall [Hal], and
M. Ikeda [Ike]. The module correspondence over a selfinjective algebra was slightly
generalized by H. Tachikawa [Tac] to the correspondence X 7! HomA .X; U / by
an injective cogenerator U over an algebra A. In 1958 K. Morita finally established
the functorial duality theory for categories of modules over rings which includes
the dualities given by selfinjective algebras, the Pontrjagin duality, and many other
known dualities appeared in mathematics (see for example T.Y. Lam [Lam]), and
the same duality theory was also obtained independently by G. Azumaya [Azu2].
Hence we call the functorial duality the Morita–Azumaya duality.
The duality theorems we state in this chapter are restricted to the finite dimen-
sional algebras, but the essence of the general duality theorems will be visible
for these algebras. The following is the first half of the Morita–Azumaya duality
theorem which asserts that an injective cogenerator defines a duality.
Theorem 7.11. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, Q be a finite dimensional
right A-module and B D EndA .Q/. Assume that Q is an injective cogenerator of
mod A. Then the pair of contravariant functors
HomA .; Q/ W mod A ! mod B op ;

HomB op .; Q/ W mod B op ! mod A
define a duality between mod A and mod B op .

Proof. Observe first that Q is a .B; A/-bimodule. Let D D HomK .; K/ be

the standard duality between mod A and mod Aop , D0 D HomK .; K/ be the
standard duality between mod B and mod B op , and let D1 D HomA .; Q/ and
D2 D HomB op .; Q/. Then we have the functors
D1 D0
D / / /
mod Aop o mod A o mod B op o mod B:
D D2 D0
Let P D D.Q/. Then P is a projective generator of mod Aop , because Q is

an injective cogenerator of mod A, and B Š EndAop .P /op (by Proposition 7.5
and Lemma 7.10). By the Morita equivalence theorem (Theorems 6.7 and 6.8) the
(A; B)-bimodule P induces a pair of equivalence functors F D ˝A P W mod A !
mod B and G D HomB .P; / W mod B ! mod A. We show the existence of
natural isomorphisms of functors
D2 D1 Š 1mod A and D1 D2 Š 1mod B op :
First we claim that D0 D1 Š F . For all modules X in mod A, there are natural
(in X) isomorphisms of right B-modules
D0 D1 .X / Š HomK .HomA .X; Q/; K/
Š HomK .HomA .X; HomK .P; K//; K/
Š HomK .HomK .X ˝A P; K/; K/ Š X ˝A P D F .X /;
where Q Š D.P / and the third isomorphism is by Theorem 4.3, applied to the
.A; K/-bimodule P . Thus we have a natural isomorphism of functors D0 D1 Š F .
Next we show that D2 D0 Š G. For all modules Y in mod B, there are natural
(in Y ) isomorphisms of right A-modules
D2 D0 .Y / Š HomB op .D0 .Y /; Q/ Š HomB op .D0 .Y /; D.P //
Š HomB op .D0 .Y /; D0 .PB //
Š HomB .P; Y / D G.Y /:
Thus we have a natural isomorphism D2 D0 Š G of functors. Combining the above
isomorphisms, we obtain natural isomorphisms of functors .D2 D0 /.D0 D1 / Š
GF Š 1mod A and .D0 D1 /.D2 D0 / Š F G Š 1mod B . The first isomorphism
then implies natural isomorphisms of functors D2 D1 Š D2 .D0 D0 /D1 Š 1mod A ,
where D0 D0 is naturally isomorphic to the identity functor 1mod B op on mod B op .
From the second isomorphism, we have natural isomorphisms of functors
D1 D2 Š D0 .D0 D1 D2 D0 /D0 Š D0 1mod B D0 Š D0 D0 Š 1mod B op :
Therefore, we have natural isomorphisms of functors D2 D1 Š 1mod A and D1 D2 Š
1mod B op , and we conclude that D1 and D2 define a duality between mod A and
mod B op .
The next theorem is the second half of the Morita–Azumaya duality theorem
which characterizes the duality by an injective cogenerator.
Theorem 7.12. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras. Assume that a pair
of contravariant functors
D1 W mod A ! mod B op and D2 W mod B op ! mod A
defines a duality. Then there is a (B; A)-bimodule Q such that Q satisfies the
double centralizer property, is an injective cogenerator of mod A and of mod B op ,
and there are natural isomorphisms of functors
D1 Š HomA .; Q/ and D2 Š HomB op .; Q/:
Proof. Let D0 D HomK .;K/ be the standard duality between mod B and mod B op.
Then the pair of functors D0 D1 W mod A ! mod B and D2 D0 W mod B ! mod A
defines an equivalence between mod A and mod B. It follows from the Morita
equivalence Theorem 6.8 (and its proof) that P D D0 D1 .A/ is an (A; B)-bimodule,
P is a progenerator of mod B, and there are natural isomorphisms of functors
D0 D1 Š ˝A P and D2 D0 Š HomB .P; /. Hence, for any module X of
mod A, there is an isomorphism of right B-modules .D0 D1 /.X / Š X ˝A P ,
natural in X, and so we obtain isomorphisms of left B-modules
D1 .X / Š HomK .X ˝A P; K/ Š HomA .X; D0 .P //;
where the second isomorphism is by the adjoint theorem (Theorem 4.3) for the
.A; K/-bimodule P . Thus D1 is naturally isomorphic to HomA .; D0 .P //. On
the other hand, for any module Y of mod B op , we have isomorphisms of right
A-modules
D2 .Y / Š D2 .D0 D0 /.Y / Š.D2 D0 /.D0 .Y //

Š HomB .P; D0 .Y // Š HomB op .Y; D0 .P //;
where the last isomorphism follows by Lemma 7.9. Therefore, we obtain an iso-
morphism of right A-modules
D2 .Y / Š HomB op .Y; D0 .P //;
which is natural in Y . Hence D2 is naturally isomorphic to HomB op .; D0 .P //.

Finally, observe that, since the (A; B)-bimodule P is a progenerator of mod B,
P has the double centralizer property, by Theorem 5.10. Then the (B; A)-bimodule
D0 .P / has the double centralizer property, by Lemma 7.10, and is an injective
cogenerator of mod A and of mod B op , because it is the dual of A PB . Thus letting
Q D D0 .P / we complete the proof.
By Theorems 7.11 and 7.12 we know that a Morita–Azumaya duality between

mod A and mod B op is exactly determined by a finite dimensional (B; A)-bimodule
Q satisfying the equivalent conditions presented in Proposition 7.5. We call such a
bimodule Q a duality module.
Proposition 7.13. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras. Then there is a
1-1 correspondence between the isomorphism classes of dualities D from mod A
to mod B op and isomorphism classes of duality (B; A)-bimodules Q, via natural
isomorphisms of functors D Š HomA .; Q/ from mod A to mod B op .
Proof. It follows from Lemma 7.10 that there is a 1-1 correspondence between the
isomorphism classes of duality (B; A)-bimodules Q and the isomorphism classes of
(A; B)-bimodules P such that P is a progenerator of mod Aop with the double cen-
tralizer property, via the isomorphism P Š HomK .Q; K/ of (A; B)-bimodules.
Then, by Propositions 6.9 and 6.11, the isomorphism classes of such (A; B)-
bimodules P are in 1-1 correspondence with the isomorphism classes of Morita
equivalences F W mod Aop ! mod B op , via natural isomorphisms of functors
F Š HomAop .P; / from mod Aop to mod B op . Further, as we noticed above,
the isomorphism classes of such Morita equivalences F are in 1-1 correspon-
dence with the isomorphism classes of dualities D from mod A to mod B op , via
the natural isomorphisms of functors D Š FD0 from mod A to mod B op , where
D0 D HomK .; K/ is the standard duality from mod A to mod Aop . Applying now
Lemma 7.9, we obtain the natural isomorphisms of functors
D Š HomAop .P; / HomK .; K/ Š HomA .; HomK .P; K// Š HomA .; Q/
which completes the proof.
A duality between mod A and mod Aop is called a selfduality. For contravari-
ant functors D1 W mod A ! mod Aop and D2 W mod Aop ! mod A defining a
selfduality, both functors D1 and D2 are isomorphic to hom functors of the forms
HomA .; Q/ and HomAop .; Q/, respectively, where Q is an injective cogenerator
of mod A with A Š EndA .QA / and of mod Aop with A Š EndAop .A Q/op . Thus,
unless no confusion occurs, we write the same notation, say D, for those contravari-
ant functors D1 ; D2 , and also write D 2 for D2 D1 and D1 D2 . Then D 2 Š 1mod A
and D 2 Š 1mod Aop . In this case, the injective cogenerator Q is isomorphic to D.A/
as an A-bimodule, and D.A/ is a selfduality module. Therefore, the A-bimodule
isomorphism classes of selfduality modules are in 1-1 correspondence with the
natural isomorphism classes of selfdualities. Notice that by Corollary 7.4 a self-
duality module over a basic K-algebra A is nothing else than a minimal injective
cogenerator of mod A or equivalently mod Aop .
Corollary 7.14. For a finite dimensional K-algebra A, the standard duality D D
HomK .; K/ between mod A and mod Aop is a selfduality for mod A, and its duality
module Q is isomorphic to the A-bimodule HomK .A; K/.
Proof. This is a consequence of the following natural isomorphisms in mod Aop ,

for any module X in mod A,
HomA .X; HomK .A; K// Š HomK .X ˝A A; K/ Š HomK .X; K/;
where the first isomorphism follows by Theorem 4.3 for the .A; K/-bimodule A,
and the second follows by Lemma 3.5.
We shall consider the problem of determining selfduality modules over a finite

dimensional basic K-algebra. Let A be a finite dimensional basic K-algebra, and
Q a selfduality A-module. Since both Q and D.A/ are minimal injective cogen-
erators of mod Aop , we have an isomorphism A Q Š A D.A/ of left A-modules and
isomorphisms of K-algebras
EndAop .A Q/op Š A and EndAop .A D.A//op Š A:
Thus the selfduality A-modules are different only in the right operation of the
elements of A. In order to describe the difference, we need automorphisms of
an algebra. For a finite dimensional K-algebra A, let Aut.A/ be the group of
all K-algebra automorphisms of A and Inn.A/ the subgroup of Aut.A/ of inner
automorphisms. Here, an automorphism ˛ of A is said to be inner if there is an
invertible element c of A such that ˛.x/ D cxc 1 for all x 2 A. Moreover, Inn.A/
is called the inner automorphism group of A. An element of Aut.A/ n Inn.A/ is
called an outer automorphism of A and the factor group Aut.A/= Inn.A/ is called
the outer automorphism group of A, and is denoted by Out.A/. For ˛ 2 Aut.A/, we
denote by ˛Q its coset ˛ C Inn.A/ in Out.A/. We note that ˛ Inn.A/ D Inn.A/˛ for
all ˛ 2 Aut.A/ (see Exercise 8.52). Let M be a right A-module and ˛ 2 Aut.A/.
By M˛ we denote the right A-module such that M˛ D M as K-vector space and
the right operation of an element a of A on M˛ is defined by
xa D x˛.a/ for a 2 A and x 2 M:
Similarly, ˛ N is defined for a left A-module N and an element ˛ 2 Aut.A/.
Lemma 7.15. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, D D HomK .; K/ the

standard duality, and ˛, ˇ be elements of Aut.A/. The following conditions are
equivalent.
(i) D.A/˛ Š D.A/ˇ as A-bimodules.
(ii) ˛A Š ˇ A as A-bimodules.
Q
(iii) ˛Q D ˇ.
Proof. Observe first that D.A/˛ D D.˛ A/ and D.A/ˇ D D.ˇ A/, and hence (i)
is equivalent to (ii). We will show that (ii) and (iii) are also equivalent. Notice
that, for any isomorphism W AA ! AA of right A-modules, the image .1A / of
1A is an invertible element of A. Indeed, 1A D 1 .1A / D 1 .1A .1A // D
1 .1A / .1A / and 1A D 1 .1A / D .1A 1 .1A // D .1A / 1 .1A /.
Assume that there is an A-bimodule isomorphism W ˛ A ! ˇ A. Then we have
the equalities
.˛.a// D .1A ˛.a// D .1A /˛.a/;
.˛.a// D .a 1A / D a .1A / D ˇ.a/ .1A /;

for all a 2 A. Hence we obtain that ˇ.a/ D .1A /˛.a/ .1A /1 for all a 2 A. Take
the inner automorphism of A such that .a/ D .1A /a .1A /1 for all a 2 A.
Then we have ˇ D ˛ and consequently ˛Q D ˇ. Q
Q
Conversely, assume that ˛Q D ˇ, and let 2 Inn.A/ be such that ˇ D ˛ and
.a/ D cac 1 for an invertible element c of A and all a 2 A. Note that then
ˇ.a/c D c˛.a/ for all a 2 A. Now consider the mapping W ˛ A ! ˇ A defined by
.a/ D ca for all a 2 A. We claim that is an A-bimodule isomorphism. Indeed,
this follows by the equalities
.˛.a/ba0 / D c˛.a/ba0 D ˇ.a/cba0 D ˇ.a/ .b/a0 ;
that is, .a ba0 / D a .b/a0 for all a; b; a0 2 A.
Proposition 7.16. Let A be a finite dimensional basic K-algebra. Then there is

a 1-1 correspondence between the isomorphism classes of selfduality modules Q
and the outer automorphisms classes ˛Q 2 Out.A/ of ˛ 2 Aut.A/, given by the
correspondence Q 7! ˛,Q satisfying
Q Š D.A/˛
as A-bimodules, where D D HomK .; K/.
Proof. By Lemma 7.15, there is a 1-1 correspondence between the isomorphism

classes of A-bimodules D.A/˛ , ˛ 2 Aut.A/, and the elements ˛Q of the outer
automorphism group Out.A/ of A. Hence, it suffices to show that a selfduality
module Q is isomorphic to an A-bimodule D.A/˛ , for some ˛ 2 Aut.A/. Let
! W A Q ! A D.A/ be an isomorphism of left A-modules. If we can show that
there is an automorphism ˛ of A such that !.xa/ D !.x/˛.a/ for all x 2 Q and
a 2 A, then ! gives an A-bimodule isomorphism from Q to D.A/˛ . Thus we
claim that such an automorphism ˛ of A exists.
For any a 2 A, consider the homomorphism of left A-modules
a D !aR ! 1 W A D.A/ ! A D.A/;

where aR W A Q ! A Q is the right multiplication by a. Therefore the following

diagram in mod Aop is commutative:
aR
AQ
/ AQ
! !

A D.A/
/ A D.A/ .
a
Since D induces a duality between mod A and mod Aop , there exists a unique
element ˛.a/ of A such that a D Hom.˛.a/L ; K/, where ˛.a/L W AA ! AA is
the left multiplication by ˛.a/.
We claim that the induced map ˛ W A ! A is an algebra automorphism of A.
Observe that, for all a; b 2 A, we have the commutative diagram
aR bR
AQ
/ AQ / AQ
! ! !

A D.A/
/ A D.A/ / A D.A/
D.˛.a/L / D.˛.b/L /
in mod Aop , and hence the equalities
D.˛.ab/L / D ! .ab/R ! 1 D ! .bR aR / ! 1 D .! bR ! 1 /.! aR ! 1 /

D D.˛.b/L /D.˛.a/L / D D.˛.a/L ˛.b/L / D D .˛.a/˛.b//L ;
which implies that ˛.ab/L D .˛.a/˛.b//L , and so ˛.ab/ D ˛.a/˛.b/. Obviously

˛ W A ! A is a K-linear homomorphism. Therefore, indeed ˛ 2 Aut.A/.
The following basic fact is obtained as an application of facts on duality modules.
Lemma 7.17. Let L be a finite extension field of K and A be a finite dimensional

L-algebra. Then the following statements hold.
(i) HomK .; K/ and HomL .; L/ are naturally isomorphic as contravariant
functors on mod L.
(ii) HomK .A; K/ Š HomL .A; L/ as A-bimodules.
Proof. (i) Let D D HomL .; L/ be the selfduality for mod L, where L is regarded
as a K-algebra. Then, by Proposition 7.16, there exists an automorphism of
the K-algebra L such that there is an isomorphism W D.L/ ! HomK .L; K/
of L-bimodules. We shall prove the assertion by showing that is the identity
automorphism of L.
Let ' W L ! HomK .L; K/ be the composite
0
' W L ! HomL .L; L/
! HomK .L; K/ ;
where 0 W L ! HomL .L; L/ is the canonical L-bimodule isomorphism such that

0 .x/.y/ D xy for all x; y 2 L. Since ' is an L-bimodule isomorphism, '.1L /
is nonzero and satisfies a'.1L / D '.1L / .a/ for all a 2 L. Indeed, for a 2 L,
'.a/ D '.a1L / D a'.1L / as ' is a left L-homomorphism, and '.a/ D '.1L a/ D
'.1L / a D '.1L / .a/ as ' is a right L-homomorphism. Letting f D '.1L /, we
then have
0 D .af f .a//.x/ D f .xa .a/x/ D f ..a .a//x/
for all x 2 L, because xa D ax in L. Hence f ..a .a//L/ D 0. Now suppose

that .a/ ¤ a for some element a 2 L. Then .a .a//L D L because L is a
field. Hence f .L/ D 0, that is, f D 0 as a homomorphism from L to K. This
however contradicts that '.1L / ¤ 0. Thus .a/ D a for all a 2 L, or equivalently,
is the identity automorphism idL of L. Therefore, W D.L/ ! HomK .L; K/ is
an isomorphism of L-bimodules, and hence we obtain the natural isomorphism of
functors
D. / W HomL .; D.L// ! HomL .; HomK .L; K//:
Since HomL .L; D.L// Š D.L/ and HomL .L; HomK .L; K// Š HomK .L; K/
as L-bimodules, applying Theorem 7.12, we conclude that we have natural isomor-
phisms of functors
HomL .; L/ Š HomL .; D.L// and HomK .; K/ Š HomL .; HomK .L; K//:
Hence the functors HomK .; K/ and HomL .; L/ from mod L to mod Lop are
naturally isomorphic.
(ii) Since L is commutative, by (i) there is a natural isomorphism of functors
W HomK .; K/ ! HomL .; L/ from mod L to mod L D mod Lop . Hence, for
every module X in mod L, we have a natural isomorphism X W HomK .X; K/ !
HomL .X; L/ in mod L. Then A W HomK .A; K/ ! HomL .A; L/ is an L-linear
isomorphism. We shall show that A is a homomorphism of A-bimodules. Let
aR W A ! A be the right multiplication by a 2 A. Then, by the naturality of , we
have in mod L the commutative diagram
A
HomK .A; K/ / HomL .A; L/
HomK .aR ;K/ HomL .aR ;L/

HomK .A; K/ / HomL .A; L/ .
A
Take u 2 HomK .A; K/. Then we have the equalities

A .uaR / D A HomK .aR ; K/ .u/

D HomK .aR ; L/A .u/ D A .u/aR ;
where, for x 2 A, .uaR /.x/ D u.aR .x// D u.xa/ D .au/.x/, and hence uaR D
au. Observe also that, for any x 2 A, we have the equalities
.A .u/aR / .x/ D A .u/ .aR .x// D A .u/.xa/ D .aA .u// .x/;
and hence A .u/aR D aA .u/. Therefore A .au/ D aA .u/. Similarly, one
proves that A .ua/ D A .u/a for all a 2 A. Hence we obtain A .a0 xa/ D
a0 A .xa/ D a0 A .x/a for all a; a0 ; x 2 A, which shows that A is an A-bimodule
homomorphism.
8 Exercises
In all exercises below K will denote a field.
1. Let F and G be finite dimensional division K-algebras, F MG an .F; G/-
bimodule, and assume that K acts centrally on F MG and dimK F MG < 1. Prove
that ² ³
G 0 a 0 ˇˇ
AD D a 2 G; b 2 F; m 2 F MG
F MG F m b
is a finite dimensional hereditary K-algebra.
2. Let A be a K-algebra, X; X1 ; : : : ; Xm be right A-modules and Y; Y1 ; : : : ; Ym be
left A-modules. Prove that there are isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
M
m M
m

Xi ˝A Y
! .Xi ˝A Y /
iD1 iD1
and
M
n M
n

X ˝A Yj ! X ˝A Yj :
j D1 j D1
3. Let V1 ; V2 ; : : : ; Vn , n 2, be finite dimensional K-vector spaces. Show that
dimK .V1 ˝K V2 ˝K ˝K Vn / D .dimK V1 /.dimK V2 / : : : .dimK Vn /:
4. Let V be a K-vector space and TK .V / the tensor algebra of V over K. Prove that
TK .V / has the following universal property: for any K-algebra A and a K-linear
homomorphism f W V ! A there is a unique homomorphism ' W TK .V / ! A of
K-algebras such that f is the restriction of ' to V D TK1 .V /.
8. Exercises 189
5. Let V be a K-vector space and SK .V / the symmetric algebra of V over K. Prove

that SK .V / has the following universal property: for any commutative K-algebra
A and a K-linear homomorphism f W V ! A there is a unique homomorphism
W SK .V / ! A of K-algebras such that f is the restriction of to V .
6. Let V be a K-vector space with dimK V D n. Prove that
(a) the K-algebra TK .V / is isomorphic to the polynomial algebra KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i

of n noncommuting variables X1 ; : : : ; Xn over K;
(b) the K-algebra SK .V / is isomorphic to the polynomial algebra KŒX1 ; : : : ; Xn

of n commuting variables X1 ; : : : ; Xn over K.
7. Let A and B be K-algebras and M be an .A; B/-bimodule. Prove that the

induced hom functors
HomB .; M / W Mod B ! Mod Aop ;

HomAop .M; / W Mod Aop ! Mod B op ;
HomAop .; M / W Mod Aop ! Mod B
are left exact.
8. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras and M be an .A; B/-bimodule of

finite dimension over K. Prove the following statements.
(a) If A M is a projective module in mod Aop , then the induced functor
˝A M W mod A ! mod B
is exact.
(b) If MB is a projective module in mod B, then the induced functor
M ˝B W mod B op ! mod Aop
is exact.
9. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras and T W mod A ! mod B a right

exact K-linear functor. Prove the following statements.
(a) T .A/ is an .A; B/-bimodule.
(b) There exists a natural isomorphism of functors T Š ˝A T .A/ from mod A

to mod B.
(c) If T .A/ is a free left A-module, then the functor T is faithful.

10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, e an idempotent of A and B D eAe.

Consider the functors
rese D ./e W mod A ! mod B;

Te D ˝B eA W mod B ! mod A;
Le D HomB .Ae; / W mod B ! mod A:
Prove that
(a) Te and Le are full and faithful K-linear functors such that rese Te Š 1mod B
and rese Le Š 1mod B ;
(b) Te is left adjoint to rese ;
(c) Le is right adjoint to rese ;
(d) rese is an exact functor;
(e) Te .M / and Le .M / are indecomposable modules in mod A for any indecom-

posable module M in mod B;
(f) Te .P / is a projective module in mod A for any projective module P in mod B;
(g) Te .I / is an injective module in mod A for any injective module I in mod B.
11. Let A D A1 An be the direct product of K-algebras A1 ; : : : ; An . Let

ei be the element of A whose i-th component is the identity of Ai and the other
components are zero. Show the following statements.
(a) Ai Š ei Aei as K-algebras.
(b) There are equivalences of categories
Mod A Š Mod A1 Mod An ;

mod A Š mod A1 mod An :
12. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras and D D HomK .; K/. Show
the following statements.
(a) The K-algebras A ˝K B and B ˝K A are isomorphic.
(b) The K-algebras .A ˝K B/op and Aop ˝K B op are isomorphic.
(c) D.A ˝K B/ Š D.A/ ˝K D.B/ as .B; A/-bimodules.
(d) D.A ˝K A/ Š D.A/ ˝K D.A/ as A-bimodules.

8. Exercises 191
13. Let m, n be positive integers. Prove that the K-algebras Mm .K/ ˝K Mn .K/
and Mmn .K/ are isomorphic.
14. Let A1 ; : :Q
: ; Ar and B1 ; : :Q
: ; Bs be finite
Qr Qs K-algebras. Prove that the
dimensional
r s
K-algebras iD1 A i ˝K j D1 Bj and iD1 j D1 Ai ˝K Bj are isomorphic.
15. Let G and H be finite groups. Prove that the group algebra K.G H / of
G H over K is isomorphic to the tensor K-algebra KG ˝K KH of the group
algebras KG and KH of G and H over K.
16. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras such that A˝K B is a semisimple
K-algebra. Prove that A and B are semisimple K-algebras.
17. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over an algebraically closed field
K. Describe
(a) the Jacobson radical rad.A ˝K B/ of A ˝K B;
(b) the semisimple K-algebra .A ˝K B/= rad.A ˝K B/.
18. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over an algebraically closed field
K. Describe
(a) the simple modules in mod A ˝K B;
(b) the indecomposable projective modules in mod A ˝K B;
(c) the indecomposable injective modules in mod A ˝K B.
19. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over an algebraically closed
field K. Prove that A ˝K B is a semisimple K-algebra if and only if A and B are
semisimple K-algebras.
20. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over an algebraically closed
field K. Prove that A ˝K B is a basic K-algebra if and only if A and B are basic
K-algebras.
21. Let A, B, C , D be finite dimensional K-algebras over an algebraically closed
field K such that A is Morita equivalent to C and B is Morita equivalent to D.
Prove that the K-algebras A ˝K B and C ˝K D are Morita equivalent.
22. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and Mn .A/ the K-algebra of all square
n n matrices with coefficients in A. Prove that Mn .A/ is Morita equivalent to A.
23. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. For positive integers r and s, consider
the K-algebra
² ˇ ³
Ms .A/ 0 X 0 ˇ X 2 Ms .A/; Y 2 Mr .A/;
D ˇ ;
Mrs .A/ Mr .A/ Z Y Z 2 Mrs .A/
where Mrs .A/ is the .Mr .A/; Ms .A//-bimodule consisting of all r s matrices
with coefficients in A,
² ³
A 0 a 0 ˇˇ
T2 .A/ D D a; b; c 2 A
A A c b
the K-algebra ofh 2 2 lower triangular

i matrices with coefficients in A. Prove that
the K-algebras MMrs s .A/ 0
.A/ Mr .A/
and T2 .A/ are Morita equivalent.
24. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra . Prove that the category mod T2 .A/
of finite dimensional right modules over the K-algebra T2 .A/ of 2 2 lower trian-
gular matrices over A is equivalent to the category hom.mod A/ whose objects are
homomorphisms f W M ! N in mod A, and a morphism from f W M ! N
to g W X ! Y in hom.mod A/ is a pair .u; v/ consisting of homomorphisms
u W M ! X and v W N ! Y in mod A such that vf D gu.
25. Let K be a field, F and G finite dimensional division K-algebras, F MG an
.F; G/-bimodule, and assume that K acts centrally on F MG and dimK F MG < 1.
Consider the finite dimensional K-algebra
² ³
G 0 a 0 ˇˇ
AD D a 2 G; b 2 F; m 2 F MG :
F MG F m b
Denote by r.F MG / the category whose objects are all triples .X; Y; '/ with X a
module in mod F , Y a module in mod G, and ' W X ˝F F MG ! Y a homo-
morphism in mod G, and morphisms .X; Y; '/ ! .X 0 ; Y 0 ; ' 0 / in r.F MG / consist
of pairs .f; g/, with f W X ! X 0 a homomorphism in mod F and g W Y ! Y 0 a
homomorphism in mod G, such that the following diagram in mod G
'
X ˝F F MG
/Y
f ˝F F MG g
'0
X 0 ˝F F MG
/ Y0
is commutative.
Prove that the categories mod A and r.F MG / are equivalent.
26. Let A and B be Morita equivalent finite dimensional K-algebras. Prove that A
is semisimple if and only if B is semisimple.
is a hereditary algebra if and only if B is a hereditary algebra.
is a Nakayama algebra if and only if B is a Nakayama algebra.
8. Exercises 193
29. Let A and B be K-algebras and M be an (A; B)-bimodule. Prove that A M

has the double centralizer property if and only if MB has the double centralizer
property.
30. Let A D KQ=I be the bound quiver K-algebra defined by the quiver Q of the
form
˛ /
/ 3
1 o 2
ˇ
and the ideal I of KQ generated by ˛ˇ. Let M1 ; : : : ; M5 be the right A-modules

defined as follows
N
M1 D e1 A; M2 D e2 A=N A; M3 D e2 A=ˇA;
M4 D top.e2 A/; M5 D e3 A;
where each ei is the primitive idempotent of A corresponding to the vertex i of Q,

N D C I 2 A and ˇN D ˇ C I 2 A. Let M D M1 ˚ ˚ M5 .
(a) Show that M is a faithful right A-module but not a generator of mod A.
(b) Show that there exists an exact sequence in mod A of the form
0 ! A ! M m ! M n ;
for some positive integers m and n.

(c) Show that the endomorphism algebra B D EndA .M / is isomorphic to the
bound quiver algebra K =J , where is the quiver
1
@ ==
==ˇ
˛ ==
=

2 =^
" /5
== @3
==
==
ı
4
and J is the ideal of K generated by ˛ and ı", where the vertices 1; : : : ; 5
correspond to the idempotents f1 ; : : : ; f5 of B such that each fi is the compo-
sition fi W M ! Mi ! M of the canonical projection and canonical injection
for the direct sum decomposition M D M1 ˚ ˚ M5 .
(d) Let 1 W Bf4 ! Bf2 and 2 W Bf4 ! Bf3 be the canonical embeddings of the
simple left B-module Bf4 into Bf2 and Bf3 , respectively. Let N be the left
B-submodule of Bf2 ˚ Bf3 such that
N D f.1 .bf4 /; 2 .bf4 // 2 Bf2 ˚ Bf3 j b 2 Bg :

Show that the left B-module M is isomorphic to the direct sum of three inde-
composable left B-modules

Bf1 ˚ .Bf2 ˚ Bf3 /=N ˚ Bf5 :
(e) Show that EndB op .M /op is isomorphic to A, that is, MA has the double central-
izer property.
31. A characterization for a module to have the double centralizer property was
proved by Y. Suzuki [Suz]. We shall prove it in the following way.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and M be a finite dimensional right
A-module. Let B D EndA .M / and C D EndB op .M /op . Consider the following
two conditions.
(DC1) The canonical mapping
' W B HomA .C CA ; B MA /C ! B MC ; f 7! f .1C /;
is a .B; C /-bimodule isomorphism.

(DC2) There exists an exact sequence in mod A of the form
u v
0 ! A ! M m ! M n ;
for some nonnegative integers m, n.

(a) Assume that MA satisfies both conditions (DC1) and (DC2).
(i) Show that there exists a homomorphism j W C ! A of left A-modules
i j
such that the composite A ,! C ! A is the identity homomorphism of
A, where i is the inclusion map.
Hint: Consider the following diagram
0 / HomA .C; A/ Hom.C;u/

/ HomA .C; M m / Hom.C;v/
/ HomA .C; M n /
o o

HomA .C; M /m / HomA .C; M /n
'm 'n

0 /A u / Mm v / M n:
(ii) Show that the inclusion map i W A ,! C is surjective, that is, M has the
double centralizer property.
8. Exercises 195
(b) Assume that MA has the double centralizer property.

Show that M satisfies both conditions (DC1) and (DC2).
Hint: Apply the contravariant functor HomB .; B M / to an exact sequence of
the form B B n ! B B m ! B M ! 0, for some nonnegative integers m, n.
32. Consider the K-subalgebra

82 3 9
ˆ
ˆ 1 0 0 0 >
>
<6 ˇ =
63 2 0 077 ˇ
AD 4 ˇ ; ; ; ; ; ; 2 K
ˆ 5 4 1 0 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
>
>
:̂ ;
7 6 3 2
of the matrix algebra M4 .K/. Show the following:
(a) There are orthogonal primitive idempotents e1 , e2 of A such that 1A D e1 C e2 ,

dimK .e1 A/ D 3 D `.e1 A/ and dimK .e2 A/ D 4 D `.e2 A/.
(b) e2 A is injective and faithful in mod A.
(c) There is no short exact sequence in mod A of the form
0 ! e1 A ! Am ! An
for positive integers m and n.
(d) e1 A does not satisfy the double centralizer property.
(e) A is isomorphic to a bound quiver K-algebra KQ=I , for a finite quiver Q and
an admissible ideal I of KQ.
33. Consider the K-subalgebras

82 3 9
ˆ
ˆ a x z 0 0 0 >
>
ˆ
ˆ6y b w 0 0 0 7 >
>
ˆ
ˆ 6 7 >
>
<6 ˇ
7 ˇ =
6 0 0 c 0 0 0 7
AD 6 7 ˇ a; b; c; u; v; x; y; z 2 K ;
ˆ
ˆ 60 0 0 c u v7 >
>
ˆ
ˆ >
>
ˆ4 0 0 0 0 a x 5 >
>
:̂ ;
0 0 0 0 y b
82 3 9
ˆ
ˆ a x 0 0 >
>
<6 ˇ =
0 b 0 07 ˇ
BD 6 7 ˇ a; b; x; y 2 K
ˆ40 0 b y5 >
>
:̂ ;
0 0 0 a
of the matrix algebras M6 .K/ and M4 .K/, respectively. Moreover, let e1 , e2 , e3

be the following elements of A:
2 3 2 3 2 3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 0 0 0 0 07 60 1 0 0 0 0 7 60 0 0 0 0 07
6 7 6 7 6 7
60 0 0 0 0 07 60 0 0 0 0 0 7 60 0 1 0 0 07
e1 D 66 7 6
; e2 D 6 7 ; e3 D 6 7:
7 7 60 0 07
60 0 0 0 0 07 60 0 0 0 0 0 7 6 0 1 0 7
40 0 0 0 1 05 40 0 0 0 0 0 5 40 0 0 0 0 05
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Prove that
(a) e1 , e2 , e3 are orthogonal primitive idempotents of A and 1A D e1 C e2 C e3 ;
(b) dimK .ei A/ D 3 and `.ei A/ D 2 for any i 2 f1; 2; 3g;
(c) e1 A Š e2 A and e1 A © e3 A in mod A;
(d) A and B are Morita equivalent;
(e) the basic algebra Ab of A (equivalently, the basic algebra B b of B) is isomorphic
to a bound quiver algebra KQ=I , for a finite quiver Q and an admissible ideal
I of KQ.
˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 ˛5 ˛6
o o o o o o ;
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛3 ˛2 ˛1 , ˛4 ˛3 ˛2 , and ˛6 ˛5 ˛4 , and A D KQ=I
the associated bound quiver algebra. Consider the right A-module
M D e1 A ˚ e3 A ˚ e4 A ˚ e5 A ˚ e7 A
and its endomorphism algebra ƒ D EndA .M /. Prove that ƒ is isomorphic to the
bound quiver algebra K =J , where is the quiver
ˇ1 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˇ4
o o o o
1 2 3 4 5
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˇ2 ˇ1 and ˇ4 ˇ3 .
2 5
bEE
˛ yyy EEˇ yyy
yy EE y
|yy E |yyy
1 bDD bD
DD zzz 4 DDD
D zz D
DD |zz DD
;
3 6
8. Exercises 197
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛ , and A D KQ=I the associated bound

quiver algebra. Moreover, let ei D "i C I , i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g, be associated
primitive idempotents of A. Consider the right A-module
M D e1 A ˚ e2 A ˚ e2 A ˚ e5 A ˚ e5 A ˚ e6 A ˚ e6 A ˚ e6 A
and its endomorphism algebra ƒ D EndA .M /. Prove the following statements:
(a) A is not a hereditary K-algebra.
(b) ƒ is a hereditary K-algebra.
(c) The basic algebra ƒb of ƒ is isomorphic to the path algebra K of the quiver
of the form
5

yyy
yy
|yy
1 o
˛
bEE
2 EEE
EE
:
6
36. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Prove that the following statements
are equivalent.
(a) A is a selfinjective K-algebra.
(b) HomA .S; A/ is a simple left A-module for any simple right A-module S.
(c) HomAop .T; A/ is a simple right A-module for any simple left A-module T .
(d) HomA .; A/ and HomAop .; A/ are a pair of dualities between the category
of semisimple modules in mod A and the category of semisimple modules in
mod Aop .
(e) HomA .; A/ and HomAop .; A/ are a pair of dualities between the category of
simple right A-modules and the category of simple left A-modules.

2
bEE
yy 6
˛ yyy EE y
y E y
|y yyˇ 3 ı EE |yyy
o
1 bEE o o bE 7
EE yyy 5 EEE
E y EE
EE |yyy % E
8;
4
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ C ıˇ C %, %,

%, % and ı, and A D
KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Moreover, let ei D "i C I , i 2
f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8g, be the associated primitive idempotents of A. Consider the
right A-module
M D e1 A ˚ e1 A ˚ e2 A ˚ e3 A ˚ e5 A ˚ e6 A ˚ e7 A ˚ e7 A ˚ e8 A ˚ e8 A
and its endomorphism algebra ƒ D EndA .M /. Prove that ƒ is Morita equivalent

to the bound quiver algebra B D K =J , where is the quiver
2
bEE
yy 6
˛ yyy EE y
yy EE y
|yy E |yyy
1 bEE obE 7
EE yyy 5 EEE
EE yy EE
ˇ E |yy ı E
8
3
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˛ ıˇ,
˛
ıˇ, ı, and ˛.
38. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Prove that the following statements
are equivalent.
(a) A is a selfinjective K-algebra.
(b) `.MA / D `.A HomA .M; A// for any module M in mod A.
(c) `.A N / D `.HomAop .N; A/A / for any module N in mod Aop .
39. Let A and B be K-algebras, and let P be an (A; B)-bimodule such that P is a
projective left A-module.
(a) Prove Theorem 4.5 (ii).

(b) Assume that B D EndAop .P /op . Prove that the following statements are equiv-
alent.
(i) AP is a progenerator of mod Aop .
(ii) The K-linear map W A P ˝B HomA .P; A/ ! A A defined by .p ˝ u/ D
u.p/, for u 2 HomA .P; A/ and p 2 P , is an isomorphism of left A-
modules.
40. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and e an idempotent of A. Show that

the following statements are equivalent.
(a) eA is a progenerator of mod A.
(b) AeA D A.
8. Exercises 199
(c) A and eAe are Morita equivalent.

41. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras, and a (B; A)-bimodule P is a
progenerator of mod A and of mod B op , and has the double centralizer property.
(a) Show that the ordered set (by inclusion) of all A-submodules of P is isomorphic
to the ordered set (by inclusion) of all left ideals of B.
(b) Show that, under the equivalence functor HomA .P; / W mod A ! mod B
determined by P , the (B; A)-subbimodules of P correspond to the two-sided
ideals of B.
(c) Show that A and B have isomorphic inclusion-ordered sets of two-sided ideals.
42. Let A and B be Morita equivalent K-algebras. Show that the centers C.A/ D
fa 2 A j ax D xa for all x 2 Ag and C.B/ D fb 2 B j by D yb for all y 2 Bg
of A resp. B are isomorphic as K-algebras.
43. Let A and B be commutative K-algebras. Prove that A and B are Morita
equivalent if and only if A and B are isomorphic as K-algebras.
44. Let QA be a K-algebra, and fXi gi2I a set of right A-modules. The direct
product i2I Xi is the Cartesian product with the additive module structure and a
right operation of the elements of A defined by the rule
.xi /i C .yi /i D .xi C yi /i ;
.xi /i a D .xi a/i
Q
for all .xi /i ; .yi /i 2 i2I Xi ; a 2 A, that is,
Lwe define the addition and mul-
tiplication componentwise. The direct Q sum i2I Xi is by definition the right
A-submodule of the right A-module i2I Xi consisting of elements whose almost
all components are zero.
L Now letQfXi gi2I be a set of copies
L of a right A-module X. We denote
Q by
i2I X and i2I X the direct sum i2I Xi and the direct product i2I X i,
respectively .
Show the following statements for an infinite index set I .
L Q
(a) The K-vector spaces i2I K and i2I K are not isomorphic.
(b) The functor D D HomK .; K/ between Mod A and Mod Aop does not define
a duality, that is, it does not hold that DD Š 1Mod A and DD Š 1Mod Aop .
45. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and B a K-subalgebra of A.
(a) Let f1 ; : : : ; fr be homomorphisms from AB to BB in mod B, and assume that
f1 .a1 /C Cfr .ar / D 1B for
Psome elements a1 ; : : : ; ar 2 A. Let ' W A ! B
be the map given by '.a/ D riD1 fi .ai a/ for all a 2 A. Show the following
statements.
(i) ' W A ! B is a homomorphism of right B-modules.

(ii) ' is a retraction in mod B.
(b) Show that the right B-module AB is a generator of mod B if and only if B is a
direct summand of AB as a right B-module.
46. The following fact is a modification of a theorem proved by G. Azumaya [Azu3]

where he characterized the rings whose all faithful right modules are generators of
the category of all right modules.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Show that every finite dimensional
faithful right A-module is a generator of mod A if and only if the right A-module
A is injective.
47. Let A be the R-algebra

R 0
C C
defined in Exercise I.12.33, and let

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e1 D ; e2 D ; I1 D ; I2 D :
0 0 0 1 R 0 Ri 0
(a) Show that I1 and I2 are right ideals of A.
(b) Show that the right A-modules e2 A=I1 and e2 A=I2 are isomorphic.
(c) Determine a minimal injective cogenerator of mod A and count its composition
length and R-dimension.
(d) Determine a minimal injective cogenerator of mod Aop and count its composi-
tion length and R-dimension.

R 0
H R
defined in Exercise I.12.34. Determine a minimal cogenerator of mod A and count
its composition length and R-dimension.
49. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras. Let Q and R be duality

(B; A)-modules between mod A and mod B op . Assume that there is an isomor-
phism W B Q ! B R of left B-modules.
(a) Show that there is an automorphism ˛ 2 Aut.A/ such that W Q ! R is an

isomorphism of (B; A)-bimodules.
8. Exercises 201
(b) Show that the functors HomA .; Q/ and HomA .; R/ are naturally isomorphic
if and only if there is an inner automorphism ˛ 2 Aut.A/ such that Q˛ and R
are isomorphic as (B; A)-bimodules.
50. Give the statement for Morita equivalences and progenerators as the dual state-
ment to Excercise 49. (See Morita [Mor], Theorem 3.5.)
51. Let A be a finite dimensional commutative K-algebra. A (self-)duality for
mod A is by definition a contravariant functor D W mod A ! mod Aop D mod A
such that there exists a natural isomorphism of functors
W 1mod A ! D 2 :
The right A-module D.A/ is a duality A-module where the left A-module structure
satisfies
ax D .a/.x/
for all a 2 A; x 2 D.A/, and W A ! EndA .D.A/A / is an algebra isomorphism.
On the other hand, since A is commutative, D.A/ has another left A-module struc-
ture canonically defined by
a x D xa
for all a 2 A and x 2 D.A/, so that D.A/ becomes an A-bimodule which we
denote by U . We shall examine the difference between those A-bimodules D.A/
and U , which was proved by K. Morita in [Mor], Theorem 5.1.
(a) For each a 2 A, let .a/ be the unique element of A such that
D.aL / D .a/R ;
where aL W AA ! AA and .a/R W A D.A/ ! A D.A/ are the left and right
multiplications by a and .a/, respectively.
Show that the mapping W A ! A, a 7! .a/, is an algebra automorphism
of A.
(b) For each u 2 D.A/, let uR W A A ! A D.A/ be the right multiplication by u.
Let
v.u/ D D.uR /.A/ .1A /;

w.u/ D .D.A//1 D..A//1 .v.u//;
in the commutative diagram
.A/ D
A / D 2 .A/ / D.D.A//
uR D 2 .uR / D.uR /

D.A/ / D 2 .D.A// D D.D 2 .A// / D.A/ .
.D.A// D..A//
Show that the induced maps
w W
U ! D.A/; u 7! w.u/;
v W D.A/ !
U; u 7! v.u/;
are A-bimodule isomorphisms, and v is the inverse of w.
Hint: Prove that w is an injection, and w.v.u// D u for all u 2 D.A/.
(c) Show the equality 2 .a/w 1 .u/ D aw 1 .u/ for all a 2 A and u 2 D.A/, and
that 2 is the identity automorphism of A.
52. Let A be a K-algebra. Show that ˛ Inn.A/ D Inn.A/˛ for all K-algebra
automorphisms ˛ of A.
Chapter III
Auslander–Reiten theory
This chapter is devoted to presenting background on the Auslander–Reiten theory

of categories of finite dimensional modules over finite dimensional algebras over a
field, a concept that plays a fundamental role in the modern representation theory
of algebras.
We start by introducing the (Jacobson) radical of a module category and the ex-
tension spaces of finite dimensional modules, and describing their properties. Then
we enter into the heart of the Auslander–Reiten theory: the theory of irreducible ho-
momorphisms, almost split homomorphisms, and almost split sequences. Further,
we introduce the Auslander–Reiten quiver of a finite dimensional algebra, which
is an important combinatorial and homological invariant of its category of finite
dimensional modules. In particular, the following important results are proved
here: the Harada–Sai lemma, the Auslander–Reiten formulas, the existence of al-
most split sequences, the Auslander criterion for finite representation type, the first
Brauer–Thrall conjecture, and the Bautista–Smalø theorem on sectional paths of
irreducible homomorphisms.
1 The radical of a module category

Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. For modules X and Y in
mod A, the set
² ˇ ³
ˇ idX gf is invertible in EndA .X / for
radA .X; Y / D f 2 HomA .X; Y / ˇ
any g 2 HomA .Y; X /
is said to be the Jacobson radical (briefly, radical) of HomA .X; Y /.
Lemma 1.1. For modules X and Y in mod A, we have
² ˇ ³
ˇ idY fg is invertible in EndA .Y / for
radA .X; Y / D f 2 HomA .X; Y / ˇ :
any g 2 HomA .Y; X /
Proof. Let f 2 HomA .X; Y / and g 2 HomA .Y; X /. Assume ' 2 EndA .X / is
such that '.idX gf / D idX D .idX gf /'. Then idX ' C 'gf D 0X D
idX ' C gf '. Take D idY Cf 'g 2 EndA .Y /. Then we obtain
.idY fg/ D .idY Cf 'g/.idY fg/ D idY fg C f 'g f 'gfg
D idY f .idX ' C 'gf /g D idY f 0X g D idY ;
.idY fg/ D .idY fg/.idY Cf 'g/ D idY fg C f 'g fgf 'g
D idY f .idX ' C gf '/g D idY f 0X g D idY :
204 Chapter III. Auslander–Reiten theory
Conversely, let 2 EndA .Y / be such that .idY fg/ D idY D .idY fg/ .
Then idY C fg D 0Y D idY C fg . For ' D idX Cg f 2 EndA .X /,
we obtain
'.idX gf / D .idX Cg f /.idX gf / D idX gf C g f g fgf
D idX g.idY C fg/f D idX g0Y f D idX ;
.idX gf /' D .idX gf /.idX Cg f / D idX gf C g f gfg f
D idX g.idY C fg /f D idY g0Y f D idX :
Observe that, for any module X 2 mod A, radA .X; X / is the Jacobson radical
rad EndA .X/ of the endomorphism algebra EndA .X / of X (see Lemma I.3.1).
The following proposition shows that radA is an ideal of the category mod A,
called the Jacobson radical (briefly, radical) of mod A.
Proposition 1.2. Let X; Y; Z be modules in mod A. The following statements hold.
(i) radA .X; Y / is a K-vector subspace of HomA .X; Y /.
(ii) For f 2 radA .X; Y / and h 2 HomA .Y; Z/, we have hf 2 radA .X; Z/.
(iii) For f 2 radA .X; Y / and h 2 HomA .Z; X /, we have f h 2 radA .Z; Y /.
Proof. We first show (ii) and (iii).
(ii) Let f 2 radA .X; Y / and h 2 HomA .Y; Z/. Take g 2 HomA .Z; X /. Then
idX g.hf / D idX .gh/f is an invertible element of EndA .X /, and consequently
hf 2 radA .X; Z/.
(iii) Let f 2 radA .X; Y / and h 2 HomA .Z; X /. Take g 2 HomA .Y; Z/. Then,
applying Lemma 1.1, we conclude that idY .f h/g D idY f .hg/ is invertible in
EndA .Y /, and hence f h 2 radA .Z; Y /.
(i) Let f 2 radA .X; Y / and 2 K. Then, for g 2 HomA .Y; X /, we have
idX g.f / D idX .g/f is invertible in EndA .X /. Therefore f D f 2
radA .X; Y /. Let f1 ; f2 2 radA .X; Y /. We will show that f1 C f2 2 radA .X; Y /.
Take g 2 HomA .Y; X /. Since f1 2 radA .X; Y / there exists '1 2 EndA .X / such
that '1 .idX gf1 / D idX D .idX gf1 /'1 . Further, since f2 2 radA .X; Y / and
'1 g 2 HomA .Y; X /, there exists '2 2 EndA .X / such that '2 .idX .'1 g/f2 / D
idX . Then we obtain
'2 '1 .idX g.f1 C f2 // D '2 .'1 .idX gf1 / '1 gf2 /
D '2 .idX .'1 g/f2 / D idX ;
and consequently idX g.f1 C f2 / has a left inverse in EndA .X /. It follows
from (iii) that f2 '1 2 radA .X; Y /. Then there exists '3 2 EndA .X / such that
.idX g.f2 '1 //'3 D idX . Hence
.idX g.f1 C f2 //'1 '3 D ..idX gf1 /'1 gf2 '1 /'3
D .idX g.f2 '1 //'3 D idX ;
1. The radical of a module category 205
and so idX g.f1 C f2 / has a right inverse in EndA .X /. Moreover, we have
'2 '1 D '2 '1 idX D '2 '1 .idX g.f1 C f2 //'1 '3 D idX '1 '3 D '1 '3 :
Therefore, f1 C f2 2 radA .X; Y /. Summing up, we have proved that radA .X; Y /
is a K-vector subspace of HomA .X; Y /.
Lemma 1.3. Let X1 ; : : : ; Xm and Y1 ; : : : ; Yn be modules in mod A. Let further

fj i 2 HomA .Xi ; Yj /, for i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and
M
m M
n
f D .fj i / W Xi ! Yj
iD1 j D1
Lm Ln
be the induced homomorphism. Then f 2 radA iD1 Xi ; j D1 Yj if and only
if fj i 2 radA .Xi ; Yj / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Lm L
Proof. Let ur W Xr ! iD1 Xi , r 2 f1; : : : ; mg, and vs W Ys ! jnD1 Yj , s 2
Lm
Lnbe the canonical injections, and pr W
f1; : : : ; ng, iD1 Xi ! Xr , r 2 f1; : : : ; mg,
and qs W j D1 Yj ! Ys , s 2 f1; : : : ; ng, be the canonical projections. Then fj i D
P Pn
qj f ui for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and f D m j D1 vj fj i pi .
Lm Ln iD1
Hence f 2 radA iD1 X i ; j D1 Yj forces, by Proposition 1.2 (ii) and (iii),
that fj i D qj f ui 2 radA .Xi ; Yj / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Con-
versely, if fj i 2 radA .Xi ; Yj / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, then, by
Proposition 1.2,
X
m X
n M
m M
n
f D vj fj i pi 2 radA Xi ; Yj :
iD1 j D1 iD1 j D1
Lemma 1.4. Let X and Y be indecomposable modules in mod A. Then the follow-
ing statements hold.
(i) radA .X; Y / is the subspace of HomA .X; Y / formed by all nonisomorphisms.
(ii) radA .X; Y / D HomA .X; Y / if X © Y .
Proof. Obviously (ii) follows from (i). For (i), take 0 ¤ f 2 HomA .X; Y /.
Observe that if f 2 radA .X; Y / then f is not an isomorphism. Indeed, if gf D idX
for some g 2 HomA .Y; X /, then idX gf D 0X is not invertible in EndA .X /.
Conversely, assume that f is not an isomorphism. Let g 2 HomA .Y; X /. We
claim that gf 2 EndA .X / is not invertible. Indeed, if there exists h 2 EndA .X /
such that h.gf / D idX , then .hg/f D idX . Applying Lemma I.4.2, we obtain
Y Š Im f ˚ Ker.hg/. Since Im f ¤ 0 and Y is indecomposable, we conclude
that Y D Im f . Clearly, then f W X ! Y is an isomorphism, because f is a
monomorphism, as a section. Further, by Lemma I.4.4, EndA .X / is a local K-

algebra, since X is an indecomposable module in mod A. Then, it follows from
Lemma I.3.8 that idX gf is an invertible element of EndA .X /. Therefore, we
have proved that f 2 radA .X; Y /.
Lemma 1.5. (i) Let f W L ! M be a nonzero homomorphism in mod A and L be

an indecomposable A-module. The following statements are equivalent.
(a) f is not a section in mod A.
(b) f 2 radA .L; M /.
(c) Im HomA .f; L/ radA .L; L/.
(ii) Let g W M ! N be a nonzero homomorphism in mod A and N be an

indecomposable A-module. The following statements are equivalent.
(a) g is not a retraction in mod A.
(b) g 2 radA .M; N /.
(c) Im HomA .N; g/ radA .N; N /.
Proof. (i) Since L is an indecomposable module in mod A, it follows from Lem-

mas I.3.8 and I.4.4 that EndA .L/ is a local K-algebra and radA .L; L/ D rad EndA .L/
is a unique maximal right (respectively, maximal left) ideal of EndA .L/, consisting
of all noninvertible endomorphisms. Consider the homomorphism
HomA .f; L/ W HomA .M; L/ ! HomA .L; L/ D EndA .L/
of K-vector spaces given by HomA .f; L/.'/ D 'f for any ' 2 HomA .M; L/.
Let M D M1 ˚ ˚ Mn be a decomposition of M into a direct sum of in-
decomposable A-submodules M1 ; : : : ; Mn , and ui W Mi ! M and pi W M ! Mi ,
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, be the associated canonical injections and projections, respec-
tively. Then f D u1 f1 C C un fn , where fi D pi f 2 HomA .L; Mi /, for
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Assume f … radA .L; M /. Then it follows from Lemma 1.3 that
fi … radA .L; Mi /, for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Hence, by Lemma 1.4, fi is an iso-
morphism and consequently gi fi D idL for some gi 2 HomA .Mi ; L/. But then
.gi pi /f D gi fi D idL and f is a section. Therefore, (a) implies (b).
It follows from Proposition 1.2 (ii) that (b) implies (c).
Assume now that f is a section in mod A. Then there is g 2 HomA .M; L/ with
gf D idL . Since EndA .L/ is a local K-algebra, we obtain that HomA .f; L/.g/ D
gf D idL is not in radA .L; L/ D rad EndA .L/. Hence, Im HomA .f; L/ is not
contained in radA .L; L/. Therefore, (c) implies (a).
The proof of the equivalences in (ii) is similar.
2. The Harada–Sai lemma 207
For each natural number m 1, we define the m-th power radAm of radA such
that, for modules X and Y in mod A, radAm .X; Y / is the subspace of radA .X; Y /
consisting of all finite sums of homomorphisms of the form hm hm1 : : : h2 h1
with hi 2 radA .Xi1 ; Xi /, i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, for some modules X D X0 ; X1 ; : : : ;
Xm1 ; Xm D Y in mod A. Moreover, the intersection
1
\
radA1 D radAm
mD1
is said to be the infinite radical of mod A. For modules X and Y in mod A, we have
inclusions of K-vector spaces
HomA .X; Y /
radA .X; Y /
radA2 .X; Y /

radAm .X; Y /

radA1 .X; Y /:
Lemma 1.6. Let X and Y be modules in mod A. Then there exists a natural number
m 1 such that radA1 .X; Y / D radAm .X; Y /.
Proof. This follows from the fact that HomA .X; Y / is a finite dimensional K-vector
space, as a K-vector subspace of HomK .X; Y /.
2 The Harada–Sai lemma

The aim of this subsection is to prove the following important lemma established
by Harada and Sai in [HaSa].
Lemma 2.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, b a positive integer, and
f1 f2 f2b 1
M1 ! M2 ! M3
!
! M2b 1 ! M2b
a chain of homomorphisms in mod A satisfying the conditions

(i) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; 2b g, Mi is indecomposable with `.Mi / b.
(ii) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; 2b 1g, fi 2 radA .Mi ; MiC1 /.
Then f2b 1 : : : f2 f1 D 0.
Proof. We may assume that the homomorphisms f1 ; f2 ; : : : ; f2b 1 are nonzero.
We prove by induction on n 1 that for the chain of homomorphisms
f1 f2 f2n 1
M1 ! M2 ! M3 !
!
M2n 1 ! M2n
we have `.Im f2n 1 : : : f2 f1 / b n. Observe that then for n D b we obtain

`.Im f2n 1 : : : f2 f1 / D 0, or equivalently f2n 1 : : : f2 f1 D 0.
f1
Assume n D 1. Then we have M1 ! M2 D M2n , Im f1 M2 and hence
`.Im f1 / `.M2 / b. We claim that `.Im f1 / b 1. Suppose that `.Im f1 / D
b. Then Im f1 D M2 . Since b D `.Im f1 / `.M1 / b, we obtain `.M1 / D b.
Hence `.M1 / D `.Im f1 / C `.Ker f1 / implies Ker f1 D 0, and so f1 is also
a monomorphism. Consequently, f1 W M1 ! M2 is an isomorphism in mod A,
which contradicts the assumption f1 2 radA .M1 ; M2 /, by Lemma 1.4. Thus indeed
`.Im f1 / b 1.
Consider now the chain of homomorphism
f1 f2 f2n 1
M1 / M2 / ::: / M2n 1 / M2n
BC
ED
f2n
GF
@A f2n C1 f2nC1 1
`0 M2n C1 / M2n C2 / ::: / M2nC1 1 / M2nC1
and set f D f2n 1 : : : f2 f1 , g D f2n , h D f2nC1 1 : : : f2n C2 f2n C1 . By our

inductive assumption for n, we have `.Im f / b n and `.Im h/ b n.
Observe that if `.Im f / < bn or `.Im h/ < bn, then `.Im f2nC1 1 : : : f2 f1 / D
`.Im hgf / .b n/ 1 D b .n C 1/. Hence we may assume that `.Im f / D
b n > 0 and `.Im h/ D b n > 0. We prove that `.Im hgf / b n 1.
Suppose that `.Im hgf / > b n 1. Since `.Im hgf / `.Im h/ D b n, we
then obtain `.Im hgf / D b n. Consider the composed homomorphism
j g v
' W Im f ,
! M2n ! M2n C1 ! Im h;
where j is the canonical inclusion homomorphism and v is the epimorphism given

by h. Since Im ' D vgj.Im f / D Im hgf Im h and `.Im hgf / D b n D
`.Im h/, we conclude that Im ' D Im h, and so ' is an epimorphism. Moreover, by
our assumption, `.Im f / D b n D `.Im h/, we obtain that ' is an isomorphism.
Applying Lemma I.4.1 to ' D .vg/j , we infer that j W Im f ! M2n is a section.
Since M2n is an indecomposable A-module, it follows then from Lemma I.4.2 that
j D idM2n . Hence Im f D M2n and ' D vg. Applying Lemma I.4.1 to the
isomorphism ' D vg, we conclude that g W M2n ! M2n C1 is a section in mod A.
Since M2n C1 is indecomposable, applying Lemma I.4.2, we obtain that g is an
isomorphism, which contradicts the assumption imposed on g D f2n .
We note that the bounds given in the Harada–Sai lemma are the best possible
(see Exercise 12.5).
Corollary 2.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra of finite representation type.

Then there exists a positive natural number m such that radAm D 0. In particular,
we have radA1 D 0.
3. The space of extensions 209
Proof. Since A is of finite representation type, mod A admits only finitely many
isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules. Hence there exists a positive
natural number b such that `.M / b for any indecomposable module M in
mod A. Take m D 2b 1. It follow from Lemma 1.3 that every homomorphism
f 2 radAm .X; Y /, for any modules X and Y in mod A, is a finite sum of compositions
of m homomorphisms from radA between indecomposable modules and therefore
f D 0, by Lemma 2.1. Hence, we have radAm D 0.
3 The space of extensions

In this section we show that the set of equivalence classes of extensions of two finite
dimensional modules has a natural structure of a finite dimensional vector space
and give its homological characterizations. In fact, we will show that the extension
spaces of modules are bimodules over the corresponding endomorphism algebras.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K.
A short exact sequence
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
in mod A is called an extension of L by N . Two extensions in mod A,
f g f0 g0
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0 and E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0;
are said to be equivalent if there exists h 2 HomA .M; M 0 / such that the diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL h idN
f0 g0
0 /L / M0 /N /0
is commutative, and then we write E ' E0 . Observe that then h is an isomorphism

(see Exercise I.12.17). For two modules L and N in mod A we denote by EA .N; L/
the set of all extensions of L by N in mod A. Then ' is an equivalence relation in
EA .N; L/, and we may consider the set
ExtA1 .N; L/ D EA .N; L/= '
of the equivalence classes ŒE D E= ' of extensions E in EA .N; L/. We will show
that ExtA1 .N; L/ has a canonical K-vector space structure, natural in L and N , and
give its homological interpretation.
For modules L and N in mod A, we denote by ON;L the canonical splittable
extension
idL
ON;L W 0 /L 0
/L˚N 0 idN
/N /0
of L by N .
Lemma 3.1. Let L and N be modules in mod A and

f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
an extension of L by N in mod A. The following conditions are equivalent.
(a) E ' ON;L .
(b) f is a section in mod A.
(c) g is a retraction in mod A.
Proof. Observe that we have in mod A a commutative diagram of the form
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL h idN
idL

0 /L 0
/L˚N 0 idN
/N /0
u
if and only if h D g for some u 2 HomA .M; L/ with uf D idL . Similarly we
have in mod A a commutative diagram of the form

idL
0 /L 0
/L˚N 0 idN
/N /0
idL h0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
if and only if h0 D Œ f v for some v 2 HomA .N; M / with gv D idN . Hence, the
required equivalences hold.
An extension
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
in mod A with f a section, or equivalently g a retraction, is said to be a splittable
extension of L by N .

f g f0 g0
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0 and E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0
two extensions of L by N . Then there is an extension

f 00 g 00
E00 W 0 ! L ! M 00 ! N ! 0
of L by N in mod A with M 00 D V =U , where

˚ ˇ
V D .m; m0 / 2 M ˚ M 0 ˇ g.m/ D g 0 .m0 / ;
˚ ˇ
U D .f .x/; f 0 .x// 2 M ˚ M 0 ˇ x 2 L ;
f 00 W L ! M 00 is given by f 00 .x/ D .f .x/; 0/ C U for x 2 L, and g 00 W M 00 ! N
is given by g 00 ..m; m0 / C U / D g.m/ D g 0 .m0 / for .m; m0 / 2 V .
Proof. Observe that V is an A-submodule of M ˚ M 0 and U is an A-submodule of

V , because gf D 0 and g 0 f 0 D 0, and consequently M 00 D V =U is a module in
mod A. Moreover, g 00 is a well-defined A-homomorphism, again by gf D 0 and
g 0 f 0 D 0.
We first show that f 00 is a monomorphism. Take x 2 L with f 00 .x/ D 0. Then
.f .x/; 0/ D .f .y/; f 0 .y// for some y 2 L. The equality 0 D f 0 .y/ then forces
y D 0, since f 0 is a monomorphism, and consequently f .x/ D f .y/ D 0. Hence
x D 0, because f is a monomorphism.
In order to show that g 00 is an epimorphism, take an element n 2 N . Since g
and g 0 are epimorphisms, we have n D g.m/ and n D g 0 .m0 / for some m 2 M
and m0 2 M 0 , and then g 00 ..m; m0 / C U / D n.
The equality gf D 0 forces g 00 f 00 D 0, and hence Im f 00 Ker g 00 . We claim
that also Ker g 00 Im f 00 . Take an element m00 D .m; m0 / C U 2 V =U D M 00
such that g 00 .m00 / D 0. Then g.m/ D 0 D g 0 .m0 /. Since Ker g D Im f and
Ker g 0 D Im f 0 , we have m D f .x/ and m0 D f 0 .x 0 / for some x; x 0 2 L. Taking
x 00 D x C x 0 2 L, we obtain the equalities
f 00 .x 00 / D .f .x 00 /; 0/ C U D .f .x C x 0 /; 0/ C U D .f .x/ C f .x 0 /; 0/ C U
D ..f .x/; 0/ C U / C ..f .x 0 /; 0/ C U /
D ..f .x/; 0/ C U / C ..0; f 0 .x 0 // C U /
D .f .x/; f 0 .x 0 // C U D .m; m0 / C U D m00 ;
and so m00 2 Im f 00 . Therefore, Ker g 00 Im f 00 .
The extension E00 of L by N described in the above lemma will be denoted by

E C E0 .

f g f0 g0
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0; E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0;
f gN N f N0 gN 0
x W 0 ! L !
E x !
M N ! 0; x 0 W 0 ! L !
E x 0 !
M N ! 0
x and E0 ' E
extensions of L by N in mod A with E ' E x 0 . Then E C E0 ' E
x CE
x 0.
x and E0 ' E
Proof. Since E ' E x 0 , we have in mod A commutative diagrams
f g f0 g0
0 /L /M /N /0 0 /L / M0 /N /0
idL h idN idL h0 idN
fN gN fN 0 gN 0
0 /L /M
x /N / 0, 0 /L /M
x0 /N / 0.
x CE
From Lemma 3.2 the extensions E C E0 and E x 0 are of the forms
f 00 g 00
E C E0 W 0 ! L ! M 00 ! N ! 0;
with M 00 D V =U , where
˚
V D .m; m0 / 2 M ˚ M 0 j g.m/ D g 0 .m0 / ;
˚
U D .f .x/; f 0 .x// 2 M ˚ M 0 j x 2 L ;
and
f gN N 00 00
x CE
E x 0 W 0 ! L ! x 00 !
M N ! 0;
x 00 D Vx =Ux , where
with M
˚
Vx D .m;N m x ˚M
N 0/ 2 M x 0 j g. N D gN 0 .m
N m/ N 0/ ;
˚
Ux D .fN.x/;
N fN0 .x//
N 2Mx ˚M
x 0 j xN 2 L :
Consider the map h00 W M 00 ! M x 00 defined for m00 D .m; m0 / C U 2 V =U D M 00

by h .m / D .h.m/; h .m // C Ux 2 Vx =Ux D M
00 00 0 0 x . Observe that, for .m; m0 / 2 V ,
N
we have gh.m/ D g.m/ D g .m / D gN h .m /, and hence .h.m/; h0 .m0 // 2 Vx .
0 0 0 0 0
Further, for x 2 L, we have .hf .x/; h0 f 0 .x// D .fN.x/; fN0 .x//. This shows
that h00 is well defined and clearly is an A-homomorphism. Consider now the
diagram
f 00 g 00
0 /L / M 00 /N /0
idL h00 idN

fN 00 gN 00
0 /L /M
x 00 /N / 0.
We claim that this diagram is commutative, and consequently E C E0 ' E xCE x 0.

00 00 00
Indeed, for x 2 L, we have h .f .x// D h ..f .x/; 0/ C U / D .h.f .x//; 0/ C
Ux D .fN.x/; 0/ C Ux D fN00 .x/, and hence h00 f 00 D fN00 . Similarly, for m00 D
.m; m0 / C U 2 M 00 , we have gN 00 h00 .m00 / D gN 00 ..h.m/; h0 .m0 // C Ux / D gh.m/
N D
00 00 00 00 00
g.m/ D g .m /, and hence gN h D g .
The above lemma allows us to define the addition in ExtA1 .N; L/ D EA .N; L/= '
by ŒE C ŒE0 D ŒE C E0 for ŒE; ŒE0 2 ExtA1 .N; L/. We will show later that it is
the addition of a K-vector space structure on ExtA1 .N; L/, and ŒO D ŒON;L is the
zero element with respect to this addition. The addition C in ExtA1 .N; L/ is called
the Baer sum.
Let L and N be modules in mod A and
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
an extension of L by N in mod A. For a homomorphism v W V ! N in mod A

there exists, by Exercise I.12.19, a commutative diagram in mod A
/L i / M N V v0 /V /0
0
idL g0 v
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
with exact rows, where M N V is the fibered product of M and V over N , via
g and v. The upper row extension will be denoted by Ev. Similarly, for a homo-
morphism u W L ! U in mod A there exists, by Exercise I.12.21, a commutative
diagram in mod A,
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u f0 idN
u0
p
0 /U / U ˚L M /N /0
with exact rows, where U ˚L M is the fibered sum of U and M over L, via u
and f . The lower row extension will be denoted by uE.
Lemma 3.4. Let L and N be modules in mod A,
f g f0 g0
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0; E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0
extensions of L by N in mod A such that E ' E0 and u W L ! U , v W V ! N

homomorphisms in mod A. Then uE ' uE0 and Ev ' E0 v.
Proof. Since E ' E0 , we have in mod A the commutative diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL h idN
f0 g0
0 /L / M0 /N / 0.
It follows from Exercise I.12.21 that

˛ p
uE W 0 ! U ! U ˚L M ! N ! 0;
˚ ˇ
where U ˚L M D U ˚ M=R with R D .u.x/; f .x// 2 U ˚ M ˇ x 2 L ,
˛.y/ D .y; 0/ C R for y 2 U , p..z; m/ C R/ D g.m/ for .z; m/ C R 2 U ˚L M ,
and
˛0 p0
uE0 W 0 ! U ! U ˚L M 0 ! N ! 0;
˚ ˇ
where U ˚L M 0 D U ˚ M 0 =R0 with R0 D .u.x/; f 0 .x// 2 U ˚ M 0 ˇ x 2 L ,
˛ 0 .y/ D .y; 0/ C R0 for y 2 U , p 0 ..z; m0 / C R0 / D g 0 .m0 / for .z; m0 / C R0 2
U ˚L M 0 .
Then we obtain the commutative diagram in mod A,
p
0 /U ˛ / U ˚L M /N /0
idU ' idN

˛0
p0
0 /U / U ˚L M 0 /N / 0,
where ' W U ˚L M ! U ˚L M 0 is defined by '..z; m/ C R/ D .z; h.m// C R0

for .z; m/ C R 2 U ˚L M . Observe that ' is a well-defined A-homomorphism
because hf D f 0 . Moreover, p 0 ' D p since g 0 h D g. Therefore uE ' uE0 .
It follows from Exercise I.12.19 that
i ˇ
Ev W 0 ! L ! M N V ! V ! 0;
˚ ˇ
where M N V D .m; y/ 2 M V ˇ g.m/ D v.y/ , i.x/ D .f .x/; 0/ for x 2 L,
ˇ..m; y// D y for .m; y/ 2 M N V , and
i0 ˇ0
E0 v W 0 ! L ! M 0 N V ! V ! 0;
˚ ˇ
where M 0 N V D .m0 ; y/ 2 M 0 V ˇ g 0 .m0 / D v.y/ , i 0 .x/ D .f 0 .x/; 0/ for
x 2 L, ˇ 0 ..m0 ; y// D y for .m0 ; y/ 2 M 0 N V . Then we obtain the commutative
diagram in mod A,
ˇ
0 /L i / M N V /V /0
idL idV
i0
ˇ0
0 /L / M 0 N V /V / 0,
where W M N V ! M 0 N V is defined by ..m; y// D .h.m/; y/ for .m; y/ 2

M N V . Observe that is a well-defined homomorphism in mod A, because if
.m; y/ 2 M N V then g.m/ D v.y/, and hence g 0 .h.m// D g.m/ D v.y/,
implying .h.m/; y/ 2 M 0 N V . Further, ˇ 0 D ˇ is clear, and i D i 0 follows
from hf D f 0 . Therefore, we have also the equivalence Ev ' E0 v.
We conclude from Lemma 3.4 that, if u W L ! U and v W V ! N are homo-

morphisms in mod A, then we have two maps
ExtA1 .N; u/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; U /; ExtA1 .v; L/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .V; L/
such that ExtA1 .N; u/.ŒE/ D ŒuE and ExtA1 .v; L/.ŒE/ D ŒEv for any equivalence
class ŒE in ExtA1 .N; L/. We will see later that ExtA1 .N; u/ and ExtA1 .v; L/ are in fact
K-linear homomorphisms.
Let L and N be modules in mod A. We will define a K-vector space ExtA1 .N; L/,
involving a minimal projective resolution of N in mod A, and two K-linear homo-
morphisms
ExtA1 .N; u/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; U /;

and
ExtA1 .v; L/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .V; L/
for homomorphisms u W L ! U and v W V ! N in mod A.

Consider a minimal projective resolution
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! N ! 0
of N in mod A (see Proposition I.8.30). Application of the contravariant functor

HomA .; L/ W mod A ! mod K yields the chain of K-vector spaces
HomA .d1 ;L/ HomA .d2 ;L/
HomA .P0 ; L/ ! HomA .P1 ; L/ ! HomA .P2 ; L/
with HomA .d2 ; L/ HomA .d1 ; L/ D HomA .d1 d2 ; N / D 0. This allows us to define
the K-vector space
ExtA1 .N; L/ D Ker HomA .d2 ; L/= Im HomA .d1 ; L/:
Observe that, by Proposition I.8.30 and Lemma I.8.31, the space ExtA1 .N; L/ is well
defined (does not depend on the choice of minimal projective resolution).
Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A. Then we have the commutative
diagram in mod K,

HomA .P0 ; L/ / HomA .P1 ; L/ / HomA .P2 ; L/
HomA .P0 ;u/ HomA .P1 ;u/ HomA .P2 ;u/

HomA .d1 ;U / HomA .d2 ;U /
HomA .P0 ; U / / HomA .P1 ; U / / HomA .P2 ; U / ,
from which we infer that
HomA .P1 ; u/.Ker HomA .d2 ; L// Ker HomA .d2 ; U /;

HomA .P1 ; u/.Im HomA .d1 ; L// Im HomA .d1 ; U /:

As a consequence, we may define the K-linear homomorphism
ExtA1 .N; u/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; U /
by
ExtA1 .N; u/.' C Im HomA .d1 ; L// D u' C Im HomA .d1 ; U /
for ' 2 HomA .P1 ; L/ with 'd2 D HomA .d2 ; L/.'/ D 0. We note that u' D
HomA .P1 ; u/.'/. Moreover, we have ExtA1 .N; t u/ D ExtA1 .N; t / ExtA1 .N; u/ for
u 2 HomA .L; U / and t 2 HomA .U; T /, and clearly ExtA1 .N; idL / D idExt1 .N;L/ .
A
This shows that, for any module N in mod A, we have the covariant functor
ExtA1 .N; / W mod A ! mod K:
Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A. Consider also a minimal

projective resolution
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1

! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! V ! 0
of V in mod A. Then invoking the projectivity of the modules Pi , i 0, and

the exactness of the projective resolution of N , we conclude that there exists a
commutative diagram in mod A of the form
dn d2 d1 d0

::: / P / P / ::: / P / P / P /V /0
n n1 2 1 0
vn vn1 v2 v1 v0 v
dn d2 d1 d0
::: / Pn / Pn1 / ::: / P2 / P1 / P0 /N / 0.
Then we obtain the commutative diagram in mod K,

HomA .P0 ; L/ / HomA .P1 ; L/ / HomA .P2 ; L/
HomA .v0 ;L/ HomA .v1 ;L/ HomA .v2 ;L/

HomA .P0 ; L/ / HomA .P ; L/ / HomA .P ; L/ ,
1 2
HomA .v1 ; L/.Ker HomA .d2 ; L// Ker HomA .d2 ; L/;
HomA .v1 ; L/.Im HomA .d1 ; L// Im HomA .d1 ; L/:

We may then define the K-linear homomorphism

by
ExtA1 .v; L/.' C Im HomA .d1 ; L// D 'v1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/
for ' 2 HomA .P1 ; L/ with 'd2 D HomA .d2 ; L/.'/ D 0. We note that 'v1 D
HomA .v1 ; L/.'/. Unfortunately, the homomorphism v1 W P1 ! P1 , occurring in
the above commutative diagram of projective resolutions, is not uniquely deter-
mined by the homomorphism v W V ! N . Assume vn0 2 HomA .Pn ; Pn /, n 0, is
another family of homomorphisms such that d0 v00 D vd0 and dn vn0 D vn10
dn for
0 0
n 1. Then we have d0 .v0 v0 / D d0 v0 d0 v0 D vd0 vd0 D 0, and hence
Im.v0 v00 / Ker d0 D Im d1 . Consequently, by the projectivity of P0 , there
exists a homomorphism s0 2 HomA .P0 ; P1 / such that v0 v00 D d1 s0 . Moreover,
we have
d1 .v1 v10 s0 d1 / D d1 v1 d1 v10 d1 s0 d1
D d1 v1 d1 v10 v0 d1 C v00 d1
D .d1 v1 v0 d1 / .d1 v10 v00 d1 / D 0;
and so Im.v1 v10 s0 d1 / Ker d1 D Im d2 . Hence, by the projectivity of P1 ,
there exists a homomorphism s1 2 HomA .P1 ; P2 / such that v1 v10 s0 d1 D d2 s1 ,
or equivalently, v1 v10 D d2 s1 C s0 d1 . Then, for any ' 2 Ker HomA .d2 ; L/, we
obtain 'v1 'v10 D '.v1 v10 / D 'd2 s1 C's0 d1 D 's0 d1 D HomA .d1 ; L/.'s0 /
with 's0 2 HomA .P0 ; L/. Therefore, we have 'v1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ D 'v10 C
Im HomA .d1 ; L/. As a consequence, the homomorphism ExtA1 .v; L/ does not
depend on the choice of homomorphisms vn W Pn ! Pn , n 0. Moreover,
we have ExtA1 .vw; L/ D ExtA1 .w; L/ ExtA1 .v; L/ for v 2 HomA .V; N / and w 2
HomA .W; V /, and clearly ExtA1 .idN ; L/ D idExt1 .N;L/ . This shows that, for any
A
module L in mod A, we have the contravariant functor
ExtA1 .; L/ W mod A ! mod K:
Let L and N be modules in mod A. We shall define now a map N;L from
ExtA1 .N; L/ to ExtA1 .N; L/ and describe its properties. Let E 2 EA .N; L/ be an
extension
f g
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
and let
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! N ! 0
be a minimal projective resolution of N in mod A. Then there exists in mod A a
commutative diagram of the form
d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
t1 t0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0;
where t0 is given by the projectivity of P0 and surjectivity of g, t1 by the projectivity

of P1 and the facts that gt0 d1 D d0 d1 D 0 and Im f D Ker g, and the equality
f t1 d2 D t0 d1 d2 D 0 forces t1 d2 D 0, because f is a monomorphism. Since
t1 d2 D HomA .d2 ; L/.t1 /, we may consider the element
t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ 2 Ker HomA .d2 ; L/= Im HomA .d1 ; L/ D ExtA1 .N; L/:
Assume tN0 2 HomA .P0 ; M / and tN1 2 HomA .P1 ; L/ are homomorphisms such that
g tN0 D d0 , f tN1 D tN0 d1 . Clearly, as above, tN1 d2 D 0 holds. Further, we have
g.t0 tN0 / D gt0 g tN0 D d0 d0 D 0, and so there exists s 2 HomA .P0 ; L/
such that f s D t0 tN0 , because Ker g D Im f and P0 is projective. Further, we
have f .t1 tN1 / D f t1 f tN1 D t0 d1 tN0 d1 D .t0 tN0 /d1 D f sd1 , and hence
t1 tN1 D sd1 D HomA .d1 ; L/.s/, because f is a monomorphism. Therefore,
t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ D tN1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/. This allows us to associate to
E 2 EA .N; L/ the well-defined element t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ of ExtA1 .N; L/.
Assume now that E0 2 EA .N; L/ is an extension
f0 g0
E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0
such that E ' E0 . Then there exists in mod A a commutative diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL h idN
f0 g0
0 /L / M0 /N / 0.
We conclude that, in the above notation, t10 D idL t1 D t1 2 HomA .P1 ; L/

and t00 D ht0 2 HomA .P0 ; M 0 / satisfy the required commutativity conditions
g 0 t00 D g 0 ht0 D gt0 D d0 and f 0 t10 D hf t1 D ht0 d1 D t00 d1 . Hence, to the
extension E0 2 EA .N; L/ is assigned the same element t10 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ D
t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ of ExtA1 .N; L/ as to E. Summing up, we have defined the
map
N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/
given by N;L .ŒE/ D t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ for ŒE 2 ExtA1 .N; L/.
The following theorem describes basic properties of the map N;L .
Theorem 3.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and L, N
modules in mod A. The following statements hold.
(i) The map N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/ is a bijection.
(ii) N;L .ŒE C ŒE0 / D N;L .ŒE/ C N;L .ŒE0 / for any equivalence classes ŒE
and ŒE0 in ExtA1 .N; L/.
(iii) N;L .ŒON;L / is the zero element of ExtA1 .N; L/.

(iv) For any homomorphism u W L ! U in mod A the diagram
N;L
ExtA1 .N; L/ / Ext 1 .N; L/
A
1 1 .N;u/
ExtA .N;u/ ExtA
N;U

ExtA1 .N; U / / Ext 1 .N; U /
A
is commutative.
(v) For any homomorphism v W V ! N in mod A the diagram
N;L
ExtA1 .N; L/ / Ext 1 .N; L/
A
1 1 .v;L/
ExtA .v;L/ ExtA
V;L

ExtA1 .V; L/ / Ext 1 .V; L/
A
is commutative.
Proof. (i) We first show that N;L is an injection. Let ŒE, ŒE0 be elements of
ExtA1 .N; L/ such that N;L .ŒE/ D N;L .ŒE0 /. Let E, E0 be the extensions
f g f0 g0
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0; E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0
and
d2 d1 d0 d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0 P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
t1 t0 idN t10 t0 idN
f g f0 0 g0
0 /L /M /N / 0, 0 /L / M0 /N /0
commutative diagrams in mod A, where the upper rows are the right part of a
minimal projective resolution of the module N in mod A. Then we have
t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ D N;L .ŒE/ D N;L .ŒE0 / D t10 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/:
It follows that there exists s 2 HomA .P0 ; L/ such that t1 t10 D HomA .d1 ; L/.s/ D
sd1 . Let R D Im d1 , W P1 ! R the epimorphism induced by d1 and ! W R ! P0
the inclusion homomorphism. Since Im d2 D Ker d1 and induces the canonical
isomorphism P1 = Ker d1 ! Im d1 D R, there exist ˛1 ; ˛10 2 HomA .R; L/ such
that t1 D ˛1 and t1 D ˛1 . Moreover, we have .˛1 ˛10 / D t1 t10 D sd1 D
0 0
s!, because d1 D !. The surjectivity of then implies that ˛1 ˛10 D s!.
Similarly, the equalities f ˛1 D f t1 D t0 d1 D t0 ! and f 0 ˛10 D f 0 t10 D
t00 d1 D t00 ! imply f ˛1 D t0 ! and f 0 ˛10 D t00 !. Therefore we have in mod A the
commutative diagrams
d0 d0
0 /R ! / P0 /N /0 0 /R ! / P0 /N /0
˛1 t0 idN ˛10 t00 idN
f g f0 g0
0 /L /M /N / 0, 0 /L / M0 /N / 0.
It follows from the left diagram that M D Im f C Im t0 . Hence, every element

m 2 M has a decomposition m D f .x/ C t0 .p/ for some elements x 2 L and
p 2 P0 . Consider the map h W M ! M 0 defined by
h.m/ D f 0 .x/ C t00 .p/ C f 0 s.p/ if m D f .x/ C t0 .p/; x 2 L; p 2 P0 :
We show that h is well defined. Assume that f .x/ C t0 .p/ D m D f .y/ C t0 .q/
are two decompositions of m 2 M with x; y 2 L and p; q 2 P0 . Then t0 .p q/ D
f .y x/, and so d0 .p q/ D gt0 .p q/ D gf .y x/ D 0. Since Ker d0 D Im !,
we conclude that p q D !.r/ for some r 2 R. Hence, invoking the established
equality ˛1 ˛10 D s!, we obtain
t00 .p q/ D t00 !.r/ D f 0 ˛10 .r/ D f 0 .˛1 s!/.r/
D f 0 ˛1 .r/ f 0 s!.r/ D f 0 ˛1 .r/ f 0 s.p q/;
and consequently f 0 ˛1 .r/ D .t00 C f 0 s/.p q/. Moreover, f .y x/ D t0 .p
q/ D t0 !.r/ D f ˛1 .r/, and so y x D ˛1 .r/, because f is a monomorphism.
Therefore, we obtain f 0 .y x/ D .t00 C f 0 s/.p q/, or equivalently the required
equality f 0 .x/ C t00 .p/ C f 0 s.p/ D f 0 .y/ C t00 .q/ C f 0 s.q/. Hence, h W M ! M 0
is a well-defined map, and clearly is an A-homomorphism. Finally, we show that
the diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL h idN
f0 g0
0 /L / M0 /N /0
is commutative, and so ŒE D ŒE0 . Indeed, for x 2 L, we have h.f .x// D
h.f .x/ C t0 .0// D f 0 .x/. Further, for m D f .x/ C t0 .p/ with x 2 L and p 2 P0 ,
we have g 0 h.m/ D g 0 .f 0 .x/ C t00 .p/ C f 0 s.p// D g 0 t00 .p/ D d0 .p/ D gt0 .p/ D
g.f .x/ C t0 .p// D g.m/.
In order to prove that the map N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/ is a surjection,
take an element ' C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ 2 ExtA1 .N; L/ for a homomorphism ' 2
HomA .P1 ; L/ with 'd2 D HomA .d2 ; L/.'/ D 0. Since d1 D ! and Ker D
Im d2 , we infer that there exists ˛ 2 HomA .R; L/ such that ' D ˛. Consider
now the exact sequence
! d0
0 ! R ! P0 ! N ! 0:
Applying Exercise I.12.21, we obtain a commutative diagram in mod A of the form

d0
0 /R ! / P0 /N /0
˛ ˇ idN
f g
EW 0 /L /M /N / 0,
where M D L ˚R P0 is the fibered sum of L and P0 over R, via ˛ and !. Since

d1 D ! and ' D ˛ we obtain the commutative diagram
d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
' ˇ idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0,
and this shows that N;L .ŒE/ D ' C Im HomA .d1 ; L/. Summing up, we have
proved that N;L is a bijection.
(ii) We keep the minimal projective resolution of N from (i). In particular, we
have the exact sequence
! d0
0 ! R ! P0 ! N ! 0
with R D Im d1 , d1 D !, ! W R ! P0 the inclusion homomorphism, and
W P1 ! R the epimorphism induced by d1 . Consider two extensions
f g f0 g0
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0 and E0 W 0 ! L ! M 0 ! N ! 0
of L by N in mod A. Then we have two commutative diagrams
d0 d0
0 /R ! / P0 /N /0 0 /R ! / P0 /N /0
˛1 t0 idN ˛10 t0 idN
f g f0 0 g0
0 /L /M /N / 0, 0 /L / M0 /N /0
with t1 D ˛1 2 HomA .P1 ; L/ and t10 D ˛10 2 HomA .P1 ; L/ satisfying f t1 D

t0 d1 , f 0 t10 D t00 d1 . Observe that N;L .ŒE/ D t1 CIm HomA .d1 ; L/, N;L .ŒE0 / D
t10 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/, and consequently N;L .ŒE/ C N;L .ŒE0 / D .t1 C t10 / C
Im HomA .d1 ; L/. Consider the extension F of L by N given by the lower sequence
of the commutative diagram
d0
0 /R ! / P0 /N /0
˛1 C˛10 idN

0 /L u /Q v /N / 0,
where Q D L ˚R P0 is the fibered sum of L and P0 over R, via ˛1 C ˛10 and !.

Then it follows from the proof of (i) that N;L .ŒF / D .t1 C t10 / C Im HomA .d1 ; L/,
and consequently N;L .ŒF / D N;L .ŒE/ C N;L .ŒE0 /. We will show that ŒF D
ŒE C ŒE0 , where ŒE C ŒE0 D ŒE C E0 . Recall that the extension E C E0 is given
by the exact sequence
f 00 g 00
0 ! L ! M 00 ! N ! 0
with M 00 D V =U , where
˚ ˇ
V D .m; m0 / 2 M ˚ M 0 ˇ g.m/ D g 0 .m0 / ;
˚ ˇ
U D .f .x/; f 0 .x// 2 M ˚ M 0 ˇ x 2 L ;
f 00 W L ! M 00 is given by f 00 .x/ D .f .x/; 0/ C U for x 2 L, and g 00 W M 00 ! N
is given by g 00 ..m; m0 / C U / D g.m/ D g 0 .m0 / for .m; m0 / 2 V (see Lemma 3.2).
Observe that, for p 2 P0 , we have gt0 .p/ D d0 .p/ D g 0 t00 .p/, and hence
.t0 .p/; t00 .p// 2 V . This allows us to define the homomorphism W P0 ! M 00
in mod A by .p/ D .t0 .p/; t00 .p// C U for any p 2 P0 . We claim that ! D
f 00 .˛1 C ˛10 /. Take an element r 2 R. We have the equalities
!.r/ D .t0 !.r/; t00 !.r// C U D .f ˛1 .r/; f 0 ˛10 .r// C U
D ..f ˛1 .r/; 0/ C U / C ..0; f 0 ˛10 .r// C U /
D ..f ˛1 .r/; 0/ C U / C ..f ˛10 .r/; 0/ C U /
D .f ˛1 .r/ C f ˛10 .r/; 0/ C U D .f .˛1 C ˛10 /.r/; 0/ C U
D f 00 .˛1 C ˛10 /.r/;
and the claim follows. Using now the universal property of the fibered sum Q D
L ˚R P0 of L and P0 over R, via ˛1 C ˛10 and ! (see Exercise I.12.21) we
conclude that there is a unique A-homomorphism h W Q ! M 00 such that hu D f 00
and h D . In order to prove that F ' E C E0 , it is enough to show that the
diagram in mod A,
0 /L u /Q v /N /0
idL h idN
f 00 g 00
0 /L / M 00 /N / 0,
is commutative, or equivalently, that g 00 h D v, because idL f 00 D f 00 D hu. Since

every element q of Q D L ˚R P0 is of the form q D u.x/ C .p/ for some x 2 L
and p 2 P0 , we have
g 00 h.q/ D g 00 h.u.x/ C .p// D g 00 hu.x/ C g 00 h.p/ D g 00 f 00 .x/ C g 00 .p/
D g 00 .p/ D g 00 ..t0 .p/; t00 .p// C U / D g.t0 .p// D d0 .p/
D v.p/ D vu.x/ C v.p/ D v.u.x/ C .p// D v.q/:
Therefore, ŒF D ŒE C E0 , and hence N;L .ŒE C ŒE0 / D N;L .ŒE/ C N;L .ŒE0 /.
(iii) From Lemma 3.1 the class ŒON;L consists of all splittable extensions of L
by N in mod A. Let
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
be a splittable extension in mod A. Then f is a section, and so there exists u 2
HomA .M; L/ such that uf D idL . Consider a commutative diagram in mod A,
d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
t1 t0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0,
where the upper exact sequence is the right part of a minimal projective resolution of
N in mod A. Then, for s D ut0 2 HomA .P0 ; L/, we have t1 D uf t1 D ut0 d1 D
sd1 D HomA .d1 ; L/.s/, and consequently
N;L .ŒON;L / D N;L .ŒE/ D t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/ D 0 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/:
(iv) Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A and
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
an extension of L by N in mod A. By definition, ExtA1 .N; u/.ŒE/ D ŒuE where
uE is the lower sequence of the commutative diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u f0 idN
u0
p
0 /U / U ˚L M /N /0
given by the fibered sum U ˚L M of U and M over L, via u and f .

Consider also a commutative diagram
d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
t1 t0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0,
where the upper sequence is the right part of a minimal projective resolution of N
in mod A. Then we obtain a commutative diagram
d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
ut1 f 0 t0 idN
u0
p
0 /U / U ˚L M /N /0
in mod A, and consequently the equalities

N;U ExtA1 .N; u/.ŒE/ D N;U .ŒuE/ D ut1 C Im HomA .d1 ; N /
D ExtA1 .N; u/.t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; N //
D ExtA1 .N; u/N;L .ŒE/:
Therefore, N;U ExtA1 .N; u/ D ExtA1 .N; u/N;L .
(v) Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A and
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
an extension of L by N in mod A. By definition, ExtA1 .v; L/.ŒE/ D ŒEv, where
Ev is the upper sequence of the commutative diagram
/L i / M N V v0 /V /0
0
idL g0 v
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
given by the fibered product M N V of M and V over N , via g and v. We have

in mod A a commutative diagram
dn d2 d1 d0
::: / P / P / ::: / P / P / P /V /0
n n1 2 1 0
vn vn1 v2 v1 v0 v
dn d2 d1 d0
::: / Pn / Pn1 / ::: / P2 / P1 / P0 /N / 0,
where the upper and lower sequences are minimal projective resolutions of V and
N in mod A, respectively.
Consider a commutative diagram in mod A of the form
d2 d1 d0
P2 / P1 / P0 /N /0
t1 t0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0.
Since vd0 D d0 v0 D gt0 v0 , it follows from the universal property of the fibered
product M N V (Exercise I.12.19) that there is a unique homomorphism t0 W P0 !
M N V in mod A such that g 0 t0 D t0 v0 and v 0 t0 D d0 . In fact, we have
t0 .x/ D .t0 v0 .x/; d0 .x// for any x 2 P0 . Take now the homomorphism t1 D
t1 v1 W P1 ! L. Then, for any element z 2 P1 , we have the equalities
it1 .z/ D i t1 v1 .z/ D .f t1 v1 .z/; 0/ D .t0 d1 v1 .z/; 0/
D .t0 v0 d1 .z/; 0/ D .t0 v0 d1 .z/; d0 d1 .z// D t0 d1 .z/:
Hence, we obtain a commutative diagram in mod A,
d2 d1 d0

P2 / P / P /V /0
1 0
t1 t0 idV

v0
0 /L i / M N V /V / 0.
Then the following equalities hold:
V;L ExtA1 .v; L/.ŒE/ D V;L .ŒEv/ D t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/

D t1 v1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/
D ExtA1 .v; L/.t1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L//
D ExtA1 .v; L/N;L .ŒE/:
Therefore, V;L ExtA1 .v; L/ D ExtA1 .v; L/N;L .
As an important consequence of Theorem 3.5 we obtain the following facts.

Corollary 3.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and L, N
(i) The set ExtA1 .N; L/ admits a structure of K-vector space whose additive struc-
ture is given by the Baer sum, ŒON;L is the zero element, and the map
N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/ is a K-linear isomorphism. Moreover,
for ŒE 2 ExtA1 .N; L/ and 2 K, we have
ŒE D Œ. idL /E D ŒE. idN / D ŒE:
(ii) For any homomorphism u W L ! U in mod A, the map
is a K-linear homomorphism.
(iii) For any homomorphism v W V ! N in mod A, the map
is a K-linear homomorphism.
In fact, we have the following stronger result.
Proposition 3.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and L, N
(i) The covariant functors ExtA1 .N; / and ExtA1 .N; / from mod A to mod K
are naturally isomorphic.
(ii) The contravariant functors ExtA1 .; L/ and ExtA1 .; L/ from mod A to mod K
Proof. (i) The family of K-linear isomorphisms N;U W ExtA1 .N; U / ! ExtA1 .N; U /,
with U modules in mod A, induces, by Theorem 3.5 (iv), the required isomorphism
ExtA1 .N; / ! ExtA1 .N; / of covariant functors from mod A to mod K.
(ii) The family of K-linear isomorphisms V;L W ExtA1 .V; L/ ! ExtA1 .V; L/,
with V modules in mod A, induces, by Theorem 3.5 (v), the required isomorphism
ExtA1 .; L/ ! ExtA1 .; L/ of contravariant functors from mod A to mod K.
(i) The K-vector space ExtA1 .N; L/ possesses a natural structure of an
.EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodule.
(ii) The K-vector space ExtA1 .N; L/ possesses a natural structure of an
(iii) The K-linear isomorphism N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/ is an isomor-
phism of .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodules.
Proof. The left EndA .L/-module structure and the right EndA .N /-module structure
on ExtA1 .N; L/ are given as follows:
uŒE D ŒuE D ExtA1 .N; u/.ŒE/;
ŒEv D ŒEv D ExtA1 .v; L/.ŒE/;

for u 2 EndA .L/, v 2 EndA .N /, and ŒE 2 ExtA1 .N; L/. Observe that, for u; u0 2
EndA .L/, v; v 0 2 EndA .N /, ŒE 2 ExtA1 .N; L/, we have the equalities

.uu0 /ŒE D ExtA1 .N; uu0 /.ŒE/ D ExtA1 .N; u/ ExtA1 .N; u0 /.ŒE/ D u.u0 ŒE/;

ŒE.vv 0 / D ExtA1 .vv 0 ; L/.ŒE/ D ExtA1 .v 0 ; L/ ExtA1 .v; L/.ŒE/ D .ŒEv/v 0 ;
as ExtA1 .N; / W mod A ! mod K is covariant functor and ExtA1 .; L/ W mod A !
mod K is contravariant functor.
Similarly, the left EndA .L/-module structure and the right EndA .N /-module
structure on ExtA1 .N; L/ are given as follows:
ux D ExtA1 .N; u/.x/;
xv D ExtA1 .v; L/.x/;

for u 2 EndA .L/, v 2 EndA .N /, and x 2 ExtA1 .N; L/. Observe that, for u; u0 2
EndA .L/, v; v 0 2 EndA .N /, x 2 ExtA1 .N; L/, we have the equalities
.uu0 /x D ExtA1 .N; uu0 /.x/ D ExtA1 .N; u/.ExtA1 .N; u0 /.x// D u.u0 x/;
x.vv 0 / D ExtA1 .vv 0 ; L/.x/ D ExtA1 .v 0 ; L/.ExtA1 .v; L/.x// D .xv/v 0 ;
as ExtA1 .N; / W mod A ! mod K is covariant functor and ExtA1 .; L/ W mod A !
mod K is contravariant functor.
By Theorem 3.5, the K-linear isomorphism N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/
is an isomorphism of left EndA .L/-modules and an isomorphism of right EndA .N /-
modules.
We claim now that ExtA1 .N; L/ is an .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodule. Recall
that every element of ExtA1 .N; L/ is of the form 'N D ' CIm HomA .d1 ; L/ for some
' 2 HomA .P1 ; L/ with 'd2 D HomA .d2 ; L/.'/ D 0, where
dn d2 d1 d0
! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! N ! 0
is a minimal projective resolution of N in mod A. Then we have, for u 2 EndA .L/
and v 2 EndA .N /, the equalities

N D u ExtA1 .v; L/.'/
u.'v/ N D ExtA1 .N; u/ ExtA1 .v; L/.'/
N
D ExtA1 .N; u/ .'v1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L//
D u.'v1 / C Im HomA .d1 ; L/
D .u'/v1 C Im HomA .d1 ; L/
D ExtA1 .v; L/ .u' C Im HomA .d1 ; L//

D ExtA1 .v; L/ ExtA1 .N; u/.'/
N
D .u'/v;
N
where v1 2 EndA .P1 / occurs in a commutative diagram in mod A of the form
d1 d0
P1 / P0 /N /0
v1 v0 v
d1 d0
P1 / P0 /N / 0.
Hence, indeed ExtA1 .N; L/ is an .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodule.

Now let u 2 EndA .L/, v 2 EndA .N /, and ŒE 2 ExtA1 .N; L/. Then we have the
equalities
N;L .u.ŒEv// D u.N;L .ŒEv// D u.N;L .ŒE/v/
D .uN;L .ŒE//v D N;L .uŒE/v
D N;L ..uŒE/v/;
and hence u.ŒEv/ D .uŒE/v, because N;L is an isomorphism of left EndA .L/-
modules and right EndA .N /-modules. In particular, we obtain that ExtA1 .N; L/
is an .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodule and N;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/ is an
isomorphism of .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodules.
e Dually, for modules L and N in mod A, we may define a K-vector space

1
Ext .N; L/, involving a minimal injective resolution of L in mod A, and two K-
A
linear homomorphisms
e e e
ExtA1 .N; u/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; U /;
ext .v; L/ W Eext .N; L/ ! Eext .V; L/

E 1
A
1
A
1
A
for homomorphisms u W L ! U and v W V ! N in mod A.

Consider a minimal injective resolution
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! L ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In !
of L in mod A (see Proposition I.8.30). Application of the covariant functor

HomA .N; / W mod A ! mod K yields the chain of K-vector spaces
HomA .N;d 1 / HomA .N;d 2 /

HomA .N; I0 / ! HomA .N; I1 / ! HomA .N; I2 /
with HomA .N; d 2 / HomA .N; d 1 / D HomA .N; d 2 d 1 / D 0. This allows us to

define the K-vector space
e
ExtA1 .N; L/ D Ker HomA .N; d 2 /= Im HomA .N; d 1 /:
Observe that, by Proposition I.8.30 and Lemma I.8.32, the space ExtA1 .N; L/ is well e
defined.
Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A. Consider also a minimal injective
resolution
dQ 0 dQ 1 dQ 2 dQ n
0 ! U ! IQ0 ! IQ1 ! IQ2 ! ! IQn1 ! IQn !
of U in mod A. Then invoking the injectivity of the modules IQi , i 0, and

the exactness of the injective resolution, we conclude that there exists in mod A a
/L d0 / I0 d1 / I1 d2 / I2 / ::: / In1 dn / In / :::

0
u u0 u1 u2 un1 un

/U dQ 0 / IQ dQ 1 / IQ dQ 2 / IQ / ::: / IQ dQ n / IQ / ::: .
0 0 1 2 n1 n

HomA .N; I0 / / HomA .N; I1 / / HomA .N; I2 /
HomA .N;u0 / HomA .N;u1 / HomA .N;u2 /

HomA .N;dQ 1 /
HomA .N;dQ 2 /

HomA .N; IQ0 / / Hom .N; IQ / / Hom .N; IQ / ,
A 1 A 2

HomA .N; u1 /.Ker HomA .N; d 2 // Ker HomA .N; dQ 2 /;
HomA .N; u1 /.Im HomA .N; d 1 // Im HomA .N; dQ 1 /:
e e e
by
e
ExtA1 .N; u/.' C Im HomA .N; d 1 // D u1 ' C Im HomA .N; dQ 1 /
for ' 2 HomA .N; I1 / with d 2 ' D HomA .N; d 2 /.'/ D 0. Observe that u1 ' D
HomA .N; u1 /.'/. Unfortunately, the homomorphism u1 W I1 ! IQ1 , occurring in
the above commutative diagram of injective resolutions, is not uniquely determined
by the homomorphism u W L ! U . Assume u0n 2 HomA .In ; IQn /, n 0, is another
family of homomorphisms such that u00 d 0 D dQ 0 u and u0n d n D dQ n u0n1 for n 1.
Then we have .u0 u00 /d 0 D u0 d 0 u00 d 0 D dQ 0 u dQ 0 u D 0, and hence u0 u00
factors through Coker d 0 . Consequently, by the injectivity of IQ0 , there exists a
homomorphism t0 2 HomA .I1 ; IQ0 / such that u0 u00 D t0 d 1 . Moreover, we have
.u1 u01 dQ 1 t0 /d 1 D u1 d 1 u01 d 1 dQ 1 t0 d 1

D dQ 1 u0 dQ 1 u00 dQ 1 u0 C dQ 1 u00 D 0;
and u1 u01 dQ 1 t0 factors through Coker d 1 . Hence, by the injectivity of IQ1 , there
exists a homomorphism t1 2 HomA .I2 ; IQ1 / such that u1 u01 dQ 1 t0 D t1 d 2 ,
or equivalently u1 u01 D t1 d 2 C dQ 1 t0 . Then, for any ' 2 Ker HomA .N; d 2 /,
we obtain u1 ' u01 ' D .u1 u01 /' D .t1 d 2 C dQ 1 t0 /' D t1 d 2 ' C dQ 1 t0 ' D
dQ 1 t0 ' D HomA .N; dQ 1 /.t0 '/ with t0 ' 2 HomA .N; IQ0 /. Therefore, we have
u1 ' C Im HomA .N; dQ 1 / D u01 ' C Im HomA .N; dQ 1 /. As a consequence, the homo-
e
morphism ExtA1 .N; u/ does not depend on the choice of homomorphisms un W In !
e e e
IQn , n 0. Moreover, we have ExtA1 .N; wu/ D ExtA1 .N; w/ExtA1 .N; u/ for u 2
e
HomA .L; U / and w 2 HomA .U; W /, and clearly ExtA1 .N; idL / D idExt e A1 .N;L/ .
This shows that, for any module N in mod A, we have the covariant functor
e
ExtA1 .N; / W mod A ! mod K:
Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A. Then we have the commutative

diagram in mod K,
HomA .N; I0 / / HomA .N; I1 / / HomA .N; I2 /
HomA .v;I0 / HomA .v;I1 / HomA .v;I2 /

.V;d 1 / .V;d 2 /
HomA .V; I0 /
HomA
/ HomA .V; I1 / HomA
/ HomA .V; I2 / ,
from which we conclude that

HomA .v; I1 /.Ker HomA .N; d 2 // Ker HomA .V; d 2 /;
HomA .v; I1 /.Im HomA .N; d 1 // Im HomA .V; d 1 /:
As a consequence, we may define the K-linear homomorphism
e e
ExtA1 .v; L/ W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .V; L/ e
by
e
ExtA1 .v; L/.' C Im HomA .N; d 1 // D 'v C Im HomA .V; dQ 1 /
for ' 2 HomA .N; I1 / with d 2 ' D HomA .N; d 2 /.'/ D 0. Observe that 'v D
e e
HomA .v; L/.'/. Moreover, we have ExtA1 .vt; L/ D ExtA1 .t; L/ExtA1 .v; L/ for e
t 2 HomA .T; V / and v 2 HomA .V; N /, and clearly ExtA1 .idN ; L/ D idExte
e A1 .N;L/ .
This shows that, for any module L in mod A, we have the contravariant functor
e
ExtA1 .; L/ W mod A ! mod K:
We have the following fact.
be modules in mod A. The following statements hold.
e
(i) The covariant functors ExtA1 .N; / and ExtA1 .N; / from mod A to mod K are
naturally isomorphic.
e
Proof. It follows from Proposition I.8.16 that
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! L ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In !
is a minimal injective resolution of L in mod A if and only if
D.d n /
::: / D.In / / D.In1 / / :::
ED
BC
@A
GF
D.d 2 / D.d 1 / D.d 0 /
_/ D.I2 / / D.I1 / / D.I0 / / D.L/ /0
is a minimal projective resolution of the dual module D.L/ in mod Aop . Hence, the
duality functors
D /
mod A o mod Aop
D
induce an isomorphism of the covariant functors

e
ExtA1 .N; /
! ExtA1 op .; D.N //D
and an isomorphism of contravariant functors

e
ExtA1 .; L/
! ExtA1 op .D.L/; /D
from mod A to mod K. Further, the duality functors induce also an isomorphism
of the covariant functors

ExtA1 .N; /
and an isomorphism of the contravariant functors

ExtA1 .; L/
! ExtA1 op .D.L/; /D
from mod A to mod K (see Exercise 12.6). Applying now Proposition 3.7 to the
modules D.L/ and D.N / in mod Aop , we conclude that there exist an isomorphism
of the covariant functors

ExtA1 op .D.L/; /
! ExtA1 op .D.L/; /
and an isomorphism of the contravariant functors

ExtA1 op .; D.N //
! ExtA1 op .; D.N //
from mod Aop to mod K. Composing with the duality D W mod A ! mod Aop , we
then obtain an isomorphism of covariant functors

ExtA1 op .; D.N //D
and an isomorphism of contravariant functors

ExtA1 op .D.L/; /D
! ExtA1 op .D.L/; /D:
e
Combining the above isomorphisms we conclude that the covariant functors
ExtA1 .N; / and ExtA1 .N; / from mod A to mod K are isomorphic, and the con-
e
travariant functors ExtA1 .; L/ and ExtA1 .; L/ from mod A to mod K are isomor-
phic.
As a consequence of Propositions 3.8 and 3.9 we obtain the following facts.
Proposition 3.10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and L,

N modules in mod A. The following statements hold.
e
(i) The K-vector space ExtA1 .N; L/ possesses a natural structure of an
(ii) There is a natural isomorphism
ExtA1 .N; L/ e
! ExtA1 .N; L/
of .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodules.

As an immediate consequence of Propositions 3.7 and 3.9 we obtain the follow-
ing facts.
Corollary 3.11. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and L, N
be modules in mod A. The following statements hold.
e
(i) The covariant functors ExtA1 .N; / and ExtA1 .N; / from mod A to mod K
e
We end this section with the following consequence of Propositions 3.8 and
3.10.
Corollary 3.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and
L, N modules in mod A. Then there is a natural isomorphism ExtA1 .N; L/
!
e
ExtA1 .N; L/ of .EndA .L/; EndA .N //-bimodules.
4 The Auslander–Reiten translations

In this section we introduce theAuslander–Reiten translations on the (stable) module
categories of finite dimensional algebras, which plays a prominent role in further
considerations.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. We denote by proj A
the full subcategory of mod A consisting of all projective modules and by inj A the
full subcategory of mod A consisting of all injective modules. Then the standard
duality
D /
mod A o mod Aop ;
D
where D D HomK .; K/, induces the dualities
proj A o
D / inj Aop ;
D
4. The Auslander–Reiten translations 233
inj A o
D / proj Aop :
D
For two modules M and N in mod A we denote by PA .M; N / the subset of

HomA .M; N / consisting of all homomorphisms f W M ! N which factor through
a module P in proj A, that is, f D hg for some g 2 HomA .M; P / and h 2
HomA .P; N /. The following lemma shows that PA is an ideal of the category
mod A.
Lemma 4.1. Let M; N; U; V be modules in mod A. Then the following statements
hold.
(i) PA .M; N / is a K-vector subspace of HomA .M; N /.
(ii) For f 2 PA .M; N / and u 2 HomA .N; U /, we have uf 2 PA .M; U /.
(iii) For f 2 PA .M; N / and v 2 HomA .V; M /, we have f v 2 PA .V; N /.
Proof. (i) Let f; f 0 2 PA .M; N /. Then f D hg and f 0 D h0 g 0 , for some
g 2 HomA .M; P /, h 2 HomA .P; N /, g 0 2 HomA .M; P 0 /, h0 2 HomA .P 0 ; N /
with P and P 0 from proj A. We may then write f C f 0 as

0 0 0
0
g
f C f D hg C h g D h h ;
g0
and hence f C f 0 factors through P ˚ P 0 . This shows that f C f 0 2 PA .M; N /.

Moreover, for any 2 K, we have f D .hg/ D .h/g 2 PA .M; N /. Therefore,
PA .M; N / is a K-vector subspace of HomA .M; N /.
(ii) and (iii). Let f 2 PA .M; N / and f D hg for some g 2 HomA .M; P /,
h 2 HomA .P; N /, and P a module in proj A. Then for u 2 HomA .N; U / and
v 2 HomA .V; M /, we have uf D u.hg/ D .uh/g and f v D .hg/v D h.gv/, with
uh 2 HomA .P; U / and gv 2 HomA .V; P /, and consequently uf 2 PA .M; U /
f v 2 PA .V; N /.
The above lemma allows us to define the projectively stable category
mod A D mod A=PA :
The objects of mod A are the modules in mod A, the K-vector space of morphisms
from M to N in mod A is the quotient space
HomA .M; N / D HomA .M; N /=PA .M; N /;
and the composition of morphisms in mod A is induced from the composition of

homomorphisms in mod A. For a homomorphism f 2 HomA .M; N /, we denote
by f D f C PA .M; N / its class in HomA .M; N /.
For two modules M and N in mod A we may also consider the subset IA .M; N /
of HomA .M; N / consisting of all homomorphisms f W M ! N which factor
through a module I from inj A. The following analogue of Lemma 4.1 shows that
IA is an ideal of the category mod A.
Lemma 4.2. Let M; N; U; V be modules in mod A. The following statements hold.
(i) IA .M; N / is a K-vector subspace of HomA .M; N /.
(ii) For f 2 IA .M; N / and u 2 HomA .N; U /, we have uf 2 IA .M; U /.
(iii) For f 2 IA .M; N / and v 2 HomA .V; M /, we have f v 2 IA .V; N /.
This allows us to define the injectively stable category
mod A D mod A=IA :
The objects of mod A are the modules in mod A, the K-vector space of morphisms
from M to N in mod A is the quotient space
HomA .M; N / D HomA .M; N /=IA .M; N /;
and the composition of morphisms in mod A is induced from the composition of

homomorphisms in mod A. For a homomorphism f 2 HomA .M; N /, we denote
by fN D f C IA .M; N / its class in HomA .M; N /.
The following lemma is useful.
Lemma 4.3. Let M; N be modules in modP A and U; V modules in modI A. The
(i) M Š N in mod A if and only if M Š N in mod A.
(ii) U Š V in mod A if and only if U Š V in mod A.
Proof. (i) If M Š N in mod A, then there exist homomorphisms f W M ! N and
g W N ! M in mod A with gf D idM and fg D idN . Then g f D gf D idM
and f g D fg D idN , and hence M Š N in mod A. Conversely, assume that
M Š N in mod A and f W M ! N and g W N ! M are homomorphisms in
mod A such that g f D idM and f g D idN . Then we obtain that gf D idM
and fg D idN and hence idM gf 2 PA .M; M / and idN fg 2 PA .N; N /. Let
idM gf D vu for a module P in proj A and homomorphisms u W M ! P and
v W P ! M in mod A. Since M is in modP A, it follows from Lemmas 1.3 and 1.4
that u 2 radA .M; P / and v 2 radA .M; P /, and so idM gf 2 radA .M; M /. Hence
we obtain that gf D idM .idM gf / D idM idM .idM gf / is an invertible
element of EndA .M /, equivalently an isomorphism in mod A. Similarly, we show
that fg is an invertible element of EndA .N /, equivalently an isomorphism. In
particular, there exist endomorphisms ' 2 EndA .M / and 2 EndA .N / such that
.'g/f D idM and fg D idN , which shows that f is simultaneously a section

and a retraction in mod A. Therefore, f is an isomorphism, and consequently
M Š N in mod A.
Observe that the duality D D HomK .; K/ between mod A and mod Aop in-
duces the duality
D /
mod A o mod Aop :
D
We will introduce now a duality between mod A and mod Aop proposed by M.
Auslander and M. Bridger [AB]. Consider the contravariant functor
./t D HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod Aop ;
where for a module M in mod A the left A-module structure on HomA .M; A/ is
given by .af /.m/ D af .m/, for a 2 A, f 2 HomA .M; A/ and m 2 M .
Lemma 4.4. The functor ./t W mod A ! mod Aop induces the duality
./t
proj A o / proj Aop :
./t
Proof. It follows from Lemma I.8.7 that for every idempotent e of A, the K-
linear map ‚Ae W HomA .eA; A/ ! Ae, given by ‚Ae .'/ D '.e/ D '.e/e for
' 2 HomA .eA; A/, is an isomorphism. Then the claim follows from Proposi-
tion I.8.2 describing the structure of modules in proj A and proj Aop .
Observe that for a module P in proj A we have the canonical evaluation iso-
morphism "P W P ! P t t in mod A, given by "P .p/.f / D f .p/ for p 2 P and
f 2 HomA .P; A/ D P t .
We denote by modP A the full subcategory of mod A consisting of all modules
without nonzero projective direct summands and by modI A the full subcategory
of mod A consisting of all modules without nonzero injective direct summands.
Observe that we have a duality
D /
modP A o modI Aop :
D
Let M be a module in mod A. An exact sequence

p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
in mod A such that p0 W P0 ! M and p1 W P1 ! Im p1 D Ker p0 are projective

covers is said to be a minimal projective presentation of M in mod A. For such a
minimal projective presentation of M in mod A, we have in mod Aop the induced

exact sequence
p0t p1t M
0 ! M t ! P0t ! P1t ! Coker p1t ! 0:
The Aop -module Coker p1t is denoted by Tr.M / and called the transpose of M .
We collect now basic properties of the transpose Tr.
Proposition 4.5. Let M and N be modules in mod A. The following statements

hold.
(i) Tr.M / D 0 if and only if M is from proj A.
(ii) Tr.M / is a module in modP Aop .
(iii) If M is from modP A and

p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
is a minimal projective presentation of M in mod A, then the induced exact

sequence
p1t M
P0t ! P1t ! Tr.M / ! 0
is a minimal projective presentation of Tr.M / in mod Aop .
(iv) If M is from modP A, then M Š Tr.Tr.M //.
(v) If M and N are from modP A, then M Š N in mod A if and only if Tr.M / Š
Tr.N / in mod Aop .
(vi) Tr.M ˚ N / Š Tr.M / ˚ Tr.N / in mod Aop .

p1 p0
Proof. (i) Let P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0 be a minimal projective presentation of M in
mod A. Assume M is a module from proj A. Then p0 is an isomorphism, P1 D 0,
and consequently Tr.M / D Coker p1t D 0. Conversely, assume that Tr.M / D 0.
Then p1t W P0t ! P1t is an epimorphism in mod Aop , and hence a retraction, because
P1t is in proj Aop (see Lemma I.8.1). Let r W P1t ! P0t be a homomorphism in
mod Aop with p1t r D idP t . Then we obtain the commutative diagram in mod A,
1
p1
P1 / P0
"P1 "P0
p1t t
P1t t / P tt ,
0
with the evaluation isomorphisms "P0 , "P1 and r t p1t t D idP t t . Then we have
1
."P11 r t "P0 /p1 D idP1 and p1 is a section in mod A. Hence we obtain a splittable
extension p1 p0
0 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
of P1 by M , and then P0 D P00 ˚ Ker p0 for some A-submodule P00 of P0 (see
Lemmas 3.1 and I.4.2). Since p0 W P0 ! M is a projective cover, Ker p0 is a
superfluous A-submodule of P0 , and so P0 D P00 . Thus we conclude that Ker p0 D
0, or equivalently, p0 is an isomorphism, which ensures that M is a module from
proj A.
(ii) Suppose that Tr.M / admits a nonzero projective direct summand Q in
mod Aop . Let % W Tr.M / ! Q be the canonical projection. Then the epimor-
phism %M W P1t ! Q is a retraction, because Q is projective (see Lemma I.8.1),
and let W Q ! P1t be a homomorphism in mod A such that %M D idQ . Ap-
plying the functor ./t , we obtain t .M t
%t / D .%M /t D idQt , and hence
M % W Q ! P1 is a section. Then it follows from Lemma I.4.2 that P1t t D
t t t tt
Im.M t
%t / ˚ X , for some right A-submodule X of P1t t . Moreover, we have
p1t t .Im.M t
%t // D Im.p tt t Mt
%t / D Im.%M p1t /t D 0, because M p1t D 0.
Hence, Im.M % / is a direct summand of P1t t which is contained in Ker p1t t . On
t t
the other hand, since p1 W P1 ! Im p1 is a projective cover and p1t t "P1 D "P0 p1
with "P0 , "P1 isomorphisms, we conclude that p1t t W P1t t ! Im p1t t is a projective
cover. Therefore, Ker p1t t is a superfluous A-submodule of P1t t . This contradicts
the fact that P1t t D Im.M t
%t / C X D Ker p1t t C X with X ¤ P1t t .
(iii) Assume M is a module in modP A and
p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
is a minimal projective presentation of M in mod A. We have in mod Aop the
induced exact sequence
p1t M
P0t ! P1t ! Tr.M / ! 0;
where P0t and P1t are from proj Aop . We claim that it is a minimal projective
presentation of Tr.M / in mod Aop . Since by (ii) Tr.M / has no nonzero projective
direct summands, we then conclude that we have in mod Aop a commutative diagram
p1t M
P0t / Pt / Tr.M / /0
1
idP t idP t idTr M
0 1
u0

U0 ˚ V0
0v
/ U1 ˚ V1 w0
/ Tr.M / / 0,
u w
where U0 !
U1 ! Tr.M / ! 0 is a minimal projective presentation of Tr.M /
in mod A , and v W V0 ! V1 is an epimorphism (possibly zero) for some direct
op
summands V0 ; V1 of P0t ; P1t , respectively, which is in fact a retraction because V1

is projective. Then it suffices to show that V0 D 0 and V1 D 0.
Using again the evaluation isomorphisms "P0 W P0 ! P0t t and "P1 W P1 ! P1t t ,
we conclude that there exists in mod A a commutative diagram
p1 p0
P1 / Pt /M /0
0
"P1 "P0 Š
p1t t Tr.M /
P1t t / P tt / Coker p t t /0
0 1
Š " # Š "
0 0
# Š
ut 0
0 vt
0
0
/ Ut ˚ V t / N1 ˚ N2 / 0,
0 1
U1t ˚ V1t 0 0
where N1 D Coker ut , N2 D Coker v t , 00 W U0t ! N1 , 10 W V0t ! N2 are

canonical epimorphisms, all vertical homomorphisms are isomorphisms, and the
third horizontal exact sequence is a minimal projective presentation of N D N1 ˚
N2 , because so is the first horizontal exact sequence. Since v t W V1t ! V0t is
a section, it follows from Lemma 3.1 that 10 is a retraction, and hence N2 is
isomorphic to a direct summand of V0t , being projective in mod A. Since N has no
nonzero projective direct summand, because N is isomorphic to M , it follows that
0
hN2 D 0.i Hence v is an isomorphism and 1 W V0 ! N2 is zero. Moreover, since
t t
00 0
0 10
is a projective cover of N , we get V0t D 0 and hence V1t D 0, because v t is
an isomorphism. Therefore, by using the evaluation isomorphisms "Vi W Vi ! Vit t ,
for i D 0; 1, we conclude that V0 D 0 and V1 D 0 as claimed.
(iv) Assume M is a module in modP A. Then, by (ii), Tr.M / is a module in
modP Aop , and consequently Tr.Tr.M // is a module in modP A. Then we have in
mod A a commutative diagram
p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
"P1 "P0
p1t t Tr.M /
P1t t / P tt / Tr.Tr.M // / 0,
0
where the upper sequence is a minimal projective presentation of M in mod A,

the lower sequence is a minimal projective presentation of Tr.Tr.M // in mod A,
and the vertical homomorphisms are isomorphisms. Since M D Coker p1 and
Tr.Tr.M // D Coker p1t t , there exists an isomorphism M W M ! Tr.Tr.M // in
mod A making the right part of the diagram commutative.
(v) Assume M and N are from modP A. Assume there is an isomorphism
f W M ! N in mod A. Then, applying Lemma I.8.31, we conclude that there is in
mod A a commutative diagram

p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
f1 f0 f
q1 q0
Q1 / Q0 /N / 0,
where the upper sequence is a minimal projective presentation of M in mod A, the

lower sequence is a minimal projective presentation of N in mod A, and f0 , f1 are
isomorphisms. Applying the functor ./t we obtain the commutative diagram in
mod Aop ,
q1t N
Q0t / Qt / Tr.N / /0
1
f0t f1t
p1t M
P0t / Pt / Tr.M / / 0,
1
where Tr.N / D Coker q1t , Tr.M / D Coker p1t , and f0t , f1t are isomorphisms.
Hence there is an isomorphism g W Tr.N / ! Tr.M / in mod Aop making the right
part of the diagram commutative. Therefore, M Š N in mod A implies Tr.M / Š
Tr.N / in mod Aop .
Assume now that Tr.M / Š Tr.N / in mod Aop . Since M and N are in modP A,
the modules Tr.M / and Tr.N / are in modP Aop , and we conclude as above that
Tr.Tr.M // Š Tr.Tr.N // in mod A. On the other hand, by (iv), we have M Š
Tr.Tr.M // and Tr.Tr.N // Š N in mod A. Therefore, we obtain M Š N in
mod A. p1 p0 q1 q0
(vi) Let P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0 and Q1 ! Q0 ! N ! 0 be minimal
projective presentations of the modules M and N in mod A, respectively. Then
M ˚ N admits a minimal projective presentation in mod A of the form

p1 0 p0 0
0 q1 0 q0
P1 ˚ Q1 ! P0 ˚ Q0 ! M ˚ N ! 0:
Hence we obtain in mod Aop the commutative diagram

p1 0 t
.P0 ˚ Q0 /t
0 q1
/ .P1 ˚ Q1 /t / Tr.M ˚ N /
0 "
t 0
# 1
p1
t
/ P t ˚ Qt / Tr.M / ˚ Tr.N / ,
0 q1
P0t ˚ Q0t 1 1
where 0 and 1 are canonical isomorphisms in mod Aop . We conclude that there
exists an isomorphism f W Tr.M ˚ N / ! Tr.M / ˚ Tr.N / in mod Aop making
the right part of the diagram commutative.
As a direct consequence of Proposition 4.5 we obtain the following fact.

the transpose Tr induces a bijection between the isomorphism classes of modules
in modP A and the isomorphism classes of modules in modP Aop . Moreover, Tr
carries the indecomposable modules in modP A to indecomposable modules in
modP Aop .
We will see below that there is no way to extend the above correspondence to
a functor Tr from modP A to modP Aop , or from mod A to mod Aop . We have to
pass to the stable categories.
Theorem 4.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then the
transpose Tr induces a duality
mod A o
Tr / mod Aop :
Tr
Proof. We will first show that there exist well-defined contravariant functors
Tr W mod A ! mod Aop and Tr W mod Aop ! mod A.
Let f W M ! N be a homomorphism in mod A, and
p1 p0 q1 q0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0; Q1 ! Q0 ! N ! 0
be minimal projective presentations of M and N in mod A, respectively. Then there

exists a commutative diagram in mod A,
p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
f1 f0 f
q1 q0
Q1 / Q0 /N / 0.
Assume we have in mod A another commutative diagram of the form

p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
fQ1 fQ0 f
q1 q0
Q1 / Q0 /N / 0.
Then q0 .f0 fQ0 / D q0 f0 q0 fQ0 D fp0 fp0 D 0. Since Ker q0 D Im q1 and P0
is projective, there exists s0 2 HomA .P0 ; Q1 / such that f0 fQ0 D q1 s0 . Further, we
have q1 .f1 fQ1 s0 p1 / D q1 f1 q1 fQ1 q1 s0 p1 D f0 p1 fQ0 p1 .f0 fQ0 /p1 D 0.
Hence, there exists s1 2 HomA .P1 ; Ker q1 / such that f1 fQ1 s0 p1 D !s1 , for
the canonical embedding ! W Ker q1 ! Q1 . Therefore, we have the equality

f1 fQ1 D s0 p1 C !s1 .
The above two commutative diagrams in mod A induce two commutative dia-
grams in mod Aop ,
q0t q1t N
0 / Nt / Qt / Qt / Tr.N / /0
0 1
ft f0t f1t g
p0t p1t M
0 / Mt / Pt / Pt / Tr.M / / 0,
0 1
q0t q1t N
0 / Nt / Qt / Qt / Tr.N / /0
0 1
ft fQ0t fQ1t gQ
p0t p1t M
0 / Mt / Pt / Pt / Tr.M / / 0.
0 1
Moreover, we have f1t fQ1t D .f1 fQ1 /t D .s0 p1 C !s1 /t D p1t s0t C s1t ! t .
Hence we obtain the equalities
.g g/
Q N D gN g Q N D M f1t M fQ1t D M .f1t fQ1t /
D M .p1t s0t C s1t ! t / D M p1t s0t C M s1t ! t D M s1t ! t :
On the other hand, we have ! t q1t D .q1 !/ D 0. Since

t
Tr.N / D Coker q1t , then
there exists r 2 HomA Tr.N /; .Ker q1 / such that ! D rN . Hence, we obtain
t t
that .g g/
Q N D .M s1t r/N , and consequently g gQ D M s1t r. Observe also
that M s1 r 2 PAop .Tr.N
t
/; Tr.M //, since s t
1 2 HomA
t
op .Ker q1 / ; P
1
t
and M 2
HomAop P1t ; Tr.M / . Summing up, we have g gQ 2 PAop .Tr.N /; Tr.M //, and so
g D gQ in HomAop .Tr.N /; Tr.M //. This allows us to assign to f 2 HomA .M; N /
a well-defined element Tr.f / D g 2 HomAop .Tr.N /; Tr.M //. We also note that,
if f 0 2 HomA .M; N / and f00 2 HomA .P0 ; Q0 /, f10 2 HomA .P1 ; Q1 / satisfy
q0 f00 D f 0 p0 , q1 f10 D f00 p1 , then q0 .f0 C f00 / D .f C f 0 /p0 , q1 .f1 C f10 / D
.f0 C f00 /p1 , M .f1 C f10 /t D M .f1t C .f10 /t / D M f1t C M .f10 /t D gN C
g 0 N D .g C g 0 /N for g 0 2 HomAop .Tr.N /; Tr.M // with g 0 N D M .f10 /t ,
and consequently Tr.f C f 0 / D g C g 0 D g C g 0 D Tr.f / C Tr.f 0 /. Moreover,
for 2 K, we have q0 .f0 / D .f /p0 , q1 .f1 / D .f0 /p1 , M .f1 /t D
M .f1t / D .g/N , and hence Tr.f / D g D g D Tr.f /.Therefore, we
have a K-linear homomorphism Tr W HomA .M; N / ! HomAop .Tr.N /; Tr.M //.
We will show now that Tr vanishes on all homomorphisms from PA .M; N /.
Let h 2 PA .M; N / and h D ˇ˛ for homomorphisms ˛ W M ! P and ˇ W P !
N with P from proj A. Since q0 W Q0 ! N is an epimorphism, there exists
2 HomA .P; Q0 / such that ˇ D q0 . Taking h0 D ˛p0 and h1 D 0 in
HomA .P1 ; Q1 /, we obtain the commutative diagram in mod A,

p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
h1 D0 h0 h
q1 q0
Q1 / Q0 /N /0
with h0 p1 D 0, and consequently the commutative diagram in mod Aop ,

q1t N
Q0t / Qt / Tr.N / /0
1
ht0 ht1 D0 0
p1t M
P0t / Pt / Tr.M / / 0.
0
Therefore, Tr.h/ D 0. As a consequence, we obtain that the transpose induces a

K-linear homomorphism
Tr W HomA .M; N / ! HomAop .Tr N; Tr M /
such that Tr.f / D Tr.f / for any f 2 HomA .M; N /. The above arguments show
also that Tr.f 0 f / D Tr.f / Tr.f 0 / for any homomorphisms f 2 HomA .M; N /
and f 0 2 HomA .N; U /, and clearly we have also Tr.idM / D idTr.M / .
Summing up, we have defined a contravariant K-linear functor
Tr W mod A ! mod Aop :
Similarly, we have a contravariant K-linear functor
Tr W mod Aop ! mod A D mod.Aop /op :
We claim that 1mod A Š Tr B Tr and 1mod Aop Š Tr B Tr, as functors, and hence Tr
induces a duality between mod A and mod Aop .
Observe first that for a module M in mod A, there is a decomposition M D
PM ˚ MP , where PM is a module from proj A and MP is a module from modP A,
both uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by M . Then the canonical section
u W MP ! M and retraction v W M ! MP with vu D idMP induce the mutually
inverse isomorphisms u W MP ! M and v W M ! MP in mod A. Similarly, for
a module X in mod Aop , there exists a direct summand XP of X from modP Aop
such that XP and X are isomorphic in mod Aop .
Let f W M ! N be a homomorphism in modP A and
p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
f1 f0 f
q1 q0
Q1 / Q0 /N /0
a commutative diagram in mod A, where the upper sequence is a minimal projec-

tive presentation of M in mod A and the lower sequence is a minimal projective
presentation of N in mod A. It follows from Proposition 4.5 (ii) that Tr.M /, Tr.N /
are modules in modP Aop , and Tr.Tr.M //, Tr.Tr.N // are modules in modP A.
Moreover, by Proposition 4.5 (iii), we have a commutative diagram in mod Aop ,
q1t N
Q0t / Qt / Tr.N / /0
1
f0t f1t g
p1t M
P0t / Pt / Tr.M / / 0,
1
where the upper sequence is a minimal projective presentation of Tr.N / in mod Aop
and the lower sequence is a minimal projective presentation of Tr.M / in mod Aop ,
and a commutative diagram in mod A,
p1t t Tr.M /
P1t t / P tt / Tr.Tr.M // /0
0
f1t t f0t t h
q1t t Tr.N /
Q1t t / Qt t / Tr.Tr.N // / 0,
0
with the upper sequence a minimal projective presentation of Tr.Tr.M // in mod A

and the lower sequence a minimal projective presentation of Tr.Tr.N // in mod A.
It follows also from the first part of the proof that Tr.f / D g and Tr.g/ D h.
Further, we have in mod A commutative diagrams
p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
"P1 "P0 M
p1t t Tr.M /
P1t t / P tt / Tr.Tr.M // /0
0
and
q1 q0
Q1 / Q0 /N /0
"Q1 "Q0 N
q1t t Tr.N /
Q1t t / Qt t / Tr.Tr.N // / 0,
0
where "P1 , "P0 , "Q1 , "Q0 are the evaluation isomorphisms, and M and N are
the induced isomorphisms established in Proposition 4.5 (iv). Combining the above
commutative diagrams, we conclude that the following diagram in mod A is com-
mutative:
M
M / Tr.Tr.M //
f h
N
N / Tr.Tr.N // .
Observe that then N f D Tr.Tr.f //M . Therefore, the K-linear isomorphisms

M W M ! Tr.Tr.M //, for modules M in modP A, induce an isomorphism of
functors 1mod A ! Tr B Tr from mod A to mod A. Similarly, the K-linear isomor-
phisms X W X ! Tr.Tr.X //, for modules X in modP Aop , induce an isomorphism
of functors 1mod Aop ! Tr B Tr from mod Aop to mod Aop .
Recall that the standard duality D D HomK .; K/ between mod A and mod Aop
induces a duality between the stable categories mod A and mod Aop . Then we obtain
the following consequence of Theorem 4.7.
Corollary 4.8. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then we

have the mutually inverse equivalences of categories
mod A o
D Tr /
mod A .
Tr D
In fact, for a module M in mod A, we have well-defined modules in mod A
A M D D Tr.M / and A1 M D Tr D.M /
called the Auslander–Reiten translations of M .

The following corollary shows an important property of the Auslander–Reiten
translations.
Corollary 4.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then the
Auslander–Reiten translation A induces a bijection from the set of isomorphism
classes of nonprojective indecomposable modules in mod A to the set of isomor-
phism classes of noninjective indecomposable modules in mod A, and A1 is the
inverse bijection of A .
We end this section with descriptions of the transpose and the Auslander–Reiten
translations for finite dimensional hereditary algebras.
Theorem 4.10. Let A be a finite dimensional hereditary K-algebra over a field K.

Then the following statements hold.
(i) The transpose Tr induces functors
Tr W mod A ! mod Aop and Tr W mod Aop ! mod A;

and a duality
Tr /
modP A o modP Aop :
Tr
(ii) The contravariant functors Tr, ExtA1 .; A/ W mod A ! mod Aop are naturally
isomorphic.
Proof. (i) Recall that for a module M in mod A, there is a decomposition M D
PM ˚ MP , where PM is a module from proj A and MP is a module from modP A,
both uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by M . Moreover, since A is hered-
itary, we have HomA .X; P / D 0 for all modules X in modP A and P 2 proj A.
Indeed, suppose there exists a nonzero homomorphism f W X ! P in mod A with
X in modP A and P 2 proj A. Then Im f is a nonzero right A-submodule of
P , and hence Im f is in proj A, because A is right hereditary. Then the induced
f
epimorphism X ! Im f is a retraction, by Lemma I.8.1, and consequently X has
a decomposition X D Y ˚ Q, where Q is isomorphic to Im f (see Lemma I.4.2).
This contradicts the fact that X is in modP A.
Let f W M ! N be a homomorphism in mod A, and M D PM ˚ MP and N D
PN ˚NP be decompositions in mod A, described above. Since HomA .MP ; PN / D
0, the restriction of f to MP gives a homomorphism fP W MP ! NP of right A-
modules.
Since A is right hereditary, it follows from Theorem I.9.1 that pdA MP 1 and
pdA NP 1, and hence there are in mod A minimal projective resolutions of MP
and NP of the forms
p1 p0 q1 q0
0 ! P1 ! P0 ! MP ! 0; 0 ! Q1 ! Q0 ! NP ! 0:
Hence there exists in mod A a commutative diagram

p1 p0
0 / P1 / P0 / MP /0
.fP /1 .fP /0 fP
q1 q0
0 / Q1 / Q0 / NP / 0,
where .fP /0 and .fP /1 are uniquely determined by fP , and hence also by f ,
because HomA .MP ; Q0 / D 0. This leads to a commutative diagram in mod Aop of
the form
q1t NP
Q0t / Qt / Tr.NP / /0
1
.fP /t0 .fP /t1 gP

p1t MP
P0t / Pt / Tr.MP / / 0.
1
Observe also that Tr.M / D Tr.MP / and Tr.N / D Tr.NP /. Therefore, we obtain a
well-defined homomorphism Tr.f / D gP W Tr.N / ! Tr.M / in mod Aop . More-
over, Tr.idM / D idTr.M / and Tr.f 0 f / D Tr.f / Tr.f 0 / for any homomorphisms
f 2 HomA .M; N / and f 0 2 HomA .N; U /. Summing up, the transpose Tr induces
a contravariant functor
Tr W mod A ! mod Aop :
Similarly, since A is also left hereditary, the transpose Tr induces a contravariant
functor
Tr W mod Aop ! mod A:
Moreover, it follows from Proposition 4.5 that there are natural isomorphisms of
functors
1modP A ! Tr Tr and 1modP Aop ! Tr Tr :
Therefore, the transpose Tr induces a duality between modP A and modP Aop .
(ii) Let M be a module in mod A. Since pdA M 1, M admits a minimal
projective resolution in mod A of the form
d2 d1 d0
0 D P2 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0:
Applying the contravariant functor HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod Aop , we obtain
the chain of left A-modules
HomA .d1 ;A/ HomA .d2 ;A/
HomA .P0 ; A/ ! HomA .P1 ; A/ ! HomA .P2 ; A/;
where HomA .P2 ; A/ D 0. Hence we obtain that
ExtA1 .M; A/ D Ker HomA .d2 ; A/= Im HomA .d1 ; A/
D HomA .P1 ; A/= Im HomA .d1 ; A/ D Coker HomA .d1 ; A/:
Therefore, we obtain an exact sequence of left A-modules
d0t d1t
0 D M t ! P0t ! P1t ! ExtA1 .M; A/ ! 0:
This shows that there is a canonical isomorphism Tr.M / ! ExtA1 .M; A/ in mod Aop ,
which is natural in M , and consequently we obtain a natural isomorphism of con-
travariant functors
Tr; ExtA1 .; A/ W mod A ! mod Aop :
Corollary 4.11. Let A be a finite dimensional hereditary K-algebra over a field K.
Then the Auslander–Reiten translations induce the mutually inverse equivalences
of categories
D Tr /
mod A o P mod A : I
Tr D
5. The Nakayama functors 247
5 The Nakayama functors

The aim of this section is to describe basic properties of the Nakayama functors al-
lowing us to relate projective modules and injective modules over finite dimensional
algebras as well as to provide a constructive way to compute the Auslander–Reiten
translations of finite dimensional modules.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The endofunctors
NA D D HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod A;
NA1 D HomAop .; A/D W mod A ! mod A

are called the Nakayama functors of mod A.
The following lemma exhibits important properties of the Nakayama functors.
Lemma 5.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then the
following statements hold.
(i) The functors NA and NA1 define the mutually inverse equivalences of the
categories
NA
proj A o / inj A :
1
NA
(ii) For a module P in proj A, we have top.P / Š soc.NA .P //.
(iii) For a module I in inj A, we have top NA1 .I / Š soc I .
Proof. We know from Proposition I.8.2 (respectively, Proposition I.8.19) that ev-
ery indecomposable projective (respectively, indecomposable injective) module in
mod A is isomorphic to a module eA (respectively, D.Ae/) for a primitive idem-
potent e of A. For a primitive idempotent e of A we have isomorphisms
NA .eA/ D D HomA .eA; A/ Š D.Ae/;
NA1 .D.Ae// D HomAop .; A/D.D.Ae// Š HomAop .Ae; A/ Š eA;

and soc.D.Ae// Š eA=e rad A D top.eA/, by Lemma I.8.22. Hence the state-
ments (i), (ii), (iii) follow.
We note that, by Lemma 5.1, the Nakayama functors NA and NA1 induce also
the functors
NA W mod A ! mod A;
NA1 W mod A ! mod A:
We give now a useful description of the Nakayama functors.
Proposition 5.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field. Then the
(i) The functors NA ; ˝A D.A/ W mod A ! mod A are naturally isomorphic.
(ii) The functors NA1 ; HomA .D.A/; / W mod A ! mod A are naturally iso-
morphic.
Proof. (i) For a module M in mod A, consider the K-linear homomorphism
M W M ˝A D.A/ ! D HomA .M; A/ D NA .M /
defined by M .m ˝ f /.g/ D f .g.m// for m 2 M , f 2 D.A/, and g 2

HomA .M; A/. We claim that M is an isomorphism. Observe that A is the canon-
ical isomorphism A ˝A D.A/ ! D.A/. Hence F is an isomorphism for every
module F D Am , with m a positive integer. It follows from Lemma I.8.1 that every
module P from proj A is a direct summand of a free module F D Am , and hence
P is a K-linear isomorphism (see Theorem II.4.5). For an arbitrary module M in
mod A, consider a minimal projective presentation
p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
of M in mod A. Since both functors ˝A D.A/ and NA are right exact, we obtain
the commutative diagram of K-vector spaces
p1 ˝A D.A/
P1 ˝A D.A/ / P0 ˝A D.A/ p0 ˝A D.A// M ˝A D.A/ /0
P1 P0 M
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
NA .P1 / / NA .P0 / / NA .M / /0
with exact rows, where P0 and P1 are isomorphisms. Then M is also an iso-
morphism. Observe also that for a homomorphism h W M ! N in mod A the
diagram
M
M ˝A D.A/ / NA .M /
h˝A D.A/ NA .h/

N
N ˝A D.A/ / NA .N /
is commutative. Therefore the family of K-linear isomorphisms M , M modules

in mod A, defines a required isomorphism of functors ˝A D.A/ ! NA .
(ii) For a module M in mod A, we have the composed K-linear isomorphism

M W HomA .D.A/; M /
! HomA .D.A/; DD.M //

! HomAop .D.M /; A/ D NA1 .M /:

Moreover, for a homomorphism h W M ! N in mod A, the diagram
HomA .D.A/; M /
M
/ N1 .M /
A
HomA .D.A/;h/ 1 .h/

NA

HomA .D.A/; N /
N
/ N1 .N /
A
is commutative. Hence, the family of K-linear isomorphisms M , M modules in

! NA1 .
mod A, defines a required isomorphism of functors HomA .D.A/; /

We exhibit now an important connection between the Nakayama functors and

the Auslander–Reiten translations.
i0 i1
For a module M in mod A, an exact sequence 0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 in
mod A such that i0 W M ! I0 and iN1 W Coker i0 ! I1 , induced by i1 , are injective
envelopes is said to be a minimal injective copresentation of M in mod A.
Proposition 5.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M a

module in mod A. The following statements hold.
p1 p0
(i) Let P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0 be a minimal projective presentation of M in
mod A. Then there exists an exact sequence in mod A of the form
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A M ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0:
i0 i1
(ii) Let 0 ! M ! I0 ! I1 be a minimal injective copresentation of M in
mod A. Then there exists an exact sequence in mod A of the form
1 .i /
NA 1 .i /
NA
0 1
0 ! NA1 .M / ! NA1 .I0 / ! NA1 .I1 / ! A1 M ! 0:
Proof. (i) Observe that NA D D HomA .; A/ D D./t . From the definition of
Tr.M / we have the following exact sequence in mod Aop :
p0t p1t M
0 ! M t ! P0t ! P1t ! Tr.M / ! 0:
Applying the standard duality functor D W mod Aop ! mod A, we obtain an exact
sequence in mod A,
D.M / D.p1t / D.p0t /

0 ! D.Tr.M // ! D.P1t / ! D.P0t / ! D.M t / ! 0;
which is the required exact sequence.

(ii) Applying the standard duality D W mod A ! mod Aop to the given minimal
injective copresentation of M in mod A, we obtain, by Proposition I.8.16, a minimal
projective presentation
D.i1 / D.i0 /
D.I1 / ! D.I0 / ! D.M / ! 0
of the module M in mod Aop , and consequently an exact sequence in mod A of the
form
D.i0 /t D.i1 /t
0 ! D.M /t ! D.I0 /t ! D.I1 /t ! Tr.D.M // ! 0:
Since NA1 D HomAop .; A/D D ./t D, it is the required exact sequence.
The above proposition allows us to prove an easy criterion for a module to have
a projective, or injective, dimension at most 1.
Proposition 5.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M a
module in mod A. The following equivalences hold.
(i) pdA M 1 if and only if HomA .D.A/; A M / D 0.
(ii) idA M 1 if and only if HomA .A1 M; A/ D 0.
Proof. (i) From Proposition 5.3 (i), we have in mod A an exact sequence
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A M ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0;
induced by a minimal projective presentation

p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
of M in mod A. Since NA1 D HomAop .; A/D is a left exact functor, we obtain a
1 .N .p //
NA
0 / N1 .A M / / N1 .NA .P1 // A 1
/ N1 .NA .P0 //
A A A
Š Š
p1 p0
0 / Ker p1 / P1 / P0 /M / 0.
Hence Ker p1 is isomorphic to NA1 .A M / in mod A. On the other hand, it fol-

lows from Proposition 5.2 (ii) that NA1 .A M / Š HomA .D.A/; A M /. Clearly,
pdA M 1 if and only if Ker p1 D 0. This shows that the equivalence (i) holds.
(ii) It follows from Proposition I.8.16 that idA M 1 if and only if
pdAop D.M / 1. The second inequality is, from the first part of the proof,
equivalent to HomAop .D.AA /; Aop D.M // D 0. Observe now that we have iso-
morphisms of K-vector spaces HomAop .D.AA /; Aop D.M // D HomAop .D.A/;
D Tr.D.M /// Š HomA .Tr.D.M //; A/ D HomA .A1 M; A/. Therefore, the
equivalence (ii) also holds.
We present also an example showing that Proposition 5.3 gives a constructive
method to compute the Auslander–Reiten translations of a module.
Example 5.5. Let A D KQ be the path algebra of the quiver
1 _@
@@
@@˛
@@

o o

QW
~~3 4 5
~
~~
~~ ˇ
2
over a field K. We identify mod A D repK .Q/ and consider the indecomposable
A-module (representation of Q over K)
0 _??
??
??
??
MW Ko
1
Ko 0.

0
We use the description of the indecomposable projective and indecomposable
injective A-modules given in Proposition I.8.27. Then we have in mod A a minimal
projective presentation of M of the form
p1 p0
P .1/ ˚ P .2/ ! P .4/ ! M ! 0;
where p1 is the canonical inclusion homomorphism of soc.P .4// D S.1/ ˚

S.2/ D P .1/ ˚ P .2/ ! P .4/ and p0 is the canonical epimorphism P .4/ !
P .4/= soc.P .4// D M . Applying Lemma 5.1 and Proposition 5.3, we obtain an
exact sequence in mod A of the form
NA .p1 /
0 ! A M ! NA .P .1/ ˚ P .2// ! NA .P .4//;
where NA .P .1/ ˚ P .2// D I.1/ ˚ I.2/ and NA .P .4// D I.4/. Since M is inde-
composable nonprojective in mod A, the module A M is indecomposable noninjec-
tive in mod A, by Corollary 4.9. Further, HomA .I.1/; I.4// and HomA .I.2/; I.4//
are the one-dimensional K-vector spaces generated by the canonical epimorphisms

u1 W I.1/ ! I.1/= rad2 I.1/ D I.4/ and u2 W I.2/ ! I.2/= rad2 I.2/ D I.4/,
respectively. Hence A M D Ker NA .p1 / is isomorphic to the kernel of the epi-
morphism Œ u1 u2 W I.1/ ˚ I.2/ ! I.4/ which is the projective A-module P .3/.
Therefore, we have A M Š P .3/.
Dually, we have in mod A a minimal injective copresentation of M of the form
i0 i1
0 ! M ! I.3/ ! I.5/;
where i0 is the inclusion homomorphism M D rad I.3/ ! I.3/ and i1 is the
canonical epimorphism I.3/ ! top.I.3// D S.5/ D I.5/. Applying Lemma 5.1
and Proposition 5.3, we obtain an exact sequence in mod A of the form
1 .i /
NA 1
NA1 .I.3// ! NA1 .I.5// ! A1 M ! 0 ,
where NA1 .I.3// D P .3/ and NA1 .I.5// D P .5/. Since M is indecomposable
noninjective in mod A, we know from Corollary 4.9 that A1 M is indecomposable
nonprojective in mod A. Moreover, HomA .P .3/; P .5// is the one-dimensional K-
vector space generated by the inclusion homomorphism v W P .3/ D rad2 P .5/ !
P .5/. Hence A1 M D Coker NA1 .i1 / is isomorphic to Coker v, which is the
injective module I.4/. Therefore, we have A1 M Š I.4/.
6 The Auslander–Reiten formulas

The aim of this section is to prove the Auslander–Reiten formulas which allow
us to describe the extension spaces between finite dimensional modules by the
corresponding stable homomorphism spaces.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. For modules X and Y
in mod A, we consider the K-linear homomorphism
'YX W Y ˝A X t ! HomA .X; Y /
given by 'YX .y ˝ f /.x/ D yf .x/, for y 2 Y , f 2 X t D HomA .X; A/, and
x 2 X. Observe that for homomorphisms u W U ! X and v W Y ! V in mod A
the diagrams
X
'Y X
'Y
Y ˝A X t / HomA .X; Y / Y ˝A X t / HomA .X; Y /
Y ˝ut HomA .u;Y / and v˝X t HomA .X;v/

U
'Y X
'V
Y ˝A U t / HomA .U; Y / V ˝A X t / HomA .X; V /
are commutative, that is, the homomorphisms 'YX are natural in X and Y . We have
also the following fact.
6. The Auslander–Reiten formulas 253
Lemma 6.1. Let X and Y be modules in mod A. Then we have the exact sequence
of K-vector spaces
X
'Y X
Y
Y ˝A X t ! HomA .X; Y / ! HomA .X; Y / ! 0
where the right homomorphism YX assigns to f 2 HomA .X; Y / its stable class f
in HomA .X; Y /. In particular, if X or Y is projective, then 'YX is an isomorphism.
Proof. Let f W P ! Y be a projective cover of Y in mod A.
We show first that the induced sequence
X
Y
HomA .X;f /
HomA .X; P / ! HomA .X; Y / ! HomA .X; Y / ! 0
is exact, or equivalently Im HomA .X; f / D PA .X; Y / D Ker YX . Clearly, we
have Im HomA .X; f / PA .X; Y /. Take now a homomorphism g 2 PA .X; Y /.
Then there exist a module P 0 in proj A and g1 2 HomA .P 0 ; Y /, g2 2 HomA .X; P 0 /
such that g D g1 g2 . Then we have in mod A a commutative diagram
P0
}
h }}}
}}
g1
}
~} f
P /Y
since f is an epimorphism. Hence, we obtain that g D g1 g2 D f hg2 D

HomA .X; f /.hg2 / 2 Im HomA .X; f /. Therefore, indeed we have the required
equality Im HomA .X; f / D PA .X; Y /.
We claim now that 'PX W P ˝A X t ! HomA .X; P / is an isomorphism. Observe
that 'AX is the canonical isomorphism A ˝A X t ! X t D HomA .X; A/. Then, for a
positive integer m, the homomorphism 'AXm W Am ˝A X t ! HomA .X; Am / is also
an isomorphism. It follows also from Lemma I.8.1 that there exists a module Q in
mod A such that P ˚ Q Š Am for some positive integer m. Hence, 'PX is also an
isomorphism.
We have the commutative diagram in mod K of the form
f ˝X t
P ˝A X t / Y ˝A X t /0
X X
'P 'Y
HomA .X;f / X
Y
HomA .X; P / / HomA .X; Y / / Hom .X; Y / ,
A
with 'PX an isomorphism and f ˝ X t an epimorphism, because the functor ˝A

X t W mod A ! mod K is right exact. Then we obtain
Im 'YX D 'YX .Y ˝A X t / D 'YX .f ˝ X t /.P ˝A X t /
D HomA .X; f /.'PX .P ˝A X t // D HomA .X; f /.HomA .X; P //
D PA .X; Y /:
Therefore, Im 'YX D Ker YX , as required. For X D Q projective, 'YQ is an

isomorphism by Corollary II.4.9.
We have also a useful consequence of the above lemma.
Corollary 6.2. Let X and Y be modules in mod A. Then there exists an exact
sequence of K-vector spaces
X/
D.Y X
!Y
0 ! D HomA .X; Y / ! D HomA .X; Y / ! HomA .Y; NA .X //;
which is natural in X and Y . In particular, if X or Y is projective, then !YX is an

isomorphism.
Proof. Applying the functor D D HomK .; K/ to the exact sequence in Lem-
ma 6.1, we obtain the exact sequence of K-vector spaces
X/
D.Y X/
D.'Y
0 ! D HomA .X; Y / ! D HomA .X; Y / ! D.Y ˝A X t /:
Moreover, we have the adjoint K-linear isomorphism

YX W D.Y ˝A X t /
! HomA .Y; D.X t // D HomA .Y; NA .X //:
Then, for !YX D YX D.'YX / W D HomA .X; Y / ! HomA .Y; NA .X //, we have
Ker !YX D Ker D.'YX / D Im D.YX /. Observe that !YX is natural in X and Y ,
because 'YX and YX have this property. If X or Y is projective then, by Lemma 6.1,
'YX is an isomorphism, and consequently !YX D YX D.'YX / is an isomorphism.
We are now in position to establish the Auslander–Reiten formulas.
Theorem 6.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M , N
be modules in mod A. Then there exist isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
D HomA .A1 N; M / Š ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .N; A M /;
which are natural in M and N .

Proof. We first prove that ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .A1 N; M /. Observe that, if
I is a module in inj A, then A1 I D Tr D.I / D 0, because D.I / is in proj Aop ,
and clearly ExtA .M; I / Š ExtA1 .M; I / D 0, by Lemma I.8.13. Similarly, if P is a
module in proj A, then ExtA1 .P; N / D 0 and HomA .A1 N; P / D 0. Therefore, we
may assume that M belongs to modP A and N belongs to modI A. In particular,
then we have L D A1 N in modP A and N Š A L in mod A (see Corollary 4.9).
Let p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! L ! 0
be a minimal projective presentation of the module L in mod A.
6. The Auslander–Reiten formulas 255
It follows from Proposition 5.3 (i) that we have in mod A the exact sequence
D.L / NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A L ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .L/ ! 0;
obtained by applying the duality D W mod Aop ! mod A to the exact sequence in
mod Aop
p0t p1t L
0 ! Lt ! P0t ! P1t ! Tr L ! 0:
Since L belongs to modP A, it follows from Proposition 4.5 (iii) that
p1t L
P0t ! P1t ! Tr L ! 0
is a minimal projective presentation of Tr L in mod A. Hence

D.L / NA .p1 /
0 ! A L ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 /
is a minimal injective copresentation of A L in mod A. This implies that A L admits

in mod A a minimal injective resolution
d0 d1 d2 d nC1
0 ! A L ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In ! InC1 !
such that I0 D NA .P1 /, I1 D NA .P0 /, d 0 D D.L /, d 1 D NA .p1 /, and d 2 is the

composition of NA .p0 / with an injective envelope u W NA .L/ ! E.NA .L// D I2
of NA .L/ in mod A. It follows from Corollary 3.11 (i) that ExtA1 .M; A L/ is
e
isomorphic to ExtA1 .M; A L/ D Ker HomA .M; d 2 /= Im HomA .M; d 1 /. More-
over, d 2 D uNA .p0 / with u a monomorphism, and hence Ker HomA .M; d 2 / D
Ker HomA .M; NA .p0 //. Summing up, we have proved that there are isomorphisms
of K-vector spaces
ExtA1 .M; N / Š ExtA1 .M; A L/

Š Ker HomA .M; NA .p0 //= Im HomA .M; NA .p1 //:
In the following we abbreviate pN0 D HomA .M; NA .p0 // D HomA .M; D.p0t //
and pN1 D HomA .M; NA .p1 // D HomA .M; D.p1t //.
Applying the right exact functor D HomA .; M / to the exact sequence in
mod A,
p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! L ! 0;
we obtain the exact sequence in mod K,
pQ1 pQ0
D HomA .P1 ; M / ! D HomA .P0 ; M / ! D HomA .L; M / ! 0;
where pQ1 D D HomA .p1 ; M / and pQ0 D D HomA .p0 ; M /.

It follows from Corollary 6.2 that we have the following commutative diagram
in mod K,
pQ1 pQ0
D HomA .P1 ; M / / D HomA .P0 ; M / / D HomA .L; M /
P P L
!M1 !M0 !M
pN 1 pN 0
HomA .M; NA .P1 // / HomA .M; NA .P0 // / HomA .M; NA .L// ,
P1 P0
where !M and !M are isomorphisms, and
L
Ker !M Š D HomA .L; M / D D HomA .A1 N; M /:
On the other hand, we know that
ExtA1 .M; N / Š Ker pN0 = Im pN1 :

P0 1
Consider the K-linear homomorphism pQ0 .!M / W HomA .M; NA .P0 // !
D HomA .L; M /. Since !M L P
pQ0 .!M0 /1 D pN0 , pQ0 .!MP0 1
/ induces a K-linear
P0 1
homomorphism ˛ W Ker pN0 ! Ker !M , and Ker pQ0 .!M / Ker pN0 . Observe
L
that ˛ is an epimorphism. Indeed, take f 2 Ker !M L

. Since pQ0 is an epimor-
P0 1
phism, we have f D pQ0 .!M / .g/ for some g 2 HomA .N; NA .P0 //. Moreover,
P0 1
pN0 .g/ D !ML
pQ0 .!M / .g/ D !M L
.f / D 0, and so g 2 Ker pN0 . Hence f D ˛.g/
and the claim follows. As a consequence, ˛ induces a K-linear isomorphism
Ker pN0 = Ker ˛ ! Ker !M

L
:
Hence, in order to prove that ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .A1 N; M /, it is enough to

P0 1
show that Ker ˛ D Im pN1 . Observe that Im pN1 Ker ˛, because pQ0 .!M / pN1 D
P1 1 P0 1
pQ0 pQ1 .!M / , and clearly pQ0 pQ1 D 0. Take h 2 Ker pQ0 .!M / . Then we have
P0 1 P0 1
that .!M / .h/ 2 Ker pQ0 D Im pQ1 , and .!M / .h/ D pQ1 .w/ for some homo-
P0 P0 1
morphism w 2 D HomA .P1 ; M /. Then we obtain that h D !M .!M / .h/ D
P0 P1
!M pQ1 .w/ D pN1 !M .w/ 2 Im pN1 . This shows that Ker ˛ D Im pN1 . Therefore, we
established a K-linear isomorphism ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .A1 N; M /, which is
natural in M and N .
Applying the duality D D HomK .; K/ between mod A and mod Aop , we
obtain also K-linear isomorphisms
D ExtA1 .M; N / Š D ExtA1 .M; N / Š ExtA1 op .D.N /; D.M //

Š ExtA1 op .D.N /; D.M // Š D HomAop .A1
op D.M /; D.N //
Š D HomAop .Tr D.D.M //; D.N // Š D HomAop .Tr M; D.N //

Š HomA .DD.N /; D Tr M / Š HomA .N; A M /:
7. Irreducible and almost split homomorphisms 257
Therefore, we have a K-linear isomorphism ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .N; A M /,

which is natural in M and N .
Corollary 6.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M , N

be modules in mod A. Then the following statements hold.
(i) If pdA M 1, then there exists a K-linear isomorphism
ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .N; A M /:

(ii) If idA N 1, then there exists a K-linear isomorphism
ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .A1 N; M /:
Proof. (i) It follows from Theorem 6.3 that there exists a K-linear isomorphism
ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .N; A M /. By statement (i) of Proposition 5.4, the as-
sumption pdA M 1 forces HomA .D.A/; A M / D 0. Moreover, it follows
from Proposition I.8.19 that for every module I in inj A there exists a module
I 0 in mod A such that I ˚ I 0 is isomorphic to D.A/m for some positive integer
m. Hence HomA .D.A/; A M / D 0 implies that IA .N; A M / D 0, or equiva-
lently HomA .N; A M / D HomA .N; A M /. Therefore, we have an isomorphism
ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .N; A M /.
(ii) It follows from Theorem 6.3 that there exists a K-linear isomorphism
ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .A1 N; M /. Further, the assumption idA N 1 forces,
by Proposition 5.4 (ii), that HomA .A1 N; A/ D 0. Finally, it follows from Proposi-
tion I.8.2, that for every module P in proj A there exists a module P 0 in mod A such
that P ˚ P 0 is isomorphic to Am for some positive integer m. Then we conclude
that PA .A1 N; M / D 0, or equivalently HomA .A1 N; M / D HomA .A1 N; M /.
Therefore, we have a required isomorphism ExtA1 .M; N / Š D HomA .A1 N; M /.

7 Irreducible and almost split homomorphisms

Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, and L; M; N modules in
mod A.
A homomorphism f W L ! M in mod A is said to be left minimal if every
homomorphism h 2 EndA .M / with hf D f is an isomorphism. A homomorphism
g W M ! N in mod A is said to be right minimal if every homomorphism h 2
EndA .M / with gh D g is an isomorphism.
A homomorphism f W L ! M in mod A is said to be left almost split if the
(i) f is not a section in mod A;

(ii) for every homomorphism u W L ! U in mod A which is not a section, there

exists a homomorphism u0 W M ! U such that u D u0 f , that is, making the
diagram
f
L@ /M
@@ } }
@@ }}
u @@ }}} u0
~}
U
commutative.
A homomorphism g W M ! N in mod A is said to be right almost split if the
(i) g is not a retraction in mod A;
(ii) for every homomorphism v W V ! N in mod A which is not a retraction,
there exists a homomorphism v 0 W V ! M in mod A such that v D gv 0 , that
is, making the diagram
g
M À /N
AA }}>
AA }
A
v 0 AA
}}v
}}
V
commutative.
A homomorphism f W L ! M in mod A is said to be left minimal almost split
if f is left minimal and left almost split in mod A. A homomorphism g W M ! N
in mod A is said to be right minimal almost split if g is right minimal and right
almost split in mod A.
Lemma 7.1. (i) Let f W L ! M and f 0 W L ! M 0 be left minimal almost split
homomorphisms in mod A. Then there exists an isomorphism h W M ! M 0 such
that f 0 D hf .
(ii) Let g W M ! N and g 0 W M 0 ! N be right minimal almost split homo-
morphisms in mod A. Then there exists an isomorphism h W M ! M 0 such that
g D g 0 h.
Proof. (i) Since f and f 0 are left almost split homomorphisms in mod A, there
exist homomorphisms h W M ! M 0 and h0 W M 0 ! M such that f 0 D hf and
f D h0 f 0 . Then we obtain f D h0 hf and f 0 D hh0 f 0 . Moreover, f and f 0
are left minimal homomorphisms in mod A. Hence h0 h 2 EndA .M / and hh0 2
EndA .M 0 / are isomorphisms. In particular, h W M ! M 0 is a monomorphism and
an epimorphism, and consequently an isomorphism in mod A.
Lemma 7.2. (i) Let f W L ! M be a left almost split homomorphism in mod A.

Then L is an indecomposable A-module.
(ii) Let g W M ! N be a right almost split homomorphism in mod A. Then N
is an indecomposable A-module.
Proof. (i) Observe first that L ¤ 0 because f is not a section. Assume L D
L1 ˚ L2 for some nonzero A-submodules L1 and L2 of L, and let p1 W L ! L1
and p2 W L ! L2 be the canonical projections. Then Ker p1 D L2 ¤ 0 and
Ker p2 D L1 ¤ 0 imply that p1 and p2 are not sections. Since f is a left almost
split homomorphism in mod A, there exist homomorphisms u1 W M ! L1 and
u2 W M ! L2 in mod A such that p1 D u1 f and p2 D u2 f . Consider the
A-homomorphism

u
u D 1 W M ! L1 ˚ L2 D L:
u2
Then, for each x 2 L, we have .uf /.x/ D u .f .x// D .u1 .f .x// ; u2 .f .x/// D
.p1 .x/; p2 .x// D x D idL .x/, and hence uf D idL . Hence f is a section in
mod A, a contradiction because f is a left almost split homomorphism in mod A.
Therefore, L is an indecomposable A-module.
The proof of (ii) is dual.
Lemma 7.3. Let f W X ! Y be the zero homomorphism between two modules X
and Y in mod A. Then the following equivalences hold.
(i) f is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A if and only if X is a
simple injective A-module and Y D 0.
(ii) f is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A if and only if X D 0
and Y is a simple projective A-module.
Proof. (i) Assume f is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A. Then
X is nonzero and, for every homomorphism v W X ! V in mod A which is not a
section, we have v D v 0 f for some homomorphism v 0 W Y ! V in mod A, and
so v D 0, because f D 0. Observe that then X is a simple module, because
otherwise we have a proper nonzero epimorphism X ! X=L for an A-submodule
L of X different from X and 0. Further, the injective envelope u W X ! E.X /
of X in mod A is a nonzero homomorphism, and hence a section. Moreover, by
Corollary I.8.21, E.X / is an indecomposable injective A-module. Hence it follows
from Lemma I.4.2 that u is an isomorphism, and consequently X is a simple injective
module in mod A. Finally, for the zero endomorphism 0Y W Y ! Y we have
f D 0Y f , so, by the left minimality of f , 0Y is an isomorphism, or equivalently,
Y D 0.
Conversely, if X is a simple injective A-module and Y D 0, then f W X ! 0 is
a left minimal homomorphism in mod A, because every nonzero homomorphism
u W X ! M in mod A is a section, by Lemma I.8.13.

A homomorphism f W X ! Y in mod A is said to be irreducible if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) f is neither a section nor a retraction in mod A;
(ii) if f D f1 f2 for some homomorphisms f2 W X ! Z and f1 W Z ! Y in
mod A, then either f2 is a section or f1 is a retraction in mod A.
Observe that, by the property (i), for an irreducible homomorphism f W X ! Y
in mod A, we have X ¤ 0 and Y ¤ 0.
Lemma 7.4. Let f W X ! Y be a homomorphism and u W U ! X, v W Y ! V
isomorphisms in mod A. Then the following equivalences hold.
(i) f is a section in mod A if and only if vf u is a section in mod A.
(ii) f is a retraction in mod A if and only if vf u is a retraction in mod A.
(iii) f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A if and only if vf u is an irre-
ducible homomorphism in mod A.
(iv) f is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A if and only if vf u
is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
(v) f is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A if and only if vf u
is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
Proof. Let t W X ! U and w W V ! Y be homomorphisms in mod A with ut D
idX , tu D idU , wv D idY , and vw D idV .
(i) Assume f is a section in mod A and rf D idX for some r 2 HomA .Y; X /.
Then t rw 2 HomA .V; U / and .t rw/.vf u/ D t .r.wv/f /u D t .rf /u D idU , and
so vf u is a section in mod A. Conversely, assume that vf u is a section in mod A
and s.vf u/ D idU for some s 2 HomA .V; U /. Then .usv/f D .usv/f .ut / D
u.svf u/t D ut D idX , and so f is a section in mod A. Therefore, the equivalence
(i) holds.
The proof of (ii) is similar to the proof of (i).
(iii) It follows from (i) and (ii) that f is neither a section nor a retraction in
mod A if and only if vf u is neither a section nor a retraction in mod A. Assume
vf u D hg for some homomorphisms g W U ! Z and h W Z ! V in mod A. Then
we have f D .wv/f .ut / D w.vf u/t D w.hg/t D .wh/.gt / with gt W X ! Z
and wh W Z ! Y . Conversely, if f D qp for some homomorphisms p W X ! W
and q W W ! Y in mod A, then vf u D vqpu D .vq/.pu/ with pu W U ! W and
vq W W ! V . Therefore, applying (i) and (ii), we conclude that the equivalence
(iii) holds.
(iv) It follows from (i) that f is not a section in mod A if and only if vf u is not a
section in mod A. We claim that f is left minimal if and only if vf u is left minimal.
Assume f is left minimal and h 2 EndA .V / satisfies h.vf u/ D vf u. Then
.whv/f D f , and so whv is an isomorphism, which implies that h D v.whv/w
is an isomorphism. Conversely, assume that vf u is left minimal and gf D f for
some g 2 EndA .Y /. Then .vgw/.vf u/ D v.gf /u D vf u, and hence vgw is an
isomorphism, which implies that g D w.vgw/v is an isomorphism. Finally, we
show that f is left almost split in mod A if and only if vf u is almost split in mod A.
Assume f is left almost split in mod A, and h W U ! M be a homomorphism
in mod A which is not a section. Then, by (i), ht W X ! M is not a section in
mod A and, by assumption on f , there exists a homomorphism ' W Y ! M in
mod A such that ht D 'f . Then g D 'w W V ! M is a homomorphism in mod A
and gvf u D .'w/.vf u/ D .'f /u D ht u D h. This shows that vf u is left
almost split in mod A. Conversely, assume that vf u is left almost split in mod A,
and let ˛ W X ! N be a homomorphism in mod A which is not a section. Then,
by (i), ˛u W U ! N is not a section in mod A, and, by assumption on vf u, we
conclude that there is a homomorphism W V ! N such that ˛u D .vf u/. But
then ˇ D v W Y ! N is a homomorphism in mod A and ˇf D . v/f .ut / D
. vf u/t D ˛ut D ˛. This shows that f is left almost split.
The proof of (v) is similar to the proof of (iv).
Lemma 7.5. Let f W X ! Y be an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. Then

either f is a proper monomorphism or a proper epimorphism.
Proof. Consider the factorization of f ,
f
XD /Y
DD zz=
DD zz
D
p DD zz
! zz j
Im f ,
where p is the epimorphism induced by f and j is the inclusion map. Since f

is an irreducible homomorphism, we conclude that either p is a section or j is a
retraction. Moreover, f is not an isomorphism in mod A. Assume f is not a proper
epimorphism. Then j W Im f ! Y is not a retraction in mod A, because otherwise
Im f D Y and f is a proper epimorphism. Therefore, p W X ! Im f is a section
in mod A, and hence an isomorphism. This implies that f W X ! Y is a proper
monomorphism.
Lemma 7.6. Let P be an indecomposable projective module in mod A and let

u W rad P ! P be the inclusion homomorphism. Then
(i) u is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A;

(ii) if P is a nonsimple A-module, then u is an irreducible homomorphism in

mod A.
Proof. It follows from Propositions I.5.16 and I.8.2 that rad P is a unique maximal
right A-submodule of P . In particular, u W rad P ! P is not a retraction, since
u is not an epimorphism. Let v W V ! P be a homomorphism in mod A which is
not a retraction. Then v is not an epimorphism, by Lemma I.8.1. Hence Im v is a
proper A-submodule of P , and so Im v rad P . Therefore, we obtain v D uv 0 ,
for the A-homomorphism v 0 W V ! rad P induced by v. This shows that u is a
right almost split homomorphism in mod A. Observe also that, if uh D u for some
h 2 EndA .rad P /, then h D idrad P . Hence u W rad P ! P is also right minimal.
Therefore, u is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
(ii) Since P is indecomposable and rad P is a proper submodule of P , we infer
that u is neither a section nor a retraction. Assume u D gf for some homomor-
phisms f W rad P ! M and g W M ! P in mod A. Moreover, assume that g
is not a retraction. Then g is not an epimorphism, by the projectivity of P , and
so Im g rad P . Then there exists a homomorphism h W M ! rad P such that
g D uh. Hence we obtain u idrad P D u D gf D uhf , and then hf D idrad P
since u is a monomorphism. This shows that f is a section. Therefore, u is an
irreducible homomorphism.
Lemma 7.7. Let I be an indecomposable injective module in mod A and v W I !
I = soc I the canonical epimorphism. Then
(i) v is left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A;
(ii) if I is nonsimple A-module, then v is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
Proof. Consider the duality D W mod A ! mod Aop . The canonical short exact
sequence in mod A,
v
0 !I
! soc I , ! I = soc I
! 0;
gives a short exact sequence in mod Aop ,

D.v/
0
! D.I = soc I / ! D.I /
! D.soc I /
! 0;
where D.I / is an indecomposable projective module in mod Aop and D.soc I / Š

top D.I /, by Proposition I.8.16. Therefore D.v/ induces an isomorphism
D.I = soc I / ! rad D.I /. Moreover, v is a left minimal almost split homo-
morphism (respectively, irreducible homomorphism) in mod A if and only if D.v/
is a right minimal almost split homomorphism (respectively, irreducible homomor-
phism) in mod Aop . Then the lemma follows from Lemma 7.6.
The following important fact has been proved by R. Bautista in [Bau].
Lemma 7.8. Let X and Y be indecomposable modules in mod A and let

f 2 HomA .X; Y /. Then f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A if and
only if f 2 radA .X; Y / n radA2 .X; Y /.
Proof. Assume f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. Then f is not an

isomorphism, because f is neither a section nor a retraction. Applying Lemma 1.4
we then infer that f 2 radA .X; Y /. We show that f … radA2 .X; Y /. Suppose
f D gh for some homomorphisms h 2 radA .X; Z/ and g 2 radA .Z; Y /. Let
Z D Z1 ˚ ˚ Z t be a decomposition of Z into a direct sum of indecomposable
A-submodules. Let 2 3
h1
6 :: 7 M t
h D 4 : 5 W X ! Zi ;
ht iD1
for hi 2 HomA .X; Zi /, i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, and
M
t
g D Œg1 ; : : : ; g t W Zi ! Y;
iD1
for gi 2 HomA .Zi ; Y /, i 2 f1; : : : ; tg. Since f D gh is an irreducible homo-

morphism in mod A, we conclude that either h is a section or g is a retraction in
mod A. Lt
Suppose h is a section in mod A, and h0 D Œh01 ; : : : ; h0t W iD1 Zi ! X ,
with h0i 2 HomA .Zi ; X /, i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, is a homomorphism in mod A such that
P
idX D h0 h D tiD1 h0i hi . Since h 2 radA .X; Z/ it follows from Lemma 1.3 that
hi 2 radA .X; Zi / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; tg. Then, by Proposition 1.2, we P
conclude that
h0i hi 2 radA .X; X / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, and consequently idX D tiD1 h0i hi 2
radA .X; X/ D rad EndA .X /. This is a contradiction, because X is an indecompos-
able module in mod A and then rad EndA .X / is a unique maximal right ideal of the
local K-algebra EndA .X /.
Suppose g is a retraction in mod A, and
2 03
g1
6 :: 7 M t
0
g D 4 : 5 W Y ! Zi ;
0 iD1
gt
for gi0 2 HomA .Y; Zi /, i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, a homomorphism in mod A such that
P
idY D gg 0 D tiD1 gi gi0 . Since g 2 radA .Z; Y /, applying Lemma 1.3 again,
we conclude that gi 2 radA .Zi ; Y / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; tg. Hence, by Proposi-
tion 1.2, we have gi gi0 2 radA .Y; Y / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, and consequently
P
idY D tiD1 gi gi0 2 radA .Y; Y / D rad EndA .Y /. This is again a contradiction,
because Y is an indecomposable module in mod A and so rad EndA .Y / is a unique
maximal right ideal of the local K-algebra EndA .Y /. Summing up, we have proved
that f 2 radA .X; Y / n radA2 .X; Y /.
Conversely, assume that f 2 radA .X; Y / n radA2 .X; Y /. Since f 2 radA .X; Y /
and X; Y are indecomposable, we infer that f is not an isomorphism, and hence
is neither a section nor a retraction in mod A, by Lemma I.4.2. Suppose f has a
factorization
f
XA /Y
AA >
AA }}}
A }
u AA }} v
}}
M
Lr
in mod A. Let M D iD1 Mi be a decomposition of M into a direct sum of
indecomposable A-submodules and
2 3
u1
6 7 Mr Mr
u D 4 ::: 5 W X ! Mi and v D Œv1 ; : : : ; vr W Mi ! Y
ur iD1 iD1
with ui 2 Hom
P A .X; Mi / and vi 2 HomA .Mi ; Y /, for i 2 f1; : : : ; rg. Then we have
f D vu D riD1 vi ui . Because f … radA2 .X; Y /, there exists i 2 f1; : : : ; rg such
that ui … radA .X; Mi / or there exists j 2 f1; : : : ; rg such that vj … radA .Mj ; Y /.
Applying Lemma 1.4 we then obtain that either ui W X ! Mi is an isomorphism, for
some i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, or vj W Mj ! Y is an isomorphism, for some j 2 f1; : : : ; rg.
Hence either u is a section or v is a retraction in mod A. Therefore, f W X ! Y is
an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
We mention that there exist finite dimensional K-algebras A and irreducible

homomorphisms f W X ! Y and g W Y ! Z between indecomposable modules
X, Y , Z in mod A such that 0 ¤ gf 2 radA1 .X; Z/ (see Exercise 12.9).
We will exhibit now some properties of irreducible homomorphisms in module
categories.
f g
Lemma 7.9. Let 0 ! L !M !N ! 0 be a nonsplittable exact sequence in
mod A. Then the following equivalences hold.
(i) f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A if and only if for every v 2

HomA .V; N / there exists v1 2 HomA .V; M / such that v D gv1 or there
exists v2 2 HomA .M; V / such that g D vv2 .
(ii) g is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A if and only if for every u 2

HomA .L; U / there exists u1 2 HomA .M; U / such that u D u1 f or there
exists u2 2 HomA .U; M / such that f D u2 u.
Proof. (i) Assume f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. For every v 2

HomA .V; N / there exists a commutative diagram in mod A,
f0 g0
0 /L /Q /V /0
idL w v
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0,
with exact rows, where Q is the fibered product M N V of M and V over N given
by g and v (see Exercises I.12.18 and I.12.19). In particular, we have f D wf 0 .
Since f is irreducible in mod A, either f 0 is a section or w is a retraction in mod A.
If f 0 is a section, then the upper exact sequence is splittable, g 0 is a retraction in
mod A and hence g 0 v 0 D idV for some v 0 2 HomA .V; Q/. Then v1 D wv 0 2
HomA .V; M / satisfies gv1 D gwv 0 D vg 0 v 0 D v. If w is a retraction in mod A,
then ww 0 D idM for some w 0 2 HomA .M; Q/, and v2 D g 0 w 0 2 HomA .M; V /
satisfies vv2 D vg 0 w 0 D gww 0 D g.
Conversely, assume now that f satisfies the stated condition. Suppose that
f D f1 f2 for some module W in mod A and f1 2 HomA .W; M / and f2 2
HomA .L; W /. Since f is a monomorphism, f2 is also a monomorphism, and we
have in mod A a commutative diagram
f2
0 /L /W h /V /0
idL f1 v
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0,
where V D Coker f2 D W = Im f2 , h W W ! V is the canonical epimorphism, and

v.w C Im f2 / D gf1 .w/ for w 2 W . Then W is isomorphic to the fibered product
M N V of M and V over N , given by g and v (see Exercise I.12.19). It follows
from our assumption on f that there exists v1 2 HomA .V; M / such that v D gv1
or there exists v2 2 HomA .M; V / such that g D vv2 . In the first case, applying the
universal property of the fibered product to the homomorphisms v1 W V ! M and
idV W V ! V , we infer that there exists h0 2 HomA .V; W / such that f1 h0 D v1 and
hh0 D idV . Hence, h is a retraction in mod A, and consequently f2 is a section in
mod A. In the second case, applying the universal property of the fibered product
to the homomorphisms idM W M ! M and v2 W M ! V , we conclude that there
exists h00 2 HomA .M; W / such that f1 h00 D idM and hh00 D v2 , and so f1 is a
retraction in mod A. Therefore, f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
The proof of (ii), invoking the fibered sums of modules (see Exercises I.12.20
and I.12.21), is similar.
Proposition 7.10. (i) Let f W L ! M be an irreducible monomorphism in mod A.
Then N D Coker f is an indecomposable A-module.
(ii) Let g W M ! N be an irreducible epimorphism in mod A. Then Ker g is an

indecomposable A-module.
Proof. (i) It follows from Lemma 7.5 that f is a proper monomorphism, and hence
N D Coker f ¤ 0. Then we have the induced exact sequence
f g
0
! L ! M ! N
!0
in mod A. Suppose N D N1 ˚ N2 for some nonzero A-submodules N1 and N2

of N . Let w1 W N1 ! N and w2 W N2 ! N be canonical embeddings. Since g is
an epimorphism and w1 ; w2 are proper monomorphisms, we have g ¤ wi ui for
all ui 2 HomA .M; Ni /, i 2 f1; 2g. Then, applying Lemma 7.9 (i), we conclude
that there exist v1 2 HomA .N1 ; M / and v2 2 HomA .N2 ; M / such that gv1 D w1
and gv2 D w2 . Then the homomorphism v D Œ v1 v2 W N1 ˚ N2 ! M satisfies
gv D idN , and so g is a retraction in mod A. This forces f to be a section in
mod A, a contradiction because f is irreducible in mod A. Therefore N is an
indecomposable A-module.
The following theorems establish a strong relation between the irreducible ho-
momorphisms and almost split homomorphisms in the module categories.
Theorem 7.11. Let f W L ! M be a nonzero left minimal almost split homomor-
phism in mod A. Then the following statements hold.
(i) f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
(ii) A homomorphism f 0 W L ! M 0 in mod A is irreducible if and only if M 0 ¤ 0,
M Š M 0 ˚M 00 for a module M 00 in mod A, and there exists a homomorphism
f 00 W L ! M 00 in mod A such that the induced homomorphism
0
f
W L ! M 0 ˚ M 00
f 00

Proof. (i) Since f is a left almost split homomorphism in mod A, f is not a section
in mod A and L is an indecomposable A-module, by Lemma 7.2 (i). Then it follows
from Lemma I.4.2 that f is not a retraction in mod A. Let f D f1 f2 for some
module U in mod A and f2 2 HomA .L; U /, f1 2 HomA .U; M /. Assume f2 is
not a section in mod A. Then there exists f20 2 HomA .M; U / such that f2 D f20 f ,
since f is left almost split in mod A. Then f D f1 f2 D .f1 f20 /f , and so
f1 f20 2 EndA .M / is an automorphism, because f is left minimal in mod A. Hence
there exists h 2 EndA .M / with f1 f20 h D idM , and f1 is a retraction in mod A.
Therefore, f is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
(ii) Let f 0 W L ! M 0 be an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. Observe

that then M 0 ¤ 0 because otherwise f 0 is trivially a retraction. Since f 0 is not a
section in mod A and f is a left almost split homomorphism in mod A, we have
f 0 D hf for some h 2 HomA .M; M 0 /. Then the irreducibility of f 0 forces that h
is a retraction in mod A, because f is not a section. Consider the exact sequence
u h
! M 00 ,
0 ! M0
!M !0
where M 00 D Ker h and u is the canonical embedding. Since h is a retraction, there

exists g 2 HomA .M 0 ; M / with hg D idM 0 . Moreover, then u is a section in mod A
00
exists v 02 Hom
(see Lemma I.4.2), and so there
00
A .M; M / such that vu D idM 00 .
Then it follows that ' D v W M ! M ˚ M is an isomorphism in mod A. Let
h
f 00 D vf . Then 0
f
D 'f W L ! M 0 ˚ M 00
f 00
Conversely, assume now that f 0 W L ! M 0 satisfies the stated conditions in
(ii). We will prove that f 0 is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. Suppose
f 0 is a section in mod A. Then hf 0 D id 0
i some h 2 HomA .M ; L/, and, for
h L ,0 for
Œ h 0 W M 0 ˚ M 00 ! L, we obtain Œ h 0 ff 00 D hf 0 D idL , a contradiction, since
h 0i
by our assumption ff 00 W L ! M 0 ˚ M 00 is a left almost split homomorphism
in mod A. In particular, we infer that f 0 is not an isomorphism. Since L is an
indecomposable A-module, applying Lemma I.4.2, we then conclude that f 0 is
not a retraction in mod A. Let f 0 D uv for some module Z in mod A and v 2
HomA .L; Z/, u 2 HomA .Z; M 0 /. Assume that v is not a section in mod A. We
show that u is a retraction in mod A. Consider the homomorphisms

v 00 u 0
W L ! Z ˚ M ; W Z ˚ M 00 ! M 0 ˚ M 00 :
f 00 0 idM 00
Then we obtain 0
u 0 v uv f
00 D 00 D :
0 idM 00 f f f 00
By our assumption, v is not a section in mod A, and then Im HomA .v; L/
radA .L; L/, by Lemma 1.5. Observe that f 00 W L ! M 00 is also not a sec-
00 00
tion inh mod
0
i A, because otherwise gf D idL for some g 2 Hom h 0Ai.M ; L/,
Œ 0 g ff 00 D gf 00 D idL , and we have a contradiction because ff 00 is a left
almost split homomorphism in mod A. Hence, applying Lemma 1.5 again, we
obtain that Im HomA .f 00 ; L/ radA .L; L/. Then
v
Im HomA f 00 ; L D Im HomA .v; L/ C Im HomA .f 00 ; L/ radA .L; L/;
h i
v f0
and consequently f 00 is not a section in mod A, again by Lemma 1.5. Since f 00
h 0i
is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A, it follows from (i) that ff 00

is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. Therefore, u0 idM 0
00 W Z ˚ M 00 !
M ˚ M is a retraction in mod A, and hence there exist g11 2 HomA .M 0 ; Z/,
0 00
g21 2 HomA .M 0 ; M 00 /, g12 2 HomA .M 00 ; Z/, g22 2 HomA .M 00 ; M 00 / such that

idM 0 0 u 0 g11 g12 ug11 0
D D :
0 idM 00 0 idM 00 g21 g22 0 g22
Then ug11 D idM 0 , and hence u is a section in mod A. Summing up, we have
proved that f 0 W L ! M 0 is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
Theorem 7.12. Let g W M ! N be a nonzero right minimal almost split homo-
morphism in mod A. Then the following statements hold.
(i) g is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A.
(ii) A homomorphism g 0 W M 0 ! N is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A
if and only if M 0 ¤ 0, M Š M 0 ˚ M 00 for some module M 00 in mod A, and
there exists a homomorphism g 00 W M 00 ! N in mod A such that the induced
homomorphism 0 00
g g W M 0 ˚ M 00 ! N
is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
Proof. Similar to the proof of Theorem 7.11.
We end this section with an application of Lemma 7.8, showing the importance
of the irreducible homomorphisms for the description of the module category of a
finite dimensional algebra of finite representation type.
Proposition 7.13. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra of finite representa-
tion type. Then any nonzero nonisomorphism between indecomposable modules in
mod A is a finite sum of compositions of irreducible homomorphisms.
Proof. Since A is of finite representation type, by Corollary 2.2, there exists a
positive integer m such that radAmC1 D 0. Let M and N be indecomposable modules
in mod A and f W M ! N be a nonzero nonisomorphism of right A-modules. Then
f 2 radA .M; N /, by Lemma 1.4. Hence there exists n 2 f1; : : : ; mg such that f 2
radAn .M; N / n radAnC1 .M; N /. Applying Lemmas 1.3 and 1.4, we conclude that f
is a finite sum of compositions hn : : : h2 h1 of nonzero homomorphisms h1 ; : : : ; hn
from radA between indecomposable modules. If n D m, then the homomorphisms
h1 ; : : : ; hn do not belong to radA2 , and hence are irreducible homomorphisms in
mod A, by Lemma 7.8, and so f has the required presentation. Assume n
m 1. Denote by f 0 the sum of all compositions hn : : : h2 h1 , occurring in the
8. Almost split sequences 269
decomposition of f , in which all the homomorphisms h1 ; : : : ; hn are in radA n radA2 ,

or equivalently, are irreducible. Then f 00 D f f 0 2 radAnC1 . If f 00 D 0, then
f D f 0 has the required presentation. If f 00 ¤ 0, then, by induction, f 00 is a
finite sum of compositions of irreducible homomorphisms between indecomposable
modules in mod A, and consequently f D f 0 C f 00 has the same property.
8 Almost split sequences

The main aim of this section is to prove the Auslander–Reiten theorem on the
existence of almost split sequences in the module categories of finite dimensional
algebras, and provide their characterizations.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field. Two short exact sequences
in mod A,
f g f0 g0
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0 and 0 ! L0 ! M 0 ! N 0 ! 0;
are said to be isomorphic if there is a commutative diagram in mod A
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u v w
f0 g0
0 / L0 / M0 / N0 / 0,
where u, v, w are isomorphisms. We note that v is an isomorphism if u and w are

isomorphisms (see Exercise I.12.17).
We have also the following useful facts.
Lemma 8.1. Let

f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u v w
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
be a commutative diagram in mod A, where the rows are exact and not splittable.
(i) If L is indecomposable and w is an isomorphism, then u and v are isomor-

phisms.
(ii) If N is indecomposable and u is an isomorphism, then v and w are isomor-

phisms.
Proof. (i) Assume L is indecomposable and w is an isomorphism in mod A. Sup-

pose that u is not an isomorphism. Since L is indecomposable, EndA .L/ is a local
algebra, by Lemma I.4.4, and hence u 2 rad EndA .L/ D radA .L; L/. In particular,
u is a nilpotent endomorphism of L, say um D 0 for some m 1. Then f u D vf
forces v m f D f um D 0, and so there exists a homomorphism h W N ! M in
mod A such that v m D hg. Hence gv D wg implies w m g D gv m D ghg, and
then w m D gh, because g is an epimorphism. Further, by the assumption, w is
an isomorphism, and so ww1 D idN for some w1 2 EndA .N /. Then we obtain
that g.hw1m / D w m w1m D idN , which shows that g is a retraction in mod A. This
contradicts the fact that the exact sequence given by f and g is not splittable (see
Lemma I.4.2). Hence u is an isomorphism, and consequently v is an isomorphism
(see Exercise I.12.17).
A short exact sequence in mod A
f g
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
is called an almost split sequence if f is a left minimal almost split homomorphism

and g is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A. Observe that then
the sequence is not splittable because f is not a section and g is not a retraction in
mod A
The following lemma also shows that an almost split sequence is uniquely
determined (up to isomorphism) by each of its end terms.
Lemma 8.2. Let
f g f0 g0
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0 and 0 ! L0 ! M 0 ! N 0 ! 0
be almost split sequences in mod A. The following statements are equivalent.

(i) The exact sequences are isomorphic.
(ii) L and L0 are isomorphic in mod A.
(iii) N and N 0 are isomorphic in mod A.
Proof. Obviously (i) implies (ii) and (iii). Assume that there exists an isomorphism
u W L ! L0 in mod A. Since f 0 is not a section, then f 0 u W L ! M 0 is not a section,
by Lemma 7.4 (i). Moreover, since f W L ! M is a left almost split homomorphism
in mod A, we conclude that there exists v 2 HomA .M; M 0 / such that f 0 u D vf .
Let u0 W L0 ! L be the inverse of u in mod A. Then f u0 W L0 ! M is not a section in
mod A, and hence there exists v 0 2 HomA .M 0 ; M / such that f u0 D v 0 f 0 , because
f 0 is a left almost split homomorphism in mod A. We have also the equalities
v 0 vf D v 0 f 0 u D f u0 u D f and vv 0 f 0 D vf u0 D f 0 uu0 D f 0 . Since f and
f 0 are left minimal homomorphisms in mod A, we conclude that v 0 v and vv 0 are

isomorphisms in mod A. Then v is an isomorphism in mod A. Moreover, we have
in mod A a commutative diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u v w
f0 g0
0 / L0 / M0 / N0 / 0,
because N Š Coker f and N 0 Š Coker f 0 , where u and v are isomorphisms.

Then w is also an isomorphism, and consequently the given almost split sequences
are isomorphic. This proves that (ii) implies (i). The proof that (iii) implies (i) is
similar.
We provide now several characterizations of almost split sequences.
f g
Theorem 8.3. Let 0 ! L !M ! N ! 0 be a short exact sequence in mod A.
The following statements are equivalent.
f g
(i) 0 ! L
!M
! N ! 0 is an almost split sequence in mod A.
(ii) L is an indecomposable A-module and g is a right almost split homomorphism
in mod A.
(iii) N is an indecomposable A-module and f is a left almost split homomorphism
in mod A.
(iv) f is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
(v) g is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
(vi) L and N are indecomposable A-modules, and f and g are irreducible ho-
momorphisms in mod A.
Proof. Observe that (i) implies (iv) and (v) by definition of an almost split sequence
in mod A. It follows also from Lemma 7.2 that (i) implies (ii) and (iii). Similarly,
(i) implies (vi), by Lemma 7.2 and Theorems 7.11 and 7.12.
We show now that (v) implies (ii). Assume that g is a right minimal almost split
homomorphism in mod A. Then, applying Theorem 7.12, we conclude that g is an
irreducible epimorphism in mod A. Hence, by Proposition 7.10 (ii), L D Ker g is
an indecomposable A-module, and so (ii) follows.
Similarly, we prove that (iv) implies (iii).
We claim now that (ii) and (iii) are equivalent. Assume that L is an indecom-
posable A-module and g is a right almost split homomorphism in mod A. Then,
applying Lemma 7.2, we conclude that N is an indecomposable A-module. We
will show that f is a left almost split homomorphism in mod A. Since g is not a
retraction in mod A the exact sequence
f g
0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
is not splittable, and consequently f is not a section in mod A (see Lemma I.4.2
and Exercise I.12.16). Suppose u W L ! U is a homomorphism in mod A such that
u ¤ hf for any homomorphism h W M ! U in mod A. We will show that then u
is a section. Consider the commutative diagram in mod A,
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u f0 idN
u0 p
0 /U /V /N /0
with exact rows, where the lower sequence is given by the fibered sum V D U ˚L M
of U and M over L, via u and f (see Exercise I.12.21). Observe that then u0 is
not a section. Indeed, if u00 u0 D idU for some u00 2 HomA .V; U /, then we obtain
.u00 f 0 /f D u00 .f 0 f / D u00 .u0 u/ D .u00 u0 /u D u, which contradicts the choice
of u. Since u0 is not a section, we infer that the lower exact sequence is not splittable,
and hence p is not a retraction in mod A. By the assumption, g is a right almost
split homomorphism in mod A, so there exists a homomorphism g 0 W V ! M in
mod A such that p D gg 0 . Therefore, there exists in mod A a commutative diagram
/U u0 /V p
/N /0
0
uN g0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0,
and hence a commutative diagram of the form
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
N
uu g0f 0 idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0.
Since L is indecomposable and idN is an isomorphism, applying Lemma 8.1, we

N is an isomorphism in mod A. Then u is a section in mod A (see
conclude that uu
Lemma 4.1). This proves that (ii) implies (iii). The proof that (iii) implies (ii) is
similar.
Assume that (ii) and (iii) hold. We claim that then (i) also holds. We have to
show that f is left minimal and g is right minimal in mod A. Assume h 2 EndA .M /
satisfies hf D f . Then we have in mod A a commutative diagram

f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL h w
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0.
Since N is indecomposable and idL is an isomorphism, it follows from Lem-

ma 8.1 (ii) that h is an isomorphism. Hence f is a left minimal homomorphism
in mod A. Similarly, if h 2 EndA .M / satisfies gh D g, we have in mod A a
commutative diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
u h idN
f g
0 /L /M /N / 0.
Since L is indecomposable and idN is an isomorphism, applying Lemma 8.1 (i)

again, we obtain that h is an isomorphism. This shows that g is a right minimal
homomorphism in mod A.
In the final step of the proof we show that (vi) implies (ii). Assume (vi) holds.
Then L is an indecomposable A-module and g is an irreducible homomorphism
in mod A. In particular, g is not a retraction in mod A. Consider a homomor-
phism v W V ! N in mod A which is not a retraction. We claim that there exists
a homomorphism v 0 W V ! M in mod A such that gv 0 D v. Clearly, we may
assume that V is an indecomposable A-module. Since, by (vi), f is an irreducible
homomorphism in mod A, applying Lemma 7.9 (i), we conclude that there exists
v1 2 HomA .V; M / such that v D gv1 or there exists v2 2 HomA .M; V / such that
g D vv2 . In the first case, for v 0 D v1 , we have v D gv 0 . Assume the second
case. Since g is an irreducible homomorphism and v is not a retraction, the equality
g D vv2 forces v2 to be a section in mod A. But V is, by our assumption, inde-
composable and then v2 is an isomorphism. Then for the inverse homomorphism
v 0 2 HomA .V; M / of v2 , we have gv 0 D .vv2 /v 0 D v.v2 v 0 / D v, as required.
We will prove now the existence theorem for almost split sequences established
by M. Auslander and I. Reiten in [AR1], called the Auslander–Reiten theorem.
statements hold.
(i) For any nonprojective indecomposable module M in mod A, there exists an
almost split sequence in mod A of the form
f g
0 ! A M ! E ! M ! 0:
(ii) For any noninjective indecomposable module N in mod A, there exists an

almost split sequence in mod A of the form
u v
0 ! N ! F ! A1 N ! 0:
Proof. (i) Assume M is a nonprojective indecomposable module in mod A. It

follows from Lemma I.4.4 that EndA .M / is a local K-algebra, and consequently
FM D EndA .M /= rad EndA .M / is a division K-algebra (see Lemma I.3.8). Fur-
ther, it follows from Proposition 3.8 that, for every module L in mod A, the K-vector
spaces ExtA1 .M; L/ and ExtA1 .M; L/ are right EndA .M /-modules, and the K-linear
isomorphism
M;L W ExtA1 .M; L/ ! ExtA1 .M; L/
is an isomorphism of right EndA .M /-modules.
For a module L in mod A, consider also the K-vector space
SA .L; M / D HomA .L; M /= radA .L; M /:
We note that, by Lemma 1.4, radA .L; M / is the subspace of HomA .L; M / con-
sisting of all nonisomorphisms whose restriction to any direct summand of L is
nonisomorphism. Observe also that PA .L; M / radA .L; M /. Indeed, if P is a
module in proj A, u 2 HomA .L; P /, v 2 HomA .P; M / and vu … radA .L; M /,
then, by Lemma 1.5 (ii), vu is a retraction, and so v is a retraction. Consequently, M
is projective, a contradiction. Therefore, we may define the K-linear epimorphism
pL;M W HomA .L; M / ! SA .L; M /;
defined by pL;M .f C PA .L; M // D f C radA .L; M / for f 2 HomA .L; M /,

which is in fact an epimorphism of left EndA .M /-modules. Applying D D
HomK .; K/ we obtain a monomorphism
D.pL;M / W DSA .L; M / ! D HomA .L; M /
of right EndA .M /-modules.

Since M is an indecomposable nonprojective module in mod A, we know from
Corollary 4.9 that A M is an indecomposable noninjective module in mod A and
M Š A1 .A M /. Applying now Theorem 6.3 we conclude that there is an isomor-
phism

M;M W D HomA .M; M / ! ExtA1 .M; A M /
of right EndA .M /-modules. We claim that ExtA1 .M; A M /, considered as a right
EndA .M /-module, has simple socle. It is enough to show that the right EndA .M /-
module D HomA .M; M / D D EndA .M / has simple socle.
Observe that we have an epimorphism of K-algebras pM;M W EndA .M / !
SA .M; M / D EndA .M /= rad EndA .M / D FM , and EndA .M /= rad EndA .M / Š
EndA .M /= rad EndA .M /. Since the local algebra EndA .M /, considered as a left
EndA .M /-module, has simple top FM , the left EndA .M /-module EndA .M / has
also FM as the top. But then the right EndA .M /-module D HomA .M; M / has
simple socle. Moreover, D.pM;M / W DSA .M; M / ! D HomA .M; M / induces an
isomorphism from the simple right EndA .M /-module D.SA .M; M // D D.FM /
to the socle of the right EndA .M /-module D HomA .M; M /. In particular, the
right EndA .M /-module ExtA1 .M; A M / has simple socle, which coincides with
M;M D.pM;M /.D.FM //.

Take now the extension
f g
E W 0 ! A M ! E ! M ! 0
of A M by M in mod A such that M;A M .ŒE/ is a nonzero element of the so-
cle of the right EndA .M /-module ExtA1 .M; A M /. Notice that M;A M .ŒE/ 2
M;M D.pM;M / .D.FM //. We claim that E is an almost split sequence in mod A.
Since M;A M .ŒE/ ¤ 0, it follows from Lemma 3.1 and Corollary 3.6 that E is
a nonsplittable exact sequence in mod A. Moreover, A M is an indecomposable
A-module. Hence, in order to prove that E is an almost split sequence in mod A, it
is enough to show, by Theorem 8.3, that g is a right almost split homomorphism in
mod A.
Let v W V ! M be a homomorphism in mod A which is not a retraction.
Since M is an indecomposable A-module, it follows from Lemma 1.5 (ii) that
v 2 radA .V; M /. We have the commutative diagrams of K-vector spaces
D.pM;M / M;M
DSA .M; M / / D Hom .M; M / / Ext 1 .M; A M /
A A
DSA .M;v/ D HomA .M;v/ 1 .v; M /

ExtA A
D.pM;V / M;V

DSA .M; V / / D Hom .M; V / / Ext 1 .V; A M /
A A
and
M;A M
ExtA1 .M; A M / / Ext 1 .M; A M /
A
1 1 .v; M /
ExtA .v;A M / ExtA A
V;A M
ExtA1 .V; A M / / Ext 1 .V; A M / ,
A
where
M;V is the natural K-linear isomorphism from Theorem 6.3. Since v 2
radA .V; M /, we have DSA .M; v/ D 0, and consequently
ExtA1 .v; A M /
M;M D.pM;M / D
M;V D.pM;V /DSA .M; v/ D 0:
Then we obtain that
V;A M ExtA1 .v; A M /.ŒE/ D ExtA1 .v; A M /M;A M .ŒE/
2 ExtA1 .v; A M /
M;M D.pM;M /.D.FM // D 0;
and hence V;A M ExtA1 .v; A M /.ŒE/ D 0 and ExtA1 .v; A M /.ŒE/ D ŒOV;A M ,
because V;A M is an isomorphism. But ExtA1 .v; A M /.ŒE/ D ŒEv, where Ev is
the upper sequence of the commutative diagram
/ A M i / E0 v0 /V /0
0
idA M g0 v
f g
0 / A M /E /M /0
given by the fibered product E 0 D E M V of E and V over M , via g and v.

Since ŒEv D ŒOV;A M , the sequence Ev is splittable (see Lemma 3.1), and so v 0
is a retraction in mod A. Let v 00 W V ! E 0 be a homomorphism in mod A with
v 0 v 00 D idV . Then h D g 0 v 00 2 HomA .V; E/ and gh D gg 0 v 00 D vv 0 v 00 D v. This
shows that g is a right almost split homomorphism in mod A, and consequently E
is an almost split sequence in mod A.
(ii) Assume N is a noninjective indecomposable module in mod A. Then D.N /
is a nonprojective indecomposable module in mod Aop . Applying (i) to the Aop -
module D.N /, we conclude that there exists an almost split sequence in mod Aop
of the form
˛ ˇ
0 ! Aop D.N / ! X ! D.N / ! 0:
Applying D W mod Aop ! mod A, we obtain an almost split sequence in mod A of
the form
D.ˇ / D.˛/
0 ! D.D.N // ! D.X / ! D.Aop D.N // ! 0:
Note that D.D.N // Š N and D.Aop D.N // D D.D Tr.D.N /// Š Tr.D.N // D
A1 N in mod A. Therefore, we conclude that there exists in mod A an almost split
sequence of the form
u v
0 ! N ! F ! A1 N ! 0;
where F Š D.X /.
Corollary 8.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The fol-
lowing statements hold.
(i) For every indecomposable module M in mod A, there exists a right minimal
almost split homomorphism g W E ! M in mod A.
(ii) For every indecomposable module N in mod A, there exists a left minimal
almost split homomorphism u W N ! F in mod A.
Proof. (i) Assume M is an indecomposable module in mod A. If M is projec-

tive, then it follows from Lemma 7.6 that the canonical inclusion homomorphism
g W rad M ! M is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A. Assume
M is not projective. Then, by Theorem 8.4 (i), there exists in mod A an almost split
sequence
f g
0 ! A M ! E ! M ! 0;
where g is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
(ii) Assume N is an indecomposable module in mod A. If N is injective, then
it follows from Lemma 7.7 that the canonical epimorphism u W N ! N= soc N is
a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A. Assume N is not injective.
Then, by Theorem 8.4 (ii), there exists in mod A an almost split sequence
u v
0 ! N ! F ! A1 N ! 0;
where u is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A.
We describe now a class of almost split sequences playing a prominent role in

our further considerations
Proposition 8.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and P

be an indecomposable projective-injective module in mod A of length at least two.
Then the sequence
Œ uq Œ j v
0 ! rad P ! .rad P = soc P / ˚ P ! P = soc P ! 0;
where u; j are the inclusion homomorphisms and q, v are the canonical epimor-
phisms, is an almost split sequence in mod A. In particular, we have
rad P Š A .P = rad P / and P = soc P Š A1 .rad P /:
Proof. Observe that Œ uq is a monomorphism, since u is a monomorphism. Similarly,

Œ j v is an epimorphism, since v is an epimorphism. Clearly, Œ j v Œ uq D j q C
vu D 0. Assume x 2 rad P and y 2 P are such that .x C soc P; y/ 2 Ker Œ j v .
Then x C soc P D y C soc P , and hence y 2 rad P and .x C soc P; y/ D
.y C soc P; y/ D Œ uq .y/. Hence the sequence is exact. Observe that rad P has
simple socle equal to soc P , and so rad P is an indecomposable A-module. Then,
in order to prove that the given sequence is an almost split sequence in mod A, it is
enough to show, by Theorem 8.3, that Œ j v is a right almost split homomorphism
in mod A.
Observe that Œ j v is not a retraction in mod A. Indeed, otherwise P = soc P
is an indecomposable direct summand of .rad P = soc P / ˚ P , by Lemma I.4.2,
and this contradicts the Krull–Schmidt theorem, because P is indecomposable
with `.P / > `.P = soc P / and rad P = soc P is a direct sum of indecomposable
A-modules of length smaller than `.P = soc P /.
Let f W X ! P = soc P be a homomorphism in mod A which is not a retrac-
tion. We will show that f D Œ j v f 0 for some homomorphism f 0 W X !
.rad P = soc P / ˚ P in mod A. We may assume that X is an indecomposable A-
module. Since P is indecomposable projective, it follows from Propositions I.5.16
and I.8.2 that rad P is a unique maximal right A-submodule of P . Moreover,
since P is also indecomposable injective, soc P is a unique simple A-submodule
of P , and hence is contained in every nonzero right A-submodule of P . Hence,
rad P = soc P is a unique maximal right A-submodule of P = soc P . Then, if f is
then Im f is contained in rad P = soc P , and we obtain that
not an epimorphism,

f D Œ j v f 0
. Assume f is an epimorphism. Then we have a commutative
diagram
P
vv
w vvv
v
vv
v
zvv f
X / P = soc P ,
because P is projective. We claim that then w is a monomorphism. Indeed, if

Ker w ¤ 0, then soc P Ker w, and there is a homomorphism w 0 W P = soc P ! X
such that w D w 0 v. But then v D f w D f w 0 v implies f w 0 D idP = soc P , which
contradicts the fact that f is not a retraction. Hence, indeed w W P ! X is a
monomorphism, and then w is a section, because P is injective (see Lemma I.8.13).
Since X is indecomposable in mod A, applying Lemma I.4.2, we conclude that
w W P ! X is an isomorphism. Then, for the homomorphism g W X ! P converse
to w, we obtain that Œ j v g0 D vg D f wg D f . Therefore, we have proved
that Œ j v is a right almost split homomorphism in mod A.
We present now a complete description of the almost split sequences in the mod-
ule categories of Nakayama algebras which were the motivating class of examples
for the whole theory developed by M. Auslander and I. Reiten in [AR1], [AR2],
[AR3], [AR4], and exhibited in the book [ARS]. Recall that, by Theorem I.10.5,
if M is an indecomposable right module of Loewy length m over a Nakayama al-
gebra A, then there exists a unique, up to isomorphism, indecomposable projective
A-module P (the projective cover of M ) such that M Š P = radm P . Moreover,
M is nonprojective if and only if m < ``.P /.
Theorem 8.7. Let A be a finite dimensional Nakayama K-algebra over a field K,
P be an indecomposable projective module in mod A, and m a positive integer such
that m < ``.P /. Then the sequence
0 ! rad P = radmC1 P
Œ uq Œ j v
! .rad P = radm P / ˚ .P = radmC1 P / ! P = radm P ! 0;
where u, j are the inclusion homomorphisms and q, v are the canonical epimor-
phisms, is an almost split sequence in mod A.
Proof. Applying arguments in the proof of Proposition 8.6, we conclude that the
above sequence is exact. Moreover, rad P = radmC1 P D rad.P = radmC1 P / is in-
decomposable as an A-submodule of the uniserial A-module P = radmC1 P . Hence,
in order to prove that the above exact sequence is an almost split sequence in mod A,
it is sufficient to show, by Theorem 8.3, that Œ j v is a right almost split homo-
morphism in mod A. Observe that Œ j v is not a retraction in mod A. Indeed,
rad P = radm P D rad.P = radm P /, P = radmC1 P and P = radm P are indecompos-
able A-modules with `.rad P = radm P / < `.P = radm P / < `.P = radmC1 P /, and
so P = radm P is not isomorphic to a direct summand of the middle of the exact
sequence.
Let f W V ! P = radm P be a homomorphism in mod A which is not a retrac-
tion. We will show that f D Œ j v f 0 for some homomorphism f 0 W V !
.rad P = radm P / ˚ .P = radmC1 P / in mod A. We may assume that V is an in-
decomposable A-module. Since P = radm P is a uniserial A-module, it follows that
rad P = radm P D rad.P = radm P / is a unique maximal A-submodule of P = radm P .
Hence, if f is not an epimorphism,
f then Im f rad P = radm P , and we have the
factorization f D Œ j v 0 . Assume f is an epimorphism. It follows from
Theorem I.10.5 that there is an isomorphism g W V ! Q= rads Q in mod A, for
some indecomposable projective A-module Q and a positive integer s ``.Q/.
Since f is epimorphism, the homomorphism top.f / W top.V / ! top.P = radm P /
is an epimorphism, by Lemma I.5.18, and consequently an isomorphism, because
top.V / Š top.Q/ and top.P = radm P / Š top.P / are simple A-modules. Hence,
Q Š P and s m C 1, since f is not an isomorphism. Then we conclude that
there is an epimorphism h W V ! P = rad
mC1
P such that f D vh. This gives a
required factorization f D Œ j v h in mod A. Therefore, indeed Œ j v is a
0
right almost split homomorphism in mod A.
Examples 8.8. (a) Let n 2 be a natural number and Q.n/ be the quiver
1
ˇ1 vv cHHH ˛1
vv 2 HH
vvvˇ2 hh kVVV˛2 HHH
{vvhhhhh VVVVVH
0 sheKKK n C 1.
KK ˇn : ˛n ssss
::
KK s
KK sss
ys

n
Consider the bound quiver algebra ƒ.n/ D KQ.n/=I.n/ over a field K, where I.n/
is the ideal in KQ.n/ generated by the elements ˛i ˇi ˛1 ˇ1 for all i 2 f2; : : : ; ng.
We identify mod ƒ.n/ with repK .Q.n/; I.n//. Applying Proposition I.8.27, we
conclude that the indecomposable projective ƒ.n/-module P .n C 1/ coincides

with the indecomposable injective ƒ.n/-module I.0/, and is of the form
K cFF
1 xxx FF1
x x FF
xx
xixiii1iii K jUUU1U FFFF
{x UUUU
P .n C 1/ W K tieK : K.
KK ss
KK 1 :: 1 sss
KK
KK ss
yss
K
Moreover, soc.P .n C 1// D S.0/, top.P .n C 1// D S.n C 1/,
K K ÀA
1 }} _@@@ ~~ AA1
} @ ~
}}1 iR @@ ~~ K iSSS1SAAA
~}uk}kkkkk K RRRRR@ ~ul~lllll SS
rad P .n C 1/ W K 0, P .n C 1/=S.0/ W 0 bF K,
cGG :
xx FF : w
GG 1 :: xx FF :: 1 ww
GG x FF w
|xx {ww
K K
and hence rad P .n C 1/= soc P .n C 1/ D S.1/ ˚ S.2/ ˚ ˚ S.n/. Therefore,
applying Proposition 8.6, we conclude that we have in mod ƒ.n/ an almost split
0 ! rad P .n C 1/ ! S.1/ ˚ ˚ S.n/ ˚ P .n C 1/ ! P .n C 1/=S.0/ ! 0:
This shows that the middle terms of almost split sequences may have arbitrary large
number of indecomposable direct summands.
(b) Let K be a field, Q the quiver
1
?~ @@
~~ @@˛
~~ @@
~~ @
3 o ˇ
2 ,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver
algebra. It follows from Theorem I.10.3 that A is a Nakayama algebra. We identify
mod A D repK .Q; I /. Then, by Proposition I.8.27, the indecomposable projective
A-modules are of the form
AK = K
A >>>> 01
===1

1
= >>

P .1/ W 0 o K, P .2/ W K o K2 ,
10
@K =
1 ===1
=

P .3/ W K o K,
0
and hence ``.P .1// D 2, ``.P .2// D 4, ``.P .3// D 3. Applying now Theo-
rem I.10.5 we conclude that the remaining indecomposable modules in mod A are
(up to isomorphism) of the form
? K >>
>>
S.1/ D P .1/= rad P .1/ W
0o 0,
A0>
>>>
S.2/ D P .2/= rad P .2/ W
0o K,
? 0 >>
>>

I.3/ D P .2/= rad2 P .2/ W K o K,
1
> K AA 0
}}} 1 AA
}
I.1/ D P .2/= rad3 P .2/ W K o K,
1
? 0 <<
<<
S.3/ D P .3/= rad P .3/ W
Ko 0,
> K ??
}}}
1 ??
}
M D P .3/= rad2 P .3/ W K o 0.
We also note that P .2/ D I.2/, so is projective-injective. Therefore, by Theo-
rem 8.7, we have in mod A the almost split sequences
0 ! S.2/ ! P .1/ ! S.1/ ! 0;
0 ! S.3/ ! I.3/ ! S.2/ ! 0;

0 ! M ! S.3/ ˚ I.1/ ! I.3/ ! 0;
0 ! P .3/ ! M ˚ P .2/ ! I.1/ ! 0;
0 ! S.1/ ! M ! S.3/ ! 0;
0 ! P .1/ ! S.1/ ˚ P .3/ ! M ! 0;
which are up to isomorphism all almost split sequences in mod A (see Lemma 8.2).
Observe that S.2/ D A S.1/, S.3/ D A S.2/ and S.1/ D A S.3/ form a A -
periodic orbit. Moreover, we have M D A I.3/, P .1/ D A M , and P .3/ D
A I.1/.
9 The Auslander–Reiten quiver

In this section we introduce an important combinatorial and homological invariant
of a finite dimensional algebra, called the Auslander–Reiten quiver.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. It follows from
Lemma 7.1 and Corollary 8.5, that for an indecomposable module Z in mod A,
there exist in mod A a left minimal almost split homomorphism Z ! M and a
right minimal almost split homomorphism N ! Z, and the modules M and N
are uniquely determined by Z up to isomorphism. Further, by Lemma 7.3 (i) and
Theorem 7.11, there exists an irreducible homomorphism Z ! U in mod A if
and only if Z is not simple injective and U is isomorphic to a direct summand
of M . Similarly, by Lemma 7.3 (ii) and Theorem 7.12, there exists an irreducible
homomorphism V ! Z in mod A if and only if Z is not simple projective and V
is isomorphic to a direct summand of N . Moreover, by Lemma 7.8, for indecom-
posable modules X and Y in mod A, there exists an irreducible homomorphism
f W X ! Y in mod A if and only if f 2 radA .X; Y / n radA2 .X; Y /.
Let X and Y be indecomposable modules in mod A such that there exists an
irreducible homomorphism X ! Y . We denote by dXY the multiplicity of Y
in the codomain M of a left minimal almost split homomorphism X ! M with
the domain X , that is, M Š Y dXY ˚ M 0 with M 0 without a direct summand
0
isomorphic to Y . Dually, we denote by dXY the multiplicity of X in the domain
N of a right minimal almost split homomorphism N ! Y with the codomain Y ,
0
that is, N Š X dXY ˚ N 0 with N 0 without a direct summand isomorphic to X .
It follows from the above remarks that, for arbitrary irreducible homomorphisms
X ! Y m and X n ! Y in mod A, m and n positive integers, we have m dXY
0
and n dXY .
The Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A is the valued translation quiver defined
as follows:
(a) The vertices of A are the isoclasses fX g of indecomposable modules X in
mod A.
(b) For two vertices fX g and fY g in A , there exists an arrow fX g ! fY g if and
only if there is an irreducible homomorphism X ! Y in mod A. Moreover,
0
we associate to an arrow fX g ! fY g of A the valuation .dXY ; dXY /, so we
have in A the valued arrow
0
.dXY ;dX Y/
fX g ! fY g:
9. The Auslander–Reiten quiver 283
(c) We have the translation A which assigns to each vertex fX g of A , with X

nonprojective module, the vertex A fX g D fA X g D fD Tr X g.
(d) We have the translation A1 which assigns to each vertex fX g of A , with X
noninjective module, the vertex A1 fX g D fA1 X g D fTr DX g.
The vertices fP g of A corresponding to indecomposable projective modules P of
mod A are called projective vertices of A and the vertices fI g of A corresponding
to indecomposable injective modules I of mod A are called injective vertices of
A . Therefore, the Auslander–Reiten translation A induces a bijection from the set
of all nonprojective vertices of A to the set of all noninjective vertices of A , and
A1 is the inverse bijection (see Corollary 4.9).
We will usually identify a vertex fX g of A with the indecomposable module
X corresponding to it, so we will write
0
.dXY ;dXY / 0
.dX Y ;dX Y/
X ! Y instead of fX g ! fY g:
.1;1/
Moreover, instead of an arrow X ! Y of A we will write simply X ! Y .
We will describe the neighbours of the vertices of the Auslander–Reiten quivers
and give another description of their valued arrows.
0
.dXY ;dXY /
Lemma 9.1. Let X ! Y be an arrow of A . Then the following statements
hold.
(i) If Y is a nonprojective vertex of A , then A admits an arrow
.dA YX ;d0 /
A YX 0
A Y ! X , and dA YX D dXY .
(ii) If X is a noninjective vertex of A , then A admits an arrow
.d 0
1 X ;d
Y A 1 X /
Y A
Y ! A1 X , and dY0 1 X D dXY .
A
Proof. (i) Assume Y is a nonprojective vertex of A . Then, by Theorem 8.4 (i),

there exists in mod A an almost split sequence
f g
0 ! A Y ! N ! Y ! 0;
where f is a left minimal almost split homomorphism and g is a right minimal

0
almost split homomorphism in mod A. It follows from the definition of dXY that
0
0 0
N Š X Y ˚ N with N without direct summands isomorphic to X . Then,
dX
by Theorem 7.11, there are in mod A irreducible homomorphisms A Y ! X and

.dA YX ;d0 /
0 A YX
A Y ! X dX Y . Hence A admits a valued arrow A Y ! X with
0
dA YX D dXY .
(ii) Assume X is a noninjective vertex of A . Then, applying Theorem 8.4 (ii),

we conclude that there is in mod A an almost split sequence
u v
0 ! X ! M ! A1 X ! 0;
where u is a left minimal almost split homomorphism and v is a right minimal

almost split homomorphism in mod A. Then it follows from the definition of dXY
that M Š Y dX Y ˚ M 0 with M 0 without direct summands isomorphic to Y . Then,
by Theorem 7.12, there are in mod A irreducible homomorphisms Y ! A1 X and
.d 0
1 X ;d
Y A 1 X /
Y A
Y dX Y
! A1 X . Hence A admits a valued arrow Y ! A1 X and
0
dY 1 X D dXY .
A
We will show that in the above lemma we have additionally d0A YX D dXY (if
0
Y is nonprojective) and dY 1 X D dXY (if X is noninjective).
A
Recall that, for an indecomposable module Z in mod A, EndA .Z/ is a local
K-algebra, and hence FZ D EndA .Z/= rad EndA .Z/ D EndA .Z/= radA .Z; Z/ is
a finite dimensional division K-algebra. For indecomposable modules X and Y in
mod A, we consider the finite dimensional K-vector space
irrA .X; Y / D radA .X; Y /= radA2 .X; Y /;
the so-called space of irreducible

homomorphisms from X to Y . Observe that irrA .X; Y / is an FY -FX -bimodule by
.h C radA .Y; Y //.f C radA2 .X; Y // D hf C radA2 .X; Y /;
.f C radA2 .X; Y //.g C radA .X; X // D fg C radA2 .X; Y /;

for f 2 radA .X; Y /, g 2 EndA .X /, h 2 EndA .Y /.
Lemma 9.2. Let X and Y be indecomposable modules in mod A, f1 ; : : : ; fn 2

radA .X; Y /, and fN1 D f1 CradA2 .X; Y /; : : : ; fNn D fn CradA2 .X; Y / the associated
classes in irrA .X; Y /. Then the following statements hold.
(i) If Œ f1 ::: fn W X n ! Y is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A, then

fN1 ; : : : ; fNn are linearly independent vectors of the right FX -vector space
irrA .X; Y /.
"f #
1
(ii) If ::: W X ! Y n is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A, then fN1 ; : : : ;

fn
fNn are linearly independent vectors of the left FY -vector space irrA .X; Y /.
Proof. (i) Assume that Œ f1 ::: fn W X n ! Y is an irreducible homomorphism in

mod A. Let a1 D u1 C radA .X; X /; : : : ; an D un C radA .X; X /, for u1 ; : : : ; un 2
HomA .X; X/, be such that the equality f1 a1 C C fn an D 0 in irrA .X; Y / holds.
Then it follows that f1 u1 C C fn un 2 radA2 .X; Y /. Suppose ai ¤ 0 for some
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then ui 2 EndA .X / n rad EndA .X /, and so ui is an isomorphism.
Hence vi ui D idX for some vi 2 EndA .X /. Consider the homomorphisms
2 3
u1
6 :: 7
u D 4 : 5 W X ! X n and v D 0 : : : 0 vi 0 : : : 0 W X n ! X:
un
Then vu D vi ui D idX , and hence u is a section in mod A. Applying Lemma I.4.2,

we obtain the direct sum decomposition X n D Im u ˚ Ker v. It follows also from
Theorem 7.12 that there is in mod A a right minimal almost split homomorphism
of the form
Œ f1 ::: fn g
X n ˚ Z ! Y:
Consider also the isomorphism, induced by the above decomposition of X n ,
2 3
u 0 0
h D 4 0 idKer v 0 5 W X ˚ Ker v ˚ Z ! Im u ˚ Ker v ˚ Z D X n ˚ Z:
0 0 idZ
Then, by Lemma 7.4 (v), the composed homomorphism Œ f1 ::: fn g h W X ˚Ker v˚

Z ! Y is also a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A. Observe
also that Œ f1 ::: fn g h D Œ f1 u1 CCfn un w g for some w 2 HomA .Ker v; Y /.
Applying Theorem 7.12 again, we conclude that then f1 u1 C Cfn un W X ! Y is
an irreducible homomorphism in mod A. Hence, f1 u1 C Cfn un 2 radA .X; Y /n
radA2 .X; Y /, by Lemma 7.8, because X and Y are indecomposable modules. This
contradicts the choice of u1 ; : : : ; un . Therefore, fN1 ; : : : ; fNn are linearly independent
vectors of the right FX -vector space irrA .X; Y /.
Lemma 9.3. Let X and Y be indecomposable modules in mod A such that there
exists an irreducible homomorphism from X to Y . The following statements hold.
(i) Assume g W N ! Y is a right minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A,
N has a decomposition N D X r ˚ N 0 with N 0 without direct summands
isomorphic to X , and Œ g1 ::: gr W X r ! Y is the restriction of g to X r , with
g1 ; : : : ; gr 2 HomA .X; Y /. Then the classes gN 1 D g1 C radA2 .X; Y /; : : : ;
gN r D gr C radA2 .X; Y / generate the right FX -vector space irrA .X; Y /.
(ii) Assume h W X ! M is a left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A,
M has a decomposition M D Y s ˚ M 0 with M 0 without direct summands
"h #
1
isomorphic to Y , and ::: W X ! Y s be the composition of h with the

hs
canonical projection from M on Y s , with h1 ; : : : ; hs 2 HomA .X; Y /. Then
the classes hN 1 D h1 C radA2 .X; Y /; : : : ; hN s D hs C radA2 .X; Y / generate the
left FY -vector space irrA .X; Y /.
Proof. (i) Take a nonzero element fN D f C radA2 .X; Y / 2 irrA .X; Y /, so f 2
radA .X; Y /nradA2 .X; Y /. Then, by Lemma 7.8, f W X ! Y is an irreducible homo-
morphism in mod A. In particular, f is not a retraction in mod A. Since g W N ! Y
is a right almost split homomorphism in mod A, there exists a homomorphism
0
u W X ! N in mod A such that f D gu. Hence u D Œ wv W Xˇ ! X r ˚ Nˇ ,for
some v 2 0 ˇ ˇ
ˇ X / and w 2 HomA .X; N /. Then f D g X r v C g N 0 w,
r
ˇ HomA .X;
where g ˇX r and g ˇN 0 are the restrictions of g to X r and N 0 , respectively. Since N 0
has no direct summands isomorphic to X , applying Lemmas 1.3 and 1.4, we con-
clude ˇthat w 2 radA .X; N 0 /. Further, it follows from Theorem 7.12 that the restric-
tion g ˇZ W Z ! Y of g to an arbitrary indecomposable ˇ direct summand Z of N is an
0
irreducible homomorphism in mod A, and hence g ˇZ 2 radA .Z;ˇ Y /, by Lemma 1.4.

Hence, applying Lemmas 1.3 and 1.4 again, we obtain that g ˇN 0 2 radA .N 0 ; Y /.
v1
ˇ :
ˇ
As a consequence, we have g N 0 w 2 radA .X; Y /. Let v D :: W X ! X r , for
2
vr
v1 ; : : : ; vr 2 EndA .X /, and a1 D v1 C radA .X; ˇX /; : : : ; ar D vr C radA .X; X / be
the associated elements of FX . Observe that g ˇX r v D g1 v1 C C gr vr . Then
the equalities in irrA .X; Y / hold
ˇ ˇ
fN D f C radA2 .X; Y / D g ˇX r v C g ˇN 0 w C radA2 .X; Y /
ˇ
D g ˇX r v C radA2 .X; Y / D .g1 v1 C C gr vr / C radA2 .X; Y /
D gN 1 a1 C C gN r ar :
Therefore, gN 1 ; : : : ; gN r generate the right FX -vector space irrA .X; Y /.
Corollary 9.4. Let X and Y be indecomposable modules in mod A, and assume
that there exists an irreducible homomorphism from X to Y in mod A. Then dXY D
0
dimFY irrA .X; Y / and dXY D dimFX irrA .X; Y /.
Proof. It follows from Lemmas 9.2 and 9.3, and definitions of the numbers dXY
0
and dXY .
Lemma 9.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The following
statements hold.
(i) For each nonprojective indecomposable module Y in mod A, the Auslander–
Reiten translation A induces an isomorphism of division K-algebras FY and
FA Y .
(ii) For each noninjective indecomposable module X in mod A, the Auslander–

Reiten translation A1 induces an isomorphism of division K-algebras FX
and F 1 X .
A
Proof. We have from Corollary 4.8 the K-linear equivalence of categories
A
mod A o /
1
mod A .
A
(i) Let Y be an indecomposable nonprojective module in mod A. Then A in-

duces an isomorphism of K-algebras EndA .Y / ! EndA .A Y / whose inverse is
induced by A1 . Since Y and A Y are indecomposable modules, it follows from
Lemma 1.4 that radA .Y; Y / D rad EndA .Y / and radA .A Y; A Y / D rad EndA .A Y /
consist of all noninvertible homomorphisms of EndA .Y / and EndA .A Y /, respec-
tively. Then we conclude that PA .Y; Y / radA .Y; Y / and IA .A Y; A Y /
radA .A Y; A Y /, because Y is nonprojective and A Y is noninjective. Therefore,
we have the following commutative diagram of K-algebra homomorphisms
A
EndA .Y / o /
EndA .A Y /
1
A
pY;Y qA Y;A Y
A
/F
FY o A Y ,
1
A
where pY;Y and qA Y;A Y are the canonical epimorphisms, and the horizontal ho-
momorphisms are mutually inverse K-algebra isomorphisms.
Proposition 9.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, X and

Y indecomposable modules in mod A, and assume that there exists an irreducible
homomorphism from X to Y in mod A. Then the following statements hold.
(i) If Y is nonprojective, then d0A Y;X D dXY .
0
(ii) If X is noninjective, then dY; 1 X D dXY .
A
Proof. (i) Assume Y is nonprojective. Since X and Y are indecomposable modules

and there exists an irreducible homomorphism from X to Y , we have irrA .X; Y / ¤ 0
0
and irrA .A Y; X / ¤ 0, by Lemmas 7.8 and 9.1. Further, the equality dA YX D dXY
holds. From Corollary 9.4 we have also the equalities dA YX D dimFX irrA .A Y; X /
0
and dXY D dimFX irrA .X; Y /. Hence, we obtain the equalities
.dimK FY /.dimFY irrA .X; Y // D dimK irrA .X; Y /

D .dimFX irrA .X; Y //.dimK FX /
D .dimFX irrA .A Y; X //.dimK FX /
D dimK irrA .A Y; X /
D .dimFA Y irrA .A Y; X //.dimK FA Y /:
Moreover, by Lemma 9.5, the K-algebras FY and FA Y are isomorphic, and hence
we have dimK FY D dimK FA Y . Therefore, applying Corollary 9.4 again, we
obtain the equalities
dXY D dimFY irrA .X; Y / D dimFA Y irrA .A Y; X / D d0A Y;X :

Summing up the above discussion, we have the following local information on
the Auslander–Reiten quiver A of a finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K.
For each nonprojective indecomposable module Y in mod A, the quiver A
admits a valued mesh of the form
0 5 fV1 g OO
;dV1 Y /kkkk
.dV
kk OOO.dV Y ;d 0 /
1Y
kkk k OOO1 V1 Y
k kk d 1 fV g Y OO
k
kkk dddd0dddd dd dd 2 YYY YYYYYYOOOO
YYY'
A fY g D fA Y g .dV2 Y ;dV2 Y / :: .dV2 Y ;dV0 2 Y / kk,5 fY g
VVVV k
VVVV : kkk
VVVV
V kk kkk ;d 0 /
0
.dV ;d / VV* kk .d Vr Y Vr Y
r Y Vr Y fVr g
such that there exists in mod A an almost split sequence

M
r 0
dV
iY
0 ! A Y ! Vi ! Y ! 0:
iD1
Similarly, for each noninjective indecomposable module X in mod A, the quiver

A admits a valued mesh of the form
fU g
/ ooo
o7 1 SSSSS.dSXU 0 ;d /
0
.dXU1 ;dXU
o o SSS1S X U1
o o1
S SS
oo ff2 fU2 g ZZZZZZZZZZZ SSSS)
oooffffffff ZZ-
foff.d 0 0
fX g SS XU2 ;dXU2 / :: .dXU
2
;dX U2 /
fA1 X g D A1 fX g
SSS h h3
SSS : h h
SSS h h h hhh
.dXUs ;dXUs / SS) h 0 ;d
hhhh.dXU
0
/
fUs g s X Us
such that there exists in mod A an almost split sequence

M
s
dXUj
0 ! X ! Uj ! A1 X ! 0:
j D1
Further, for each nonsimple projective indecomposable module P in mod A,

the quiver A admits a valued subquiver of the form (see Lemma 7.6)
fR1 g P
PPP.d
PPRP1 P ;dR0 1 P /
P
fR2 g YYYYYY PPPPP
YYYYYYP'
Y
:: .dR2 P ;dR0 2 P / kk,5 fP g
: k k
kkk
kkk
kkk .dR t P ;dR0 t P /
fR t g
such that we have in mod A an isomorphism

M
t 0
dR
iP
rad P Š Ri :
iD1
Dually, for each nonsimple injective indecomposable module I in mod A, the

quiver A admits a valued subquiver of the form (see Lemma 7.7)
fT g
.dI T1 ;dI0 T / ooo
o7 1
o1oo
oo ooo eeeeee2 fT2 g
ooeeeeee
fI g SeSS .dI T2 ;dI0 T2 / ::
SSS :
SSS
SSS
.dI Tm ;dI Tm / S)
0
fTm g
such that we have in mod A an isomorphism

M
m
dI Tj
I = soc I Š Tj :
j D1
Observe that, if S is a simple projective module in mod A, then fS g is a source

of A (there is no arrow in A with the target fSg). Similarly, if S is a simple
injective module in mod A, then fS g is a sink of A (there is no arrow in A with
source fS g). Clearly, every simple projective-injective module S in mod A, gives
an isolated vertex fSg of A .
The following immediate consequence of Lemma 9.1 gives more information
on the neighbours of simple projective and simple injective modules in A .
0
.dXY ;dXY /
Corollary 9.7. Let X ! Y be an arrow of A . Then the following state-
ments hold.
(i) If X is simple projective, then Y is projective.
(ii) If Y is simple injective, then X is injective.
The following result gives additional information on the valuation of arrows in
the Auslander–Reiten quivers of algebras of finite representation type.
Proposition 9.8. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K of finite
0
.dXY ;dXY /
representation type and X ! Y be an arrow in A . Then either dXY D 1
0
or dXY D 1.
0
Proof. Assume dXY 2 and dXY 2. We will show that there is no bound on the
length of indecomposable modules in mod A, and consequently A is not of finite
representation type.
Since there is in A an arrow from X to Y , we have an irreducible homo-
morphism h W X ! Y in mod A. It follows from Lemma 7.5 that h is either a
proper monomorphism or a proper epimorphism. Assume h is an epimorphism,
so `.X/ > `.Y /. In particular Y is nonprojective, and we have in mod A an
Auslander–Reiten sequence
f g
0 ! A Y ! E ! Y ! 0:
Since g is a minimal right almost split homomorphism in mod A, we conclude
0
that E Š X dX Y ˚ E 0 in mod A. Then we obtain that `.A Y / D `.E/ `.Y /
0 0
dXY `.X/ `.Y / > `.X /, because dXY 2. Applying Lemma 9.1 (i) and Propo-
sition 9.6 (i), we infer that there is in A the valued arrow
.dA YX ;d0 /
A YX
A Y ! X
0
with dA YX D dXY 2 and d0A YX D dXY 2. Moreover, there is an irreducible
homomorphism w W A Y ! X which is a proper epimorphism, since `.A Y / >
`.X/. Hence X is nonprojective and there exists in mod A an almost split sequence
0 ! A X ! U ! X ! 0;
where U Š .A Y /dXY ˚ U 0 in mod A. Then we get `.A X / D `.U / `.X /
dXY `.A Y /`.X / > `.A Y /. Iterating the above arguments, we obtain inductively
two families of indecomposable nonprojective A-modules An X , n 2 N, and An Y ,
n 2 N, such that
`.AnC1 X / > `.AnC1 Y / > `.An X / > `.An Y /
for any n 2 N.
For h W X ! Y an irreducible monomorphism, so `.X / < `.Y /, the proof is

similar.
We have also the following facts on the Auslander–Reiten quivers of finite di-
mensional algebras over algebraically closed fields.
Proposition 9.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over an algebraically
0
.dXY ;dXY /
0
closed field K and X ! Y be an arrow in A . Then dXY D dXY .
Proof. Since K is algebraically closed, the canonical K-algebra homomorphisms
K ! FX and K ! FY of division K-algebras are isomorphisms (see Exer-
cise I.12.38). Moreover, K acts centrally on irrA .X; Y /. Hence, applying Corol-
lary 9.4, we obtain the equalities
dXY D dimFY irrA .X; Y /

D dimK irrA .X; Y /
D dimFX irrA .X; Y /
0
D dXY :
As a direct consequence of Propositions 9.8 and 9.9 we obtain the following

result.
Corollary 9.10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over an algebraically
0
.dX Y ;dX Y/
closed field K of finite representation type and X ! Y be an arrow of
0
A . Then dXY D 1 D dXY .
In the representation theory of finite dimensional algebras over an algebraically
closed field K, instead of a valued arrow
.m;m/
X ! Y
of an Auslander–Reiten quiver A , usually one writes a multiple arrow

/
/
X :: Y
: /
consisting of m arrows from X to Y (see [ASS], [SS1], [SS2]).
By a component of A we mean a connected component of the quiver A . We
note that usually A consists of many components whose shapes give important
information on A and mod A. This leads to the notion of a translation quiver taking
into account combinatorial aspects of the Auslander–Reiten quiver of an algebra.
Let be a valued quiver with the set of vertices 0 and the set of arrows 1 .
Moreover, we have two valuation maps d; d 0 W 1 ! N1 D N n f0g such that each
arrow ˛ 2 1 has the valuation .d˛ ; d˛0 /. For each vertex x of , we consider the set
x D fy 2 0 j there is an arrow in from y to xg of all immediate predecessors

of x in and the set x C D fy 2 0 j there is an arrow in from x to yg of all
immediate successors of x in . Then is said to be locally finite if, for each
vertex x of , the sets x and x C are finite.
A valued translation quiver is a pair .; / consisting of a locally finite valued
quiver , with the vertex set 0 and the arrow set 1 , and an injective map from
a subset of 0 into 0 , satisfying the following conditions:
(1) has no loops and no multiple arrows.
(2) For each vertex x of such that .x/ is defined, we have x D .x/C .
.a;b/
(3) For each valued arrow x ! y in such that .y/ is defined, we have in
.b;a/
the valued arrow .y/ ! x.
The partially defined map W 0 ! 0 is called the translation of the translation
quiver .; /. A vertex x of is called a projective vertex if x is not in the domain
of and called an injective vertex if x is not in the image of . Let 00 (respectively,
000 ) be the subset of 0 consisting of all projective vertices (respectively, injective
vertices). Then the translation defines a bijection W .0 n 00 / ! .0 n 000 /
and the inverse bijection is denoted by 1 . Since has no loops and no multiple
arrows, an arrow ˛ 2 1 can be written as
0 /
.dxy ;dxy
x ! y;
where x D s.˛/ is the source of ˛, y D t .˛/ is the target of ˛, and dxy D d˛ ,

.a;b/
0
dxy D d˛0 . A valued arrow x ! y in with a D 1 D b is said to be an arrow
with trivial valuation, and will be simply denoted by x ! y.
If .; / and . ; / are valued translation quivers, then a valued translation
quiver morphism f W .; / ! . ; / is a pair of maps f0 W 0 ! 0 and
f1 W 1 ! 1 such that the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) f is a morphism of valued quivers, that is, for any arrow ˛ 2 1 with valu-
ation .a; b/, f1 .˛/ 2 1 is an arrow with s.f1 .˛// D f0 .s.˛//, t .f1 .˛// D
f0 .t.˛// and valuation .a; b/.
(2) f0 . .x// D .f0 .x// for all nonprojective vertices x 2 0 n 00 .
Moreover, a valued translation quiver morphism f W .; / ! . ; / is said to
be an isomorphism if the maps f0 W 0 ! 0 and f1 W 1 ! 1 are bijections.
Further, a valued translation quiver morphism f W .; / ! . ; / is said to be
a covering if the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) f0 .0 / D 0 and f1 .1 / D 1 .
(2) f0 .00 / D 00 and f1 .000 / D 000 .
(3) For each vertex x 2 0 , f0 induces bijections x

! f0 .x/ and x C
!
C
f0 .x/ preserving the valuations of the arrows.
A group G of valued translation quiver automorphisms of a valued translation quiver
.; / is said to be admissible if each G-orbit Gx D fg.x/ j g 2 Gg, x 2 0 , in 0
intersects y [fyg in at most one vertex and fyg[y C in at most one vertex, for any
vertex y 2 0 . For an admissible group G of automorphisms of avalued translation

quiver .; /, we may form the orbit valued translation quiver =G; =G such
that the set .=G/0 of vertices of =G is the set 0 =G of G-orbits in 0 , the set
.=G/1 of arrows of =G is the set 1 =G of G-orbits in 1 , and the canonical
surjection of the valued translation quivers .; / ! =G; =G is a covering
of valued translationquivers. We will frequently write briefly instead of .; /
and =G instead of =G; =G .
We may also consider an additional combinatorial invariant of a valued trans-
lation quiver, motivated by the (composition) length of a finite dimensional mod-
ule. Namely, a length function of a valued translation quiver .; / is a function
` W 0 ! N1 satisfying the following conditions:
(i) For each nonprojective vertex y 2 0 , we have
X
`.y/ C `. .y// D `.v/dvy :
v2y
(ii) For each projective vertex p 2 0 , we have

X
0
`.p/ D 1 C `.x/dxp :
x2p
(iii) For each injective vertex i 2 0 , we have

X
`.i / D 1 C `.x/dix :
x2i C
The Auslander–Reiten quiver A of a finite dimensional K-algebra A over a

field K, or more generally a component C of A , is obviously a valued translation
quiver with a length function.
A valued translation quiver .; / is said to be stable if the sets 00 and 000 are
empty, or equivalently, its translation is a bijection from 0 to 0 . An important
class of stable valued translation quivers can be constructed as follows.
Let be a locally finite valued quiver without loops and multiple arrows, 0 the
set of vertices of , 1 the set of arrows of , and d; d 0 W 1 ! N1 the valuation
maps. We associate to the valued translation quiver Z as follows. The set
.Z /0 D Z 0 D f.i; x/ j i 2 Z; x 2 0 g is the set of vertices of Z . The set

.Z /1 of arrows of Z consists of the valued arrows
0 /
.dxy ;dxy
.i; ˛/ W .i; x/ ! .i; y/
and
0 ;d
.dxy xy /
.i; ˛ 0 / W .i C 1; y/ ! .i; x/
0 /
.dxy ;dxy
i 2 Z, for all arrows ˛ W x ! y in 1 , where x D s.˛/, y D t .˛/, dxy D
0
d˛ , dxy D d˛0 . The translation W Z 0 ! Z 0 is defined by .i; x/ D .i C 1; x/
for all i 2 Z, x 2 0 . Observe that .Z ; / is a stable valued translation quiver. For
a subset I of Z, we denote by I the full translation subquiver given by the vertex
set .I /0 D I 0 . In particular, we have the valued translation quivers N and
.N/ associated to the valued quiver . We also note that for any positive integer
m, the infinite cyclic group . m /, generated by the iterated translation m of Z , is
an admissible group of automorphisms of the valued translation quiver Z , and we
may consider the orbit stable valued translation quiver Z =G D Z =G; Z=G .
Consider the infinite quiver
A1 W 0 /1 /2 /3 / ::::
Then ZA1 is the translation quiver of the form
.i C 1; 0/ 6 .i; 0/ OOO .i 1; 0/ .i 2; 0/
8 QQ( mmm oo7 QQ( mm6 NNN&
ppp '
. . .i C 1; 1/ .i; 1/ .i 1; 1/ ::
.
o o 7 OOO qq 8 LLL oo 7 OOO :
oo ' q & oo O'
..
. .i C 1; 2/ .i; 2/ O ::
ooo7 MM
M rr 8 OOO :
o & r '
. :: ::
.. : :
with the translation defined by .i; j / D .i C 1; j / for i 2 Z, j 2 N. For an

integer r 1, denote by ZA1 =. r / the orbit translation quiver obtained from ZA1
by identifying each vertex x of ZA1 with r x and each arrow x ! y in ZA1 with
r x ! r y. Then ZA1 =. r / is a stable translation quiver consisting of -periodic
vertices of period r, called a stable tube of rank r. The set of vertices of a stable tube
T D ZA1 =. r / having exactly one immediate predecessor (equivalently, exactly
one immediate successor) is said to be the mouth of T.
For example, a stable tube of rank 3 is of the form
x1 2 x1
c \
x1
L

a
x
2 2 x2 x2
#
: M
z
c \
2 x3 x3 x3
"
L

_?
??
2 x4 x4 ? x4
#
? ? ? ?
:: ::
??? : :
???

:: :: :: ::
: : : :
and x1 , x1 and 2 x1 form its mouth.
Examples 9.11. (a) Let A D KQ=I be the Nakayama algebra over a field K given
by the quiver Q of the form
1
@ ===
==˛
==

3o ˇ
2
and the ideal I of KQ generated by ˛ˇ. Then it follows from Example 8.8 (b) that
the Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A is of the form
S.2/ S.1/ S.3/ S.2/

@@ > II : ?? ?
@@ }}} II
I uuu ??
@@ } III uu ?
} u ??
@ }} II uu
$ uu
P .1/ : M II I.3/
AA uu II ?
AA u II
AA uuu III
A uu
uu I$
P .3/ I.1/
II u:
II uu
II uu
II uu
I$ uu
P .2/ D I.2/ .
2 @@ 3 4
@@ ~~~
@ˇ
˛ @@ ~~
~~

1
and A D KQ the path algebra of Q over a field K. We identify mod A D repK .Q/.
It follows from Lemma I.8.25 and Proposition I.8.27 that
0> 0 0 K@ 0 0
>> @@
S.1/ D P .1/ W >> P .2/ W @@
1
K, K,
0> K 0 0? 0 K
>> ?? }}
P .3/ W >>1 P .4/ W ?? }
~}} 1
K, K
are the indecomposable projective modules in mod A, and
K@ K K K> 0 0
@@ ~ >>
I.1/ W @@1 ~~~ S.2/ D I.2/ W >>
1 ~~ 1
K, 0,
0 >> K 0 0= 0 K
>> ==
S.3/ D I.3/ W >> S.4/ D I.4/ W ==

0, 0
are the indecomposable injective modules in mod A. Since S.1/ is simple projec-
tive noninjective A-module and S.1/ D rad P .2/, S.1/ D rad P .3/ and S.1/ D
rad P .4/, it follows from Lemma 7.6 and Corollary 9.7 (i) that we have in mod A
an almost split sequence of the form
f g
0 ! S.1/ ! P .2/ ˚ P .3/ ˚ P .4/ ! A1 S.1/ ! 0;
where f is induced by the inclusion homomorphisms S.1/ ! P .2/, S.1/ ! P .3/,

S.1/ ! P .4/, and is easily seen that A1 S.1/ is isomorphic to the A-module
(representation of Q)
KB K K
BB 0 ||
MW BB 1 |
BB ||
1 B ~||| 1
0 1
K2 .
Further, since S.2/, S.3/ and S.4/ are simple injective nonprojective A-modules
and I.1/= soc I.1/ D I.1/=S.1/ Š S.2/˚S.3/˚S.4/, it follows from Lemma 7.7
and Corollary 9.7 (ii) that we have in mod A almost split sequences of the forms
0 ! A S.2/ ! I.1/ ! S.2/ ! 0;
0 ! A S.3/ ! I.1/ ! S.3/ ! 0;
0 ! A S.4/ ! I.1/ ! S.4/ ! 0;

and hence A S.2/ Š X2 , A S.3/ Š X3 , A S.4/ Š X4 , for representations X2 , X3 ,
X4 of the form
0> K K K@ 0 K KA K 0
>> ~~ @@ ~~ AA
X2 W > ~
>1 ~~~ 1 X3 W @ ~ X4 W A
1 @ ~~~ 1 1 A
1
K, K, K.
Applying Lemma 9.1 we conclude that there are in mod A almost split sequences
of the forms
0 ! P .2/ ! M ! A1 P .2/ ! 0;
0 ! P .3/ ! M ! A1 P .3/ ! 0;
0 ! P .4/ ! M ! A1 P .4/ ! 0;

and it is easily seen that A1 P .2/ Š A S.2/, A1 P .3/ Š A S.3/, A1 P .4/ Š
A S.4/. Therefore, applying Theorems 7.11 and 7.12, we conclude that there is in
mod A an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! M ! A S.2/ ˚ A S.3/ ˚ A S.4/ ! I.1/ ! 0:

Summing up, we conclude that A admits a component of the form
P .2/ X2 C S.2/
xx< DD
D }}> CC yy<
xx DD } CC yy
xx DD }} CC yy
xx D! }}} C! yy
S.1/ / P .3/ /M / X3 / I.1/ / S.3/
FF z= AA { = EE
FF zz AA {{ EE
FF
FF zzz AA
A {{{ EE
EE
" zz A {{ "
P .4/ X4 S.4/ .
In fact, it follows from Exercise I.12.7 (and also from Theorem 10.2) that this is the
whole Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A. Observe that A is isomorphic to the full
translation subquiver f0; 1; 2g Qop of ZQop , where Qop is the opposite quiver
to Q.
(c) Let H be the R-algebra of quaternions and
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a 2 R; b; c 2 H :
H H c b
Then A is an R-algebra with the

canonical orthogonal primitive idempotents
e1 D 10R 00 and e2 D 00 10H such that 1A D e1 C e2 . Hence, we have
in mod A two indecomposable projective modules P1 D e1 A, P2 D e2 A and
two indecomposable injective modules I1 D D.Ae1 /, I2 D D.Ae2 /, where
D D HomR .; R/ is the standard duality between mod A and mod Aop , and
dimR P1 D 1, dimR P2 D 8, dimR I1 D 5, dimR I2 D 4. In particular, there
are no nonzero projective-injective modules in mod A. We have isomorphisms
of R-vector spaces HomA .P1 ; P2 / Š e2 Ae1 Š H, HomA .P2 ; P1 / Š e1 Ae2 D
0, HomA .I1 ; I2 / Š HomAop .Ae2 ; Ae1 / Š e2 Ae1 Š H, and HomA .I2 ; I1 / Š
HomAop .Ae1 ; Ae2 / Š e1 Ae2 D 0. Moreover, we have isomorphisms of R-
algebras EndA .P1 / Š e1 Ae1 D R and EndA .P2 / Š e2 Ae2 D H, and hence
FP1 D EndA .P1 /= rad EndA .P1 / Š R and FP2 D EndA .P2 /= rad End0A .P2 / Š H,
since R and H are division R-algebras. The R-subspace J D H 0 is a two-
0
sided ideal of A such that J 2 D 0 and A=J Š R H, and hence J D rad A,
by Lemma I.3.5. Hence, rad P1 D P1 .rad A/ D e1 rad A D 0 and rad P2 D
P2 rad A D e2 rad A D e2 Ae1 Š H. Therefore, P1 is a simple projective right
A-module and all indecomposable direct summands of rad P2 are isomorphic to
P1 . More precisely, we have irrA .P1 ; P2 / D HomA .P1 ; P2 /, and hence, apply-
ing Corollary 9.4, we obtain dP1 P2 D dimFP2 irrA .P1 ; P2 / D dimH H D 1 and
dP0 1 P2 D dimFP1 irrA .P1 ; P2 / D dimR H D 4. Obviously, irrA .P2 ; P1 / D 0
because HomA .P2 ; P1 / D 0. In particular, we have in A the valued arrow
.1;4/
P1 ! P2 :
Since P1 is a simple projective noninjective module in mod A, applying Theo-

rem 8.4 (ii) and Corollary 9.7 (i), we conclude that there exists in mod A an almost
split sequence
0 ! P1 ! P2 ! A1 P1 ! 0:
Moreover, we have in mod A a right minimal almost split homomorphism of the
form (see Lemma 7.6)
P14 ! P2 :
Further, since P2 is noninjective it follows from Lemma 9.1 (ii) and Proposi-
tion 9.6 (ii), that we have in A the valued arrow
.4;1/
P2 ! A1 P1 :
In fact, it is the unique valued arrow in A with the target A1 P1 , because P2 is the
target of a unique valued arrow A with the source P1 (see Lemma 9.1). Hence we
have in mod A an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! P2 ! .A1 P1 /4 ! A1 P2 ! 0:
Repeating the arguments we conclude that A contains an infinite component P.A/

of the form
P
B 2 :: A1 P2 A2 P2 A3 P2
A ;; A ;; A ;;
.1;4/
:::
.4;1/ .1;4/
;;
.4;1/ .1;4/
;;
.4;1/ .1;4/
;
:: ;; ;; :::
: ; ;

1 2 3
P1 A P1 A P1 A P1
isomorphic to the full translation subquiver .N/ of Z , where is the valued

quiver
.1;4/
/ :
1 2
In fact, since dimR P1 D 1, dimR P2 D 8, dimR I1 D 5 and dimR I2 D 4, we
conclude inductively on n that we have in mod A almost split sequences of the
forms
0 ! An P1 ! An P2 ! An1 P1 ! 0;
0 ! An P2 ! .An1 P1 /4 ! An1 P2 ! 0;
and dimR An P1 D 6n C 1 and dimR An P2 D 12n C 8, for any n 2 N. Clearly,
the indecomposable A-modules corresponding to different vertices of P.A/ are
nonisomorphic, since they have different dimensions over R.
Dually, we infer that Ae2 is a simple projective module in mod Aop and is iso-
morphic to the radical of the indecomposable projective Aop -module Ae1 . Then
I2 D D.Ae2 / is a simple injective module in mod A and I1 D D.Ae1 / is an

injective module in mod A such that soc.I1 / Š P1 and I1 = soc.I1 / Š I2 . In
particular, we have in mod A a left minimal almost split homomorphism of the
form (see Lemma 7.7) I1 ! I2 , and irrA .I1 ; I2 / D HomA .I1 ; I2 / Š e2 Ae1 , and
clearly irrA .I2 ; I1 / D 0, because HomA .I2 ; I1 / D 0. Applying Corollary 9.4,
we conclude that dI1 I2 D dimFI2 irrA .I1 ; I2 / D dimH H D 1 and dI01 I2 D
dimFI1 irrA .I1 ; I2 / D dimR H D 4, because EndA .I1 / Š D.e1 Ae1 / Š R and
EndA .I2 / Š D.e2 Ae2 / Š H. Thus we have in A the valued arrow
.1;4/
I1 ! I2 :
Since I2 is a simple injective nonprojective A-module, applying Theorem 8.4 (i) and
Corollary 9.7 (ii), we conclude that there exists in mod A an almost split sequence
0 ! A I2 ! I14 ! I2 ! 0:
Further, since I1 is nonprojective, it follows from Lemma 9.1 (i) and Proposi-
tion 9.6 (i), that we have in A the valued arrow
.4;1/
A I2 ! I1 :
In fact, it is the unique valued arrow in A with target I1 , because I1 is the source
of a unique valued arrow A with the target in I2 . Hence we have in mod A an
almost split sequence of the form
0 ! A I1 ! A I2 ! I1 ! 0:
Repeating the arguments, we conclude that A contains an infinite component Q.A/
of the form
3 2
A
B I2:: A
B I2:: A I2 I2
: : B ;;; @
::.4;1/ ::.4;1/ ;

.1;4/ .1;4/
;;.4;1/
::: ::
:: .1;4/ :: :: ;; .1;4/
: : ;
A3 I1 A2 I1 A I1 I1
isomorphic to the full translation subquiver N of Z . Moreover, since we have

dimR P1 D 1, dimR P2 D 8, dimR I1 D 5 and dimR I2 D 4, by induction on n,
we conclude that we have in mod A almost split sequences of the forms
0 ! AnC1 I2 ! .An I1 /4 ! An I2 ! 0;
0 ! AnC1 I1 ! AnC1 I2 ! An I1 ! 0;
and dimR An I1 D 6n C 5 and dimR An I2 D 12n C 4, for n 2 N. Observe also
that the indecomposable A-modules corresponding to different vertices of Q.A/ are
nonisomorphic, since they have different dimensions over R.
10. The Auslander theorem 301
We note also the following fact.
Proposition 9.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and

A D A1 A2 Ar be a decomposition of A into a product of indecomposable
K-algebras (blocks). Then the Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A is a disjoint union
A D A1 [ A2 [ [ Ar
of the Auslander–Reiten quivers of A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; Ar .
Proof. There is an equivalence
mod A Š mod A1 mod A2 mod Ar
of categories. Then for any modules Mi in mod Ai , i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, we have

HomA .Mi ; Mj / D 0 for i ¤ j . Clearly, then the required decomposition of A is
a consequence of the definition of the Auslander–Reiten quiver of an algebra.
10 The Auslander theorem

In this section we establish a criterion for an indecomposable finite dimensional
algebra to be of finite representation type, due to M. Auslander. As an application,
we obtain the validity of the first Brauer–Thrall conjecture on the finite representa-
tion type of finite dimensional algebras having indecomposable finite dimensional
modules of bounded dimension.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. A chain
f1 f2 ft
M D M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! M t1 ! M t D N
of homomorphisms in mod A is said to be a path of irreducible homomorphisms of

length t from M to N if the modules M0 ; M1 ; : : : ; M t are indecomposable and the
homomorphisms f1 ; : : : ; f t are irreducible.
Proposition 10.1. Let M and N be indecomposable modules in mod A with

radA .M; N / ¤ 0, and t be a positive integer. Assume that there is no path of
irreducible homomorphisms in mod A from M to N of length < t . Then the fol-
lowing statements hold.
(i) There exists a path of irreducible homomorphisms

f1 f2 ft
M D M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! M t1 ! M t
and a homomorphism h t W M t ! N in mod A such that h t f t : : : f1 ¤ 0.

(ii) There exists a path of irreducible homomorphisms

gt g2 g1
N t ! N t1 ! ! N2 ! N1 ! N0 D N
and a homomorphism v t W M ! N t in mod A such that g1 : : : g t v t ¤ 0.

Proof. (i) We proceed by induction on t. Assume t D 1. Take a nonzero ho-
momorphism h 2 radA .M; N /. Since M is indecomposable, we then conclude by
Lemma 1.5 (i) that h is not a section in mod A. In particular, we obtain that M is not
a simple injective A-module. Then it follows from Lemma 7.3 and Corollary 8.5 (ii)
that there is in mod A a left minimal almost split homomorphism
2 3
w1
6 :: 7 M n
w D 4 : 5 W M ! Fj ;
wn j D1
where w ¤ 0, F1 ; : : : ; Fn are indecomposable A-modules and wj 2 HomA .M; Fj /,

for j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Further, it follows from Theorem 7.11 that w1 ; : : : ; wn are ir-
reducible homomorphisms. Since h W M ! N isLnot a section, we infer that
n
there exists a homomorphism g D Œ g1 ::: gn W j D1 Fj ! N , with g1 2
Pn
HomA .F1 ; N /; : : : ; gn 2 HomA .Fn ; N /, such that h D gw D j D1 gj wj . Then
gj wj ¤ 0 for some j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, because h ¤ 0. Taking f1 D wj and h1 D gj ,
we obtain the claim for t D 1.
Assume t 2 and, for a positive integer r with r < t , we have by induction
hypothesis a path of irreducible homomorphisms
f1 f2 fr
M D M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! Mr1 ! Mr ;
and a homomorphism hr W Mr ! N in mod A such that hr fr : : : f1 ¤ 0. Observe

that hr is not an isomorphism since by the assumption there is no path of irreducible
homomorphisms in mod A of length r from M to N . Since Mr and N are inde-
composable A-modules, we then conclude that radA .Mr ; N / ¤ 0, and hence hr
is not a section in mod A, by Lemma 1.5 (i). Obviously then Mr is not a simple
injective A-module. Then, applying Lemma 7.3 and Corollary 8.5 (ii) again, we
conclude that there is a nonzero left minimal almost split homomorphism in mod A
with left end Mr , 2 3
u1
6 :: 7 Mm
u D 4 : 5 W Mr ! Ei ;
um iD1
where E1 ; : : : ; Em are indecomposable A-modules and ui 2 Hom .Mr ; Ei /, for

LAm
i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Then there exists a homomorphism Œ v1 ::: vm W iD1 Ei ! N ,
with v1 2 HomA .E1 ; N /; : : : ; vm 2 HomA .Em ; N /, such that hr D vu D
Pm Pm
iD1 vi ui . Then 0 ¤ hr fr : : : f1 D iD1 vi ui fr : : : f1 , and consequently
vi ui fr : : : f1 ¤ 0 for some i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Take frC1 D ui and hrC1 D vi .
Observe that frC1 is an irreducible homomorphism in mod A, by Theorem 7.11.
Therefore, we have a path of irreducible homomorphisms in mod A,
f1 f2 fr frC1
M D M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! Mr1 ! Mr ! MrC1 ;
and a homomorphism hrC1 W MrC1 ! N in mod A such that hrC1 frC1 fr : : : f1 ¤

0. This shows (i).
The following theorem is the announced criterion of M. Auslander (see [Au1],
[Au2]) for the finiteness of the representation type of a finite dimensional algebra.
Theorem 10.2. Let A be an indecomposable finite dimensional K-algebra over a
field K and C be a component of A . Assume that there exists a positive integer b
such that `.X/ b for every indecomposable A-module X with fX g in C . Then C
is a finite component and C D A . In particular, A is of finite representation type.
Proof. Let M and N be indecomposable modules in mod A with HomA .M; N / ¤
0. We claim that fM g 2 C0 if and only if fN g 2 C0 (C0 is the set of vertices of
the translation quiver C ). Clearly, if M Š N , then fM g D fN g and the claim
follows. Hence, assume that radA .M; N / ¤ 0. Suppose fM g 2 C0 but fN g … C0 .
Then there is no finite path of irreducible homomorphisms in mod A from M to N .
Applying Proposition 10.1, we conclude that, for each positive integer t , there exists
a path of irreducible homomorphisms
f1 f2 ft
M D M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! M t1 ! M t
and a homomorphism h t W M t ! N in mod A such that h t f t : : : f1 ¤ 0. Clearly,

fi 2 radA .Mi1 ; Mi / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, because f1 ; : : : ; f t are irreducible
homomorphisms. Since `.Mi / b for i 2 f1; : : : ; tg, taking t D 2b 1, we
obtain a contradiction to the Harada–Sai lemma (Lemma 2.1). Hence fM g 2 C0
implies fN g 2 C0 , and similarly fN g 2 C0 implies fM g 2 C0 .
Let X be an indecomposable module in mod A with fX g in C0 . Then there
exists an indecomposable projective A-module P such that HomA .P; X / ¤ 0,
because X admits a projective cover P .X / ! X in mod A. It follows from
the above discussion that fP g belongs to C0 . Take now an arbitrary indecom-
posable projective A-module Q. Since A is indecomposable as K-algebra, we
know (see Excercise I.12.29) that there exists a sequence of indecomposable pro-
jective A-modules P D P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Ps D Q such that HomA .Pi ; PiC1 / ¤ 0 or
HomA .PiC1 ; Pi / ¤ 0 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; s 1g. Then fP g 2 C0 forces that
fP1 g; : : : ; fPs g 2 C0 , and hence fQg 2 C0 . Hence C contains all projective
vertices of A .
Let M be an arbitrary indecomposable module in mod A. Since we have

HomA .Q; M / ¤ 0 for an indecomposable projective A-module Q, and fQg be-
longs to C0 , we conclude that fM g belongs to C0 . Moreover, it follows from the
first part of the proof that there is in C a path of length smaller than 2b 1 from
fQg to fM g. Then the local finiteness of A , and hence of C , implies that C D A
and is finite. In particular, A is of finite representation type.
Corollary 10.3. Let A be an indecomposable finite dimensional K-algebra over

a field K. Then A is of finite representation type if and only if A admits a finite
component.
Proof. It is a direct consequence of Theorem 10.2, since there is a common bound
on the length of indecomposable modules representing the vertices of a finite com-
ponent C of A .
In particular, we obtain the following consequence of Proposition 9.12 and

Corollary 10.3.
Corollary 10.4. Let A be an indecomposable finite dimensional K-algebra over a
field K such that A is connected and finite. Then A is an indecomposable algebra
of finite representation type.
The next consequence of Theorem 10.2 is the validity of the first Brauer–Thrall
conjecture, proved originally by A. V. Roiter [Ro].
Corollary 10.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K such that
there is a common bound on the length of indecomposable modules in mod A. Then
A is of finite representation type.
Proof. Let A D A1 A2 Ar be decomposition of A into a product of indecom-
posable K-algebras (blocks of A). Then every indecomposable module in mod A
is an indecomposable module in mod Ai , for some i 2 f1; : : : ; rg. Then it follows
from the assumption on A and Theorem 10.2 that the algebras A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; Ar are
of finite representation type, and hence A is also of finite representation type.
Examples 10.6. (a) Let A be the following R-subalgebra of the matrix algebra
M2 .C/ ² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
D ˇ
2 M2 .C/ a 2 R; b; c 2 C :
C C c b
We will show, applying Theorem 10.2, that A is of finite representation type and
there are in mod A exactly 4 isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules.
The R-algebra A has the standard idempotents

1 0 0 0
e1 D R and e2 D
0 0 0 1C
such that 1A D e1 C e2 . Hence we have in mod A two indecomposable projective

modules P1 D e1 A, P2 D e2 A and two indecomposable injective modules I1 D
D.Ae1 /, I2 D D.Ae2 /, where D D HomR .; R/ is the standard duality between
mod A and mod Aop , dimR P1 D 1, dimR P2 D 4, dimR I1 D 3, dimR I2 D 2.
Also, we have isomorphisms of R-vector spaces HomA .P1 ; P2 / Š e2 Ae1 D C,
HomA .P2 ; P1 / Š e1 Ae2 D 0, HomA .I1 ; I2 / Š HomAop .Ae2 ; Ae1 / Š e2 Ae1 D
C, and HomA .I2 ; I1 / Š HomAop .Ae1 ; Ae2 / Š e1 Ae2 D 0. Further, we have iso-
morphisms of R-algebras EndA .P1 / Š e1 Ae1 D R and EndA .P2 / Š e2 Ae2 D C,
and FP1 D EndA .P1 /= rad EndA .P1 / Š R and FP2 D EndA .P2 /= rad EndA .P2 / Š
C, since R and C are fields. Observe also that

0 0
rad A D ;
C 0
0 0
because J D C 0 is a two-sided ideal of A with J D 0 and A=J Š R C (see
2
Lemma I.3.5). Hence we obtain rad P1 D P1 rad A D e1 rad A D 0 and rad P2 D

P2 rad A D e2 rad A D e2 rad Ae1 Š C. Therefore, P1 is a simple projective
right A-module and all indecomposable direct summands of rad P2 are isomorphic
to P1 . More precisely, we have irrA .P1 ; P2 / D HomA .P1 ; P2 /, and applying
Corollary 9.4, we conclude that dP1 P2 D dimFP2 irrA .P1 ; P2 / D dimC C D 1 and
dP0 1 P2 D dimFP1 irrA .P1 ; P2 / D dimR C D 2. Clearly, irrA .P2 ; P1 / D 0 because
HomA .P2 ; P1 / D 0. In particular, we have in A the valued arrow
.1;2/
P1 ! P2 :
Since P1 is a simple projective noninjective module in mod A, applying Theo-

rem 8.4 (ii) and Corollary 9.7 (i), we conclude that we have in mod A an almost
split sequence
0 ! P1 ! P2 ! A1 P1 ! 0;
where dimR A1 P1 D dimR P2 dimR P1 D 4 1 D 3.
Dually, Ae2 is a simple projective module in mod Aop and is the radical of
the indecomposable projective Aop -module Ae1 . Then I2 D D.Ae2 / is a simple
injective module in mod A and I1 D D.Ae1 / is an injective module in mod A
such that soc.I1 / Š P1 and I1 = soc.I1 / Š I2 . In particular, we have in mod A
a left minimal almost split homomorphism I1 ! I2 , by Lemma 7.7. Further,
we have irrA .I1 ; I2 / D HomA .I1 ; I2 / Š e2 Ae1 and irrA .I2 ; I1 / D 0, because
HomA .I2 ; I1 / D 0. We have also isomorphisms of R-algebras EndA .I1 / Š
D.e1 Ae1 / Š R and EndA .I2 / Š D.e2 Ae2 / Š C, and so FI1 Š R and FI2 Š
C. Applying Corollary 9.4, we conclude that dI1 I2 D dimFI2 irrA .I1 ; I2 / D
dimC C D 1 and dI01 I2 D dimFI1 irrA .I1 ; I2 / D dimR C D 2. Hence, we have in
A the valued arrow
.1;2/
I1 ! I2 :
Moreover, since I2 is a simple injective nonprojective module in mod A, applying

Theorem 8.4 (i) and Corollary 9.7 (ii), we conclude that there is in mod A an almost
split sequence
0 ! A I2 ! I12 ! I2 ! 0;
where dimR A I2 D 2 dimR I1 dimR I2 D 6 2 D 4.
We claim that A1 P1 Š I1 and P2 Š A I2 . Observe that soc.P2 / D rad P2 Š
S1 ˚ S1 , top.P2 / Š I2 , soc.I1 / D rad I1 Š P1 and top.I1 / D I1 = rad I1 D
I1 = soc.I1 / Š I2 . In particular, we infer from the almost split sequence
0 ! P1 ! P2 ! A1 P1 ! 0
that `.A1 P1 / D `.P2 /`.P1 / D 31 D 2, and soc.A1 P1 / Š P1 , top.A1 P1 / Š
I2 . Since soc.I1 / Š P1 , it follows from Theorem I.8.18 that there is in mod A a
monomorphism u W A1 P1 ! I1 (injective envelope of A1 P1 ) which is an iso-
morphism, because dimR A1 P1 D 3 D dimR I1 . Since P2 is noninjective and I2
is nonprojective, applying Lemma 9.1 and Proposition 9.6, we conclude that A
contains the valued arrows
.2;1/ .2;1/
P2 ! A1 P1 and A I2 ! I1 :
On the other hand, there is only one valued arrow with the target A1 P1 , because
there is only one valued arrow in A with the source P1 . Since A1 P1 Š I1 , we
obtain P2 Š A I2 .
Summing up, we have proved that A admits a finite component C of the form
> P2 AA ? I2
.1;2/ }}} AA.2;1/ ~~~
} AA ~
}} A ~~~ .1;2/
}}
P1 I1
with P1 D A I1 and P2 D A I2 . Since A is an indecomposable R-algebra, apply-

ing Theorem 10.2, we conclude that C D A , A is of finite representation type,
and P1 ; P2 ; I1 ; I2 form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable
modules in mod A.
(b) Let K be a field and A D KQ=I the bound quiver algebra over K given by
the quiver

o / o / o
˛
QW / ;
1 ˇ 2 3 4
and the ideal I of KQ generated by ˛, , ˇ ,
, ˛ˇ ,
. Then A
is a 14-dimensional K-algebra of Loewy length 3 (see Corollary I.5.20). Applying
Proposition I.8.27, we conclude that the indecomposable projective A-modules are
injective and are of the forms

0
P .1/ D I.1/ W o 1
/Ko /0o /0;
K2
10

0
P .2/ D I.2/ W o 10
/ K2 o
1
/Ko /0;
K
0 10
1

0
P .3/ D I.3/ W o /K o 10
/ K2 o 1
/K;
0
0 10
1
P .4/ D I.4/ W o /0 o /K o 10
/ K2 :
0
0
1
Moreover, we have top.P .i // D S.i / D soc.P .i // for any i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g. We will
show, applying Theorem 10.2, that A is of finite representation type and describe
the Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
Since P .1/, P .2/, P .3/, P .4/ are projective-injective modules, applying Propo-
sition 8.6, we infer that there are in mod A the almost split sequences of the forms
0 ! rad P .1/ ! S.2/ ˚ P .1/ ! P .1/=S.1/ ! 0;
0 ! rad P .2/ ! S.1/ ˚ S.3/ ˚ P .2/ ! P .2/=S.2/ ! 0;

0 ! rad P .3/ ! S.2/ ˚ S.4/ ˚ P .3/ ! P .3/=S.3/ ! 0;
0 ! rad P .4/ ! S.3/ ˚ P .4/ ! P .4/=S.4/ ! 0;
where the left terms and the right terms are of the forms
rad P .1/ W o 1
/Ko /0o / 0,
K
0
rad P .2/ W o 0
/Ko
1
/Ko / 0,
K
1 0
rad P .3/ W o /Ko

0
/Ko
1
/K,
0
1 0
rad P .4/ W o /0o /Ko

0
/K,
0
1
P .1/=S.1/ W o 0
/Ko /0o /0;
K
1
P .2/=S.2/ W o 1
/Ko
0
/Ko / 0,
K
0 1
P .3/=S.3/ W o /Ko
1
/Ko
0
/K,
0
0 1
P .4/=S.4/ W o /0o /Ko

1
/K.
0
0
In the next step, we describe the translations A S.i / and A1 S.i /, i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g
of the simple A-modules.
Assume i D 1. The simple module S.1/ has in mod A a minimal projective
presentation of the form
p11 p01
P .2/ ! P .1/ ! S.1/ ! 0
and a minimal injective copresentation of the form

i01 i11
0 ! S.1/ ! I.1/ ! I.2/:
Hence, applying Lemma 5.1 and Proposition 5.3, we obtain in mod A exact se-
quences of the forms
NA .p11 /
0 ! A S.1/ ! NA .P .2// ! NA .P .1//;
with NA .P .1// D I.1/ D P .1/ and NA .P .2// D I.2/ D P .2/, and

1 .i /
NA 11
NA1 .I.1// ! NA1 .I.2// ! A1 S.1/ ! 0;
with NA1 .I.1// D P .1/ D I.1/ and NA1 .I.2// D P .2/ D I.2/.
Observe also that HomA .P .2/; P .1// is the K-vector space generated by p11
and HomA .P .1/; P .2// D HomA .I.1/; I.2// is the K-vector space generated by
i11 . Hence we conclude that
A S.1/ W o /Ko
1
/Ko / 0,
0
0
A1 S.1/ W o /Ko

0
/Ko / 0.
0
1
Similarly, we prove that
A S.4/ W o /Ko
0
/Ko / 0,
0
1
A1 S.4/ W o /Ko

1
/Ko / 0.
0
0
As a consequence, we obtain A S.1/ D A1 S.4/ and A S.4/ D A1 S.1/.

Assume i D 2. The simple module S.2/ has in mod A a minimal projective
presentation of the form
p12 p02
P .1/ ˚ P .3/ ! P .2/ ! S.2/ ! 0
and a minimal injective copresentation of the form

i02 i12
0 ! S.2/ ! I.2/ ! I.1/ ˚ I.3/:
Applying Lemma 5.1 and Proposition 5.3, we obtain then in mod A exact sequences
of the forms
NA .p12 /
0 ! A S.2/ ! NA .P .1/ ˚ P .3// ! NA .P .2//;
with NA .P .1/ ˚ P .3// D I.1/ ˚ I.3/ D P .1/ ˚ P .3/ and NA .P .2// D I.2/ D
P .2/, and
1 .i /
NA 12
NA1 .I.2// ! NA1 .I.1/ ˚ I.3// ! A1 S.2/ ! 0;
with NA1 .I.2// D P .2/ D I.2/ and NA1 .I.1/ ˚ I.3// D P .1/ ˚ P .3/ D
I.1/ ˚ I.3/.
Denote by u1 W P .1/ ! P .1/ ˚ P .3/, u3 W P .3/ ! P .1/ ˚ P .3/ the canonical
monomorphisms, and by v1 W P .1/ ˚ P .3/ ! P .1/, v3 W P .1/ ˚ P .3/ ! P .3/ the
canonical epimorphisms such that v1 u1 D 1P .1/ , v3 u3 D 1P .3/ , v3 u1 D 0, v1 u3 D
0. Then we easily conclude that HomA .P .1/˚P .3/; P .2// is the 2-dimensional K-
vector space generated by p12 u1 v1 and p12 u3 v3 , and HomA .P .2/; P .1/ ˚ P .3//
is the 2-dimensional K-vector space generated by u1 v1 i12 and u3 v3 i12 (observe
that P .i/ D I.i / for i 2 f1; 2; 3g). Hence we conclude that
A S.2/ W o 1
/Ko
0
/Ko
1
/K,
K
0 1 0
A1 S.2/ W o 0
/Ko
1
/Ko
0
/K.
K
1 0 1
Similarly, we show that
A S.3/ W o 0
/Ko
1
/Ko
0
/K,
K
1 0 1
A1 S.3/ W o 1
/Ko
0
/Ko
1
/K.
K
0 1 0
As a consequence, we obtain that A S.2/ D A1 S.3/ and A S.3/ D A1 S.2/.
We describe now the almost split sequences in mod A with simple left and right
terms.
Since we have in A the valued arrow rad P .2/ ! S.1/, there is in A the
valued arrow A S.1/ ! rad P .2/, and rad P .2/ is a direct summand of the middle
term of an almost split sequence in mod A with right term S.1/. Then the equalities
dimK rad P .2/ D 3 D dimK A S.1/ C dimK S.1/ force that there is in mod A an
almost split sequence
0 ! A S.1/ ! rad P .2/ ! S.1/ ! 0:
Further, we have in A the valued arrow S.1/ ! P .2/=S.2/, and hence the valued
arrow P .2/=S.2/ ! A1 S.1/. Hence P .2/=S.2/ is a direct summand of the
middle term of an almost split sequence in mod A with the left term S.1/. Since
dimK S.1/ C dimK A1 S.1/ D 3 D dimK P .2/=S.2/, we conclude that there is in
mod A an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! S.1/ ! P .2/=S.2/ ! A1 S.1/ ! 0:
Similarly, we show that there are in mod A almost split sequences of the forms
0 ! A S.4/ ! rad P .3/ ! S.4/ ! 0;
0 ! S.4/ ! P .3/=S.3/ ! A1 S.4/ ! 0:

Observe now that we have in A the valued arrows rad P .1/ ! S.2/ and
rad P .3/ ! S.2/, and hence also the valued arrows A S.2/ ! rad P .1/ and
A S.2/ ! rad P .3/. Since
dimK S.2/ C dimK A S.2/ D 5 D dimK rad P .1/ C dimK rad P .3/;
we conclude, as above, that there is in mod A an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! A S.2/ ! rad P .1/ ˚ rad P .3/ ! S.2/ ! 0:
Further, we have in A the valued arrows S.2/ ! P .1/=S.1/ and S.2/ !

P .3/=S.3/, and hence the valued arrows P .1/=S.1/ ! A1 S.2/ and P .3/=S.3/ !
A1 S.2/. Then the equalities
dimK S.2/ C dimK A1 S.2/ D 5 D dimK P .1/=S.1/ C dimK P .3/=S.3/
force that there is in mod A an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! S.2/ ! P .1/=S.1/ ˚ P .3/=S.3/ ! A1 S.2/ ! 0:

Similarly, we prove that there are in mod A almost split sequences of the forms
0 ! A S.3/ ! rad P .2/ ˚ rad P .4/ ! S.3/ ! 0;
0 ! S.3/ ! P .2/=S.2/ ˚ P .4/=S.4/ ! A1 S.3/ ! 0:
Recall that A S.1/ D A1 S.4/, A S.2/ D A1 S.3/, A S.3/ D A1 S.2/,
A S.4/ D A1 S.1/. It follows from the above discussion that P .1/=S.1/ !
A S.3/ is the unique arrow in A with the source P .1/=S.1/ and A S.3/ !
rad P .4/ is the unique arrow in A with the target rad P .4/, and hence we con-
clude that P .1/=S.1/ D A rad P .4/. Similarly, P .4/=S.4/ ! A S.2/ is the
unique arrow in A with the source P .4/=S.4/ and A S.2/ ! rad P .1/ is the
unique arrow in A with the target rad P .1/, and then we infer that P .4/=S.4/ D
A rad P .1/. Further, there are in A exactly two arrows P .3/=S.3/ ! A S.1/
and P .3/=S.3/ ! A S.3/ with the source P .3/=S.3/ and exactly two arrows
A S.1/ ! rad P .2/ and A S.3/ ! rad P .2/ with the target rad P .2/, and con-
sequently A rad P .2/ D P .3/=S.3/. Finally, there are in A exactly two arrows
P .2/=S.2/ ! A S.2/ and P .2/=S.2/ ! A S.4/ with the source P .2/=S.2/ and
exactly two arrows A S.2/ ! rad P .3/ and A S.4/ ! rad P .3/ with the target
rad P .3/, and hence A rad P .3/ D P .2/=S.2/.
Summing up, we conclude that A admits a finite component C of the form
A @
P .1/
A @
P .4/
@@@ @@@

@@ @@
@ @
@@
P .4/=S.4/
A <<
rad P .1/
>~ @@
P .1/=S.1/
A <<
rad P .4/
> A
P .4/=S.4/
@@ << ~~ @@ << ~~~ AAAA
@@ << ~ @@ << ~ AA
@ < ~~~ @ < ~~~ A
? <
A S.2/
A @
S.2/
? <
A S.3/
A @
S.3/
>
A S.2/
~~~ <<< @@@ ~~~ <<< @@@ }}}

~~ << @@ ~ << @@ }}
~~ < @ ~~~ < @ }}}
rad P .3/ / P .3/ / P .3/=S.3/ rad P .2/ / P .2/ / P .2/=S.2/
@@
P .2/=S.2/
A <<< ~> @@@ A <<< ~> AAA
@@ << ~~ @@ << ~~ AA
@@ << ~~ ~ @@ << ~~ ~ AA
@ ~ ~ A
A S.4/ S.4/ A S.1/ S.1/ A S.4/
consisting of the four projective-injective vertices P .1/, P .2/, P .3/, P .4/ and the
four periodic A -orbits, each of them consisting of four vertices.
Since A is an indecomposable K-algebra, applying Theorem 10.2, we conclude
that C D A . In particular, A is of finite representation type and there are exactly
20 isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules in mod A.
11 The Bautista–Smalø theorem

In this section we present a theorem proved by R. Bautista and S. O. Smalø in [BS]
which gives a sufficient condition for a composition of irreducible homomorphisms
between indecomposable modules to be nonzero. In fact, we present a simpler
proof of this theorem proposed by K. Bongartz [Bo].
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. A path of irreducible
homomorphisms
f1 f2 ft
M D M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! M t1 ! M t
in mod A is said to be sectional if we have A Mi © Mi2 for all i 2 f2; : : : ; tg,

and the corresponding path in the Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A is said to be a
sectional path.
Proposition 11.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, let
M0 ; M1 ; : : : ; Mn be indecomposable modules in mod A, and let fi W Mi1 ! Mi ,
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, irreducible homomorphisms in mod A, for some positive integer n.
Assume that either fn : : : f1 D 0 or there is in mod A a commutative diagram
f1 f2
M0 QQ / M1 / ::: / Mn1 fn /5 Mn
QQQ lll
QQQ lllll
QQQ l
QQQ lll
h QQ( lll g
lll
N,
where N is an indecomposable module not isomorphic to Mn1 and g is an irre-

ducible homomorphism. Then we have A Mi Š Mi2 for some i 2 f2; : : : ; ng.
Proof. We prove the claim by induction on n. Assume n D 1. Then f1 ¤ 0
and f1 D gh with g an irreducible homomorphism. Hence, g is not a retraction,
and consequently h is a section. Since M0 and N are indecomposable, we obtain
N Š M0 D Mn1 , a contradiction.
Assume n 2. Let f D fn1 : : : f1 . We may assume that Mn2 © A Mn .
We distinguish two cases.
(1) Assume fn f D 0. If f D 0 then the claim follows by the induction
hypothesis. Let f ¤ 0. Then fn is not a monomorphism. Since fn is an irreducible
homomorphism, Lemma 7.5 forces fn to be a proper epimorphism. Hence Mn is
nonprojective and there exists in mod A an almost split sequence of the form
Œ wu Œ fn v
0 ! A Mn ! Mn1 ˚ V ! Mn ! 0;
where u W A Mn ! Mn1 , w W A Mn ! V and v W V ! Mn are irreducible

homomorphisms (see Theorems 7.11, 7.12 and 8.4). Consider the homomorphism
11. The Bautista–Smalø theorem 313
f
W M0 ! Mn1 ˚ V . Then Œ fn v f0 D fn f D 0, and consequently there
0
exists a homomorphism r W M0 ! A Mn such that f0 D Œ wu r. In particular,
f D ur, and so we have in mod A a commutative diagram
f1 f2
M0 RRR / M1 / ::: / Mn2 fn1 / Mn1
RRR jj5
RRR j jjjjjj
R
r RRRR jjjj u
R( jjjj
A Mn ,
where by our assumption A Mn is not isomorphic to Mn2 . Then, by induction

hypothesis, we conclude that A Mi Š Mi2 for some i 2 f2; : : : ; n 1g.
(2) Assume gh D fn f ¤ 0. We first show that Mn is not projective. Suppose
Mn is projective. Then, by Lemma 7.6 and Theorem 7.12, the irreducible homomor-
phisms fn and g are proper monomorphisms, and Im fn and Im g are distinct direct
summands of rad Mn , so Im fn \ Im g D 0. On the other hand, gh D fn f ¤ 0
implies that Im fn \ Im g ¤ 0. Therefore, indeed Mn is not projective. Now,
since fn W Mn1 ! Mn and g W N ! Mn are irreducible homomorphisms with
Mn1 © N , applying again Theorems 7.11, 7.12 and 8.4, we conclude that there
is in mod A an almost split sequence of the form
2 3
s
4t 5

q fn g l
0 ! A Mn ! Mn1 ˚ N ˚ L ! Mn ! 0;
where s W A Mn ! Mn1 in an irreducible homomorphism. Consider the homo-

morphism 2 3
f
4h5 W M0 ! Mn1 ˚ N ˚ L:
0
hf i
Then Œ fn g l h D fn f gh D 0, and hence there exists a homomorphism
0 hf i hsi
p W M0 ! A Mn such that h D qt p. In particular, we have f D sp and
0
consequently a commutative diagram in mod A of the form
f1 f2
M0 RRR / M1 / ::: / Mn2 fn1 / Mn1
RRR jj5
RRR j jjjjjj
R
p RRRR jjjj s
R( jjjj
A Mn ,
where s is an irreducible homomorphism and Mn2 ¤ A Mn , by the imposed

assumption. Hence, by induction hypothesis, we obtain that A Mi Š Mi2 for
some i 2 f2; : : : ; n 1g.
As a direct consequence of the above proposition we obtain the announced

theorem of Bautista and Smalø.
f1
Theorem 11.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Let M0 !
f2 fn
M1 ! !
Mn1 ! Mn be a sectional path of irreducible homomorphisms
in mod A. Then fn : : : f1 ¤ 0.
We have also the following important information on the structure of Auslander–

Reiten quivers of algebras.
Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A does not contain a sectional cycle.
Proof. Suppose A contains a sectional cycle. Then we have in mod A a sectional

path of irreducible homomorphisms
f1 f2 fn f1
M0 ! M1 ! M2 ! ! Mn1 ! M0 ! M1 :
Hence, we have sectional paths in mod A of the forms .fn : : : f1 /m for all m
1. Applying Theorem 11.2, we then infer that .fn : : : f1 /m ¤ 0 for all m 1.
On the other hand, fn : : : f1 belongs to the local K-algebra EndA .M0 /. Since
fn : : : f1 is not nilpotent, applying Corollary I.3.9, we conclude that fn : : : f1 is
an isomorphism. Clearly, then idM0 D g.fn : : : f1 / D .gfn : : : f2 /f1 for some
g 2 EndA .M0 /, and hence f1 is a section, which contradicts the irreducibility of
f1 . Therefore, A does not contain a sectional cycle.
12 Exercises
1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M , N be modules
in mod A. Prove that the duality D D HomK .; K/ W mod A ! mod Aop induces
isomorphisms of K-vector spaces radAm .M; N /
! radAmop .D.N /; D.M //, for all
m 2 N [ f1g.
2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M , N be in-

decomposable modules in mod A such that radA1 .M; N / ¤ 0. Prove that for
each positive integer m there exists an indecomposable module Xm in mod A and
fm 2 HomA .M; Xm /, gm 2 HomA .Xm ; N / such that `.Xm / m and gm fm ¤ 0.
3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, C and D differ-

ent components of A , M a module in C and N a module in D . Prove that
HomA .M; N / D radA1 .M; N /.
12. Exercises 315
4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, b a positive natural

number, and
f1 f2 f2b 1
M1 ! M2 ! M3 ! ! M2b 1 ! M2b
a chain of homomorphisms in mod A satisfying the conditions:

(i) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; 2b g, Mi is indecomposable with dimK .Mi / b.
(ii) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; 2b 1g, fi 2 radA .Mi ; MiC1 /.
Prove that f2b 1 : : : f2 f1 D 0.
5. Let A be the commutative local K-algebra Khx; yi=.x 2 ; xy; yx; y 2 / over a field
K. Consider the modules M1 D M5 D AA , M4 D AA = rad.AA /, M3 D M7 D
D.A/A , and M2 D M6 D AA =xA, N where xN D x C .x 2 ; xy; yx; y 2 /. Prove the
following statements.
(a) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; 7g, Mi is an indecomposable module in mod A such that
`.Mi / D dimK Mi 3.
(b) There exist homomorphisms fi 2 radA .Mi ; MiC1 /, i 2 f1; : : : ; 6g, such that
f6 f5 f4 f3 f2 f1 ¤ 0.
6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and L, N be modules in
mod A. Prove that the duality D D HomK .; K/ W mod A ! mod Aop induces an
isomorphism of K-vector spaces ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 op .D.L/; D.N //.
7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K,
f g
E W 0 ! L ! M ! N ! 0
a short exact sequence in mod A, and
d0 d1 d2 dn
0 ! L ! I0 ! I1 ! I2 ! ! In1 ! In !
a minimal injective resolution of L in mod A. Prove the following statements.

(a) There exists in mod A a commutative diagram
f g
0 /L /M /N /0
idL r0 r1
d0
d1
d2

0 /L / I0 / I1 / I2 .
(b) The association ŒE 7! zN;L .ŒE/ D r1 C Im HomA .N; d 1 / defines a K-linear
isomorphism
zN;L W ExtA1 .N; L/ ! ExtA1 .N; L/:e
e
(c) For any homomorphism u W L ! U in mod A, the equality ExtA1 .N; u/zN;L D
zN;U ExtA1 .N; u/ holds.
e
(d) For any homomorphism v W V ! N in mod A, the equality ExtA1 .v; L/zN;L D
zV;L ExtA1 .v; L/ holds.
8. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K of finite representation
type. Prove that any nonzero nonisomorphism between indecomposable modules
in mod A is a sum of compositions of irreducible homomorphisms between inde-
composable modules in mod A.
$ z
˛ ˇ
1
and I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ 2 , ˇ 2 , ˛ˇˇ˛, and A D KQ=I the associated
bound quiver algebra. For each positive integer m, consider the representation Xm
in repK .Q; I / of the form
( v .m/
.m/
'˛ K 2m 'ˇ ;
where the K-linear homomorphisms '˛.m/ ; 'ˇ.m/ W K 2m ! K 2m are given, in the

canonical basis of K 2m D K m ˚ K m , by the 2m 2m square matrices

0 0 .m/ 0 0
'˛ D
.m/
and 'ˇ D ;
Im 0 Jm .0/ 0
where Im is the m m identity matrix and Jm .0/ is the m m Jordan block with
0 on the diagonal. Identify mod A D repk .Q; I /. It follows from Exercise I.12.13
that Xm , m 1, are pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable modules in mod A.
Prove the following statements.
(a) There exist irreducible monomorphisms fm W Xm ! XmC1 , m 1, in mod A.
(b) There exist irreducible epimorphisms gm W XmC1 ! Xm , m 1, in mod A.
(c) The sequence in mod A,
u v
0 ! X1 ! X2 ! X1 ! 0;
12. Exercises 317
where u W K 2 ! K 4 and v W K 4 ! K 2 are the K-linear homomorphisms

given, in the canonical bases of K 2 and K 4 , by the matrices
2 3
1 0
60 07
uD6 7 and v D 0 1 0 0 ;
40 15 0 0 0 1
0 0
is an almost split sequence in mod A.
(d) The K-linear homomorphism h W K 4 ! K 4 given by h.1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 / D

.0; 0; 0; 1 / induces a homomorphism h W X2 ! X2 , and the image of h is
isomorphic to the unique simple A-module S D S.1/.
(e) For each m 3, we have h D rm fm : : : f2 , for some rm 2 HomA .XmC1 ; X2 /.
(f) For each m 3, we have h D g2 : : : gm tm , for some tm 2 HomA .X2 ; XmC1 /.
(g) h 2 radA1 .X2 ; X2 /.
(h) The homomorphism w D u C hu W X1 ! X2 is an irreducible homomorphism

in mod A.
(i) The composition vw of the irreducible homomorphisms w and v is nonzero

and belongs to radA1 .X1 ; X1 /.
(j) The modules Xm , m 1, form a stable tube T of rank 1 in A .
10. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and D D HomK .; K/
the standard duality between mod A and mod Aop . Prove the following statements.
(a) A homomorphism f W M ! N in mod A is left (respectively, right) minimal

if and only if the homomorphism D.f / W D.N / ! D.M / in mod Aop is right
(respectively, left) minimal.
(b) A homomorphism f W M ! N in mod A is left (respectively, right) almost

split if and only if the homomorphism D.f / W D.N / ! D.M / in mod Aop is
right (respectively, left) almost split.
f g
(c) A sequence 0 ! L
!M
! N ! 0 is an almost split sequence in mod A
D.g/ D.f /
if and only if the sequence 0 ! D.N / ! D.M / ! D.L/ ! 0 is an
almost split sequence in mod Aop .
(d) A homomorphism f W X ! Y in mod A is irreducible if and only if the homo-

morphism D.f / W D.Y / ! D.X / in mod Aop is irreducible.
˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 ˛5
o o o o o ;
1 2 3 4 5 6
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛3 ˛2 ˛1 and ˛5 ˛4 ˛3 ˛2 , and A D KQ=I the
associated bound quiver algebra. Describe
(a) the almost split sequences in mod A;
(b) the Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
˛1
1 O / 2
˛4 ˛2

4 o ˛3
3,
I the ideal in KQ generated by the elements ˛1 ˛2 and ˛2 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the

associated bound quiver algebra. Describe
1
o7 OOOO
˛5 oooo OO˛O1
ooo OOO
ooo O'
5 X1 2
11
11
˛4 1
1 ˛
11
2
1
o ˛3

4 3,
I the ideal in KQ generated by the paths ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 , ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 , ˛3 ˛4 ˛5 , ˛4 ˛5 ˛1 ,

˛5 ˛1 ˛2 , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Describe

12. Exercises 319
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~
~~ ~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~

0 O
ˇ3 ˛3

3,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛i ˇj , for all i; j 2 f1; 2; 3g with i ¤ j , and

ˇ1 ˛1 ˇ2 ˛2 , ˇ2 ˛2 ˇ3 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra.
Describe
(b) The Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~
~~ ~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~

0 O
ˇ3 ˛3

3,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛1 ˇ1 , ˛1 ˇ3 , ˛2 ˇ2 , ˛2 ˇ3 , ˛3 ˇ1 , ˛3 ˇ2 , ˇ1 ˛1 ˇ2 ˛2 ,

ˇ2 ˛2 ˇ3 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Describe
1 ?
??
??˛
??

o o o / ,

3 4 5 6 7

ˇ
2
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver
algebra. Describe

4 @@ 5
@@ ~~
@ ~
@@ ~~
~~
3 @@
~ @@ˇ
˛ ~~
~~ @@
~~ @
1 2 ;
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver
algebra. Describe
6

ˇ

˛ / / o
o
ı

1 2 3 4 5
and A D KQ. Prove that A is of finite representation type and describe the shape
of the Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
7

ˇ

˛ / / / ı / / ,
1 2 3 4 5 6
I the ideal in KQ generated by ı
and ˇ ı
, and A D KQ=I the associated
bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is of finite representation type and describe the
shape of the Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
p p
20. Let Q. 2/ be the field extension of Q by 2 and
² ³
Q 0 a 0 p ˇ p
AD p p D ˇ
2 M2 .Q. 2// a 2 Q; b; c 2 Q. 2/ :
Q. 2/ Q. 2/ c b
Prove that A is a 5-dimensional Q-algebra of finite representation type and describe
the shape of the Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
12. Exercises 321
p p
21. Let Q. 3 2/ be the field extension of Q by 3 2 and
² ³
Q 0p a 0 p ˇ p
AD p D
3
ˇ 3
2 M2 .Q. 2// a 2 Q; b; c 2 Q. 2/ :
Q. 3 2/ Q. 3 2/ c b
Prove that A is a 7-dimensional Q-algebra of finite representation type and describe
the shape of the Auslander–Reiten quiver A .
p p
22. Let n 4 be a natural number, Q. n 2/ the field extension of Q by n 2, and
² ³
Q 0 a 0 p ˇ p
AD p p D
n
ˇ
2 M2 .Q. 2// a 2 Q; b; c 2 Q. 2/ :
n
Q. n 2/ Q. n 2/ c b
(a) Prove that A is a .2n C 1/-dimensional Q-algebra of infinite representation

type.
(b) Describe the shapes of the components of A containing the projective vertices.
(c) Describe the shapes of the components of A containing the injective vertices.
23. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a 2 R; b 2 C; c 2 H :
H C c b
(a) Prove that A is an R-algebra of infinite representation type.

24. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .C/ a; b 2 R; c 2 C :
C R c b

25. Let
² ³
H 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D 2 M2 .H/ ˇ a; c 2 H; b 2 R :
H R c b

26. Let K be a field, F and G finite dimensional division K-algebras, F MG an
.F; G/-bimodule, and assume that K acts centrally on F MG and dimK F MG < 1.
Consider the finite dimensional K-algebra
² ³
G 0 a 0 ˇˇ
AD D a 2 G; b 2 F; m 2 F MG :
F MG F m b
Prove that A is of finite representation type if and only if the inequality
dimF .F M / dimG .MG / 3
holds.
1
v cHH
ˇ1
v vv 2 HH˛H1
v H
vvˇ2 h kVVV˛V2VVHHH
vvhhhhhh
{h
s VV
0 kVcHHVVVVV hh 5
HH VV shhh˛hhhvvv
HˇH3 3v
HH 3 vvv
ˇ4 H {vv ˛4

4
and I the ideal of KQ generated by the elements ˛i ˇi ˛1 ˇ1 for all i 2 f2; 3; 4g.
Describe the shape of the component of A containing the projective-injective mod-
ule P .5/ D I.0/.
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~~~~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~
~ ? @_@@
ˇ4 ~~~~0 @@@@˛3
~~~~ @@@@
~~~~~ ˛4 ˇ3 @@@
4 3,
I the ideal of KQ generated by the elements ˛i ˇj , for all i; j 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g with

i ¤ j , and ˇ1 ˛1 ˇk ˛k , for k 2 f2; 3; 4g, and A D KQ=I the associated bound
quiver algebra. Prove the following statements.
12. Exercises 323
(a) The projective modules in mod A are injective.

(b) The Auslander–Reiten quiver A admits exactly two components containing
the projective vertices.
29. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D 2 M2 .C/ ˇ a 2 R; b; c 2 C
C C c b
and ² ³
A 0 ˛ 0 ˇ
ƒD D ˇ ˛; ˇ 2 A; f 2 D.A/ ;
D.A/ A f ˇ
where D.A/ D HomR .A; R/ is considered as an A-bimodule.
(a) Prove that ƒ is a 15-dimensional R-algebra of finite representation type with
11-isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules in mod ƒ.
(b) Describe the shape of the Auslander–Reiten quiver ƒ .
30. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .C/ a 2 R; b; c 2 C
C C c b
and ² ³
˛ 0 ˇ
T D ˇ ˛ 2 A; f 2 D.A/ ;
f ˛
where D.A/ D HomR .A; R/ is considered as A-bimodule.
(a) Prove that T is a 10-dimensional R-algebra of finite representation type with 8
isomorphism classes of indecomposable modules in mod T .
(b) Prove that the projective modules in mod T are injective.
(c) Describe the shape of the Auslander–Reiten quiver T .
31. Let
² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .H/ a 2 R; b; c 2 H
H H c b
and ² ³
˛ 0 ˇ
T D ˇ ˛ 2 A; f 2 D.A/ ;
f ˛
where D.A/ D HomR .A; R/ is considered as A-bimodule.
(a) Prove that T is an 18-dimensional R-algebra of infinite representation type.
(b) Prove that the projective modules in mod T are injective.

(c) Describe the shapes of the components of the Auslander–Reiten quiver T
containing the projective vertices.
32. Let r be a positive integer, Q.r/ the quiver
0 Z5o
˛
r
55
ˇ1 55
ˇ

r
o o ::: o o
1 ˇ2 2 r 2 ˇr1 r 1
and A.r/ D KQ.r/ the path algebra of Q.r/ over a field K. Prove the following:
(a) The simple right A.r/-modules S.1/; S.2/; : : : ; S.r 1/, associated to the
vertices 1; 2; : : : ; r 1 of Q.r/, and the right A.r/-module
K Z5o
1
K
55
55
5
0o 0o ::: o 0o 0
lie on the mouth of a stable tube of A.r/ of rank r.

(b) The indecomposable right A.r/-modules
K [6o

K
66
6 1
1 66

Ko 1
Ko ::: o Ko 1
K
for 2 K, lie on the mouth of pairwise different stable tubes of rank 1 of A.r/ .
1 2 3 4
NNN 5 p
NNN 55˛2 ˛3
ppp
N
˛1 NNN 55
ppp
NNN5
ppppp ˛4
& xp

0
and A D KQ the path algebra of Q over K. Prove the following statements.
(a) There is a component of A containing all the indecomposable projective right
A-modules but without injective modules.
12. Exercises 325
(b) There is a component of A containing all the indecomposable injective right

A-modules but without projective modules.
(c) The indecomposable right A-modules
K D K. 0 0 0 ?? 0, K K
DD ..1 ?? ,, 1 zzz
DD . ?? ,, zz 1
1 DD .. and ?? , zz
D! }z
K K
lie on the mouth of a stable tube of A of rank 2.
(d) For each 2 K n f0; 1g, the indecomposable right A-module
K JJ K3 0 K K
JJ
J 33 1 1 yyy
JJJ 33 1 yyy 1
1
JJ 3 |yy
0
$
K2
lies on the mouth of a stable tube of A of rank 1.
4 @@ 5
@@ ~~~
@
@@ ~~
~~
3 @@
~ @@ˇ
˛ ~~
~~ @@
~~ @
1 2
and A D KQ the path algebra of Q over K. Verify the following assertions.
(a) The indecomposable right A-modules
KA 0 0 ?? K
AA
AA ?? }}
A ?? }}
1
~}} 1
K? and KA
}} ?? AA 1
1
}} ?? AA
~}
} ? A
K 0 0 K

(b) The indecomposable right A-modules
0 ?? 0 KA K
?? AA
AA }}
?? A }}

1 ~}} 1
K? and KA
??? }} AA 1
??
1
}} AA
}~} A
0 0 K K
(c) For each 2 K n f0; 1g, the indecomposable right A-module
KB K
BB ||
B
BB
|
|
1
0
! }|| 01
K2 B

|| BB 1
|| BB
11
}|| B!
K K
lies on the mouth of a stable tube of A of rank 1.
35. Let K be a field, the quiver
1
iiii jUUUUU
˛1 iiiii UUUU ˛2
UUUU
i iiii UUUU
i ii UUU
i
t o ii o o
0 _@ 7 ,
@@ ˇ1 2 ˇ2 3 ˇ3 ~~
@@ ~
1 @@ ~~
~~ 4
o 2
o 3

4 5 6
I the ideal in the path algebra K of generated by ˛2 ˛1 C ˇ3 ˇ2 ˇ1 C 4 3 2 1 ,
and A D K =I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that:
(a) The simple right A-module S.1/, associated to the vertex 1 of , lies on the
mouth of a stable tube T1 of A of rank 2.
(b) The simple right A-modules S.2/ and S.3/, associated to the vertices 2 and 3
of , lie on the mouth of a stable tube T0 of A of rank 3.
(c) The simple right A-modules S.4/, S.5/ and S.6/, associated to the vertices 4,
5 and 6 of , lie on the mouth of a stable tube T1 of A of rank 4.
12. Exercises 327
(d) The indecomposable right A-modules
i K jUUUUU
ii iiiii UUUU
1iii
i UU1UU
iiii UUUU
iiii UUUU
tii U
K Ào Ko Ko
1 1
K
AA
AA }}}
1 AA }}
~}} 1
Ko 1
Ko 1
K
for 2 K n f0; 1g, lie on the mouth of pairwise different stable tubes T ,
2 K n f0; 1g, of A of rank 1.
36. Let K be a field, Q be the quiver
˛
ww ˇ
0
77 2
and I the ideal in KQ generated by the elements ˛ ˇ , ˛ ˇ, ˛ , ˛, ˇ ,

ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Denote by P .1/ and
P .2/ the indecomposable projective right A-modules associated to the vertices 1
and 2 of Q, respectively. Further, for each 2 K, consider the indecomposable
right A-modules (representations in repK .Q; I /)
0
|| ||
1 0
X W K 0
<< K and Y W K
<< K :
0 1
Show the following claims:

(a) P .1/ and P .2/ are injective A-modules with soc.P .1// Š top.P .1// and
soc.P .2// Š top.P .2//.
(b) P .1/ and P .2/ lie in different acyclic components of A .
(c) There are pairwise different stable tubes T.1/ and T.2/ , 2 K, of rank 1, with
X lying on the mouth of T.1/ and Y lying on the mouth of T.2/ .
(d) For ; 2 K, ¤ , and all modules M in T.1/ and N in T.1/ (respec-

tively, U in T.2/ and V in T.2/ ), we have HomA .M; N / D 0 (respectively,
HomA .U; V / D 0).
(e) For ; 2 K, and for all modules M in T.1/ and V in T.2/ , we have that
HomA .M; V / ¤ 0 and HomA .V; M / ¤ 0.
1
_@
~~ @@
~~~ @@
@@
˛1 ~~
~ @ ˛2
~~
o o gOOO @@@
~~ ˇ1 ooo 2 OOOˇ2 @@
OOO @@
~~~ooooo OOO @@
~
~woo oo OO
0 _@
// 5 ,
@@ ~~
@@ ı
~
1 @@ ~~
~~ 3
o 2

3 4
I the ideal in KQ generated by the elements ˛2 ˛1 C ˇ2 ˇ1 C 3 2 1 , ˛1 ı, ˇ1 ,
1 1 ı, ˛2 , ıˇ2 , 3 ı3 , 1 ı3 2 1 , 2 1 ı3 2 , 3 2 1 ı3 , and A D
KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. For each i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; 7g, denote
by S.i / the simple right A-module and by P .i / the indecomposable projective
A-module associated to the vertex i of Q, respectively. Prove that:
(a) P .i/, i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; 5g, are injective right A-modules.
(b) soc.P .i// Š S.i / Š top.P .i // for i 2 f0; 3; 4; 5g.
(c) soc.P .1// Š S.2/ Š top.P .2// and soc.P .2// Š S.1/ Š top.P .1//.
(d) S.1/ and S.2/ lie on the mouth of two different stable tubes T1 and T2 of A
of rank 2.
(e) S.3/ and S.4/ lie on the mouth of a stable tube T3 of A of rank 3.
(f) P .1/ and P .2/ lie in different components C1 and C2 of A such that A2 X Š X
and A2 Y Š Y for all indecomposable modules X in C1 different from P .1/
and all indecomposable modules Y in C2 different from P .2/.
(g) P .3/ and P .4/ lie in one component C3 of A such that A3 Z Š Z for any
indecomposable module Z in C3 different from P .3/ and P .4/.
38. Let † and be two valued quivers whose underlying graph is a tree T . Prove
that the valued translation quivers Z† and Z are isomorphic.
12. Exercises 329
39. Let † and be two acyclic valued quivers whose underlying graph is a cycle
(with trivial valuations)
::: B
~~ BB
BB
~~~ BB
~~ B
@ :
@@
@@ }}}
}
@@ }}
}}
:::
Prove that Z† and Z are isomorphic valued translation quivers if and only if †
and have the same number of clockwise oriented arrows and the same number
counterclockwise oriented arrows.
40. Let be the quiver of the form
/ / ::: / /
1 2 n1 n
with n 1. Describe the admissible groups G of automorphisms of the translation
quiver Z and the associated orbit translation quivers .Z /=G.
1 @@
@@
@@
@
/ / ::: / /
?
~~~ 3 4 n1 n
~~
~~
2
1 @@
@@
@@
@
2 / 4:
~~?
~
~~
~~
3
Describe the admissible groups G of automorphisms of the translation quiver Z
and the associated orbit translation quivers .Z /=G.

6

/ / o o :
1 2 3 4 5
4

/ / / / / / ::: / /
1 2 3 5 6 7 n1 n
45. Let be the valued quiver of the form
.1;2/
/ / / ::: / /
1 2 3 n1 n
/ o .1;2/ / :
1 2 3 4
.1;2/
/ / / ::: / / .1;2/ /
1 2 3 n2 n1 n
.1;2/
/ / / ::: / / .2;1/ /
1 2 3 n2 n1 n
12. Exercises 331
1 @@ n
@@ ~~?
@@ ~
@ ~~
~~
/ / ::: / /
? @
~~~ 3 4 n 2 n 1 @@@
~~ @@
~~ @
2 n C 1

1 2 p2 p1
: / / ::: / / I
uu II
uu II
uu II
uu II
uu I$
0 II u:
p
II uu
II uu
II uu
II uu
$ / / ::: / / u

pCq1 pCq2 pC2 pC1
with p; q 2. Describe the admissible groups G of automorphisms of the transla-
tion quiver Z and the associated orbit translation quivers .Z /=G.
Chapter IV
Selfinjective algebras
In this chapter we introduce the main object of interest in this book, Frobenius
algebras, as well as exhibit prominent classes of Frobenius algebras.
We start with the classical result of F. G. Frobenius from 1903 characterizing
the finite dimensional algebras over fields for which the left and right regular repre-
sentations are equivalent, which are called Frobenius algebras. Then we prove the
basic characterizations of Frobenius algebras, and its prominent subclass formed
by the symmetric algebras, established in 1937–1941 by R. Brauer, C. Nesbitt and
T. Nakayama. We also introduce and describe basic properties of the Nakayama
automorphisms of Frobenius algebras which are fundamental for further considera-
tions. Next we introduce the important class of symmetric algebras, the Brauer tree
algebras, which play a prominent role in the modular representation theory of finite
groups. Further, we show that the semisimple algebras are symmetric algebras. An
essential part of the chapter is devoted to the syzygy modules, periodic modules and
periodic algebras. In particular, we prove that the periodic algebras have periodic
module categories as well as that the algebras with all simple modules periodic are
selfinjective algebras. The next part of this chapter is devoted to a combinatorial
characterization of Dynkin and Euclidean graphs, and the mesh algebras of Dynkin
type, forming an important class of Frobenius algebras. Finally, we prove the
Riedtmann–Todorov theorem on the shape of the stable Auslander–Reiten quiver
of a selfinjective algebra of finite representation type.
1 The Frobenius theorem

Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra, a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an a basis of the K-vector
space A, and ˛ij k 2 K, i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the associated structure constants, that
is,
X n
aj ak D ˛ij k ai
iD1
for all j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, let j 2 K, j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, be such that
X
n
1A D j aj :
j D1
We described these equalities in Lemma I.1.2, invoking the structure constants

˛ij k and the elements j , which are equivalent to the associativity and identity
1. The Frobenius theorem 333
conditions of the K-algebra. Moreover, following F. G. Frobenius [Fro4], [Fro5],

we introduced the matrices
L.aj / D ŒL.aj /ik D Œ˛ij k ik 2 Mn .K/; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
R.al / D ŒR.al /ik D Œ˛ikl ik 2 Mn .K/; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng;

which determine K-linear maps L W A ! Mn .K/ and R W A ! Mn .K/, re-
spectively. We denoted also by Rt W A ! Mn .K/ the K-linear map such that
Rt .a/ D R.a/t , the transpose of the matrix R.a/, for any a 2 A. Then we have
proved in Lemma I.2.3 that the maps
L W A ! Mn .K/ and Rt W A ! Mn .K/
are representations of the algebra A over K, called by Frobenius the first (left)
regular representation and the second (right) regular representation of A over K,
respectively.
Frobenius defined also the matrices
Ph D ŒPh ij D Œ˛hij ij 2 Mn .K/; h 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
and then the matrices

X
n
P ./ D h Ph 2 Mn .K/
hD1
for any element D .1 ; : : : ; n / 2 K n , called by him parastrophic matrices, and

showed they intertwine the first regular and the second regular representations of A.
Lemma 1.1. For all elements 2 K n and a 2 A the following equality holds:
P ./L.a/ D Rt .a/P ./:
Proof. For h; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have (in the above notation) the equalities
hX
n i
Ph L.ak / D Œ˛hj i j i Œ˛ikl il D ˛hj i ˛ikl ;
jl
iD1
Rt .ak /Ph D R.ak /t Ph D Œ˛ij k tij Œ˛hil il

hX
n i
D Œ˛ij k j i Œ˛hil il D ˛ij k ˛hil :
jl
iD1
Then, applying Lemma I.1.2 (i), we obtain Ph L.ak / D Rt .ak /Ph , for all h; k 2
f1; : : : ; ng, and consequently P ./L.a/ D Rt .a/P ./ for all elements 2 K n and
a 2 A.
334 Chapter IV. Selfinjective algebras
The following theorem proved by F. G. Frobenius in 1903 in [Fro4] and [Fro5]

gives a characterization of finite dimensional K-algebras for which the first and
second regular representations are equivalent.
Theorem 1.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then the regular represen-
tations L and Rt of A are equivalent if and only if there is an invertible parastrophic
matrix P ./, for some 2 K n .
Proof. Let n D dimK A, a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an be a basis of the K-vector space A and

˛ij k 2 K, i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the associated structure constants.
Assume there exists an invertible parastrophic matrix P ./, for some 2 K n . It
follows from Lemma 1.1 that, for any a 2 A, the equality P ./L.a/ D Rt .a/P ./,
or equivalently, Rt .a/ D P ./L.a/P ./1 , in Mn .K/ holds, and consequently the
representations L and Rt are equivalent.
Conversely, assume that the representations L and Rt of A are equivalent. Then
there exists an invertible matrix P 2 Mn .K/ such that PL.a/ D Rt .a/P for all
elements a 2 A. We will prove that P D P ./ for some 2 K n .
Consider the set of matrices
˚
M.A/ D S 2 Mn .K/ j SL.a/ D Rt .a/S for all a 2 A :
Observe that M.A/ is a K-vector space. We will show that:

(1) dimK M.A/ D n;
(2) the matrices P1 ; : : : ; Pn form a basis of the K-vector space M.A/.
Recall that, for h 2 f1; : : : ; ng, Ph is the matrix Œ˛hij ij 2 Mn .K/.
(1) It follows from Proposition I.2.4 that to every representation ˆ W A !
Mn .K/ of A of dimension n over K corresponds the n-dimensional left A-module
Mˆ such that Mˆ D Mn1 .K/ as K-vector space and ax D ˆ.a/x for a 2 A and
x 2 Mˆ , where the right side is the multiplication of matrices.
Observe also that for two representations ˆ; ‰ W A ! Mn .K/ and a matrix
Q 2 Mn .K/ the condition Qˆ.a/ D ‰.a/Q for all a 2 A is equivalent to the fact
that the K-linear map TQ W Mn1 .K/ ! Mn1 .K/, given by TQ .X / D QX for
X 2 Mn1 .K/, is a homomorphism TQ W Mˆ ! M‰ of left A-modules.
Consider now the left A-modules ML and MRt given by the representations
L; Rt W A ! Mn .K/. Then it follows from the above remarks that there is a
K-linear isomorphism
T W M.A/ ! HomAop .ML ; MRt /
which assigns to a matrix S 2 M.A/ the homomorphism of left A-modules (right

Aop -modules) TS W ML ! MRt . Observe also that ML Š A A as left A-modules.
1. The Frobenius theorem 335
Indeed, for the K-linear isomorphism f W ML ! A A which assigns to the ba-

sis elements E11 ; E21 ; : : : ; En1 of ML D Mn1 .K/ the chosen basis elements
a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an , respectively, we have
X
n
f .aj Ek1 / D f .L.aj /Ek1 / D f Œ˛ij k ik Ek1 D f ˛ij k Ei1
iD1
X
n X
n
D ˛ij k f .Ei1 / D ˛ij k ai D aj ak D aj f .Ek1 /;
iD1 iD1
for all j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Therefore, applying Lemma I.6.1, we obtain isomorphisms
of K-vector spaces

M.A/
! HomAop .ML ; MRt /
! HomAop .A A; MRt /
! MRt :
Therefore, dimK M.A/ D dimK .MRt / D dimK Mn1 .K/ D n.
(2) Observe first that P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn 2 M.A/, by Lemma 1.1. Assume now
that 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n are elements of K such that
1 P1 C 2 P2 C C n Pn D 0:
Then, for every j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
1 ˛1j k C 2 ˛2j k C C n ˛nj k D 0:
Since L.aj / D Œ˛ij k ik for j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we obtain the equalities
1 L.aj /1 C 2 L.aj /2 C C n L.aj /n D 0;
for j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, where, for a matrix X in Mn .K/ and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, Xi denotes
the i -th row of X. Then we have
1 L.a/1 C 2 L.a/2 C C n L.a/n D 0
for all elements a 2 A, because a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an is a basis of A over K. In particular,
for a D 1A , we obtain
0 D 1 L.1A /1 C 2 L.1A /2 C C n L.1A /n
D 1 .In /1 C 2 .In /2 C C n .In /n ;
because L.1A / is the identity matrix In . But then 1 D 2 D D n D 0.
Therefore, P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn are indeed linearly independent elements of M.A/, and
hence form a basis of M.A/ over K.
In particular, the invertible matrix P 2 M.A/, defining an equivalence of L and
Rt , has a presentation
P D 1 P1 C 2 P2 C C n Pn D P ./
for some 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n 2 K, as required.
In 1937–1939 R. Brauer, C. Nesbitt [BrNe], [Nes], and T. Nakayama [Nak1],

[Nak2] noticed the importance of the algebras discussed in the above Frobenius
theorem, and proposed to call them Frobenius algebras.
Therefore, a finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is said to be a
Frobenius algebra if the first (left) regular representation L and the second (right)
regular representation Rt of A over K are equivalent (for a chosen basis of A
over K). Moreover, A is said to be a symmetric algebra if there exists a symmetric
invertible matrix P defining equivalence of L and Rt . It follows from the Frobenius
theorem that A is a Frobenius algebra (respectively, symmetric algebra) if and only
if there exists an invertible (respectively, symmetric invertible) parastrophic matrix
P ./ (for a chosen basis of A over K).
2 The Brauer–Nesbitt–Nakayama theorems

In this section we prove theorems of R. Brauer, C. Nesbitt and T. Nakayama from
[BrNe], [Nak2], and [Nak3] which give a criteria for a finite dimensional K-algebra
A to be a Frobenius algebra (respectively, symmetric algebra), and are independent
of the choice of a basis of A.
For a finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K, a K-bilinear form
.; / W A A ! K
is said to be associative if .ab; c/ D .a; bc/ for all elements a; b; c 2 A. Moreover,

a K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K is said to be nondegenerate, if for every
nonzero element a 2 A, the linear forms .a; /; .; a/ W A ! K are nonzero.
The following theorem is the first Brauer–Nesbitt–Nakayama theorem.
(i) A is a Frobenius algebra.
(ii) There exists a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form .; / W AA ! K.
(iii) There exists a K-linear form ' W A ! K such that Ker ' does not contain a
nonzero right ideal of A.
(iv) There exists an isomorphism W AA ! D.A/A of right A-modules.
(v) There exists a K-linear form ' 0 W A ! K such that Ker ' 0 does not contain a
nonzero left ideal of A.
(vi) There exists an isomorphism 0 W A A ! A D.A/ of left A-modules.

2. The Brauer–Nesbitt–Nakayama theorems 337
Proof. Let a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an be a basis of the K-vector space A, and ˛ij k 2 K,

i; j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, be the associated structure constants of A, that is,
X
n
aj ak D ˛ij k ai
iD1
for all j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng.

We first show the equivalence (i) () (ii). Observe that a matrix P D Œpij ij 2
Mn .K/ determines the K-bilinear form .; /P W AA ! K such that .ai ; aj /P D
pij for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Conversely, every K-bilinear form .; / W AA ! K
is of the form .; / D .; /P , where P D Œpij ij 2 Mn .K/ with pij D .ai ; aj /
for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Let P D Œpij ij be a matrix from Mn .K/. We claim that the following equiva-
lences hold:
(1) The form .; /P is associative if and only if PL.a/ D Rt .a/P for all a 2 A.
(2) The form .; /P is nondegenerate if and only if the matrix P is invertible.
We abbreviate .; / D .; /P .
(1) The associativity .ab; c/ D .a; bc/ for all a; b; c 2 A is clearly equivalent
to the condition
.al aj ; ak / D .al ; aj ak / for all j; k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng:
We have the equalities

X
n Xn X
n
.al aj ; ak / D ˛ilj ai ; ak D ˛ilj .ai ; ak / D ˛ilj pik
iD1 iD1 iD1
and
X n Xn X
n
.al ; aj ak / D al ; ˛ij k ai D ˛ij k .al ; ai / D ˛ij k pli :
iD1 iD1 iD1
Therefore, the associativity of .; /P is equivalent to the condition
X
n X
n
˛ilj pik D ˛ij k pli for all j; k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng: ./
iD1 iD1
On the other hand, the condition PL.a/ D Rt .a/P for all a 2 A is equivalent
to the condition
PL.aj / D Rt .aj /P for any j 2 f1; : : : ; ng:

We have the equalities

hX
n i
PL.aj / D Œpli li Œ˛ij k ik D pli ˛ij k ;
lk
iD1
Rt .aj /P D R.aj /t P D Œ˛ilj til Œpik ik

hX n i
D Œ˛ilj li Œpik ik D ˛ilj pik :
lk
iD1
Therefore, the condition PL.a/ D Rt .a/P for all a 2 A is equivalent to the

condition
X
n X
n
pli ˛ij k D ˛ilj pik for all j; k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng: ./
iD1 iD1
Since the field K is commutative, the conditions ./ and ./ coincide, and con-
sequently the required equivalence
P (1) holds.
(2) Let a 2 A and a D jnD1 j aj , for 1 ; : : : ; n 2 K. Then
X
n X
n
.a; ak / D j .aj ; ak / D j pj k ;
j D1 j D1
X
n X
n
.ak ; a/ D j .ak ; aj / D j pkj ;
j D1 j D1
for k 2 f1; : : : ; ng. The form .; / is nondegenerate if .a; / ¤ 0 ¤ .; a/ for
0 ¤ a 2 A, which is clearly equivalent to the fact that P (equivalently, P t ) is an
invertible matrix. Hence, the equivalence (2) holds.
Summing up, the equivalences (1) and (2) show that the conditions (i) and (ii)
are equivalent.
(ii) ) (iii). Let .; / W A A ! K be a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear
form. Define the K-linear form ' W A ! K by
'.a/ D .a; 1A / D .1A ; a/ for a 2 A:
Let I be a right ideal of A such that '.I / D 0. Take a 2 I . Then we have

.a; A/ D .aA; 1A / D '.aA/ D 0 since aA I . Hence .a; / D 0, which implies
a D 0, because .; / is nondegenerate. Therefore, I D 0, and (iii) holds.
(iii) ) (ii), (iv). Let ' W A ! K be a K-linear form such that '.I / ¤ 0 for any
nonzero right ideal of A. Define the K-bilinear form .; / D .; /' W A A !
K by
.a; b/ D '.ab/ for all a; b 2 A:
Observe that .ab; c/ D '..ab/c/ D '.a.bc// D .a; bc/ for a; b; c 2 A, and hence
the form .; / is associative. We will show that .; / is nondegenerate. Take
a 2 A. If .a; / D 0 then '.aA/ D .a; A/ D 0, and so a D 0 by assumption on '.
P .; a/ D 0. We claim that then .a; / D 0, and consequently a D 0. Let
Assume
a D niD1 i ai be the expression of a in the basis a1 ; : : : ; an of A over K. Then
.; a/ D 0 implies that
X
n
0 D .aj ; a/ D i .aj ; ai /;
iD1
or equivalently, 2 3
1
6 7
Œ.aj ; ai /j i 4 ::: 5 D 0;
n
for any j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Taking the transpose, we obtain
Œ 1 : : : n Œ.ai ; aj /ij D 0;
or equivalently,
X
n
0D i .ai ; aj / D .a; aj /;
iD1
for any j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Hence, .a; / D 0 as required. Therefore .; / is a
nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form and (ii) holds.
For (iv), we define the K-linear map
D ' W A ! D.A/ D HomK .A; K/
such that .a/.b/ D '.ab/ for a; b 2 A. Then, for a; b; c 2 A, we have .ab/.c/ D
'..ab/c/ D '.a.bc// D .a/.bc/ D ..a/b/.c/, and hence .ab/ D .a/b.
This shows that is a homomorphism of right A-modules. Observe that is a
monomorphism. Indeed, for a 2 A, .a/ D 0 implies '.aA/ D .a/.A/ D 0, and
hence aA D 0, by the property of ', and so a D 0. Since dimK A D dimK D.A/,
we conclude that is an isomorphism of right A-modules.
(iv) ) (iii). Assume W A ! D.A/ is an isomorphism of right A-modules.
Define the K-linear map ' D '
W A ! K by ' D .1/ 2 D.A/. Let I be a right
ideal of A such that '.I / D 0. Then, for any a 2 I , we have aA I , and hence
we obtain
0 D '.aA/ D .1/.aA/ D ..1/a/.A/ D .a/.A/;
which implies .a/ D 0, and consequently a D 0, because is an isomorphism of
right A-modules. Hence I D 0, and (iii) holds.
Summing up, we established the equivalences of (i)–(iv). The proofs of the
equivalences of (ii), (v) and (vi) are similar to the proofs of equivalences of (ii), (iii)
and (iv), and are left to the reader.
The equivalence of the conditions (i), (iii) and (v) has been established by
R. Brauer and C. Nesbitt in [BrNe]. This can be interpreted as follows: a finite
dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is a Frobenius algebra if and only if
there exists a hyperplane in A containing no nonzero right (respectively, left) ideal.
The equivalence of the conditions (i), (ii), (iv) and (vi) has been established by
T. Nakayama in [Nak2] and [Nak3], and was an important step to the modern
approach to Frobenius algebras, invoking modules.
The second Brauer–Nesbitt–Nakayama theorem gives equivalent conditions for
a finite dimensional algebra to be a symmetric algebra.
(i) A is a symmetric algebra.
(ii) There exists a nondegenerate associative symmetric K-bilinear form
.; / W A A ! K:
(iii) There exists a K-linear form ' W A ! K such that '.ab/ D '.ba/ for all
a; b 2 A, and Ker ' does not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal of A.
(iv) There exists an isomorphism W A AA ! A D.A/A of A-bimodules.
Proof. The equivalence of (i) and (ii) follows from the proof of the equivalence of
(i) and (ii) in Theorem 2.1, because the K-bilinear form .; /P W A A ! K
defined by the matrix P 2 Mn .K/, n D dimK A, is symmetric if and only if the
matrix P is symmetric.
The equivalence of (ii) and (iii) follows from the proof of the equivalence (ii) and
(iii) in Theorem 2.1. Indeed, a K-linear form ' W A ! K satisfies the condition
'.ab/ D '.ba/ for all a; b 2 A if and only if the associated K-bilinear form
.; /' , given by .a; b/' D '.ab/ for all a; b 2 A, is symmetric. Moreover, for
a 2 A, .; a/' D 0 is equivalent to '.Aa/ D 0, and .a; /' D 0 is equivalent to
'.aA/ D 0. Therefore, the K-bilinear form .; /' is nondegenerate if and only
if Ker ' does not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal of A.
We will show now that the conditions (iii) and (iv) are also equivalent.
Assume ' W A ! K is a K-linear form such that '.ab/ D '.ba/ for all a; b 2 A,
and Ker ' does not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal of A. We define the K-linear
map D ' W A ! D.A/ D HomK .A; K/ by
.a/.b/ D '.ab/ for all a; b 2 A:
We claim that is a homomorphism of A-bimodules. Indeed, for a; b; c 2 A, we
have
.c.a//.b/ D .a/.bc/ D '.a.bc// D '..bc/a/ D '.b.ca// D .ca/.b/;
..a/c/.b/ D .a/.cb/ D '.a.cb// D '..ac/b/ D .ac/.b/;
and hence c.a/ D .ca/ and .a/c D .ac/. Moreover, for a 2 A, .a/ D 0
implies 0 D .a/.A/ D '.aA/, and so aA D 0, and consequently a D 0. This
shows that W A AA ! A D.A/A is a monomorphism of A-bimodules, and hence
an isomorphism of A-bimodules, because dimK A D dimK D.A/. Therefore (iii)
implies (iv).
Assume now that W A ! D.A/ is an isomorphism of A-bimodules. Consider
the K-linear map ' D .1A / W A ! K. Then, for a 2 A, we have
'.a/ D .1A /.a/ D .1A /.a1A / D ..1A /a/.1A / D .a/.1/:
Hence, for a; b 2 A, the following equalities hold:
'.ab/ D .ab/.1A / D ..a/b/.1A / D .a/.b/

D .a.1A //.b/ D .1A /.ba/ D '.ba/:
Moreover, we have the equalities
'.aA/ D .aA/.1A / D ..a/A/.1A / D .a/.A/

D .A.a//.1A / D .Aa/.1A / D '.Aa/:
Since is a monomorphism, we conclude '.aA/ D 0 (respectively, '.Aa/ D 0)

only for a D 0. Hence Ker ' does not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal of A.
Therefore (iv) implies (iii).
The equivalence of the conditions (i) and (iii) has been established by R. Brauer
and C. Nesbit in [BrNe]. This can be interpreted as follows: a finite dimensional K-
algebra A over a field K is a symmetric algebra if and only if there exists a hyperplane
in A containing all commutators ab ba, with a; b 2 A, but containing no nonzero
one-sided ideal. The equivalence of (i) and (ii) was observed by T. Nakayama in
[Nak2]. Finally, the equivalence of (ii) and (iv) has been proved by T. Nakayama
in [Nak3].
The following corollary is a direct consequence of Theorems 2.1 and 2.2.
Corollary 2.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. The following equiva-
lences hold.
(i) A is a Frobenius algebra if and only if Aop is a Frobenius algebra.
(ii) A is a symmetric algebra if and only if Aop is a symmetric algebra.
Proposition 2.4. Let A1 ; : : : ; Ar be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K
and A D A1 Ar . The following equivalences hold.
(i) A is a Frobenius algebra if and only if A1 ; : : : ; Ar are Frobenius algebras.
(ii) A is a symmetric algebra if and only if A1 ; : : : ; Ar are symmetric algebras.
Proof. For K-bilinear forms .; /i W Ai Ai ! K, i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, we have

the K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K such that .a; b/ D .a1 ; b1 /1 C C
.ar ; br /r for any elements a D .a1 ; : : : ; ar / and b D .b1 ; : : : ; br / of A. Clearly,
such a form .; / is symmetric if and only if the forms .; /1 ; : : : ; .; /r are
symmetric. Moreover, .; / is nondegenerate and associative if and only if the
forms .; /1 ; : : : ; .; /r are nondegenerate and associative. Conversely, assume
that .; / W AA ! K is an associative K-bilinear form. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; rg,
denote by ei the element in A having 1Ai on the i -th coordinate and zeros on the
remaining coordinates. Then an arbitrary element a D .a1 ; : : : ; ar / 2 A can be
written as a D ae1 C C aer D e1 a C C er a, where aei D ei a has the i -th
coordinate ai and zero elsewhere. Hence, for two elements a; b 2 A, we have
X
r X
r Xr X
r
.a; b/ D aei ; ej b D .aei ; ej b/
iD1 j D1 iD1 j D1
X
r X
r X
r
D .a; ei ej b/ D .a; ei ei b/
iD1 j D1 iD1
X
r
D .aei ; ei b/:
iD1
This shows that .a; b/ D .a1 ; b1 /1 C C.ar ; br /r for the corresponding associative
K-bilinear forms .; /i W Ai Ai ! K, i 2 f1; : : : ; rg, induced by .; /. Then
the equivalences follow from Theorems 2.1 and 2.2.
We will exhibit now some classes of Frobenius algebras.
Example 2.5. Let n be a positive integer and K a field. Then the matrix algebra
Mn .K/ is a symmetric algebra. Consider the trace map
Tr W Mn .K/ ! K
which assigns to a matrix A D Œaij 2 Mn .K/ its trace
Tr.A/ D a11 C a22 C C ann :
For any two matrices A D Œaij and B D Œbij in Mn .K/ we have the well known
property of the trace map
h X
n i X
n X
n
Tr.AB/ D Tr ail blj D ail bli
ij
lD1 iD1 lD1
XX
n n h Xn i
D bli ail D Tr bli aij D Tr.BA/:
lj
lD1 iD1 iD1
Obviously Tr W Mn .K/ ! K is a K-linear map. We define now the K-bilinear

symmetric form
.; / W Mn .K/ Mn .K/ ! K
by .A; B/ D Tr.AB/ D Tr.BA/ for A; B 2 Mn .K/. The form .; / is associa-
tive since for A; B; C 2 Mn .K/ we have
.AB; C / D Tr..AB/C / D Tr.A.BC // D .A; BC /:
We show that the form .; / is also nondegenerate. Let A D Œaij 2 Mn .K/ be a
nonzero matrix. We claim that .A; / D .; A/ is a nonzero K-linear form from A
to K. Take a nonzero coefficient ars of A. Then, for the elementary matrix Esr 2
Mn .K/, having 1 at the place .s; r/ and 0 elsewhere, we obtain that AEsr D Œcij ,
where cij D 0 for j ¤ r and cir D ais for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then .A; Esr / D
Tr.AEsr / D Tr.Œcij / D crr D ars ¤ 0. Therefore, .; / W Mn .K/ Mn .K/ !
K is a nondegenerate, associative, symmetric K-bilinear form, and, by Theorem 2.2,
Mn .K/ is a symmetric K-algebra.
Example 2.6. Let KG be the group algebra of a finite group G over a field K (see
Example I.12.1 (e)). Then the group elements g 2 G form a basis of KG over K.
Consider the K-bilinear form
.; / W KG KG ! K
P P
defined, for a D g2G g g and b D g2G g g in KG, by
X
.a; b/ D g g 1 :
g2G
P
The form .; / is obviously symmetric. Further, for a D g2G g g 2 KG and a
basis element h 2 G of KG we have .a; h/ D h1 , and hence .a; / D 0 implies
a D 0. Hence the form .; / is nondegenerate. Finally, .; / is also associative
because, for f; g; h 2 G, we have
´ ´
1 for h D .fg/1 , 1 for gh D f 1 ,
.fg; h/ D and .f; gh/ D
0 for h ¤ .fg/1 0 for gh ¤ f 1 ,
and hence .fg; h/ D .f; gh/ since h D .fg/1 is equivalent to gh D f 1 . Hence

KG is a symmetric K-algebra.
Example 2.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Consider
the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ of A by the A-bimodule D.A/ D
HomK .A; K/, that is, T.A/ D A ˚ D.A/ as K-vector space and the multiplication
in T.A/ is given by
.a; f /.b; g/ D .ab; ag C f b/
for a; b 2 A and f; g 2 D.A/. Obviously, dimK T.A/ D 2 dimK A. We claim that

the K-bilinear form
.; / W T.A/ T.A/ ! K
given by
..a; f /; .b; g// D f .b/ C g.a/;
for a; b 2 A and f; g 2 D.A/, is a nondegenerate, associative, symmetric form,
and consequently T.A/ is a symmetric K-algebra. Obviously, the form .; / is
symmetric. We show now that .; / is nondegenerate. Take an element .a; f / 2
T.A/ such that ..a; f /; / D 0. Then for every element b 2 A and 0 D g 2 D.A/,
we obtain 0 D ..a; f /; .b; g// D f .b/. This implies that f D 0. Now, for every
element g 2 D.A/, we have 0 D ..a; 0/; .0; g// D g.a/, and then a D 0. Hence,
.a; f / D .0; 0/, and .; / is nondegenerate. Finally, we show that .; / is
associative. Indeed, for a; b; c 2 A and f; g; h 2 D.A/, the following equalities
hold:
..a; f /.b; g/; .c; h// D ..ab; ag C f b/; .c; h//
D h.ab/ C .ag C f b/.c/ D h.ab/ C .ag/.c/ C .f b/.c/
D h.ab/ C g.ca/ C f .bc/ D f .bc/ C .bh/.a/ C .gc/.a/
D f .bc/ C .bh C gc/.a/ D ..a; f /; .bc; bh C gc//
D ..a; f /; .b; g/.c; h//:
Example 2.8. Let K be a field, 2 K n f0g, and
A D KhX; Y i=.X 2 ; Y 2 ; X Y YX /;
where KhX; Y i is the polynomial algebra in two noncommuting variables X and
Y over K. Let x and y be the cosets of X and Y in A , respectively. Then A is a
4-dimensional local K-algebra and 1 D 1A , x, y, xy form a basis of A over K.
Consider the K-linear map
' W A ! K
such that ' .1/ D 0, ' .x/ D 0, ' .y/ D 0, ' .xy/ D 1. Let I be a nonzero
right (respectively, left) ideal of A . Then I contains Kxy, and hence ' .I / ¤ 0.
Therefore, by Theorem 2.1, A is a Frobenius algebra.
We claim that A is a symmetric algebra if and only if D 1. For D 1, A is
a commutative algebra, and hence '1 .ab/ D '1 .ba/ for all a; b 2 A1 . This shows
that A1 is a symmetric algebra.
Assume now ¤ 1. Suppose A is a symmetric algebra. Then, by Theorem 2.2,
there exists a K-linear map ' W A ! K such that '.ab/ D '.ba/ for all a; b 2 A
and Ker ' does not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal of A . On the other hand,
Kxy D Kyx is a nonzero, two-sided ideal of A . Then we obtain
0 ¤ '.yx/ D '.xy/ D '.yx/ D '.yx/;
which implies D 1, a contradiction.
3. Frobenius algebras 345
3 Frobenius algebras
We present in this section some properties of Frobenius algebras essential for further
considerations.
We start with the following fact proved by T. Nakayama in [Nak2].
Proposition 3.1. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K and .; / W A
A ! K be a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form. Then there exists an
automorphism of the K-algebra A such that
..a/; b/ D .b; a/
for all elements a; b 2 A.
Proof. Let a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an be a basis of the K-vector space A. We want to find for
every a 2 A an element
P x of A such thatP.x; / D .; a/ as K-linear forms from
A to K. Let a D jnD1 j aj and x D nlD1 xl al . Let P D Œpij 2 Mn .K/ be
the matrix of the form .; /, that is, pij D .ai ; aj / for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Since
.; / is nondegenerate, the matrix P is invertible. For i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
the equalities
X
n X
n
.ai ; a/ D j .ai ; aj / D j pij ;
j D1 j D1
X
n X
n
.x; ai / D xl .al ; ai / D xl pli :
lD1 lD1
The condition .x; / D .; a/ is clearly equivalent to the condition .ai ; a/ D
.x; ai / for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and hence to the equalities
X
n X
n
xl pli D j pij for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng:
lD1 j D1
Since P D Œpij is invertible, we conclude by Cramer’s theorem that there exists

exactly one solution x1 D 1 ; x2 DP2 ; : : : ; xn D n of the above system of
linear equations. Hence for .a/ D nlD1 l al the equality ..a/; / D .; a/
holds. Then we have a K-linear homomorphism W A ! A, and hence a K-
linear isomorphism because is a monomorphism by the nondegeneracy of .; /.
Further, for a; b; c 2 A, the following equalities hold:
..ab/; c/ D .c; ab/ D .ca; b/ D ..b/; ca/ D ..b/c; a/
D ..a/; .b/c/ D ..a/.b/; c/:
But then ..ab/ .a/.b/; / D 0, and hence .ab/ D .a/.b/, because the
form .; / is nondegenerate. Moreover, for d D 1 .1A /, we have .1A / D
.d /.1A / D .a1A / D .a/ D 1A . Therefore, W A ! A is an isomorphism of
K-algebras.
For a Frobenius K-algebra A and a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form

.; / W AA ! K, a K-algebra automorphism W A ! A with ..a/; b/ D .b; a/
for all a; b 2 A is said to be the Nakayama automorphism of A associated to .; /.
Lemma 3.2. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K, .; / W A A ! K
a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear from, the associated Nakayama auto-
morphism of A, and c an invertible element of A. Then the map 0 W A ! A, given
by 0 .a/ D .cac 1 / for all a 2 A, is a Nakayama automorphism of A.
Proof. Observe first that 0 is a K-algebra automorphism, because it is the compo-
sition of with the K-algebra inner automorphism c./c 1 of A. Consider now
the K-linear form .; /0 W A A ! K given by

.b; a/0 D b; ac 1 for all a; b 2 A:
Clearly, .; /0 is a nondegenerate form, because c is invertible. Moreover, for all
a; b; x 2 A, we have the equalities

.bx; a/0 D bx; ac 1 D b; x ac 1 D b; .xa/c 1 D .b; xa/0 ;
and so the form .; /0 is associative. We claim that 0 is the Nakayama automor-
phism associated to .; /0 . Indeed, for a; b 2 A, we have the equalities

.b; a/0 D b; ac 1 D ac 1 ; b D 1A ac 1 ; b

D 1A ; ac 1 b D .1A / ; ac 1 b

D c 1 c ; ac 1 b D c 1 .c/ ; ac 1 b

D c 1 ; .c/ ac 1 b D c 1 ; cac 1 b

D c 1 ; 0 .a/ b D 0 .a/ b; c 1
0
D 0 .a/ ; bc 1 D 0 .a/ ; b :
The following proposition shows that a Nakayama automorphism of a Frobenius

algebra A is uniquely determined up to an inner automorphism of A.
Proposition 3.3. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K, .; /1 and
.; /2 two nondegenerate associative K-bilinear forms from A A to K, and 1
and 2 the Nakayama automorphisms of A associated to these forms, respectively.
Then there exists an invertible element c 2 A such that 2 .a/ D 1 .cac 1 / for any
a 2 A.
Proof. Let a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an be a basis of A over K. Consider the system of linear
equations
X n
xj .ai ; aj /1 D .ai ; 1A /2 for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng:
j D1
Since the form .; /1 is nondegenerate, the matrix Œ.ai ; aj /1 ij is
Pinvertible, and
hence, by Cramer’s theorem, there exists exactly one element d D jnD1 dj aj 2 A
such that
X
n
.ai ; d /1 D dj .ai ; aj /1 D .ai ; 1A /2 for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
j D1
or equivalently, .; d /1 D .; 1A /2 as K-linear forms. We will show now that d

is an invertible element of A. Consider the K-linear map dR W A ! A such that
dR .a/ D ad for a 2 A. We claim that dR W A ! A is a monomorphism, and hence
an isomorphism. Indeed, for 0 ¤ a 2 A and b 2 A, we have
.b; dR .a//1 D .b; ad /1 D .ba; d /1 D .ba; 1A /2 D .b; a/2 ;
and hence .; dR .a//1 D .; a/2 . Since the forms .; /1 and .; /2 are non-
degenerate, we obtain dR .a/ ¤ 0. Therefore, there exists an element c 2 A such
that cd D dR .c/ D 1A , and so c D d 1 .
We prove now the desired relation between the Nakayama automorphisms 1
and 2 . For a; b 2 A, we have the equalities
.2 .a/; b/2 D .b; a/2 D .ba; 1A /2 D .ba; d /1 D .bdca; d /1 D .bd; cad /1
D .1 .cad /; bd /1 D .1 .cad /b; d /1 D .1 .cad /b; 1A /2
D .1 .cad /; b/2 :
Hence, .2 .a/; /2 D .1 .cad /; /2 for all a 2 A, which implies 2 .a/ D
1 .cad / D 1 .cac 1 / for all a 2 A, because .; /2 is nondegenerate.
For a Frobenius K-algebra A, we will usually denote by A the Nakayama
automorphism of A given by a fixed nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form
.; / W A A ! K.
As a consequence of Proposition 3.3 we obtain the following characterization
of the symmetric algebras in the class of Frobenius algebras.
Corollary 3.4. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K. The following
(ii) Every Nakayama automorphism of A is inner.
(iii) There exists an inner Nakayama automorphism of A.
Proof. Assume A is a symmetric algebra. Then there exists a nondegenerate as-
sociative symmetric K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K and then the identity
homomorphism D idA is the Nakayama automorphism of A associated to this
form. Let .; /0 W A A ! K be a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form

and 0 the Nakayama automorphism of A associated to this form. Then it fol-
lows from Proposition 3.3 that there exists an invertible element c 2 A such that
0 .a/ D .cac 1 / D cac 1 for any a 2 A. Therefore 0 D c./c 1 is an inner
automorphism of A. Hence (i) implies (ii).
Obviously (ii) implies (iii). We prove that (iii) implies (i).
Assume .; / W A A ! K is a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form
such that the associated Nakayama automorphism is inner, say D c./c 1 for
some invertible element c of A. Define the K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K
by
.a; b/ D .a; bc/ for a; b 2 A:
Observe that the form .; / is nondegenerate, because the element c is invertible.
The form .; / is also associative because, for x; y; z 2 A, we have
.xy; z/ D .xy; zc/ D .x; .yz/c/ D .x; yz/ :
Let be the Nakayama automorphism of A associated to the form .; / . Ob-
serve that .; c/ D .; 1A / . Then it follows from the proof of Proposition 3.3 that,
for d D c 1 , we have D .d./d 1 / D cd./d 1 c 1 D idA . Therefore, the
form .; / is symmetric, and so A is a symmetric algebra.
For a finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K, we introduced in (II.7) the

group Aut.A/ of all K-algebra automorphisms of A, the normal subgroup Inn.A/
of Aut.A/ formed by all inner automorphisms of A, and the outer automorphism
group Out.A/ D Aut.A/= Inn.A/. Then the above facts may be summarized as
follows.
Corollary 3.5. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K. Then the Nakayama
automorphisms of A form one class in Out.A/. Moreover, A is a symmetric algebra
if and only if the zero class Inn.A/ in Out.A/ is the class of Nakayama automor-
phisms of A.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and X be a nonempty
subset of A. We define
À .X / D fa 2 A j aX D 0g ;
called the left annihilator of X in A, and
rA .X / D fa 2 A j Xa D 0g ;
called the right annihilator of X in A. Observe that À .X / is a left ideal of A,

rA .X/ is a right ideal of A, À .f0g/ D A A, rA .f0g/ D AA , À .A/ D 0, rA .A/ D 0.
Moreover, if X Y , then À .Y / À .X / and rA .Y / rA .X /.
For a Frobenius K-algebra A, a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form

.; / W A A ! K, and a nonempty subset X of A, we may also define
?
X D fa 2 A j .a; X / D 0g ;
called the left perpendicular set of X , and
X ? D fa 2 A j .X; a/ D 0g ;
called the right perpendicular set of X .
Lemma 3.6. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra and .; / W A A ! K a nonde-
generate associative K-bilinear form. The following statements hold.
(i) À .J / D ? J for every right ideal J of A.
(ii) rA .I / D I ? for every left ideal I of A.
Proof. Let ' W A ! K be the K-bilinear form defined by '.a/ D .a; 1A / D .1A ; a/
for any a 2 A. We proved in the proof of Theorem 2.1 that Ker ' does not contain
a nonzero one-sided ideal of A.
(i) Let J be a right ideal of A. Then, for every a 2 A, aJ is a right ideal of A,
and we have the equalities
À .J / D fa 2 A j aJ D 0g D fa 2 A j '.aJ / D 0g
D fa 2 A j .1A ; aJ / D 0g D fa 2 A j .a; J / D 0g
D ? J:
(ii) Let I be a left ideal of A. Then, for every a 2 A, Ia is a left ideal of A, and
we have the equalities
rA .I / D fa 2 A j Ia D 0g D fa 2 A j '.Ia/ D 0g
D fa 2 A j .Ia; 1A / D 0g D fa 2 A j .I; a/ D 0g
D I ?:
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra and D W mod A ! mod Aop the stan-
dard duality. Then D induces the dualities
proj A o
D / inj Aop ;
D
inj A o
D / proj Aop ;
D
between the categories of projective modules and injective modules in the categories
mod A and mod Aop , respectively. As an immediate consequence we have the
following proposition.
Proposition 3.7. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The

(i) AA is an injective right A-module.
(ii) proj A D inj A.
(iii) proj Aop D inj Aop .
(iv) AA is an injective left A-module.
Recall that a finite dimensional K-algebra with AA injective, equivalently A A

injective, is called a selfinjective algebra. Therefore, a finite dimensional K-algebra
A is selfinjective if the projective modules in mod A (respectively, in mod Aop )
coincide with the injective modules. In particular, A is a selfinjective algebra if and
only if Aop is a selfinjective algebra.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Then, following II.5, A is called a basic
algebra if and only if AA is a direct sum of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable
(projective) right A-submodules. In general, by Lemma II.5.4, there exists an
idempotent e of A such that eA is a minimal progenerator of mod A (direct sum
of a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules
in mod A) and Ab D eAe (isomorphic to EndA .eA/) is called the basic algebra
of A. Further, by the Morita equivalence Theorems II.6.7 and II.6.8, A is Morita
equivalent to Ab , and we have the equivalence of categories
./e
/
mod A o mod Ab ;
˝Ab A
where the right multiplication functor ./e D eR is equivalent to the functor

HomA .eA; /, by Lemma I.8.7.
We exhibit now important properties of Frobenius algebras.
Proposition 3.8. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K. Then A is a

selfinjective algebra.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 2.1 that there is an isomorphism AA ! D.A/A

of right A-modules. Since D.A/A is an injective module in mod A, A is then also
an injective module in mod A, and consequently A is a selfinjective algebra.
Proposition 3.9. Let A be a basic selfinjective finite dimensional K-algebra over

a field K. Then A is a Frobenius algebra.
Proof. Since A is a basic finite dimensional K-algebra, there is a set e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en

of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A such that 1A D e1 C e2 C
C en and, in the induced decomposition AA D e1 A ˚ e2 A ˚ ˚ en A of
AA , the indecomposable projective right A-modules e1 A; e2 A; : : : ; en A are pair-

wise nonisomorphic. Then it follows from Corollary I.8.21 and Lemma I.8.22 that
D.Ae1 /; D.Ae2 /; : : : ; D.Aen / form a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic in-
decomposable injective modules in mod A and there is an isomorphism of right
A-modules D.A/A D D.A A/ Š D.Ae1 / ˚ D.Ae2 / ˚ ˚ D.Aen /. On the
other hand, since by assumption, AA is an injective module in mod A, we conclude
(see Lemma I.8.17) that also e1 A; e2 A; : : : ; en A form a complete set of pairwise
nonisomorphic indecomposable injective modules in mod A. Therefore, there ex-
ists an isomorphism AA ! D.A/A of right A-modules, and consequently A is a
Frobenius algebra.
Proposition 3.10. Let A and B be Morita equivalent finite dimensional K-algebras

over a field K. Then A is selfinjective if and only if B is selfinjective.
Proof. Let F W Mod A ! Mod B be a Morita equivalence functor. Then F induces
a K-linear equivalence F W mod A ! mod B of categories, by Proposition II.6.11.
Moreover, it follows from Proposition II.6.6 that a module M in mod A is projective
(respectively, injective) if and only if F .M / is a projective (respectively, injective)
module in mod B. Clearly, every module N in mod B is isomorphic to a module
of the form F .M /, for a module M in mod A. Therefore, proj A D inj A if and
only if proj B D inj B. Then, by Proposition 3.7, A is a selfinjective algebra if and
only if B is a selfinjective algebra.
We also note that, by Proposition II.6.11, for finite dimensional K-algebras A

and B, Mod A and Mod B are equivalent if and only if mod A and mod B are
equivalent.
Corollary 3.11. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field
K. Then A is Morita equivalent to a Frobenius algebra.
Proof. It follows from Theorem II.6.16 that A is Morita equivalent to its basic
algebra Ab . Moreover, it follows from Propositions 3.9 and 3.10 and the assumption
on A that Ab is a Frobenius algebra.
We also note the following direct consequence of Lemma II.6.17 and Proposi-
tion 3.8.
Corollary 3.12. Let Q be a finite quiver, K a field, I an admissible ideal of the path
algebra KQ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra, and assume
A is a selfinjective algebra. Then A is a Frobenius algebra.
Observe that, by Proposition 3.10, the class of all finite dimensional selfinjective
K-algebras over a field K is closed under Morita equivalences. On the other hand,
as we will see in the next chapter, the class of all Frobenius K-algebras over a
field K is not closed under Morita equivalences. In fact, the class of all Frobenius
K-algebras over a field K is a proper subclass of the class of all finite dimensional
selfinjective K-algebras, and the class of all finite dimensional selfinjective K-
algebras is the smallest class of finite dimensional K-algebras which contains the
class of all Frobenius K-algebras and is closed under the Morita equivalences.
We will discuss now the relationship between the Nakayama functor and the
Nakayama automorphism of a Frobenius algebra.
Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K, .; /A W A A ! K a non-
degenerate associative K-bilinear form, and A the Nakayama automorphism of A
such that .A .a/; b/A D .b; a/A for all a; b 2 A. Since A is a selfinjective algebra
(Proposition 3.8), it follows from the Morita–Azumaya duality Theorem II.7.11 that
the Nakayama functor (see III.5)
NA D D HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod A
is a selfequivalence of the category mod A. Consider also the selfequivalence
functor
NA0 D ./ 1 W mod A ! mod A
A
which assigns to a module M in mod A the module M 1 such that M 1 D M

A A
as K-vector space and the right A-module structure on M 1 is given by m a D
A
mA1 .a/ for m 2 M and a 2 A.
Proposition 3.13. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K, A a Nakayama
automorphism of A, and NA0 D ./ 1 . Then the functors NA0 and NA are naturally
A
isomorphic.
Proof. Let A be the Nakayama automorphism of A associated to a nondegenerate
associative K-bilinear form .; /A W A A ! K. Then we have the K-linear
map ' W A ! K such that '.a/ D .a; 1A /A D .1A ; a/A for a 2 A. Moreover, we
may associate to ' the K-linear map
' W A ! D.A/
given by ' .a/.b/ D '.ba/, which is an isomorphism of left A-modules (see the
proof of Theorem 2.1, where ' is defined as ' .a/.b/ D '.ab/, for all a; b 2 A).
For each module M in mod A, consider the K-linear map
!M W M ! D HomA .M; A/ D HomA .HomA .M; A/; K/;
defined for m 2 M and g 2 HomA .M; A/ by !M .m/.g/ D '.g.m//. Then, for
any homomorphism f W M ! N in mod A, we have the commutative diagram in
mod K,
!M
M / D HomA .M; A/
f D HomA .f;A/
!N
N / D HomA .N; A/ ,
because, for m 2 M and h 2 HomA .N; A/, the following equalities hold
.D HomA .f; A/!M .m//.h/ D !M .m/.hf / D '.h.f .m/// D !N .f .m//.h/:
We claim that the family of K-linear automorphisms !M , given by modules M
in mod A, defines a natural isomorphism
! W NA0 ! NA
of functors from mod A to mod A. To that end, let W HomA .AA ; AA / ! AA
be the canonical isomorphism of right A-modules given by .u/ D u.1A / for
any u 2 HomA .AA ; AA /. Then induces an isomorphism D. / W D.AA / !
D HomA .AA ; AA / of left A-modules. Observe now that D. /' D !AA . Indeed,
for a 2 A and u 2 HomA .AA ; AA /, we have the equalities

D. /' .a/.u/ D D./' .a/ .u/ D ' .a/ .u/
D ' .a/ ..u// D ' .a/ .u.1A // D ' .u.1A /a/
D ' .u.a// D !AA .a/.u/:
Therefore, !AA is an isomorphism of left A-modules, and so of K-vector spaces.
Then, for any free module F D .AA /n in mod A, for some positive integer n,
!F W F ! D HomA .F; A/ is also an isomorphism. Since every projective module
P in mod A is isomorphic to a direct summand of a free module F D .AA /n (see
Lemma I.8.1), we conclude that !P W P ! D HomA .P; A/ is an isomorphism for
any projective module P in mod A. Take now a module M in mod A and a minimal
p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
of M in mod A. Then we obtain a commutative diagram in mod K of the form
p1 p0
P1 / P0 /M /0
!P1 !P0 !M
D HomA .p1 ;A/ D HomA .p0 ;A/
D HomA .P1 ; A/ / D HomA .P0 ; A/ / D HomA .M; A/ /0
with exact rows and !P1 , !P0 being isomorphisms. Hence !M is also an isomor-
phism. We claim that !M induces a natural isomorphism
!M W NA0 .M / ! NA .M /
of right A-modules. Observe first that, for a 2 A, we have a' D 'A .a/ in D.A/.
Indeed, ' D .; 1A / D .1A ; /, and so, for a; b 2 A, we have
.a'/ .b/ D '.ba/ D .ba; 1A /A D .b; a/A D .A .a/; b/A
D .1A ; A .a/b/ D ' .A .a/b/ D .'A .a// .b/:
Moreover, a' D 'A .a/ for all a 2 A is equivalent to A1 .a/' D 'a for all a 2 A.
Let m 2 M , a 2 A and g 2 HomA .M; A/. Then the following equalities hold:

!M .m a/.g/ D !M mA1 .a/ .g/ D ' g mA1 .a/

D ' g.m/A1 .a/ D A1 .a/' .g.m//
D .'a/ .g.m// D ' .ag.m// D ' ..ag/.m//
D !M .m/.ag/ D .!M .m/a/ .g/;
and hence !M .m a/ D !M .m/a. This proves that ! W NA0 ! NA is a natural

isomorphism of functors.
Corollary 3.14. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K and A be a

Nakayama automorphism of A. Then, for every idempotent e of A, there exists an
isomorphism NA .eA/ Š A .e/A of right A-modules.
Proof. It follows from Proposition 3.13 that NA .eA/ Š NA0 .eA/ D .eA/ 1 in
A
mod A. Moreover, the Nakayama automorphism A W A ! A induces an isomor-
phism of right A-modules .eA/ 1 ! A .e/A which assigns to ea 2 eA the element
A
A .ea/ D A .e/A .a/ 2 A .e/A .A/ D A .e/A. Therefore, NA .eA/ Š A .e/A in
mod A.
Proposition 3.15. Let A be a Frobenius K-algebra over a field K and a K-

algebra automorphism of A. Then is a Nakayama automorphism of A if and only
if there is an isomorphism A Š D.A/ of A-bimodules.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 2.1 that there exists isomorphisms A A Š A D.A/ of
left A-modules and AA Š D.A/A of right A-modules. In particular, we conclude
by Lemma II.7.2 that A A is an injective cogenerator in mod Aop and AA is an
injective cogenerator in mod A. Applying Morita–Azumaya Theorem II.7.11, we
conclude that A is a selfduality A-module. On the other hand, it follows from
the proof of Proposition II.7.16 that there is a 1-1-correspondence between the
isomorphism classes of selfduality modules Q and the outer automorphism classes
˛Q D ˛ C Inn.A/ 2 Out.A/ of automorphisms ˛ 2 Aut.A/ such that Q Š D.A/˛
as A-bimodules. Further, by Corollary 3.5, the Nakayama automorphisms of A
form one outer automorphism class in Out.A/. Therefore, in order to prove the
required equivalence, it suffices to show that there is an isomorphism A Š D.A/A
of A-bimodules for an arbitrarily chosen Nakayama automorphism A of A. Indeed,
then the outer automorphism class QA D A C Inn.A/ consists of all Nakayama
automorphisms of A, and, by the above remarks Q D QA if and only if A Š D.A/
as A-bimodules.
Now let A be the Nakayama automorphism associated to a nondegenerate
associative K-bilinear form .; /A W A A ! K. Take the associated K-linear
4. Symmetric algebras 355
form ' D .; 1A /A D .1A ; /A W A ! K. Then we have the isomorphism of left
A-modules
' W A A ! A D.A/
such that ' .a/.b/ D '.ba/ for a; b 2 A. Further, for a; b; c 2 A, we have the
equalities
' .ac/.b/ D ' .b.ac// D .bac; 1A /A D .ba; c/A D .A .c/; ba/A
D .A .c/ba; 1A /A D ' .A .c/ba/ D ' .a/ .A .c/b/

D ' .a/A .c/ .b/;
and consequently ' .ac/ D ' .a/A .c/. This shows that ' defines an isomor-
phism
' W A ! D.A/A
of A-bimodules.
4 Symmetric algebras
In this section we present properties of symmetric algebras playing a prominent
role in further considerations. Moreover, an important class of symmetric algebras,
formed by the Brauer tree algebras, will be introduced here.
(ii) For every idempotent e of A, the algebra eAe is symmetric.
(iii) The basic algebra Ab of A is symmetric.
Proof. Assume A is a symmetric algebra. Then it follows from Theorem 2.2 that
there exists an isomorphism W A AA ! A D.A/A of A-bimodules. Let e be an
idempotent of A. Then .eAe/ ˇ D e.A/e D eD.A/e D D.eAe/, and hence
ˇ
induces an isomorphism eAe W eAe ! D.eAe/ of eAe-bimodules. Applying
Theorem 2.2 again, we conclude that eAe is a symmetric algebra. Hence (i) implies
(ii).
The implication (ii) ) (iii) is clear because Ab D eAe for an idempotent e of
A such that eA is a minimal progenerator of mod A.
We will prove now that (iii) implies (i). Let e be an idempotent of A such
that eA is a minimal progenerator of mod A, and hence eAe is the basic algebra
Ab of A. Assume Ab is a symmetric algebra. Then it follows from Theorem 2.2
that there exists a K-linear form '0 W eAe ! K such that '0 .xy/ D '0 .yx/
for all elements x; y 2 eAe and Ker '0 does not contain a nonzero one-sided
ideal of eAe. We may assume that e ¤ 1A , or equivalently, A is not basic. Let

e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; em be pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A such that e D
e1 C e2 C C em . Then it follows from Lemma I.5.7 and Corollary I.5.9 that there
is a decomposition AA D e1 A ˚ e2 A ˚ ˚ em A ˚ emC1 A ˚ ˚ en A, where
e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; em ; emC1 ; : : : ; en is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents
of A such that 1A D e1 C C em C emC1 C C en , and m < n. Moreover, it
follows from the choice of e D e1 C C em that, for each j 2 fm C 1; : : : ; ng,
there exists i 2 f1; : : : ; mg such that ej A Š ei A in mod A. Therefore, there exists
a sequence of positive integers d1 ; d2 ; : : : ; dm such that
AA Š .e1 A/d1 ˚ .e2 A/d2 ˚ ˚ .em A/dm
in mod A. Then we obtain the composed isomorphism of K-algebras f W A ! ƒ
of the form
Mm Mm
d d

A ! EndA .AA /
! EndA .ei A/di ! ei Aej i j
iD1 i;j D1
2 3
Md1 d1 .e1 Ae1 / Md1 d2 .e1 Ae2 / ::: Md1 dm .e1 Aem /
6 Md2 d1 .e2 Ae1 / Md2 d2 .e2 Ae2 / ::: Md2 dm .e2 Aem / 7
6 7
D6 :: :: :: :: 7 D ƒ;
4 : : : : 5
Mdm d1 .em Ae1 / Mdm d2 .em Ae2 / : : : Mdm dm .em Aem /
where, for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, Mdi dj .ei Aej / is the K-vector space of all di dj
matrices with coefficients in ei Aej . Observe now that, for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; mg
with i ¤ j , we have
'0 .ei Aej / D '0 ..ei Aej /ej / D '0 .ej .ei Aej // D '0 .0/ D 0:

We define the K-linear map W ƒ ! K by Mdi dj .ei Aej / D 0 for i ¤ j ,
and the restriction i W Mdi di .ei Aei / ! K of to Mdi di .K/ be the matrix
homomorphism Mdi di .'0 /, having all coefficients equal to '0 . Observe that then
.BC / D .CB/ for all B; C 2 ƒ. Then ' D f W A ! K is a K-linear
homomorphism such that '.ab/ D '.ba/ for all a; b 2 A. Let I be a right ideal of
A such that '.I / D 0. Then I D e1 I ˚ ˚ em I ˚ emC1 I ˚ ˚ en I as right
ideals of A and
Mm
f .I / D .ei Iej /di dj :
i;j D1
On the other hand, eIe is a right ideal of eAe D Ab and '.I / D 0 implies
'0 .eIe/ D 0. Hence eIe D 0, which is equivalent to ei Iej D 0 for all i; j 2
f1; : : : ; mg. This shows that f .I / D 0, and so I D 0, because f is an isomorphism.
Similarly, we show that if I is a left ideal of A with '.I / D 0 then I D 0. Therefore,
Ker ' does not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal. Applying Theorem 2.2, we
conclude that A is a symmetric algebra.
We obtain the following consequences of Theorem 4.1.

Corollary 4.2. Let A be a symmetric K-algebra and e be a primitive idempotent
of A. Then eAe is a local symmetric K-algebra.
Proof. Since the idempotent e is primitive, by Proposition I.5.16 and Lemma I.4.4,
eA is indecomposable and eAe Š EndA .eA/ is a local K-algebra. Moreover, by
Theorem 4.1, eAe is a symmetric algebra.
Corollary 4.3. Let A and B be Morita equivalent finite dimensional K-algebras.

Then A is a symmetric algebra if and only if B is a symmetric algebra.
Proof. It follows from Corollary II.6.21 that the basic algebras Ab and B b are
isomorphic K-algebras. Then the required equivalence is a direct consequence of
Theorems II.6.16 and 4.1.
Therefore, the class of all symmetric K-algebras over a field K is closed under
the Morita equivalences.
Proposition 4.4. Let A be a symmetric K-algebra and P be a projective module
in mod A. Then EndA .P / is a symmetric K-algebra.
Proof. Let M D P ˚ A be the direct sum of P and A in mod A. Then, by
Lemmas II.5.1 and II.5.2, M is a projective generator in mod A. Consider the finite
dimensional K-algebra ƒ D EndA .M /. Applying Theorem II.6.7 we conclude
that ƒ is Morita equivalent to A, and consequently ƒ is a symmetric algebra, by
Corollary 4.3. Observe also that the algebra EndA .P / is isomorphic to an algebra
eƒe for some idempotent e of ƒ. Therefore, we conclude, by Theorem 4.1, that
EndA .P / is a symmetric algebra.
We present now an example of a Frobenius algebra A and an idempotent e such

that eAe is not a selfinjective algebra, which shows that Theorem 4.1 cannot be
extended to Frobenius algebras.
Example 4.5. Let K be a field, Q the quiver
1
~? @@
~~ @@˛
~~ @@
~ ~ @
3 o ˇ
2 ;
I the ideal in the path algebra KQ of Q over K generated by the paths ˛ˇ, ˇ , ˛,
and A D KQ=I . Then A is a 6-dimensional K-algebra with a K-basis given by the
cosets e1 D "1 C I , e2 D "2 C I , e3 D "3 C I , ˛N D ˛ C I , ˇN D ˇ C I , N D C I ,
where "1 , "2 , "3 are the trivial paths of Q at the vertices 1, 2, 3, respectively. Hence,
A is a basic K-algebra (see Lemma II.6.17) and e1 , e2 , e3 are pairwise orthogonal

primitive idempotents of A with 1A D e1 C e2 C e3 . It follows also from Theo-
rem I.10.3 that A is a Nakayama algebra. We know from Theorem I.2.10 that the
category mod A is equivalent to the category of representations repK .Q; I / of the
bound quiver .Q; I / over K. For i 2 f1; 2; 3g, we denote by P .i / the indecompos-
able projective representation in repK .Q; I / corresponding to the indecomposable
projective right A-module ei A, and by I.i / the indecomposable injective represen-
tation in repK .Q; I / corresponding to the indecomposable injective right A-module
D.Aei /. Then it follows from Proposition I.8.27 that P .1/, P .2/, P .3/, I.1/, I.2/,
I.3/ are representations of the form
K 0
D 77 1 D 55
7 5
P .1/ D I.2/ W 0 o K, P .2/ D I.3/ W K o K,
1
B K 55
5
1
P .3/ D I.1/ W K o 0.
Hence, the projective representations in repK .Q; I / coincide with the injective
representations. In particular, we conclude that proj A D inj A, and hence A is
a selfinjective algebra. Since A is a basic algebra, applying Proposition 3.9, we
obtain that A is even a Frobenius algebra.
Take now e D e1 C e2 and B D eAe. Then
B D Ke1 ˚ Ke2 ˚ K ˛;
N
and B is isomorphic to the path algebra K of the quiver
1
˛ / 2.
We proved in Example I.2.9 (b) that the category repK . / of finite dimensional
representations of over K has only three indecomposable representations (see
also Proposition I.8.27)
S.1/ D I.1/ W K / 0 , P .1/ D I.2/ W K 1 / K , S.2/ D P .2/ W 0 /K.
Hence, S.2/ is a projective noninjective representation in repK . /. Since mod B is

equivalent to repK . /, we conclude that B is not a selfinjective algebra, and hence
not a Frobenius algebra.
Proposition 4.6. Let A be a commutative finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra
over a field K. Then A is a symmetric K-algebra.
Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a complete set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempo-
tents of A with 1A D e1 C C en . Since A is commutative, e1 ; : : : ; en are central
idempotents of A, and hence A D e1 A˚ ˚en A D e1 Ae1 ˚ ˚en Aen is simul-

taneously a decomposition of A into a direct sum of indecomposable projective right
A-modules and into a direct sum of two-sided ideals, which are local commutative
K-algebras. Moreover, for i ¤ j in f1; : : : ; ng, we have ei Aej D ei ej A D 0, and
hence HomA .ej A; ei A/ D 0, by Lemma I.8.7. In particular, e1 A; : : : ; en A are pair-
wise nonisomorphic indecomposable projective right A-modules, and consequently
A is a basic algebra. Since A is a selfinjective algebra, applying Proposition 3.9, we
deduce that A is a Frobenius algebra. Then it follows from Theorem 2.1 that there
exists a K-linear form ' W A ! K such that Ker ' does not contain a nonzero right
ideal of A. Invoking now the commutativity of A we conclude that '.ab/ D '.ba/
for all a; b 2 A and Ker ' does not contain a one-sided ideal of A. Applying
Theorem 2.2, we infer that A is a symmetric K-algebra.
We introduce now the class of Brauer tree algebras, which play a fundamental
role in the Morita equivalence classification of blocks of finite representation type
of group algebras KG of finite groups G over fields K of positive characteristic.
Let K be a field.
A Brauer tree is a finite connected tree T D TSm , having at least one edge,
together with:
• a circular ordering of the edges converging at each vertex;
• one exceptional vertex S with multiplicity m 1.
We draw T in a plane such that the edges converging at any vertex have the clockwise
order.
We associate to a Brauer tree T a Brauer quiver QT defined as follows:
• the vertices of QT are the edges of T ;
• there is an arrow i ! j in QT () j is the consecutive edge of i in the
circular ordering of the edges converging at a vertex of T .
Hence the quiver QT has the following structure:
• QT is a union of oriented cycles corresponding to the vertices of T ;
• every vertex of QT belongs to exactly two cycles.
The cycles of QT are divided into two camps: ˛-camps and ˇ-camps such that
two cycles of QT having nontrivial intersection belong to different camps. We
assume that the oriented cycle of QT corresponding to the exceptional vertex S of
T , called the exceptional cycle of QT , is an ˛-cycle. The oriented cycles of QT
corresponding to the nonexceptional vertices of T are said to be ordinary cycles of
QT . Therefore, for each vertex i of QT , we have
˛i
• i ! ˛.i /, the arrow in an ˛-camp of QT starting at i ,
ˇi
• i ! ˇ.i /, the arrow in a ˇ-camp of QT starting at i ,
and the cycles
Ai D ˛i ˛˛.i/ : : : ˛˛1 .i/ ; Bi D ˇi ˇˇ.i/ : : : ˇˇ 1 .i/ :
˛˛ 2 .i / ˇˇ 2 .i /
˛ 2 .i / k ˛˛.i / ˇˇ.i / 3 ˇ 2 .i /
z $
˛ 3 .i / ˛.i /
[
ˇ.i /
C ˇ 3 .i /
˛i ˇi

iM Q

˛˛ 1 .i / ˇˇ 1 .i /

˛ 3 .i / ˛ 1 .i / ˇ 1 .i / ˇ 3 .i /
: d
* t
˛˛ 3 .i / ˛ 2 .i / ˛˛ 2 .i / ˇˇ 2 .i / ˇ
2
.i / ˇˇ3 .i /
The Brauer tree algebra of a Brauer tree T D TSm over K is the K-algebra
A.T / D A.TSm / D KQTSm =ITSm , where ITSm is the ideal in the path algebra
KQTSm of QTSm generated by the elements
• ˇˇ 1 .i/ ˛i and ˛˛1 .i/ ˇi ,
i Bi if the ˛-cycle passing through i is exceptional,

• Am
• Ai Bi if the ˛-cycle passing through i is ordinary,
for all vertices i of QTSm .
We note that ITSm is not an admissible ideal of QTSm because it contains differ-
ences of cycles around the same vertex with one of them being a loop, corresponding
to an extreme nonexceptional vertex of the Brauer tree TSm . However it allows a
very convenient way to write the generators of the ideal of a Brauer tree algebra.
Example 4.7. Let T D TSm be the star

?
??
??n 1
??
?? 2
n1

: :
S 3
: :
:: ::
:: i ::
: :: ::
::: :
::: ::: :::

with the exceptional vertex S of multiplicity m in the center of TSm . Then the
associated Brauer quiver QTSm is of the form
ˇ1

ˇn ˛n 0 ˛1 ˇ2
1 " q
A n 2

˛n1 ˛2
$
ˇn1 Q n 1 3 d ˇ3
˛n2 ˛3

d
i q
˛i D ˛i 1
ˇi
and ITSm is the ideal in the path algebra KQTSm generated by the elements
• ˇi ˛i , ˛i ˇiC1 ,
• .˛i ˛iC1 : : : ˛n ˛1 : : : ˛i1 /m ˇi ,
for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng with ˛0 D ˛n , ˇnC1 D ˇ1 . Then the Brauer algebra
A.T / D A.TSm / of T D TSm over K is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra
A.TSm / D KQT m =ITm , where QT m is the cycle
S S S
1
˛n 0 ˛1
n " 2
A
˛n1 ˛2

n 1 Q 3
˛n2 ˛3

d
˛i q ˛i 1
i
and ITm is the admissible ideal of the path algebra KQT m generated by all compo-
S S
sitions of mn C 1 consecutive arrows of the cycle QT m . Hence A.TSm / is a basic
S
symmetric Nakayama algebra.
Example 4.8. Let T D TSm be the star
S

?
??
??n 1

??
?? 2
n1
: :
3
: :
:: ::
:: i ::
: :: :
::: : ::
: : : : : :::

with the exceptional vertex S of multiplicity m not in the center of TSm . Then the
associated Brauer quiver QTSm is of the form
˛1

˛n ˇn 0 ˇ1 ˛2
1 " q
A n 2

ˇn1 ˇ2
$
˛n1 Q n 1 3 d ˛3
ˇn2 ˇ3

d
i q
ˇi D ˇi 1
˛i
and ITSm is the ideal of KQTSm generated by the elements
• ˛i ˇi , ˇi ˛iC1 ,
• ˛1m ˇ1 ˇ2 : : : ˇn ,
• ˛j ˇj ˇj C1 : : : ˇn ˇ1 : : : ˇj 1 ,
for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, j 2 f2; : : : ; ng, with ˛nC1 D ˛1 . Then the Brauer tree
algebra A.T / D A.TSm / of T D TSm over K is isomorphic to the bound quiver
algebra A.TSm / D KQT m =ITm , where QT m is the cycle

S S S
˛1

ˇn 0 ˇ1
n 1 " 2
A
ˇn1 ˇ2

n 1 Q 3
ˇn2 ˇ3

d
ˇi q ˇi 1
i
and ITm is the admissible ideal of the path algebra KQT m of QT m generated by
S S S
the elements
• ˛1 ˇ1 , ˇn ˛1 ,
• ˛1m ˇ1 ˇ2 : : : ˇn , if m 2,
• ˇ1 ˇ2 : : : ˇn ˇ1 , if m D 1,
• ˇj ˇj C1 : : : ˇn ˇ1 : : : ˇj 1 ˇj , for any (nonexceptional) vertex j 2 f2; : : : ; ng

of the Brauer tree TSm .
Example 4.9. Let T D TS4 be the Brauer tree of the form
@
@@ ~~
@@ ~
10 @@ ~~
~~ 11

9 6 3

8

5

2 '&%$
!"#

1

4
S
with the exceptional vertex S of multiplicity 4. Then the associated Brauer quiver
QT 4 is of the form
S
˛10 ˛11
ˇ10
10 _@ / 11
@@ ~~ ˛6 ˇ3
@@ ~~
@@ ~ ~
ˇ9 ~ ˇ11
9 O @@ ? @@ ? 3
~
@@˛9 ˇ5 ~~ 6 @@ˇ6 ˛2 ~~ ~
@@ ~ @@ ~
@ ~~~ @ ~~~
˛8 _@ _@ ˛3
~~~ 5 @@@ ~~~ 2 @@@
~~˛ @@ ~~ @
˛1 @@
~~ 5 ˇ4 @ ~~ ˇ2
8D O 4 D 1
˛7 ˛4
ˇ8 ˇ1
D 7
ˇ7
and IT 4 is the ideal of KQT 4 generated by the elements

S S
• ˇ1 ˛1 , ˛1 ˇ2 , ˇ6 ˛2 , ˛2 ˇ3 , ˇ3 ˛3 , ˛3 ˇ1 ,
• ˇ2 ˛4 , ˛7 ˇ4 , ˇ4 ˛5 , ˛9 ˇ5 , ˇ5 ˛6 , ˛6 ˇ6 ,
• ˛4 ˇ7 , ˇ7 ˛7 ,
• ˛5 ˇ8 , ˇ8 ˛8 , ˛8 ˇ9 , ˇ11 ˛9 ,
• ˇ9 ˛10 , ˛10 ˇ10 , ˇ10 ˛11 , ˛11 ˇ11 ,
• .˛1 ˛2 ˛3 /4 ˇ1 , .˛2 ˛3 ˛1 /4 ˇ2 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 , .˛3 ˛1 ˛2 /4 ˇ3 ,
• ˛4 ˛7 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 ˇ2 , ˛7 ˛4 ˇ7 ,
• ˛6 ˇ6 ˇ2 ˇ4 ˇ5 ,
• ˛5 ˛8 ˛9 ˇ5 ˇ6 ˇ2 ˇ4 , ˛8 ˛9 ˛5 ˇ8 , ˛9 ˛5 ˛8 ˇ9 ˇ10 ˇ11 ,
• ˛10 ˇ10 ˇ11 ˇ9 ,
• ˛11 ˇ11 ˇ9 ˇ10 .

Then the Brauer tree algebra A.T / D A.TS4 / of T D TS4 over K is isomorphic to
the bound quiver algebra A.TS4 / D KQT 4 =IT4 , where QT 4 is the quiver
S S S
ˇ10
10 _@ / 11
@@ ~~
@@ ~~
ˇ9 @@ ~~~ ˇ11
6
9 O @@ ?~ @@ ? 3
@@˛9 ˇ5 ~~ @@ˇ6 ˛2 ~~~
@@ ~ @@ ~
@ ~~~ @ ~~~
˛8 ˛3
~~ 5 _@@@ ~~ 2 _@@@
~ @@ ~ @@
~~˛ @ ~~ ˛1 @@
~~ 5 ˇ4 @ ~~ ˇ2
8 O 4 1
˛7 ˛4

7
obtained from the quiver QT 4 by removing all loops, and IT4 is the admissible
S S
ideal of the path algebra KQT 4 of QT 4 generated by the elements
S S
• ˛1 ˇ2 , ˇ6 ˛2 ,
• ˇ2 ˛4 , ˛7 ˇ4 , ˇ4 ˛5 , ˛9 ˇ5 ,
• ˛8 ˇ9 , ˇ11 ˛9 ,
• .˛2 ˛3 ˛1 /4 ˇ2 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 ,
• ˛4 ˛7 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 ˇ2 ,
• ˛5 ˛8 ˛9 ˇ5 ˇ6 ˇ2 ˇ4 , ˛9 ˛5 ˛8 ˇ9 ˇ10 ˇ11 ,
• ˛3 ˛1 .˛2 ˛3 ˛1 /2 ˛2 ˛3 ,
• ˇ10 ˇ11 ˇ9 ˇ10 .
Following [SW] a finite dimensional K-algebra A is said to be special biserial
if A is isomorphic to a bound quiver K-algebra KQ=I , where the bound quiver
.Q; I / satisfies the following conditions:
(1) each vertex of Q is the source and target of at most two arrows;
(2) for any arrow ˛ of Q, there are at most one arrow ˇ and one arrow such that
˛ˇ; ˛ … I .
Lemma 4.10. Let A D A.TSm / be the Brauer tree algebra of a Brauer tree TSm
over a field K. Then A is a special biserial algebra.
Proof. It follows from definition that A.TSm / D KQTSm =ITSm , where QTSm is the
Brauer quiver associated to the Brauer tree TSm and ITSm is the ideal in the path
algebra KQTSm of QTSm generated by the elements
• ˇˇ 1 .i/ ˛i and ˛˛1 .i/ ˇi ,
i Bi if the ˛-cycle passing through i is exceptional,

• Am
• Ai Bi if the ˛-cycle passing through i is not exceptional.
A vertex i of TSm being the vertex of exactly one edge is said to be extreme. Observe
that a vertex i of TSm is extreme if and only if the cycle in QTSm associated to i is a
loop. Denote by QT m the quiver obtained from the Brauer quiver QTSm by removing
S
all loops corresponding to the nonexceptional extreme vertices of TSm . Consider
the ideal ITm in the path algebra KQT m of QT m generated by the elements
S S S
• ˇˇ 1 .i/ ˛i and ˛˛1 .i/ ˇi if the cycles Ai and Bi in QTSm around i are cycles
of the quiver QT m ,
S
• Am
i Bi if the ˛-cycle Ai in QTSm passing through i is exceptional and the
ˇ-cycle Bi in QTSm around i is a cycle in QT m ,
S
• Ai Bi if the ˛-cycle Ai in Q passing through i is ordinary and both

TSm
cycles Ai and Bi of QTSm are cycles in QT m ,
S
• Am
i ˛i if the ˛-cycle Ai in QTSm passing through i is exceptional and the
ˇ-cycle Bi in QTSm is a loop,
• Ai ˛i if the ˛-cycle Ai in QTSm passing through i is ordinary of length at least
2 and Bi is a loop of QTSm ,
• Bi ˇi if the ˛-cycle Ai in QTSm passing through i is an ordinary loop,
for all vertices i of QTSm (equivalently, of QT m ). Observe that ITm is an admissible
S S
ideal of KQT m . Then A D A.TSm / D KQTSm =ITSm is isomorphic to the bound
S
quiver K-algebra A D KQT m =ITm of the constructed bound quiver QT m ; ITm ,
S S S S
satisfying the required conditions (1) and (2). Therefore, A is a special biserial
algebra.
Theorem 4.11. Let A D A.TSm / be the Brauer tree algebra of a Brauer tree TSm
over a field K. Then A is a symmetric algebra.
Proof. It follows from Lemma 4.10 that A D A.TSm / D KQTSm =ITSm is isomorphic
to the special biserial bound quiver K-algebra A D KQT m =ITm . We know from
S S
Lemma I.3.6 that rad A D RQ m =ITm , where RQ m is the ideal of KQT m
TS S TS S
generated by all arrows of QT m . We claim that the right socle soc.AA / and the
S
left socle soc.A A / of A coincide with the K-vector subspace S.A / of A
generated by the set X .TSm / of cosets in KQT m =ITm of the form:
S S
• aim D Am
i C ITm if the ˛-cycle Ai in QTSm passing through i is exceptional,
S
• ai D Ai C ITm for all vertices i of QTSm such that the ˛-cycle Ai of QTSm
S
passing through i is ordinary and not a loop,
• bi D Bi C ITm for all vertices i of QTSm such that the ˛-cycle Ai of QTSm
S
passing through i is an ordinary loop.
Observe that the number of elements of X .TSm / is the number of vertices of QTSm
(equivalently, of QT m ). Further, X .TSm / consists of the cosets of maximal paths
S
in QT m which do not belong to ITm . Moreover, the coset u C ITm of any maximal
S S S
path u in QT m which does not belong to ITm is equal to a coset from X .TSm /.
S S
Recall also that, by Proposition I.5.13 and Corollary I.5.15, the right socle soc.AA /
(respectively, the left socle soc.A A /) of A is the largest right A -submodule X
of A with X.rad A / D 0 (respectively, the largest left A -submodule Y of A
with .rad A /Y D 0). Since rad A D RQ m =ITm , we conclude that
TS S

soc A A D S.A / D soc AA :
We also note that A is generated as K-vector space by the cosets u C ITm of paths
S
u in QT m . Consider the K-linear map ' W A ! K given on the cosets u C ITm
S S
of paths u in QT m as follows:
S
´
1 if u C ITm belongs to X .TSm /,
' uC ITm D S
S 0 otherwise.
Then we have '.ab/ D '.ba/ for all elements a; b 2 A . Moreover, Ker ' does
not contain a nonzero one-sided ideal of A , because any such ideal contains a
simple left or right A -submodule, and hence an element of X .TSm /. Therefore,
applying Theorem 2.2, we conclude that A , and hence A, is a symmetric algebra.

We mention the following theorem proved by E. C. Dade [Da], G. J. Janusz [Ja]
and H. Kupisch [Ku1], [Ku2], showing the importance of the Brauer tree algebras.
Theorem 4.12. Let K be an algebraically closed field of characteristic p > 0, G a
finite group with jGj divisible by p, and KG the group algebra of G. Assume that
B is a block of KG which is nonsimple and of finite representation type. Then B is
Morita equivalent to a Brauer tree algebra A.TSm /.
We also note that only exceptional Brauer tree algebras are Morita equivalent
to blocks of the group algebras of finite groups, as it was shown by W. Feit in [Fe].
5 Simple algebras
We will show in this section that all finite dimensional simple algebras, and then
semisimple algebras, over a field are symmetric algebras. A prominent role in the
proof of these facts will be played by the Noether–Skolem theorem on the finite
dimensional central simple algebras over a field. We prove first several preliminary
results.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then the center of A is
the K-subalgebra
C.A/ D fa 2 A j ax D xa for all x 2 Ag
of A.
Lemma 5.1. Let A be a finite dimensional simple K-algebra over a field K. Then
C.A/ is a finite field extension of K.
Proof. Observe that C.A/ is a commutative K-subalgebra of A. Let c be a nonzero

element in C.A/. Then cA D AcA D Ac is a nonzero two-sided ideal of A. Since
A is a simple K-algebra, we conclude that cA D A, and so there exists an element
d 2 A such that cd D 1A , and clearly also dc D cd D 1A . Moreover, for any
element x 2 A, we have
c.dx/ D .cd /x D 1A x D x D x1A D x.dc/ D .xd /c D c.xd /;
because c 2 C.A/, and hence dx D xd . This shows that d 2 C.A/, and conse-
quently C.A/ is a field extension of K with dimK C.A/ dimK A < 1.
Lemma 5.2. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K. Then
C.A ˝K B/ D C.A/ ˝K C.B/.
Proof. Since C.A/ is a K-vector subspace of A, we have a decomposition A D

A0 ˚ C.A/ of K-vector spaces. Then we have a decomposition A ˝K B D A0 ˝K
B ˚ C.A/ ˝K B in mod K. We shall show first that C.A ˝K B/ C.A/ ˝K B.
Take c 2 C.A˝K B/. Then c D x Cy for some x 2 A0 ˝K B and y 2 C.A/˝K B.
Hence, for any a 2 A, we have c.a˝1B / D .a˝1B /c and y.a˝1B / D .a˝1B /y,
and consequently we obtain that x.a ˝ 1B / D .a ˝ 1B /x. Further, choose a basis
; : : : ; bm of B over K. Then x 2 A0 ˝K B can be written in the form
b1 ; b2P
0
x D m iD1 xi ˝ bi for some elements
Pm x1 ; : : : ; xm of
PA . But then x.a ˝ 1B / D
m
.a ˝ 1B /x leads to the equality iD1 axi ˝ bi D iD1 xi a ˝ bi , and hence to
the equalities axi D xi a for all i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Hence x1 ; : : : ; xm 2 C.A/, and
5. Simple algebras 369
so x1 D 0; : : : ; xm D 0. Thus x D 0, and c D y 2 C.A/ ˝K B. Therefore,

C.A ˝K B/ C.A/ ˝K B.
Similarly, we have a decomposition of K-vector spaces B D B 0 ˚ C.B/, and
hence also C.A/ ˝K B D C.A/ ˝K B 0 ˚ C.A/ ˝K C.B/. Then, choosing a
basis of C.A/ over K, we show as above that C.C.A/ ˝K B/ C.A/ ˝K C.B/.
But then C.A ˝K B/ C.C.A ˝K B// C.C.A/ ˝K B/ C.A/ ˝K C.B/.
Since the inclusion C.A/ ˝K C.B/ C.A ˝K B/ is obvious, we conclude that
C.A ˝K B/ D C.A/ ˝K C.B/.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and Aop the opposite
algebra of A. For an element a in A, we denote by a0 the element a considered as
an element of Aop . Then, for a; b 2 A, we have a0 b 0 D .ba/0 in Aop . Consider now
the K-vector space Ae D Aop ˝K A together with the multiplication given by
.a0 ˝ b/.c 0 ˝ d / D a0 c 0 ˝ bd D .ca/0 ˝ bd;
for a; b; c; d 2 A. Then Ae is a K-algebra of dimension dimK Ae D .dimK A/2

and the identity 1Ae D 1Aop ˝ 1A D 1A0 ˝ 1A , called the enveloping algebra of A.
We consider the category Bimod A of all A-bimodules, that is, the category whose
objects are A-bimodules, the morphisms are homomorphisms of A-bimodules, and
the composition of morphisms is the usual composition of maps. By a homomor-
phism f W M ! N of A-bimodules we mean a K-linear map f W M ! N such
that f .amb/ D af .m/b for all a; b 2 A and m 2 M . Moreover, we have the full
subcategory bimod A of Bimod A whose objects are the finite dimensional (over K)
A-bimodules. Observe that bimod A contains the canonical A-bimodule A D A AA ,
called the regular A-bimodule.
It follows from Proposition II.3.7 that there is a K-linear equivalence of cate-
gories
F W Mod Ae ! Bimod A
F W mod Ae ! bimod A:
We will identify Mod Ae with Bimod A and mod Ae with bimod A.

Lemma 5.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then there
is a canonical isomorphism of K-algebras
A W EndAe .A/ ! C.A/;
which assigns to f 2 EndAe .A/ the element A .f / D f .1A /.

Proof. Let f W A ! A be a homomorphism of right Ae -modules (A-bimodules).
Then, for any a 2 A, we have af .1A / D f .a1A / D f .a/ D f .1A a/ D f .1A /a,
which shows that f .1A / 2 C.A/. Clearly, for any element c 2 C.A/, the K-linear
map fc W A ! A such that f .a/ D ac D ca for any a 2 A is a homomorphism of A-
bimodules (right Ae -modules). Therefore, the map A is an isomorphism. Finally,
observe that A .idA / D idA .1A / D 1A and A .fg/ D .fg/.1A / D f .g.1A // D
f .1A g.1A // D f .1A /g.1A / D A .f /A .g/ for f; g 2 EndAe .A/. Thus A is an
isomorphism of K-algebras.
(i) A is an indecomposable K-algebra if and only if A is an indecomposable
module in mod Ae .
(ii) A is a semisimple K-algebra if and only if A is a semisimple module in mod Ae .
(iii) A is a simple K-algebra if and only if A is a simple module in mod Ae .
Proof. Observe that a K-vector subspace I of A is a two-sided ideal of A if and
only if I is a right Ae -submodule of A. Then the equivalence (i) follows from
Proposition I.3.16. Moreover, it follows from Lemma I.6.11 that the radical rad A
of A coincides with the intersection J.A/ of all maximal two-sided ideals of A.
Hence, by the above remark, rad A D J.A/ is the intersection of all maximal
right Ae -submodules of A. In particular, we obtain that rad A D 0 if and only if
J.A/ D A rad.Ae / D 0. Therefore, the equivalence (ii) also holds. Obviously,
then the equivalence (iii) also holds.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is called a central algebra if
C.A/ D K.
A is a central simple K-algebra if and only if A is a simple module in Ae with
EndAe .A/ Š K.
Lemma 5.6. Let n be a positive integer and F a finite dimensional division K-
algebra over a field K. Then
C .Mn .F // D faIn j a 2 C.F /g D C.F /:
In particular, Mn .F / is a central K-algebra if and only if F is a central K-algebra.

Proof. For r; s 2 f1; : : : ; ng, let Ers be the elementary matrix in Mn .F / having 1F
in the position .r; s/ and 0F elsewhere. Take a matrix Œaij 2 C.Mn .F //. Then
Err Œaij D Œaij Err for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, which forces aij D 0 for all i ¤ j
in f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, we have E1r Œaij D Œaij E1r , which implies arr D a11 ,
for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Hence Œaij D aIn for a D a11 2 F . Clearly, for any
x 2 F , we have also .xIn /Œaij D Œaij .xIn /, which gives a 2 C.F /. Observe
also that every matrix aIn , with a 2 C.F /, belongs to C.Mn .F //. Therefore,
indeed C.Mn .F // D faIn j a 2 C.F /g D C.F /. Moreover, C.Mn .F // D K if
and only if C.F / D K.
We will establish now another characterization of central simple algebras.

For a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, we consider the K-linear
map
T A W Ae ! EndK .A/
such that for a; b 2 A, T A .a0 ˝ b/ 2 EndK .A/ is given by T A .a0 ˝ b/.x/ D axb
for any x 2 A. Observe that T A is a homomorphism of K-algebras.

(i) A is a central simple K-algebra.
(ii) T A W Ae ! EndK .A/ is an isomorphism of K-algebras.
(iii) Ae is a central simple K-algebra.
Proof. Let n D dimK A. Observe that EndK .A/ Š Mn .K/ as K-algebras. As-
sume A is a central simple K-algebra. Then it follows from Corollary 5.5 that
A is a simple module in mod Ae with EndAe .A/ Š K. Hence, we conclude that
ƒA D EndAe .A/ Š K and .Ae /A Š Endƒop .A/ Š EndK .A/. Therefore, the
A
homomorphism of K-algebras T A W Ae ! EndK .A/ is the composition of the epi-
morphism of K-algebras rA W Ae ! .Ae /A , established in Corollary I.6.13, with
the isomorphism .Ae /A ! EndK .A/. This shows that T A is an epimorphism.
Moreover, dimK A D .dimK A/2 D dimK EndK .A/. Thus T A is an isomor-
e
phism. Hence, (i) implies (ii).

Assume now that T A W Ae ! EndK .A/ is an isomorphism of K-algebras. Then
A Š Mn .K/ as K-algebras, and consequently Ae is a central simple K-algebra,
e
by Corollary I.6.5 and Lemma 5.6. Thus (ii) implies (iii).

Finally, assume that Ae is a central simple K-algebra. Since dimK Ae D n2 , it
follows from Corollary I.6.5 and Lemma 5.6 that Ae is isomorphic to the matrix alge-
bra Mn .K/. But then every indecomposable right Ae -module X has dimK X D n
and EndAe .A/ Š K. Moreover, every right Ae -module of dimension n is inde-
composable. Hence, we infer that A is an indecomposable right Ae -module with
EndAe .A/ Š K. Applying Proposition 5.4 and Corollary 5.5, we obtain that A is a
central simple K-algebra. Therefore, (iii) implies (i).
Proposition 5.8. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K,

and assume that B is a central simple K-algebra. Then every two-sided ideal of
A ˝K B is of the form I ˝K B for some two-sided ideal of A.
Proof. Observe that, if I is a two-sided ideal of A, then I ˝K B is a two-sided

ideal of A ˝K B. Let J be a two-sided ideal of A ˝K B. Consider I D
fa 2 A j a ˝ 1B 2 J g, and observe that I is a two-sided ideal of A. We will show
that J D I ˝K B. Let b1 ; : : : ; bm be a basis of B over P K. Then every element
z 2 A ˝K B has a unique expression in the form z D m iD1 ai ˝ bi for some
a1 ; : : : ; am 2 A. Since B is a central simple K-algebra, by Proposition 5.7, the K-
linear homomorphism T B W B op ˝K B ! EndK .B/ such that T B .b 0 ˝c/.x/ D bxc
for b; c 2 B is an isomorphism of K-algebras. Consider now the endomorphisms
b1 ; : : : ; bm

in EndK .B/ such that bk .bi / D ıik 1B for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Further,
we choose the elements u1 ; : : : ; um 2 B op ˝K B such that TP B
.uk / D bk for any
k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Moreover, we have presentations uk D j D1 xj0 k ˝ bj with
m
P
xj k 2 B for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Take now an element m iD1 ai ˝ bi 2 A ˝K B.
Then we have the equalities
X
m
X
m Xm X
m
1A ˝ xj0 k ai ˝ bi 1A ˝ bj D ai ˝ xj0 k bi bj
j D1 iD1 iD1 j D1
m
X X
m X
m
0

D ai ˝ xik bi bj D ai ˝ T B .uk /.bi /
iD1 j D1 iD1
X
m

D ai ˝ bk .bi / D ak ˝ 1B ;
iD1
P
for any k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Hence, if m iD1 ai ˝ bi 2 J , then ak ˝ 1B 2 J ,
and consequently ak 2 I , for any k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. This shows that J I ˝K B.
Obviously, we have I ˝K B D .I ˝K 1B /.A˝K B/ J . Therefore, J D I ˝K B.

Corollary 5.9. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K, and
assume that B is a central simple K-algebra. Then A ˝K B is a simple K-algebra
if and only if A is a simple K-algebra.
We note that the assumption on B to be a central simple K-algebra is essential for
the validity of the above equivalence. For example, we have that C ˝R C Š C C
as R-algebras (see Example 11.2).
assume that B is a central simple K-algebra. Then rad.A ˝K B/ D .rad A/ ˝K B.
Proof. It follows from Lemma I.6.11 that rad.A˝K B/ D J.A˝K B/ and rad A D
J.A/ (intersections of maximal two-sided ideals in A ˝K B and A, respectively).
Let Mi , i 2 I , be the family of all maximal two-sided ideals of A. Then, by
Proposition 5.8, Mi ˝K B, i 2 I , is the family of all maximal two-sided ideals of

A ˝K B, and we have
\
J.A ˝K B/ D .Mi ˝K B/ D L ˝K B
i2I
T ˝K B Mi ˝K B, we conclude that
for a two-sided ideal L of M . Since L
L Mi for any i 2 I , and hence L i2I Mi D J.A/. It follows that
\ \
L ˝K B Mi ˝K B .Mi ˝K B/ D L ˝K B;
i2I i2I
so that J.A ˝A B/ D J.A/ ˝K B. Thus we have the equality rad.A ˝K B/ D

.rad A/ ˝K B.
The following corollary is an immediate consequence of Corollary 5.10.
Corollary 5.11. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K,

and assume that B is a central simple K-algebra. Then A ˝K B is a semisimple
K-algebra if and only if A is a semisimple K-algebra.
We note that the assumption on B to be a central simple K-algebra is essential

for the validity of the above equivalence (see Proposition 11.10 and Theorem 11.11).
assume that B is a central simple K-algebra. Then A ˝K B is a central simple
K-algebra if and only if A is a central simple K-algebra.
Proof. It follows from Lemma 5.2 that C.A˝K B/ D C.A/˝K C.B/ D C.A/˝K
K, because C.B/ D K. Hence, C.A ˝K B/ D K ˝K K D K1A˝B if and only if
C.A/ D K D K1A . Moreover, by Corollary 5.9, A ˝K B is a simple K-algebra if
and only if A is a simple K-algebra.
The following important theorem is called the Noether–Skolem theorem for

finite dimensional algebras.
Theorem 5.13. Let A and B be finite dimensional K-algebras over a field K,

and assume that A is a simple K-algebra and B is a central simple K-algebra.
Moreover, let f and g be two K-algebra homomorphisms from A to B. Then there
is an invertible element b 2 B such that g.a/ D bf .a/b 1 for all a 2 A.
Proof. Consider the .A; B/-bimodules f B and g B such that f B D B and g B D B

as K-vector spaces and the .A; B/-bimodule structure is given by
axb D f .a/xb and ayb D g.a/yb

for a 2 A, b 2 B, x 2 f B, y 2 g B. Then, by Proposition II.3.7, f B and g B are

right .Aop ˝K B/-modules by
x.a0 ˝ b/ D f .a/xb and y.a0 ˝ b/ D g.a/yb
for a; b 2 B, x 2 f B, y 2 g B. Since A is a simple K-algebra, Aop is also a simple

K-algebra. Then it follows from Corollary 5.9 that Aop ˝K B is also a simple
K-algebra. Since dimK f B D dimK B D dimK g B, applying Corollary I.6.8, we
conclude that f B Š g B in mod Aop ˝K B. Let ' W f B ! g B be an isomorphism of
right .Aop ˝K B/-modules, or equivalently, an isomorphism of .A; B/-bimodules.
Then ' is an isomorphism of right B-modules, and consequently (see Lemma I.6.1)
there is an invertible element b 2 B such that '.x/ D bx for any element x 2
B. Since ' W f B ! g B is also a homomorphism of left A-modules, we have
'.f .a/x/ D g.a/'.x/ for any a 2 A and x 2 f B. Taking x D 1B , we obtain the
equalities
bf .a/ D '.f .a// D '.f .a/1B / D g.a/'.1B / D g.a/b;
or equivalently, g.a/ D bf .a/b 1 , for any a 2 A.
Corollary 5.14. Let A be a finite dimensional central simple K-algebra over a field
K. Then every K-algebra automorphism of A is an inner automorphism.
Proof. Take A D B and two K-algebra homomorphisms f D idA and g D

from A to A. Then it follows from Theorem 5.13 that there is an invertible element
a 2 A such that .x/ D g.x/ D af .x/a1 D axa1 for any x 2 A.
This shows that is an inner automorphism of A.
In particular, we obtain the following fact.
Corollary 5.15. Let n be a positive integer and K be a field. Then every K-algebra
automorphism of Mn .K/ is an inner automorphism.
Proposition 5.16. Let A be a finite dimensional simple K-algebra. Then A is a

symmetric K-algebra.
Proof. It follows from Corollary I.6.5 that there exists a positive integer n and a
finite dimensional division K-algebra F such that A Š Mn .F / as K-algebras.
Moreover, by Lemma II.6.13, the K-algebras Mn .F / and F are Morita equivalent.
Therefore, by Corollary 4.3, it is enough to show that F is a symmetric K-algebra.
Let L D C.F /. Then L is a finite field extension of K (Lemma 5.1) and F
is a central simple L-algebra. Observe also that F is a finite dimensional basic
selfinjective L-algebra, and hence a Frobenius L-algebra, by Proposition 3.9. Then
it follows from Theorem 2.1 that there exists a nondegenerate associative L-bilinear
form .; / W F F ! L. Let be the associated Nakayama automorphism of
6. The Nakayama theorems 375
the L-algebra F , that is, ..x/; y/ D .y; x/ for all elements x; y 2 F . Since F
is a central simple L-algebra, applying Corollary 5.14, we conclude that is an
inner automorphism of F . Hence, by Corollary 3.4, F is a symmetric L-algebra.
Then it follows from Theorem 2.2 that there exists a nondegenerate associative
symmetric L-bilinear form .; / W F F ! L. Clearly, .; / is also a K-
bilinear form. Applying Theorem 2.2 again, we conclude that F is a symmetric
K-algebra. Summing up, we obtain that the K-algebra A, Morita equivalent to F ,
is a symmetric K-algebra.
Corollary 5.17. Let A be a finite dimensional semisimple K-algebra over a field
K. Then A is a symmetric K-algebra.
Proof. It follows from Corollary I.6.6 that A is isomorphic to a product A1
Ar of finite dimensional simple K-algebras A1 ; : : : ; Ar . Then A1 ; : : : ; Ar are
symmetric K-algebras, by Proposition 5.16. Applying Proposition 2.4, we obtain
that A1 Ar , and hence also A, is a symmetric K-algebra.
6 The Nakayama theorems

In this section we present four classical theorems of T. Nakayama that play a fun-
damental role in further considerations.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. It follows from Corol-
lary I.5.9 that there is a decomposition
X
nA mX
A .i/
1A D eij
iD1 j D1
of 1A into a sum of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A such that
eij A Š eil A for j; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g;

eij A © ekl A for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; nA g with i ¤ k and
all j 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .k/g:
We will call such a decomposition of 1A a canonical decomposition of 1A . The

idempotents ei D ei1 , i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, are said to be basic primitive idempotents of
A. Then, applying Propositions I.8.2 and I.8.19, Corollary I.8.6 and Lemma I.8.22,
we conclude that
• Pi D ei A, i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, is a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic
indecomposable projective modules in mod A;
• Ii D D.Aei /, i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, is a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic
indecomposable injective modules in mod A;
• Si D top.Pi / D ei A=ei rad A, i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, is a complete set of pairwise

nonisomorphic simple modules in mod A;
• Si Š soc.Ii /, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g.
Observe that the algebra A is basic if and only if mA .i / D 1 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g.
The idempotent
XnA XnA
eA D ei1 D ei
iD1 iD1
is said to be a basic idempotent of A.

The following theorem is the first Nakayama theorem, proved in [Nak3], pre-
sented in this section.
Theorem 6.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A is a
selfinjective algebra if and only if there exists a permutation of the set f1; : : : ; nA g
such that top.ei A/ Š soc.e.i/ A/ in mod A, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g.
Proof. Assume A is a selfinjective algebra. Then it follows from the definition of
idempotents ei D ei1 , for i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, that the set of indecomposable projective
modules Pi D ei A, i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, is a complete set of pairwise nonisomorphic
indecomposable injective modules in mod A. Since the indecomposable projective
modules in mod A are uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by their simple tops
(Corollary I.8.6) and the indecomposable injective modules in mod A are uniquely
determined by their simple socles (Corollary I.8.21), we conclude, by Lemma I.8.22,
that there is a permutation of the set f1; : : : ; nA g such that top.ei A/ Š soc.e.i/ A/
in mod A.
Conversely, assume that there is a permutation of the set f1; : : : ; nA g such
that top.ei A/ Š soc.e.i/ A/ in mod A, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g. Then, for each
i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, the indecomposable projective right A-module Pi D ei A has
a simple socle, isomorphic to S 1 .i/ D top.e 1 .i/ A/, and hence we have an
injective envelope fi W Pi ! I 1 .i/ of Pi in mod A. Hence the homomorphisms
fi , i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, induce a monomorphism
M
nA M
nA M
nA
f W eA A D Pi ! I 1 .i/ D Ij D D.AeA /
iD1 iD1 j D1
of right A-modules. Then f induces a monomorphism
g W eA AeA ! D.eA AeA /
of right eA AeA -modules. Since dimK eA AeA D dimK D.eA AeA /, we conclude
that g is an isomorphism of right eA AeA -modules. Therefore, for the basic algebra
Ab D eA AeA of A, we have an isomorphism Ab ! D.Ab / of right Ab -modules,
and so Ab is a selfinjective algebra, because D.Ab / is injective in mod Ab . Since

A is Morita equivalent to Ab , by Theorem II.6.16, applying Proposition 3.10, we
obtain that A is a selfinjective algebra.
For a finite dimensional K-algebra A, the permutation of the set f1; : : : ; nA g
(in the notation introduced above) such that top.ei1 A/ Š soc.e.i/1 A/ in mod A,
for all i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, is said to be a Nakayama permutation of A.
The second theorem of T. Nakayama, proved in [Nak2], gives a criterion for a
selfinjective algebra to be a Frobenius algebra.
Theorem 6.2. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K,
nA mX
X A .i/
1A D eij
iD1 j D1
be a canonical decomposition of 1A , and the associated Nakayama permutation

of A. Then A is a Frobenius algebra if and only if mA .i / D mA ..i // for all
i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g.
Proof. Observe that we have two canonical direct sum decompositions
M M
nA mA .i/ M M
nA mA .i/
AA D eij A in mod A and AA D Aeij in mod Aop .

iD1 j D1 iD1 j D1
Then we have in mod A a decomposition of D.A/A of the form
M M
nA mA .i/
D.A/A D D.A A/ D D.Aeij /:

iD1 j D1
Moreover, by Lemma I.8.22, we have
soc D.Aeij / Š eij A=eij rad A D top.eij A/
in mod A, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, j 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g. In particular, we conclude

that
D.Aeij / Š D.Aeil / for j; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g;

D.Aeij / © D.Aekl / for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; nA g with i ¤ k and
all j 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .k/g:
On the other hand, it follows from the definition of the Nakayama permutation
that
top.ei1 A/ Š soc.e.1/1 A/ for i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g:
Further, by Theorem 2.1, A is a Frobenius algebra if and only if AA Š D.A/A as

right A-modules. Then we obtain that AA Š D.A/A in mod A if and only if we
have in mod A isomorphisms
M
mA .i/ mAM
..i//
D.Aeij / Š e.i/l A for i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g:
j D1 lD1
Therefore, we conclude that A is a Frobenius algebra if and only if mA .i / D

mA ..i// for all i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is said to be weakly symmetric
if soc.P / Š top.P / for any indecomposable projective module P in mod A (see
[NaNe]).
Corollary 6.3. Let A be a weakly symmetric finite dimensional K-algebra over a
field K. Then A is a Frobenius algebra.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 6.1 that A is a selfinjective algebra with the identity
Nakayama permutation. Then we conclude from Theorem 6.2 that A is a Frobenius
algebra.
Corollary 6.4. Let A be a symmetric algebra over a field K. Then A is a weakly
symmetric algebra.
Proof. Since A is a symmetric algebra, the identity automorphism idA of A is a
Nakayama automorphism of A. Then it follows from Lemma I.8.22 and Corol-
lary 3.14 that, for every primitive idempotent e of A, soc.eA/ Š soc.NA .eA// Š
top.eA/, and consequently A is a weakly symmetric algebra.
Corollary 6.5. Let A be a finite dimensional local K-algebra over a field K. Then
A is a selfinjective algebra if and only if A is a weakly symmetric algebra.
Proof. It is a direct consequence of Theorem 6.1 because, by Corollary I.6.15, the
identity 1A is a unique primitive idempotent of A.
Observe that the local K-algebras A , 2 K nf0; 1g, presented in Example 2.8,
are weakly symmetric but nonsymmetric algebras (see also [NaNe], p. 665, for a
more general class of such weakly symmetric algebras).
Corollary 6.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A is
a weakly symmetric algebra if and only if Aop is a weakly symmetric algebra.
Proof. It is a direct consequence of Corollaries I.8.6 and I.8.21, Lemma I.8.22, and
Theorem 6.1.
The following proposition is an immediate consequence of Corollaries 5.17, 6.3
and 6.4.
Proposition 6.7. Let A be a finite dimensional semisimple K-algebra over a field

K. Then A is a Frobenius K-algebra.
We note also the following fact.
Proposition 6.8. Let A be a nonsimple indecomposable finite dimensional self-
injective K-algebra over a field K. Then every simple module in mod A is nonpro-
jective.
Proof. Assume that S is a simple projective module in mod A. Then S is also an
injective module in mod A, because A is selfinjective. Then we have a decompo-
sition AA D P ˚ Q, where P is a direct sum of simple modules isomorphic to
S and Q is a direct sum of indecomposable projective modules nonisomorphic to
S. It follows from Theorem I.6.3, Corollary I.6.5 and the assumption on A that A
is not a semisimple algebra, and hence Q ¤ 0. We claim that HomA .P; Q/ D 0
and HomA .Q; P / D 0. Assume HomA .P; Q/ ¤ 0. Then there is a nonzero
homomorphism f W S ! Q, which is a section, because S is simple injective
(Lemma I.8.13). Hence, applying Lemma I.4.2, we conclude that S is isomorphic
to a direct summand of Q, a contradiction. Assume HomA .Q; P / ¤ 0. Then there
is a nonzero homomorphism g W Q ! S , which is a retraction, because S is simple
projective (Lemma I.8.1). Applying Lemma I.4.2 again, we infer that S is isomor-
phic to a direct summand of Q, a contradiction. Further, by Lemma I.5.7, there are
nontrivial orthogonal idempotents e; f 2 A such that 1A D e C f and P D eA,
Q D fA. Then, invoking Lemma I.8.7, we obtain that fAe Š HomA .P; Q/ D 0
and eAf Š HomA .Q; P / D 0. Therefore, we get a nontrivial decomposition
A D eAe ˚ fAf into a product of K-algebras, which contradicts the indecompos-
ability of A as K-algebra.
The third theorem of T. Nakayama asserts that there is a Galois correspondence
between the right and left ideals of a selfinjective algebra. We need a characterization
of the annihilators of ideals of algebras.
Proposition 6.9. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, I a left
ideal of A, and J a right ideal of A. Then there exist canonical isomorphisms
(i) HomAop .A A=I; A A/
! rA .I / of right A-modules;
(ii) HomA .AA =J; AA /
! À .J / of left A-modules.
Proof. (i) Recall that HomAop .A A; A A/ has the canonical structure of a right A-
module given by .f b/.a/ D f .a/b for f 2 HomAop .A A; A A/ and a; b 2 A. Then
the canonical K-linear isomorphism
' W HomAop .A A; A A/A ! AA ;
given by '.f / D f .1A / for f 2 HomAop .A A; A A/, is an isomorphism of right
A-modules. Indeed, for b 2 A and f 2 HomAop .A A; A A/, we have '.f b/ D
.f b/.1A / D f .1A /b D '.f /b. Further, for f 2 HomAop .A A; A A/, we have

f .I / D f .I1A / D If .1A / D I '.f /, and hence f .I / D 0 if and only if
'.f / 2 rA .I /. Observe also that ff 2 HomAop .A A; A A/ j f .I / D 0g is a right
A-submodule of HomAop .A A; A A/, because, for f 2 HomAop .A A; A A/ and b 2 A,
we have .f b/.I / D f .I /b. Therefore, we have a commutative diagram in mod A,
/ AA
HomAop .A A; A A/A
S '
S
j j
/ rA .I / .
ff 2 HomAop .A A; A A/ j f .I / D 0g '
The canonical epimorphism W A A ! A A=I of left A-modules induces the

canonical isomorphism of right A-modules
W HomAop .A A=I; A A/ ! ff 2 HomAop .A A; A A/ j f .I / D 0g ;
given by .g/ D g, for g 2 HomAop .A A=I; A A/. Clearly, .g/.I / D g.I / D
0 for any g 2 HomAop .A A=I; A A/. Conversely, if f 2 HomAop .A A; A A/ satisfies
f .I / D 0, then f D .gf / for gf 2 HomAop .A A=I; A A/ defined by gf .a C I / D
f .a/ for any a 2 A. Moreover, is a homomorphism of right A-modules. Indeed,
for g 2 HomAop .A A=I; A A/ and a; b 2 A, we have .gb/.a/ D .gb/.a/ D
.gb/.a C I / D g.a C I /b D .g/.a/b D .g/.a/b D . .g/b/.a/, and hence
.gb/ D .g/b.
Summing up, we have the canonical isomorphism of right A-modules
' W HomAop .A A=I; A A/ ! rA .I /
such that .' /.g/ D .g/.1A / D g.1A C I /, for g 2 HomAop .A A=I; A A/.
(ii) Similarly as above, it is easy to check that the canonical map
'0 0
W HomA .AA =J; AA / ! À .J /
such that .' 0 0 /.g 0 / D .g 0 0 /.1A / D g 0 .1A CJ /, for g 0 2 HomA .AA =J; AA /, with
0 the canonical epimorphism AA ! AA =J of right A-modules, is an isomorphism
of left A-modules.
The following theorem is the announced third theorem of T. Nakayama, proved
in [Nak2] and [Nak3].
Theorem 6.10. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K.
Then the annihilator operations À and rA induce mutually inverse Galois bijections
² ³ ² ³
right ideals À
/ left ideals
o :
of A rA of A
Proof. Note that, for every nonempty subset X of A, À .X / D fa 2 A j aX D 0g

is a left ideal of A and rA .X / D fa 2 A j Xa D 0g is a right ideal of A. Let I be a
left ideal of A and J be a right ideal of A. We will show that
À rA .I / D I and rA À .J / D J:
Observe that I À rA .I / and J rA À .J / from the definition of the annihilator
operations À and rA . We claim that dimK I D dimK À rA .I / and dimK J D
dimK rA À .J /
Since A A and AA are injective modules, by the Morita–Azumaya duality The-
orem II.7.11, the exact functors
DAop D HomAop .; A A/ W mod Aop ! mod A;
DA D HomA .; AA / W mod A ! mod Aop ;
define a duality between mod Aop and mod A.
Consider the canonical exact sequence in mod Aop ,
0 ! I ! A A ! A A=I ! 0:
Applying the duality functor DAop to this sequence, we obtain, by Proposition 6.9 (i),
a commutative diagram in mod A,
0 / HomAop .A A=I; A A/ / HomAop .A A; A A/ / HomAop .I; A A/ /0
Š Š Š

0 / rA .I / / AA / AA =rA .I / /0
with exact rows and the vertical homomorphisms being isomorphisms. Then, ap-
plying Proposition 6.9 (ii), we obtain isomorphisms of left A-modules
I Š DA .DAop .I // D HomA .HomAop .I; A A/; AA /
Š HomA .AA =rA .I /; AA / Š À rA .I /;
and hence dimK I D dimK À rA .I /, as claimed. Then I À rA .I / implies the
equality I D À rA .I /.
Similarly, consider the canonical exact sequence in mod A,
0 ! J ! AA ! AA =J ! 0:
Applying the duality functor DA to this sequence, we obtain, by Proposition 6.9 (ii),
a commutative diagram in mod Aop ,
0 / HomA .AA =J; AA / / HomA .AA ; AA / / HomA .J; AA / /0
Š Š Š

0 / À .J / / AA / A A=À .J / /0
with exact rows and the vertical homomorphisms being isomorphisms. Then, ap-
plying Proposition 6.9 (i), we obtain isomorphisms of right A-modules
J Š DAop .DA .J // D HomAop .HomA .J; AA /; A A/

Š HomAop .A A=À .J /; A A/ Š rA À .J /;
and hence dimK J D dimK rA À .J /. Then the inclusion J rA À .J / implies the

equality J D rA À .J /.
Finally, observe that, for nonempty subsets X Y of A we have the inclusions
À .Y / À .X / and rA .Y / rA .X /.
Therefore, the annihilator operations À and rA induce mutually inverse Galois
bijections between the left ideals and right ideals of A.

K. Then the annihilator operations À and rA induce mutually inverse Galois
bijections
² ³ ² ³
two-sided À
/ two-sided
o :
ideals of A rA ideals of A
Proof. Observe that for a two-sided ideal I of A the annihilators À and rA are
two-sided ideals of A. Indeed, we have the inclusions
.À .I /A/I D À .I /.AI / À .I /I D 0;
I.ArA .I // D .IA/rA .I / I rA .I / D 0;
and hence À .I /A À .I / and ArA .I / rA .I /, so À .I / is a right ideal of A and
rA .I / is a left ideal of A. Then the corollary follows from Theorem 6.10.

K, I a left ideal of A and J a right ideal of A. Then the following equivalences
hold.
(i) I ¤ A A if and only if rA .I / ¤ 0.
(ii) J ¤ AA if and only if À .J / ¤ 0.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 6.10 that
(i) I ¤ A A if and only if rA .I / ¤ rA .A/ D 0;
(ii) J ¤ AA if and only if À .J / ¤ À .A/ D 0.
The following fourth theorem of T. Nakayama, proved in [Nak3], will be im-

portant for our further considerations.
Theorem 6.13. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field

K. Then soc.A A/ D soc.AA /.
Proof. It follows from Proposition 6.9 that we have isomorphisms
HomAop .A= rad A; A A/ Š rA .rad A/
of right A-modules and
HomA .A= rad A; AA / Š À .rad A/
of left A-modules. Further, since A= rad A is semisimple as left A-module and right
A-module, applying the duality functors
HomAop .; A A/ W mod Aop ! mod A and HomA .; AA / W mod A ! mod Aop
to A= rad A, we conclude that HomAop .A= rad A; A A/ is a semisimple right A-

module and HomA .A= rad A; AA / is a semisimple left A-module. Hence, by Propo-
sition 6.9, rA .rad A) is a semisimple right A-module and À .rad A/ is a semisimple
left A-module, and consequently rA .rad A/ soc.AA / and À .rad A/ soc.A A/.
On the other hand, soc.A A/ is a semisimple left A-module and soc.AA / is a
semisimple right A-module, so, applying Proposition I.5.13 and Corollary I.5.15,
we conclude that rad.A/ soc.A A/ D rad.soc A A/ D 0 and soc.AA /.rad A/ D
rad.soc AA / D 0. This shows that soc.A A/ rA .rad A/ and soc.AA / À .rad A/.
Summing up, we have proved the inclusions
soc.A A/ rA .rad A/ soc.AA / and soc.AA / À .rad A/ soc.A A/:
In particular, we obtain the equality soc.A A/ D soc.AA /.

For a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra A, we will denote soc A WD
soc.A A/ D soc.AA / and call the socle of A. Since soc A is a two-sided ideal of A,
we may consider the factor algebra A= soc A, which is usually not a selfinjective
algebra. This allows us to introduce an important equivalence relation between
finite dimensional selfinjective algebras. Two finite dimensional selfinjective K-
algebras A and ƒ are said to be socle equivalent if the factor algebras A= soc A and
ƒ= soc ƒ are isomorphic as K-algebras.
We also note the following direct consequence of the proof of Theorem 6.13
and Corollary 6.11.
Corollary 6.14. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra. Then the
following equalities hold.
(i) À .rad A/ D soc A D rA .rad A/.
(ii) À .soc A/ D rad A D rA .soc A/.
We end this section with examples of Nakayama selfinjective algebras.

Let K be a field, m and n positive integer, n the cyclic quiver
1
˛n 0 ˛1
n " 2
A
˛n1 ˛2

n 1 Q 3,
˛n2 ˛3

d
˛i q ˛i 1
i
Im;n the admissible ideal of the path algebra K n generated by all compositions of
m C 1 consecutive arrows in n , and Nnm .K/ D K n =Im;n the associated bound
quiver algebra.
Theorem 6.15. Let Q be a finite connected quiver with nonempty set of arrows,
K a field, I an admissible ideal of the path algebra KQ, and A D KQ=I the
associated bound quiver algebra. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is a selfinjective Nakayama algebra.
(ii) A D Nnm .K/ for some positive integers m and n.
Proof. Since Q has at least one arrow, it follows from Lemma I.6.16 that A is not
a semisimple algebra. Moreover, by Proposition I.3.15, A is an indecomposable
algebra. Finally, A is a basic algebra, by Lemma II.6.17.
Assume that A is a selfinjective Nakayama algebra. We note first that, by
Proposition 6.8, every simple module in mod A is not projective, equivalently not
injective. Applying now Theorem I.10.3 we conclude that Q is a quiver of the form
n , for a positive integer n. We claim that I D Im;n , for some positive integer m,
and consequently A D Nnm .K/. Observe that I is generated by a finite number
of paths in Q D n (see Lemma I.1.6). Let w be the shortest path of n which
belongs to I , i be the source of w and j be the target of w. Denote by s the length of
w, and observe that s 2, because the ideal I is admissible. We will show that all
paths in n of length s belong to I , and consequently I D Im;n for m D s 1. For
each vertex k 2 f1; : : : ; ng of n , denote by P .k/ the indecomposable projective
right A-module at k and by I.k/ the indecomposable injective right A-module
at k. The path w is of the form ˛i ˛iC1 : : : ˛j 1 . We show that ˛iC1 : : : ˛j 1 ˛j
belongs to I . Suppose it is not the case. Then invoking the canonical equivalence
of categories mod A ! repK .Q; I / (Theorem I.2.10) and the description of
indecomposable projective modules and indecomposable injective modules given

in Proposition I.8.27, we conclude that top.I.j // is the simple module S.i C 1/
at the vertex i C 1 and dimK I.j / < dimK P .i C 1/. Hence there is a minimal
epimorphism h W P .i C 1/ ! I.j / in mod A which is not an isomorphism. On
the other hand, the injective module I.j / is projective, and so h is a retraction, by
Lemma I.8.1. Then the indecomposability of P .i C 1/ and I.j / forces h to be an
isomorphism, a contradiction. Repeating the above arguments we conclude that
all compositions of s consecutive arrows in the cycle Q D n belong to I . This
shows that (i) implies (ii).
Assume A D Nnm .K/ for some positive integers m and n. Applying Theo-
rem I.10.3, we infer that A is a Nakayama algebra. We claim that, for any ver-
tex i 2 f1; : : : ; ng of n , the indecomposable projective A-module P .i / associ-
ated to i is injective. Fix i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then the ideal Im;n contains the path
˛i ˛iC1 : : : ˛iCm , but no proper subpath of this path. Applying Theorem I.2.10 and
Proposition I.8.27 again, we conclude that P .i / D I.i C m 1/, and so P .i /
is injective. Therefore, we obtain that all indecomposable projective modules in
mod A are injective, and hence A is a selfinjective algebra.
Corollary 6.16. Let Q be a finite connected quiver with nonempty set of arrows,
K a field, I an admissible ideal of the path algebra KQ, and A D KQ=I the
associated bound quiver algebra. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is a symmetric Nakayama algebra.
(ii) A is a weakly symmetric Nakayama algebra.
(iii) A D Nnm .K/ for some positive integers m and n, with n dividing m.
Proof. The implication (i) ) (ii) follows from Corollary 6.4 and Theorem 6.15.
Further, the implication (ii) ) (iii) follows from Theorem 6.15 and the description
of the indecomposable projective modules over the Nakayama algebra Nnm .K/,
invoking Proposition I.8.27. Assume now that A D Nnm .K/ and n divides m, say
m D nr. Then Nnm .K/ is isomorphic to the Brauer tree algebra A.TSr / of the
Brauer star T D TSr

?
??
??n 1
??
?? 2
n1

: :
S 3
: :
:: ::
:: i ::
: :: ::
::: :
::: ::: :::

over K, with the exceptional vertex S of multiplicity r in the center of TSr (see
Example 4.7), and consequently Nnm .K/ is a symmetric algebra, by Theorem 4.11.
Hence the implication (iii) ) (i) also holds.
The following example shows that the selfinjective Nakayama bound quiver
algebras provide examples of selfinjective algebra with the Nakayama permutations
of arbitrary large order.
Example 6.17. Let K be a field, n 2 an integer, and A D Nnn1 .K/ D

K n =In1;n . Since In1;n is the ideal of K n generated by all compositions
of n consecutive arrows in n , we easily deduce that the Nakayama permutation
of A is the cyclic permutation

1 2 3 ::: n 1 n
;
n 1 2 ::: n 2 n 1
and hence has order n.
7 Non-Frobenius selfinjective algebras

In this section we present a general form of non-Frobenius selfinjective finite dimen-
sional K-algebras over a field K. We will give a construction of all such selfinjective
algebras (up to isomorphism), proposed in [SY].
Let ƒ be a basic finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, n D nƒ , and
let ƒ D P1 ˚ P2 ˚ ˚ Pn be a decomposition of ƒ into a direct sum of in-
decomposable right ƒ-modules. Then P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn are pairwise nonisomorphic
indecomposable projective modules in mod ƒ. Let m.1/; m.2/; : : : ; m.n/ be an
arbitrary sequence of positive integers. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we denote by Mi
the direct sum of m.i / copies Pij , j 2 f1; : : : ; m.i /g, of Pi . Consider the right
ƒ-module
M n Mn M m.i/
M D Mi D Pij
iD1 iD1 j D1
and the endomorphism K-algebra
ƒ.m.1/; m.2/; : : : ; m.n// WD Endƒ .M /:
For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng and j 2 f1; : : : ; m.i /g, we denote by eij the primitive
idempotent of ƒ.m.1/; m.2/; : : : ; m.n// given by the composition
ij uij
M ! Pij ! M
7. Non-Frobenius selfinjective algebras 387
of the canonical projection ij W M ! Pij and the canonical inclusion uij W Pij !
M . Clearly, we have the decomposition
X X
n m.i/
1ƒ.m.1/;:::;m.n// D eij
iD1 j D1
into a sum of pairwise orthogonal idempotents of ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n//. We note that

the idempotents eij are primitive because the right ƒ-modules Pij are indecompos-
able (see Lemma I.4.4). Moreover, since M is a progenerator of mod ƒ, it follows
from Theorem II.6.7 that ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n// is Morita equivalent to ƒ.
Proposition 7.1. Let ƒ be a basic finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over

a field K, n D nƒ , m.1/; : : : ; m.n/ be a sequence of positive integers, and A D
ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n//. Then the following statements hold.
(i) A is a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra.
(ii) ƒ is a basic algebra of A.
(iii) The Nakayama permutations of ƒ and A coincide.
Proof. Let be the Nakayama permutation of f1; : : : ; ng associated to a decompo-

sition ƒ D P1 ˚ P2 ˚ ˚ Pn of ƒ into a direct sum of indecomposable right
ƒ-submodules, that is, we have in mod ƒ isomorphisms top.Pi / Š soc.P.i/ /,
for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Moreover, in the notation introduced above, we have the
decomposition
X X
n m.i/
1A D eij
iD1 j D1
of the identity of A D ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n// into a sum of pairwise orthogonal prim-

itive idempotents of A. Hence, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng and j 2 f1; : : : ; m.i /g, we have
that
eij A D Homƒ .M; Pij / Homƒ .M; M / D A
is a right A-submodule of A, where, for g 2 Homƒ .M; Pij / and f 2 Endƒ .M / D
A, the right multiplication of g by f is the composition gf 2 Homƒ .M; Pij /.
Since Pij D Pi1 D Pi for j 2 f1; : : : ; m.i /g, the identity map Homƒ .M; Pij / !
Homƒ .M; Pi1 / induces an isomorphism eij A ! ei1 A of right A-modules. More-
over, for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng with i ¤ k, the right A-modules ei1 A and ek1 A are not
isomorphic, because the right ƒ-modules Pi and Pk are not isomorphic. Therefore,
X X
n m.i/
1A D eij
iD1 j D1
P
is a canonical decomposition of 1A , and eA D niD1 ei1 is a basic idempotent of A.
In particular, we obtain isomorphisms of K-algebras
Ab D eA AeA Š Endƒ .Pi1 ˚ ˚ Pi n / D Endƒ .ƒ/ Š ƒ;
and hence ƒ is a basic algebra of A. Since A and Ab are Morita equivalent (The-
orem II.6.16), it follows from Proposition 3.10 that A is a selfinjective K-algebra.
Therefore, the statements (i) and (ii) hold.
In order to prove the statement (iii), we first show that Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 //, con-
sidered as a right A-submodule of ei1 A D Homƒ .M; Pi1 /, is the socle soc.ei1 A/
of ei1 A. Obviously, Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 // is a right A-submodule of ei1 A, by def-
inition of the right A-module structure on A D Homƒ .M; M /. Observe also that
the right A-module Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 // is nonzero, because we have a nonzero
composed epimorphism of right ƒ-modules

M ! P 1 .i/1 D P 1 .i/ ! top P 1 .i/ ! soc.Pi / D soc.Pi1 /:
On the other hand, since A is a selfinjective algebra and ei1 A is an indecom-

posable projective right A-module, soc.ei1 A/ is a simple right A-module. We
claim that Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 // is a semisimple right A-module. Indeed, it fol-
lows from Proposition I.5.16 and Lemma III.1.3 that rad A D rad Endƒ .M / D
Homƒ .M; rad M /. For f 2 Homƒ .M; rad M / and g 2 Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 // we
then have
.gf /.M / D g.f .M // g.rad M / D g.M rad ƒ/

D g.M / rad ƒ soc.Pi1 / rad ƒ D 0;
by Corollary I.5.15. Hence, we obtain that Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 //.rad A/ D 0. Ap-
plying Corollary I.5.15 again, we conclude that indeed Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 // is a
semisimple right A-module. Therefore, we have 0 ¤ Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 //
soc.ei1 A/, and consequently Homƒ .M; soc.Pi1 // D soc.ei1 A/ as right A-modules.
In particular, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
soc.e.i/1 A/ei1 D Homƒ .M; soc.P.i/1 //ei1 :
It is obvious that Homƒ .M; soc.P.i/1 //ei1 Š Homƒ .Pi1 ; soc.P.i/1 // as K-

vector spaces and Homƒ .Pi1 ; soc.P.i/1 // ¤ 0, because Pi1 D Pi , P.i/1 D P.i/
and top.Pi / Š soc.P.i/ /. Therefore, we obtain, by Lemma I.8.7, that
HomA .ei1 A; soc.e.i/1 A// Š soc.e.i/1 A/ei1 ¤ 0;
and so top.ei1 A/ Š soc.e.i/1 A/, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Hence the Nakayama
permutation of ƒ is the Nakayama permutation of A, for the chosen canonical
decompositions of 1ƒ and 1A .
Corollary 7.2. Let ƒ be a basic finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra, n D nƒ ,

the Nakayama permutation of f1; : : : ; ng, and m.1/; : : : ; m.n/ a sequence of
positive integers. Then ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n// is a Frobenius algebra if and only if
m.i/ D m..i // for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. It is a direct consequence of Theorem 6.2 and Proposition 7.1.
The following theorem gives a general form of non-Frobenius selfinjective al-
gebras.
Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is not a Frobenius algebra.
(ii) A is isomorphic to an algebra ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n//, where ƒ is a basic finite
dimensional selfinjective K-algebra with nƒ D nA and m.1/; : : : ; m.n/ is
a sequence of positive integers such that m.i / ¤ m.j / and top.ei1 A/ Š
soc.ej1 A/ for some i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. Let ƒ D Ab . We know from Theorem II.6.16 that A is Morita equivalent
to ƒ. Then, applying Corollary II.6.22, we conclude that A is isomorphic to an al-
gebra ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n//, for some sequence m.1/; : : : ; m.n/ of positive integers.
The equivalence of (i) and (ii) then follows from Corollary 7.2 and the definition of
the Nakayama permutation.
Corollary 7.4. Let ƒ be a basic indecomposable finite dimensional selfinjective
K-algebra which is not weakly symmetric, and ƒ D P1 ˚ ˚Pn a decomposition
of ƒ into a direct sum of indecomposable right ƒ-modules and top.Pi / © soc.Pi /
for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Take an integer r 2 and the sequence m.1/; : : : ; m.n/
of positive integers such that m.j / D 1 for j 2 f1; : : : ; ng n fi g and m.i / D r.
Then the finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra ƒ.m.1/; : : : ; m.n// is not a
Frobenius algebra.
Proof. Let be the Nakayama permutation of f1; : : : ; ng. As top.Pi / Š soc.P.i/ /,
we have .i / ¤ i (by the choice of i ), and hence m..i // D 1 ¤ r D m.i /. Then
the claim follows from Corollary 7.2.
Example 7.5. Let K be a field, Q the quiver
˛ / ;
1 o 2
ˇ
I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ˇ and ˇ˛, and ƒ D KQ=I the associated

bound quiver algebra. Then ƒ is a basic indecomposable selfinjective Nakayama
K-algebra with .rad ƒ/2 D 0 (see Theorem I.10.3). In fact, letting "N1 D "1 C I ,
"N2 D "2 C I , ˛N D ˛ C I and ˇN D ˇ C I , where "1 and "2 are the trivial paths at 1
and 2, we have the decomposition
ƒ D P1 ˚ P2
of ƒ into a direct sum of indecomposable projective ƒ-modules
P1 D "N1 ƒ D K "N1 ˚ K ˛N N
and P2 D "N2 ƒ D K "N2 ˚ K ˇ:
Moreover, we have isomorphisms in mod ƒ,
S1 WD top.P1 / D K "N1 ; S2 WD top.P2 / D K "N2 ;
soc.P1 / D K ˛N Š K "N2 ; soc.P2 / D K ˇN Š K "N1 ;

and hence top.P1 / Š soc.P2 / and top.P2 / Š soc.P1 /. This shows that the
Nakayama permutation D ƒ of f1; nƒ g D f1; 2g is the transposition .1; 2/.
In particular, ƒ is not a weakly symmetric K-algebra.
Let m.1/ D 2, m.2/ D 1,
M D P10 ˚ P11 ˚ P2 ;
where P10 D P1 , P11 D P1 , and
A D ƒ.2; 1/ D Endƒ .M /:
Let e0 , e1 , e2 be the primitive idempotents of A corresponding to the direct

summands P10 , P11 , P2 of ƒ, that is, the compositions
e0 W M ! P10 ! M;
e1 W M ! P11 ! M;
e2 W M ! P2 ! M;
of the canonical projections and injections. Moreover, let
1 u0 W P10 ! P11 and 0 u1 W P11 ! P10
be the identity homomorphisms idP1 W P1 ! P1 . Further, let
2 v0 W P10 ! P2 and 2 v1 W P11 ! P2
be the canonical composite homomorphisms P1 ! S1 ,! P2 , assigning to "N1 2 P1

the element ˇN D ˇN "N1 D "N2 ˇN of P2 , and
0 w2 W P2 ! P10 and 1 w2 W P2 ! P11

the canonical composite homomorphisms P2 ! S2 ,! P1 , assigning to "N2 2 P2

the element ˛N D ˛N "N2 D "N1 ˛N of P1 . Then we have the equalities
e 0 D 0 u1 1 u0 ; e1 D 1 u0 0 u1 ;
2 v0 D e2 2 v0 e0 ; 2 v1 D e2 2 v1 e1 ;
0 w2 D e0 0 w2 e2 ; 1 w2 D e1 1 w2 e2 :
Then the algebra A D ƒ.2; 1/ D Endƒ .P10 ˚ P11 ˚ P2 / is isomorphic to the
K-algebra of matrices
2 3
a0 0 b1 0 1
6 1 b0 a1 1 2 0 7
6 7
6 0 0 a2 7
6 7;
6 a2 2 0
7
2 1 7
6
4 0 0 a0 0 b1
5
0 1 b0 a1
where a0 2 Ke0 , a1 2 Ke1 , a2 2 Ke2 , 0 b1 2 K 0 u1 , 1 b0 2 K 1 u0 , 0 2 2 K 0 w2 ,
1 22 K 1 w2 , 2 0 2 K 2 v0 , 2 1 2 K 2 v1 .
This is exactly the first selfinjective non-Frobenius K-algebra presented by T.
Nakayama in 1939 in the paper [Nak2], p. 624.
We may visualize the hierarchy of finite dimensional selfinjective algebras over
a field as follows.
division algebras
simple algebras
semisimple algebras
symmetric algebras
weakly symmetric algebras
Frobenius algebras
selfinjective algebras
8 The syzygy functors

In this section we introduce the syzygy functors on the (stable) module categories
of finite dimensional algebras, which play a prominent role in the modern repre-
sentation theory of algebras. In particular, we obtain two new (mutually inverse)
equivalences of the stable module categories of finite dimensional selfinjective al-
gebras.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. For a module M in
mod A, we have two canonical exact sequences
iM hM
0 ! A .M / ! PA .M / ! M ! 0;
uM pM
0 ! M ! EA .M / ! A1 .M / ! 0
in mod A, where hM W PA .M / ! M is a projective cover of M and uM W M !

EA .M / is an injective envelope of M in mod A (see Theorems I.8.4 and I.8.18),
iM the embedding of A .M / D Ker hM into PA .M /, and pM the canonical
projection of EA .M / onto A1 .M / D Coker uM . Then A .M / is called the
syzygy module of M and A1 .M / the cosyzygy module of M . We note that, by
Theorems I.8.4 (ii) and I.8.18 (ii), A .M / and A1 .M / are uniquely determined
by M , up to isomorphism.
We collect now some general properties of the syzygy an cosyzygy modules.
Proposition 8.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M; N
(i) A .M / D 0 if and only if M is from proj A.
(ii) A .M / is a module in modI A.
(iii) A .M ˚ N / Š A .M / ˚ A .N /.
(iv) If M Š N , then A .M / Š A .N /.
i h
(v) Let 0 ! U ! P ! M ! 0 be an exact sequence in mod A with P from
proj A. Then U Š A .M / ˚ Q in mod A for a direct summand Q of P .
(vi) A1 .M / D 0 if and only if M is from inj A.
(vii) A1 .M / is a module in modP A.
(viii) A1 .M ˚ N / Š A1 .M / ˚ A1 .N /.
(ix) If M Š N , then A1 .M / Š A1 .N /.
u p
(x) Let 0 ! N ! E ! V ! 0 be an exact sequence in mod A with E from
inj A. Then V Š A1 .N / ˚ F in mod A for a direct summand F of E.
8. The syzygy functors 393
Proof. Let hM W PA .M / ! M and hN W PA .N / ! N be the projective covers of

M and N in mod A, respectively.
(i) Observe that M is from proj A if and only if hM W PA .M / ! M is an
isomorphism. Hence the statement (i) is obvious.
(ii) Suppose A .M / admits a nonzero injective direct summand Q in mod A.
Then Q is a right A-submodule of PA .M / and let f W Q ! PA .M / be the as-
sociated homomorphism. Since Q is injective, it follows from Lemma I.8.13
that f is a section in mod A, and consequently there exists a homomorphism
g W PA .M / ! Q such that gf D idQ . Applying now Lemma I.4.2 we obtain that
PA .M / D Im f ˚Ker g D Q˚X with X D Ker g. Then Q A .M / D Ker hM
gives the equality PA .M / D Ker hM C X , with X ¤ PA .M /. This contradicts
the fact that Ker hM is a superfluous submodule of PA .M /. Therefore, A .M / is
a module in modI A.
(iii) We have the canonical exact sequence
h i
iM 0 hM 0
0 iN 0 hN
0 ! A .M / ˚ A .M / ! PA .M / ˚ PA .M / ! M ˚ N ! 0
in mod A, where iM W A .M / ! PA .M / and iN W A .N / ! PA .N / are canonical

embeddings. Further, by Proposition I.5.13 (ii), we have rad.PA .M / ˚ PA .N // D
rad PA .M / ˚ rad PA .N /, and consequently
top.PA .M / ˚ PA .N // D top.PA .M // ˚ top.PA .N //:
Since hM and hN are minimal epimorphisms, the induced homomorphisms

top.hM / W top.PA .M // ! top.M / and top.hN / W top.PA .N // ! top.N / are
isomorphisms, and hence the homomorphism

hM 0 top.hM / 0
top D W top.PA .M /˚PA .N // ! top.M ˚N /
0 hN 0 top.hN /
is also an isomorphism. Applying now Theorem I.8.4, we infer that

hM 0
W PA .M / ˚ PA .N / ! M ˚ N
0 hN
is a projective cover of M ˚ N in mod A. Then for a chosen projective cover
hM ˚N W PA .M ˚ N / ! M ˚ N of M ˚ N in mod A, there is an isomorphism
h i
g W PA .M / ˚ PA .N / ! PA .M ˚ N / in mod A such that hM ˚N g D hM 0
0 hN
(see Theorem I.8.4 (ii)). This leads to the isomorphisms

hM 0
A .M ˚ N / D Ker hM ˚N Š hM ˚N g D Ker
0 hN
D Ker hM ˚ Ker hN D A .M / ˚ A .N /:
(iv) Assume f W M ! N is an isomorphism in mod A. Then, since f hM is

an epimorphism and Ker f hM D Ker f being superfluous in PA .M /, it follows
that f hM W PA .M / ! N is also a projective cover of N in mod A. Hence, by
Theorem I.8.4, there is an isomorphism g W PA .M / ! PA .N / in mod A such that
hN g D f hM . Hence we obtain that g induces an isomorphism A .M / !
A .N /.
(v) We have the commutative diagram in mod A,
0 /U i /P h /M /0
v g idM
iM hM
0 / A .M / / PA .M / /M / 0.
Since h D hM g is an epimorphism and hM is a minimal epimorphism, we conclude

that g is also an epimorphism, by Lemma I.8.3. Then it follows from Lemma I.8.1
that g is a retraction in mod A, and so there exists a homomorphism f W PA .M / !
P in mod A such that gf D idPA .M / . Observe that then we have hf D hM gf D
hM D idM hM . This implies that there is a homomorphism u W A .M / ! U in
mod A such that i u D f iM , by the exactness of the rows of the above diagram.
Moreover, we have iM vu D giu D gf iM D iM , and so vu D idA .M / , because
iM is a monomorphism. Applying Lemma I.4.2, we obtain that P D Im f ˚ Ker g
and U D Im u ˚ Ker v, where Im f Š PA .M / and Im u Š A .M /. We claim
that Ker v Š Ker g. Indeed, from the equality gi D iM v, we conclude that the
restriction of i to Ker v induces a homomorphism j W Ker v ! Ker g, which is
clearly a monomorphism. On the other hand, we have the equalities
dimK Ker g D dimK P dimK Im f D dimK P dimK PA .M /

D .dimK M C dimK U / .dimK M C dimK A .M //
D dimK U dimK A .M / D dimK Ker v:
Hence j W Ker v ! Ker g is an isomorphism in mod A. But then we conclude that

U Š A .M / ˚ Q for Q D Ker g being a direct summand of P .
The proofs of the statements (vi)–(x) are similar and are left to the reader.
In general, the syzygy and cosyzygy operators do not reflect much of the prop-
erties of module categories. For example, if A is a hereditary finite dimensional
K-algebra over a field K, then A .M / belongs to proj A and A1 .M / belongs to
inj A for any module M in mod A, by Theorems I.9.1, I.9.2 and I.9.3. The following
example exhibits a bad behaviour of the syzygy and cosyzygy operators.
Example 8.2. Let Q be the quiver
2 @@ 3 4
@@ ~~
@ˇ ~
˛ @@ ~~
~~
1
and KQ the path algebra of Q over a field K. Then A is a hereditary algebra, by
Theorem I.9.5. We identify mod A with the category repK .Q/ of finite dimensional
K-linear representations of Q (see Corollary I.2.11). Then the representations
0? 0 0 K? 0 0 0 ?? K 0 0= 0 K
?? ?? ?? ==
?? ?? ?? ==

K 0 0 0
S.1/ D P .1/ , S.2/ D I.2/ , S.3/ D I.3/ , S.4/ D I.4/ ,
KA 0 0 0? K 0 0? 0 K KA K K
AA ?? ?? }} AA }
AA ??1 ?? } AA1 }}}
1 ~}} 1 1 ~} 1
K K K K
P .2/ , P .3/ , P .4/ , I.1/ ,
0? K K KA 0 K KA K 0 K B K K
?? } AA }} AA BB 0 ||
??1 }}} AA } AA1 BB1 |
~} 1 1 ~}} 1 1 1 ! }|| 1

0 1
K K K K2
L2 , L3 , L4 , M
form a complete family of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable representations
in repK .Q/ (see Exercise I.12.7). Here, according to Section I.8, S.i /, P .i /, I.i /
denote the simple, projective, injective representation of Q over K at the vertex
i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g. Then a simple checking shows that, if X is one of the representations
S.2/, S.3/, S.4/, L2 , L3 , L4 , M , then A .X / Š S.1/, and A .I.1// Š S.1/ ˚
S.1/. Moreover, we have also isomorphisms
A1 .S.1// Š S.2/ ˚ S.3/ ˚ S.4/ Š A1 .M /; A1 .P .2// Š S.3/ ˚ S.4/;
A1 .P .3// Š S.2/ ˚ S.4/; A1 .P .4// Š S.2/ ˚ S.3/;
A1 .L2 / Š S.2/; A1 .L3 / Š S.3/; A1 .L4 / Š S.4/:
This shows that the syzygy (respectively, cosyzygy) modules of indecomposable

modules are not necessarily indecomposable, and nonisomorphic modules may
have isomorphic syzygy (respectively, cosyzygy) modules.
The following proposition shows that, for finite dimensional selfinjective alge-
bras over a field, the syzygy and cosyzygy operators have good properties.
Proposition 8.3. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field

K and M; N modules in modP A. Then the following statements hold.
(i) M Š A1 .A .M // and M Š A .A1 .M //.
(ii) M is indecomposable if and only if A .M / is indecomposable.
(iii) M is indecomposable if and only if A1 .M / is indecomposable.
(iv) M Š N if and only if A .M / Š A .N /.
(v) M Š N if and only if A1 .M / Š A1 .N /.
Proof. Since A is selfinjective, we have proj A D inj A, and hence modP A D

modI A. In particular, we conclude from Proposition 8.1 that A .M /, A .N /,
A1 .M /, A1 .N / belong to modP A.
(i) We have the commutative diagram
uA .M / pA .M /
0 / A .M / / EA .A .M // / 1 .A .M // /0
A
idA .M / v w
iM hM
0 / A .M / / PA .M / /M /0
in mod A with exact rows, as PA .M / is injective, A1 .A .M // D Coker uA .M / ,

and hM vuA .M / D hM iM idA .M / D 0. Further, since uA .M / is a minimal
monomorphisms and vuA .M / D iM is a monomorphism, applying Lemma I.8.15,
we conclude that v is a monomorphism. Then, by Lemma I.8.13, v is a sec-
tion, because EA .A .M // is injective, and so v 0 v D idEA .A .M // for some ho-
momorphisms v 0 W PA .M / ! EA .A .M // in mod A. In particular, we have
PA .M / D Im v ˚ Ker v 0 , by Lemma I.4.2. Observe also that Ker hM D Im iM D
Im vuA .M / Im v, and hence the restriction f W Ker v 0 ! M of hM to Ker v 0 is
a monomorphism. Moreover, Ker v 0 belongs to proj A D inj A as a direct summand
of PA .M /, by Lemma I.8.1. Applying Lemma I.8.13 again, we infer that f is a
section, so gf D idKer v0 for some homomorphism g W M ! Ker v 0 in mod A. But
then it follows from Lemma I.4.2 that M D Im f ˚ Ker g, where Im f Š Ker v 0
is an injective module. Then our assumption that M is in modP A D modI A
implies that Im f D 0. Hence PA .M / D Im v. This shows that v is an iso-
morphism in mod A, because v is a monomorphism. Therefore, we obtain that
w W A1 .A .M // ! M is an isomorphism (see Exercise I.12.17). The proof that
M Š A .A1 .M // is similar.
The remaining statements (ii)–(v) follow from (i) and the corresponding state-
ments of Proposition 8.1.

Then we have the mutually inverse equivalences of categories
A
mod A o / mod A .
1
A
Proof. We first show that there are well-defined covariant functors A W mod A !
mod A and A1 W mod A ! mod A.
Let f W M ! N be a homomorphism in mod A. Then there exists a commuta-
tive diagram in mod A,
iM hM
0 / A .M / / PA .M / /M /0
f1 f0 f
iN hN
0 / A .N / / PA .N / /N / 0.
iM hM
0 / A .M / / PA .M / /M /0
fQ1 fQ0 f
iN hN
0 / A .N / / PA .N / /N / 0.
Then hN .f0 fQ0 / D hN f0 hN fQ0 D f hM f hM D 0. Since A .N / D Ker hN ,

there exists a homomorphism s W PA .M / ! A .N / such that f0 fQ0 D iN s.
Further, we have the equalities
iN .f1 fQ1 / D iN f1 iN fQ1 D f0 iM fQ0 iM D .f0 fQ0 /iM D iN siM ;
and hence f1 fQ1 D siM , because iN is a monomorphism. This shows that

f1 fQ1 2 PA .A .M /; A .N //, and hence we have f1 C PA .A .M /; A .N // D
fQ1 C PA .A .M /; A .N //. This allows us to assign to f 2 HomA .M; N / a well-
defined element
A .f / D f1 C PA .A .M /; A .N // D f1
in
HomA .A .M /; A .N // D HomA .A .M /; A .N //=PA .A .M /; A .N //:
We also note that, if f 0 2 HomA .M; N /, f00 2 HomA .PA .M /; PA .N // and

f10 2 HomA .A .M /; A .N // satisfy the equalities hN f00 D f 0 hM and iN f10 D
f00 iM , then hN .f0 C f00 / D .f C f 0 /hM and iN .f1 C f10 / D .f0 C f00 /iM ,
and consequently A .f C f 0 / D A .f / C A .f 0 /. Moreover, for 2 K,

we have hN .f0 / D .f /hM and iN .f1 / D .f0 /iM , and so A .f / D
A .f /. Therefore, we have a K-linear homomorphism A W HomA .M; N / !
HomA .A .M /; A .N //. We will show now that A vanishes on all homomor-
phisms from PA .M; N /. Let g 2 PA .M; N / and g D ˇ˛ for homomorphisms
˛ W M ! P and ˇ W P ! N in mod A with P from proj A. Since hN W PA .N / !
N is an epimorphism, there exists a homomorphism W P ! PA .N / in mod A
such that ˇ D hN . Taking g0 D ˛hM and g1 D 0 in HomA .A .M /; A .N //,
we obtain the commutative diagram in mod A,
iM hM
0 / A .M / / PA .M / /M /0
g1 g0 g
iN hN
0 / A .N / / PA .N / /N / 0,
and consequently A .g/ D 0. As a consequence, we obtain that the syzygy operator

induces a K-linear homomorphism
A W HomA .M; N / ! HomA .A .M /; A .N //
such that A .f / D A .f / for any f 2 HomA .M; N /. The above arguments show
also that A .gf / D A .g/A .f / for any homomorphisms f 2 HomA .M; N /
and g 2 HomA .N; U /, and obviously we have also A .idM / D idA .M / .
Summing up, we have defined a covariant K-linear functor
A W mod A ! mod A:
Dually, for a homomorphism f W M ! N in mod A, we have a commutative

diagram in mod A,
uM pM
0 /M / EA .M / / 1 .M / /0
A
f f0 f1
uN pN

0 /N / EA .N / / 1 .N / / 0.
A

uM pM
0 /M / EA .M / / 1 .M / /0
A
f fQ0 fQ1
uN pN

0 /N / EA .N / / 1 .N / / 0.
A
Then .f 0 fQ0 /uM D f 0 uM fQ0 uM D uN f uN f D 0. Since A1 .M / D

Coker uM , there exists a homomorphism t W A1 .M / ! EA .N / such that f 0
fQ0 D tpM . Further, we have the equalities
.f 1 fQ1 /pM D f 1 pM fQ1 pM D pN f 0 pN fQ0 D pN .f 0 fQ0 / D pN tpM ;
and hence f 1 fQ1 D pN t , because pM is an epimorphism. Since EA .N /
belongs to inj A D proj A, we obtain that f 1 fQ1 2 PA .A1 .M /; A1 .N //.
This allows us to assign to f 2 HomA .M; N / a well-defined element A1 .f / D
f 1 C PA .A1 .M /; A1 .N // D f 1 in HomA .A1 .M /; A1 .N //. Applying
arguments as above, we obtain that the cosyzygy operator induces a K-linear ho-
momorphism
A1 W HomA .M; N / ! HomA .A1 .M /; A1 .N //
such that A1 .f / D A1 .f / for any f 2 HomA .M; N /. Moreover, we have
A1 .gf / D A1 .g/A1 .f / for any homomorphisms f 2 HomA .M; N / and
g 2 HomA .N; U /, and A1 .idM / D id1 .M / . Therefore, we obtain a covariant
A
K-linear functor
A1 W mod A ! mod A:
For a module M in mod A, there is a decomposition M D PM ˚ MP , where
PM is a module from proj A and MP a module from modP A, both uniquely de-
termined (up to isomorphism) by M . Then the canonical section u W MP ! M
and retraction v W M ! MP with vu D idMP induce the mutually inverse isomor-
phisms u W MP ! M and v W M ! MP in mod A. Applying Proposition 8.3, we
then infer that there exist natural isomorphisms of functors
A1 B A Š 1mod A and A B A1 Š 1mod A :
Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K. Since
mod A D mod A, we have the mutually inverse Auslander–Reiten translations
A
mod A o / mod A
1
A
with A D D Tr and A1 D Tr D, and the mutually inverse Nakayama functors

NA
mod A o / mod A
1
NA
with NA D D HomA .; A/ and NA1 D HomA .; A/D (see Sections III.4 and
III.5). Moreover, we have the mutually inverse higher syzygy and cosyzygy functors
i
A
mod A o / mod A ,
i
A
where A0 D 1mod A and AiC1 D A B Ai , A.iC1/ D A1 B Ai for all nonneg-
ative integers i .
The following theorem relates the syzygy and cosyzygy functors with the Aus-
lander–Reiten and Nakayama functors.
(i) The functors A , A2 NA , and NA A2 from mod A to mod A are naturally iso-
morphic.
(ii) The functors A1 , A2 NA1 , and NA1 A2 from mod A to mod A are naturally
isomorphic.
Proof. Since A is selfinjective, AA is an injective cogenerator in mod A with A Š
EndA .AA /, and hence, by the Morita–Azumaya Theorem II.7.11, the functors
HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod Aop ;

HomAop .; A/ W mod Aop ! mod A
define a duality between mod A and mod Aop . Moreover we have the standard
duality D D HomK .; K/ between mod A and mod Aop . Therefore, the Nakayama
functors NA D D HomA .; A/ and NA1 D HomAop .; A/D give the mutually
inverse equivalences of categories
NA
mod A o / mod A .
1
NA
p1 p0
(i) Let M be a module from modP A and P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0 be a
minimal projective presentation of M in mod A. Then A .M / Š Ker p0 D Im p1 ,
p1 W P1 ! Im p1 is a projective cover of Im p1 in mod A, and consequently we
have A2 .M / D A .A .M // Š Ker p1 . This leads to an exact sequence
p1 p0
0 ! A2 .M / ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
in mod A. Applying the Nakayama functor NA W mod A ! mod A, we obtain then

an exact sequence in mod A of the form
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! NA .A2 .M // ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0:
On the other hand, we have from Proposition III.5.3 an exact sequence of the form
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A M ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0:
Therefore, we obtain an isomorphism A M ! NA .A2 .M //. Passing now from

mod A to mod A, we obtain a natural isomorphism of functors A
! NA A2 from
mod A to mod A.
Further, since the Nakayama functor NA W mod A ! mod A is an equiva-
p1 p0
lence of categories, the minimal projective presentation P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0
NA .p1 /
of M in mod A leads to the minimal projective presentation NA .P1 / !
NA .p0 /
NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0 of NA .M / in mod A. Then we conclude that
A .NA .M // Š Ker NA .p0 / D Im NA .p1 /, NA .p1 / W NA .P1 / ! Im NA .p1 /
is a projective cover of Im NA .p1 / in mod A, and consequently we obtain that
A2 .NA .M // D A .A .NA .M /// Š Ker NA .p1 /. This gives an exact sequence
in mod A of the form
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A2 .NA .M // ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0:
Comparing this with the exact sequence

NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A M ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0;
given by Proposition III.5.3, we obtain an isomorphism A M Š A2 .NA .M //

in mod A. Passing from mod A to mod A, we conclude that there is a natural
isomorphism of functors A ! A2 NA from mod A to mod A. This finishes the
proof of (i).
The equivalences in (ii) follow from the equivalences in (i) and the fact that A
and A1 , A2 and A2 , NA and NA1 , are mutually inverse pairs of functors from
mod A to mod A.
Corollary 8.6. Let A be a finite dimensional symmetric K-algebra over a field K.
(i) NA Š 1mod A as functors from mod A to mod A.
(ii) D Š HomA .; A/ as functors from mod A to mod Aop .
(iii) A Š A2 and A1 Š A2 as functors from mod A to mod A.
Proof. (i) Since A is a symmetric algebra, it follows from Theorem 2.2 that there
is an isomorphism W A AA ! A D.A/A of A-bimodules. Further, by Proposi-
tion III.5.2, we know that the functors NA and ˝A D.A/ from mod A to mod A
are naturally isomorphic. Then we obtain natural isomorphisms of functors from
mod A to mod A
NA Š ˝A D.A/ Š ˝A A Š 1mod A
(see also Lemma II.3.5).

(ii) For the standard duality functor D D HomK .; K/, we have a natural
isomorphism of functors DD Š 1mod A . Hence an equivalence of functors NA D
D HomA .; A/ Š 1mod A established in (i), leads to a natural isomorphism of
functors
HomA .; A/ Š DD HomA .; A/ D DNA Š D
form mod A to mod Aop .
(iii) The existence of natural isomorphisms of functors A Š A2 and A1 Š
2
A follow from (i) and Theorem 8.5.
9 The higher extension spaces

The aim of this section is to introduce the higher extension spaces of finite di-
mensional modules over finite dimensional algebras. Furthermore, the extension
algebra of a finite dimensional module over a finite dimensional selfinjective algebra
will be defined.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and N , L be modules
in mod A. Consider a minimal projective resolution
dnC1 dn d1 d0
! PnC1 ! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! N ! 0
of N in mod A (see Proposition I.8.30). Fix a positive integer n.

Applying the contravariant functor HomA .; L/ W mod A ! mod K, we obtain
the chain of K-vector spaces
HomA .dn ;L/ HomA .dnC1 ;L/
HomA .Pn1 ; L/ ! HomA .Pn ; L/ ! HomA .PnC1 ; L/
with HomA .dnC1 ; L/ HomA .dn ; L/ D HomA .dn dnC1 ; N / D 0. This allows us to
define the K-vector space
ExtAn .N; L/ D Ker HomA .dnC1 ; L/= Im HomA .dn ; L/:
We note that, by Proposition I.8.30 and Lemma I.8.31, the space ExtAn .N; L/ is
well defined (does not depend on the choice of minimal projective resolution). The
K-vector space ExtAn .N; L/ is called the n-th extension space of L by N .
Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A. Then we have the commutative
diagram in mod K,

HomA .Pn1 ; L/ / HomA .Pn ; L/ / HomA .PnC1 ; L/
HomA .Pn1 ;u/ HomA .Pn ;u/ HomA .PnC1 ;u/

HomA .dn ;U / Hom .d ;U /
HomA .Pn1 ; U / / HomA .Pn ; U / A nC1 / HomA .PnC1 ; U / ,
9. The higher extension spaces 403
HomA .Pn ; u/.Ker HomA .dnC1 ; L// Ker HomA .dnC1 ; U /;
HomA .Pn ; u/.Im HomA .dn ; L// Im HomA .dn ; U /:

Hence, we may define the K-linear homomorphism
ExtAn .N; u/ W ExtAn .N; L/ ! ExtAn .N; U /
by
ExtAn .N; u/.' C Im HomA .dn ; L// D u' C Im HomA .dn ; U /
for ' 2 HomA .Pn ; L/ with 'dnC1 D HomA .dnC1 ; L/.'/ D 0. Observe that
u' D HomA .Pn ; u/.'/. Moreover, ExtAn .N; t u/ D ExtAn .N; t / ExtAn .N; u/ for
u 2 HomA .L; U / and t 2 HomA .U; T /, and clearly ExtAn .N; idL / D idExtAn .N;L/ .
Therefore, for any module N in mod A, we have the covariant functor
ExtAn .N; / W mod A ! mod K:
Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A. Consider also a minimal

projective resolution

dnC1 dn d1 d0

! PnC1 ! Pn ! Pn1

! ! P1 ! P0 ! V ! 0
of V in mod A. Then invoking the projectivity of the modules Pi , i 0, and

the exactness of the projective resolution of N , we conclude that there exists a

dnC1 dn d1 d0
::: / P / P / P / ::: / P / P /V /0
nC1 n n1 1 0
vnC1 vn vn1 v1 v0 v
dnC1 dn d1 d0
::: / PnC1 / Pn / Pn1 / ::: / P1 / P0 /N / 0.

HomA .Pn1 ; L/ / HomA .Pn ; L/ / HomA .PnC1 ; L/
HomA .vn1 ;L/ HomA .vn ;L/ HomA .vnC1 ;L/

HomA .dn ;L/
HomA .dnC1 ;L/

HomA .Pn1 ; L/ / HomA .P ; L/ / HomA .P ; L/ ,
n nC1

HomA .vn ; L/.Ker HomA .dnC1 ; L// Ker HomA .dnC1 ; L/;
HomA .vn ; L/.Im HomA .dn ; L// Im HomA .dn ; L/:

ExtAn .v; L/ W ExtAn .N; L/ ! ExtAn .V; L/
by
ExtAn .v; L/.' C Im HomA .dn ; L// D 'vn C Im HomA .dn ; L/
for ' 2 HomA .Pn ; L/ with 'dnC1 D HomA .dnC1 ; L/.'/ D 0. Observe that
'vn D HomA .vn ; L/.'/. Unfortunately, the homomorphisms vn W Pn ! Pn ,
n 0, occurring in the above commutative diagram of projective resolutions,
are not uniquely determined by the homomorphism v W V ! N . Assume vn0 2
HomA .Pn ; Pn /, n 0, is another family of homomorphisms such that d0 v00 D vd0
0
and dn vn0 D vn1 dn for n 1. Then, invoking the projectivity of the modules

Pi , i 0, and the exactness of the minimal projective resolutions of N and V ,
we conclude that there exist homomorphisms sn 2 HomA .Pn ; PnC1 /, n 0,
such that v0 v00 D d1 s0 and vn vn0 D dnC1 sn C sn1 dn , for n 0. Then,
for any homomorphism ' 2 Ker HomA .dnC1 ; L/, we obtain that 'vn 'vn0 D
'.vn vn0 / D 'dnC1 sn C 'sn1 dn D 'sn1 dn D HomA .dn ; L/.'sn1 / with
'sn1 2 HomA .Pn1 ; L/. Therefore, we have
'vn C Im HomA .dn ; L/ D 'vn0 C Im HomA .dn ; L/:
As a consequence, the homomorphism ExtAn .v; L/ does not depend on the choice
of homomorphisms vn W Pn ! Pn , n 0. Moreover, we have ExtAn .vw; L/ D
ExtAn .w; L/ ExtAn .v; L/ for v 2 HomA .V; N / and w 2 HomA .W; V /, and clearly
ExtAn .idN ; L/ D idExtAn .N;L/ . Therefore, for any module L in mod A, we have the
contravariant functor
ExtAn .; L/ W mod A ! mod K:
We note the following facts.

Lemma 9.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, N and L
modules in mod A, and n a positive integer. Then the following statements hold.
(i) If N is in proj A, then ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.
(ii) If L is in inj A, then ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.
Proof. Let
dnC1 dn d1 d0
! PnC1 ! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! N ! 0
be a minimal projective resolution of N in mod A.

(i) Assume N is in proj A. Then Pi D 0 for i 1, and we get ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.

(ii) Assume L is in inj A. Then it follows from Proposition II.2.6 (ii) that the
contravariant functor HomA .; L/ W mod A ! mod K is exact. In particular, we
obtain the exact sequence of K-vector spaces
HomA .Pn1 ; L/ ! HomA .Pn ; L/ ! HomA .PnC1 ; L/;
and consequently ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.

Corollary 9.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, N and L
modules in mod A, and n a positive integer. Then we have the covariant functor
ExtAn .N; / W mod A ! mod K
and the contravariant functor
Proof. By Lemma 9.1, ExtAn .N; u/ D 0 for any u 2 IA .L; U / and ExtAn .v; L/ D
0 for any v 2 PA .V; N /. Then the covariant functor ExtAn .N; / W mod A !
mod K induces the covariant functor ExtAn .N; / W mod A ! mod K and the con-
travariant functor ExtAn .; L/ W mod A ! mod K induces the contravariant functor
ExtAn .; L/ W mod A ! mod K.
Consider now a minimal injective resolution
d0 d1 dn d nC1
0 ! L ! I0 ! I1 ! ! In1 ! In ! InC1 !
of L in mod A (see Proposition I.8.30). Fix a positive integer n. Applying the

covariant functor HomA .N; / W mod A ! mod K, we obtain the chain of K-
vector spaces
HomA .N;d n / HomA .N;d nC1 /
HomA .N; In1 / ! HomA .N; In / ! HomA .N; InC1 /
with HomA .N; d nC1 / HomA .N; d n / D HomA .N; d nC1 d n / D 0. This allows us
to define the K-vector space
e
ExtAn .N; L/ D Ker HomA .N; d nC1 /= Im HomA .N; d n /:
e
We note that, by Proposition I.8.30 and Lemma I.8.32, the space ExtAn .N; L/ is well
defined (does not depend on the choice of minimal injective resolution).
Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A. Consider also a minimal injective
resolution
d Q0 d Q1 d Qn
d Q nC1
0 ! U ! IQ0 ! IQ1 ! ! IQn1 ! IQn ! IQnC1 !
of U in mod A. Then invoking the injectivity of the modules IQi , i 0, and the
exactness of the injective resolution of L, we conclude that there exists in mod A a
/L d0 / I0 d1 / I1 / ::: / In1 dn / In d nC1/ / :::

0 InC1
u u0 u1 un1 un unC1

/U dQ 0 / IQ dQ 1 / IQ / ::: / IQ dQ n / IQ dQ nC1/ / ::::
0 0 1 n1 n IQnC1
HomA .N;d n / nC1 /

HomA .N; In1 / / HomA .N; In /HomA .N;d / HomA .N; InC1 /
HomA .N;un1 / HomA .N;un / HomA .N;unC1 /

HomA .N;dQ n /
Q nC1 /
HomA .N; IQn1 / / Hom .N; IQ /HomA .N;d / Hom .N; IQ / ,
A n A nC1
HomA .N; un /.Ker HomA .N; d nC1 // Ker HomA .N; dQ nC1 /;
HomA .N; un /.Im HomA .N; d n // Im HomA .N; dQ n /:

e e
ExtAn .N; u/ W ExtAn .N; L/ ! ExtAn .N; U / e
by
e
ExtAn .N; u/.' C Im HomA .N; d n // D un ' C Im HomA .N; dQ n /
for ' 2 HomA .N; In / with d nC1 ' D HomA .N; d nC1 /.'/ D 0. Observe that
un ' D HomA .N; un /.'/. Unfortunately, the homomorphisms un W In ! IQn ,
n 0, occurring in the above commutative diagram of injective resolutions,
are not uniquely determined by the homomorphism u W L ! U . Assume u0n 2
HomA .In ; IQn /, n 0, is another family of homomorphisms such that u00 d 0 D dQ 0 u
and u0n d n D dQ n u0n1 for n 1. Invoking the injectivity of the modules IQi ,
i 0, and the exactness of the minimal injective resolutions of L and U , we
conclude that there exist homomorphisms tn 2 HomA .InC1 ; IQn /, n 0, such
that u0 u00 D t0 d 1 and un u0n D tn d nC1 C dQ n tn1 for n 1. Then, for
any homomorphism ' 2 Ker HomA .N; d nC1 /, we obtain that un ' u0n ' D
.un u0n /' D tn d nC1 ' C dQ n tn1 ' D dQ n tn1 ' D HomA .N; dQ n /.tn1 '/ with
tn1 ' 2 HomA .N; IQn1 /. Therefore, we have
un ' C Im HomA .N; dQ n / D u0n ' C Im HomA .N; dQ n /:

e
As a consequence, the homomorphism ExtAn .N; u/ does not depend on the choice
of homomorphisms un W In ! IQn , n 0. Moreover, we have ExtAn .N; t u/ D e
e e
ExtAn .N; t/ExtAn .N; u/ for u 2 HomA .L; U / and t 2 HomA .U; T /, and clearly
e
ExtAn .N; idL / D idExt
e An .N;L/ . Therefore, for any module N in mod A, we have the
e
covariant functor
ExtAn .N; / W mod A ! mod K:
Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A. Then we have the commutative
diagram in mod K,
HomA .N;d n / nC1 /

HomA .N; In1 / / HomA .N; In /HomA .N;d / HomA .N; InC1 /
HomA .v;In1 / HomA .v;In / HomA .v;InC1 /

.V;d n / nC1 /
HomA .V; In1 /
HomA
/ HomA .V; In / HomA .V;d / HomA .V; InC1 / ,
HomA .v; In /.Ker HomA .N; d nC1 // Ker HomA .V; d nC1 /;
HomA .v; In /.Im HomA .N; d n // Im HomA .V; d n /:

Hence, we may define the K-linear homomorphism
e e e
ExtAn .v; L/ W ExtAn .N; L/ ! ExtAn .V; L/
e
by
ExtAn .v; L/.' C Im HomA .N; d n // D 'v C Im HomA .V; d n /
for ' 2 HomA .N; In / with d nC1 ' D HomA .N; d nC1 /.'/ D 0. Observe that
e e
'v D HomA .v; L/.'/. Moreover, we have ExtAn .vw; L/ D ExtAn .w; L/ExtAn .v; L/ e
e
for v 2 HomA .V; N /, w 2 HomA .W; V /, and clearly ExtAn .idN ; L/ D idExt
e An .N;L/ .
Therefore, for any module L in mod A, we have the contravariant functor
e
We note the following facts.
Lemma 9.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, N and L

modules in mod A, and n a positive integer. Then the following statements hold.
e
(i) If N is in proj A, then ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.
ext .N; L/ D 0.
(ii) If L is in inj A, then E n
A
Proof. Let
d0 d1 dn d nC1
0 ! L ! I0 ! I1 ! ! In1 ! In ! InC1 !
be a minimal injective resolution of L in mod A.

(i) Assume N is in proj A. Then it follows from Proposition II.2.6 (i) that the
covariant functor HomA .N; / W mod A ! mod K is exact. In particular, we obtain
the exact sequence of K-vector spaces
HomA .N;d n / HomA .N;d nC1 /

HomA .N; In1 / ! HomA .N; In / ! HomA .N; InC1 /;
e
and consequently ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.
e
(ii) Assume L is in inj A. Then Ii D 0 for i 1, and we obtain ExtAn .N; L/ D 0.

Corollary 9.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, N and L

modules in mod A, and n a positive integer. Then we have the covariant functor
e
ExtAn .N; / W mod A ! mod K

e ExtAn .; L/ W mod A ! mod K:
Proof. By Lemma 9.3, E ext .N; u/ D 0 for any u 2 I .L; U / and Eext .v; L/ D
n n
ext .N; / W mod A !

A A A
0 for any v 2 P .V; N /. Then the covariant functor E n
e
A A
mod K induces the covariant functor Ext .N; / W mod A ! mod K and the con-
n
ext .; L/ W mod A ! mod K induces the contravariant functor

n
A
ext .; L/ W mod A ! mod K.

travariant functor E A
E n
A
The following result extends Corollary III.3.11 to the higher extension functors.
Theorem 9.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, L and N
modules in mod A, and n a positive integer. The following statements hold.
e
(i) The covariant functors ExtAn .N; / and ExtAn .N; / from mod A to mod K
e
(ii) The contravariant functors ExtAn .; L/ and ExtAn .; L/ from mod A to mod K
The usual proof of the above theorem is tedious and requires consideration
of bicomplexes involving simultaneously projective resolutions of modules on the
contravariant place and injective resolutions of modules on the covariant place of
the hom functors (for a proof we refer to the book [CE]). For selfinjective algebras,
there is a much simpler proof invoking the syzygy functors, which we will present
below.
Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K. Then
proj A D inj A and mod A D mod A. Then, for any modules N and L in mod A,
and a positive integer n, we have, by Corollaries 9.2 and 9.4, the covariant functors
e
ExtAn .N; /; ExtAn .N; / W mod A ! mod K
and the contravariant functors
e
ExtAn .; L/; ExtAn .; L/ W mod A ! mod K:

K and n be a positive integer. For any modules N and L in mod A, there exist
K-linear isomorphisms

N;L W HomA An .N /; L ! ExtAn .N; L/
such that the following statements hold.
(i) For any homomorphism u W L ! U in mod A the diagram in mod K,
N;L
HomA An .N /; L / Ext n .N; L/
A
n .N /;u n .N;u/
HomA .A / ExtA

n N;U
HomA A .N /; U / Ext n .N; U / ,
A
is commutative.
(ii) For any homomorphism v W V ! N in mod A the diagram in mod K,
N;L
HomA An .N /; L / Ext n .N; L/
A
n .v/;L n .v;L/
HomA .A / ExtA
V;L
HomA An .V /; L / Ext n .V; L/ ,
A
is commutative.
Proof. Let L and N be modules in mod A. Consider a minimal projective resolution

dnC1 dn dn1 d1 d0
! PnC1 ! Pn ! Pn1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! N ! 0
of N in mod A. Then we have Im dn D Ker dn1 D An .N / and Im dn Š

Pn = Ker dn D Pn = Im dnC1 D Coker dnC1 . Let n W Pn ! Im dn be the canon-
ical epimorphism induced by dn and in W An .N / ! Pn1 the canonical embed-
ding. Thus dn D in n . Furthermore, in n dnC1 D dn dnC1 D 0, and hence
n dnC1 D 0, because in is a monomorphism. Take a homomorphism f 2
HomA .An .N /; L/. Then 'f D f n 2 HomA .Pn ; L/ and HomA .dnC1 ; L/.'f / D
'f dnC1 D f n dnC1 D 0. Hence we may assign to f the element 'f C
Im HomA .dn ; L/ 2 ExtAn .N; L/. Suppose now that g 2 HomA .An .N /; L/ and
f g 2 PA .An .N /; L/, say f g D t r for some r 2 HomA .An .N /; P / and
t 2 HomA .P; L/ with P in proj A. Then we obtain a commutative diagram in
mod A,
in
An .N / / Pn1
||
|||
r ||
||| s
~||
P,
because P is in proj A D inj A. Then we obtain that
'f 'g D f n gn D .f g/n D t rn D t sin n

D t sdn D HomA .dn ; L/.t s/
with ts 2 HomA .Pn1 ; L/. This shows that 'f 'g 2 Im HomA .dn ; L/, and
so 'f C Im HomA .dn ; L/ D 'g C Im HomA .dn ; L/. Therefore, we obtain the
K-linear homomorphism

N;L W HomA An .N /; L ! ExtAn .N; L/
such that

N;L f C PA .An .N /; L D 'f C Im HomA .dn ; L/
for any f 2 HomA .An .N /; L/. We claim that N;L is an isomorphism.

Assume f 2 HomA .An .N /; L/ and 'f 2 Im HomA .dn ; L/. Then 'f D
HomA .dn ; L/. / D dn for some 2 HomA .Pn1 ; L/. But then we have f n D
'f D dn D in n , which implies f D in , because n is an epimorphism.
Therefore, f 2 PA .An .N /; L/. This shows that N;L is a monomorphism.
Assume now that a homomorphism ' 2 HomA .Pn ; L/ has the property 'dnC1 D
HomA .dnC1 ; L/.'/ D 0. Since n induces an isomorphism Pn = Im dnC1 !
An .N /, we infer that there exists a homomorphism f 2 HomA .An .N /; L/ such
that ' D f n D 'f . Hence ' C Im HomA .dn ; L/ D 'f C Im HomA .dn ; L/. This
shows that N;L is also an epimorphism.
(i) Let u W L ! U be a homomorphism in mod A. Then we have, for any
f 2 HomA .An .N /; L/, the equalities

n
ExtA .N; u/N;L f D ExtAn .N; u/ 'f C Im HomA .dn ; L/
D u'f C Im HomA .dn ; L/
D uf n C Im HomA .dn ; L/
D 'uf C Im HomA .dn ; L/

D N;U uf

D N;U HomA .An .N /; u/ f ;
where f D f C PA .An .N /; L/, u D u C PA .L; U /, uf D uf C PA .An .N /; L/.
Therefore, the required equality

ExtAn .N; u/N;L D N;U HomA An .N /; u
holds.
(ii) Let v W V ! N be a homomorphism in mod A. Let

dnC1 dn dn1 d1 d0

! PnC1 ! Pn ! Pn1

! ! P1 ! P0 ! V ! 0
be a minimal projective resolution of V in mod A. Then there exists a commutative
diagram in mod A of the form

dnC1 dn dn1 d1 d0
::: / P / P / P / ::: / P / P /V /0
nC1 n n1 1 0
vnC1 vn vn1 v1 v0 v
dnC1
::: / PnC1 / Pn dn
/ Pn1 dn1 / : : : / P1 d1
/ P0 d0
/N / 0.
Hence we obtain also the commutative diagram of the form

Pn Pn1
FF v:
FF n in vv
FF v
FF
F# v vv
vv
vn An .V / vn1

Pn G wn P
: n1
GG u
GGn in uuu
GG uu
GG u
# uu
n
A .N / ,

where Im dn D Ker dn1 D An .V /, n W Pn ! An .V / is the canonical epi-

morphism induced by dn , in W An .V / ! Pn1 is the canonical embedding, and
wn D wn C PA .An .V /; An .N // D An .v C PA .V; N // D An .v/. Clearly, we

have dn D in n . Then we obtain, for any f 2 HomA .An .N /; L/, the equalities
n
ExtA .v; L/N;L f D ExtAn .v; L/ 'f C Im HomA .dn ; L/
D 'f vn C Im HomA .dn ; L/
D f n vn C Im HomA .dn ; L/
D f wn n C Im HomA .dn ; L/

D V;L f wn

D V;L f wn

D V;L f An .v/

D V;L HomA .An .v/; L/ f :
Therefore, the required equality

ExtAn .v; L/N;L D V;L HomA An .v/; L
holds.
Dually, we have the following theorem, and we leave its proof to the reader.
Theorem 9.7. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K
and n be a positive integer. For any modules N and L in mod A there exist K-linear
isomorphisms
e
QN;L W HomA N; An .L/ ! ExtAn .N; L/

HomA N; An .L/
QN;L
e
/ Ext n .N; L/
A
. n .u/
HomA N;A / e An .N;u/
Ext

HomA N; An .U /
QN;U
e
/ Ext n .N; U / ,
A
is commutative.

HomA N; An .L/
QN;L
e
/ Ext n .N; L/
A
HomA .v;An .L/

/ e An .v;L/
Ext

HomA V; An .L/
QV;L
e
/ Ext n .V; L/ ,
A
is commutative.
Theorem 9.8. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K

and n be a positive integer. For any modules N and L in mod A, the n-th syzygy
functor An W mod A ! mod A induces isomorphisms of K-vector spaces

!N;L W HomA N; An .L/ ! HomA An .N /; L :
Moreover, the following statements hold.

!N;L
HomA N; An .L/ / Hom n .N /; L
A A
n .u/
HomA .N;A n .N /;u
/ HomA .A /
!N;U
HomA N; An .U / / Hom n .N /; U ,
A A
is commutative.
!N;L
HomA N; An .L/ / Hom n .N /; L
A A
n .L/
HomA .v;A n .v/;L
/ HomA .A /
!V;L n
HomA V; An .L/ / Hom A .V /; L ,
A
is commutative.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 8.4 that An and An are mutually inverse equiv-
alences from mod A to mod A. In particular, there is a natural isomorphism of
functors
' n W An B An ! 1mod A :
Then for modules N and L in mod A, the required isomorphism of K-vector spaces

!N;L W HomA N; An .L/ ! HomA An .N /; L

is given for f 2 HomA N; An .L/ by

!N;L f D 'Ln An f :
A simple checking shows that the diagrams in (i) and (ii) are commutative.
Combining Theorems 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8, we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 9.9. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K,
L and N be modules in mod A, and n a positive integer. The following statements
hold.
e
(i) The covariant functors ExtAn .N; /, ExtAn .N; / and HomA An .N /; from
mod A to mod K are naturally isomorphic.
e
(ii) The contravariant functors ExtAn .; L/, ExtAn .; L/ and HomA ; An .L/

from mod A to mod K are naturally isomorphic.

Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K and M be a
module in mod A. The Ext-algebra of M is the K-algebra ExtA .M; M / such that
1
M
ExtA .M; M / D HomA Ar .M /; M
rD0

as K-vector space and the multiplication of f 2 HomA Ar .M /; M and g 2
s
HomA A .M /; M is given by

f g D f B Ar .g/ 2 HomA ArCs .M /; M :
Hence ExtA .M; M / is a graded K-algebra, usually of infinite dimension over K.
10 Periodic modules
In this section we introduce as well as describe properties of periodic modules with
respect to actions of the syzygy and Auslander–Reiten operators.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. A module M in mod A is
said to be A -periodic (briefly, periodic) if An .M / Š M in mod A for some n 1.
The smallest positive integer d with Ad .M / Š M is called the period of M . More
generally, the module category mod A is said to be periodic if all modules in modP A
are periodic. Observe that mod A is periodic if and only if every indecomposable
nonprojective module in mod A is periodic (see Proposition 8.1 (iii)). We will show
in Section 12 (Corollary 12.3) that the periodicity of all simple modules in mod A
forces A to be a selfinjective algebra. In particular, we obtain that if a module
category mod A is periodic then A is a selfinjective algebra.
The following proposition exhibits a large class of algebras with periodic module
categories.
Proposition 10.1. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra of finite
representation type over a field K. Then the module category mod A is periodic.
Proof. Let M be an indecomposable nonprojective module in mod A. Applying
Proposition 8.3, we obtain the family An .M /, n 1, of indecomposable non-
projective modules in mod A. Since A is of finite representation type, there exists
positive integers r > s such that Ar .M / Š As .M / in mod A. Applying Propo-
sition 8.3 again, we conclude that Ars .M / Š M , and hence M is a periodic
module. This shows that mod A is periodic.
10. Periodic modules 415
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. A module M in mod A

is said to be A -periodic if An .M / Š M for some n 1. More generally, the
module category mod A is said to be A -periodic if all modules in modP A are A -
periodic. We note that mod A is A -periodic if and only if every indecomposable
nonprojective module in mod A is A -periodic (see Corollary III.4.9).
Proposition 10.2. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra of finite

representation type over a field K. Then the module category mod A is A -periodic.
Proof. Let M be an indecomposable nonprojective module in mod A. As proj A D

inj A, applying Corollary III.4.9, we obtain the family An M , n 1, of indecom-
posable nonprojective modules in mod A. Then the assumption that A is of finite
representation type forces that Ar M Š As M for some positive integers r > s.
Applying Corollary III.4.9 again, we conclude that Ars M Š M , and hence M is
A -periodic. This shows that mod A is A -periodic.
We have also the following fact.
Proposition 10.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K such that
mod A is A -periodic. Then A is a selfinjective algebra.
Proof. Assume that A is not a selfinjective algebra. Since the number of pairwise
nonisomorphic indecomposable projective modules in mod A is the same as the
number of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable injective modules in mod A
(Corollaries I.8.6 and I.8.21), we conclude that there exists in mod A an indecom-
posable injective but not projective module I . Then I belongs to modP A, and so
is A -periodic, say I Š Am I for a positive integer m. But then I Š A .Am1 I /,
which gives a contradiction, because A .Am1 I / is an indecomposable noninjec-
tive module in mod A, by Corollary III.4.9. Therefore, indeed A is a selfinjective
algebra.
We obtain the following direct consequence of Propositions 10.2 and 10.3.
Corollary 10.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra of finite representation

type over a field K. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A is a selfinjective algebra.
(ii) The module category mod A is A -periodic.
Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K. Then

it follows from the Morita–Azumaya duality Theorem II.7.11 that the Nakayama
functor NA D D HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod A is a selfequivalence of the cat-
egory mod A. We say that NA has finite order if there is a positive integer m such
that the functors NAm and 1mod A from mod A to mod A are naturally isomorphic.

K such that the Nakayama functor NA W mod A ! mod A has finite order, and M
be a module in mod A. Then the following equivalences hold.
(i) M is periodic if and only if M is A -periodic.
(ii) mod A is periodic if and only if mod A is A -periodic.
Proof. Let m be a positive integer such that the functors NAm and 1mod A are naturally
isomorphic. Then the functors NAm and 1mod A from mod A to mod A are also
naturally isomorphic. Further, it follows from Theorem 8.5 that the functors A ,
A2 NA and NA A2 from mod A to mod A are naturally isomorphic. Then we infer
that the functors Am and A2m from mod A to mod A are naturally isomorphic.
(i) Observe that if M is periodic (respectively, A -periodic) then M belongs
to modP A. Assume Ad .M / Š M in mod A for some positive integer d . Then
Ad .M / Š M in mod A, and hence we obtain that Amd M Š A2md .M / Š M
in mod A. Since Amd M and M are in modP A D modI A, we conclude, by
Lemma III.4.3, that Amd M Š M in mod A. In a similar way, we show that if
Ar M Š M in mod A, for a positive integer r, then A2mr .M / Š M in mod A.
Therefore, the equivalence (i) holds. Clearly, the equivalence (ii) follows
from (i).
As a direct consequence of Corollary 8.6 and Proposition 10.5 we obtain the

following facts.
Corollary 10.6. Let A be a finite dimensional symmetric K-algebra over a field

K, and M be a module in mod A. Then the following equivalences hold.
(i) M is periodic if and only if M is A -periodic.
(ii) mod A is periodic if and only if mod A is A -periodic.
Let A be a finite dimensional Frobenius K-algebra over a field K and A a

Nakayama automorphism of A, associated to a nondegenerated associative
K-bilinear form .; /A W A A ! K. It follows from Proposition 3.13 that
the functors NA D D HomA .; A/ and NA0 D ./ 1 from mod A to mod A are
A
naturally isomorphic. In particular, we obtain that if A is of finite order (as an
automorphism of A) then the Nakayama functor NA has finite order. We will show
in Chapter VI that all finite dimensional Hopf algebras over a field K are Frobe-
nius algebras with Nakayama automorphisms of finite order (see Theorem VI.5.2).
On the other hand, the following example shows that there are finite dimensional
Frobenius algebras A over a field for which the Nakayama automorphism A (re-
spectively, the Nakayama functor NA ) are of infinite order, and the A -periodicity
and A -periodicity of modules does not coincide.
Example 10.7. Let K be a field and 2 K n f1; 0; 1g. Consider the local K-
algebra
A D KhX; Y i=.X 2 ; Y 2 ; X Y YX /;
and denote by x and y the cosets of X and Y in A . We know from Example 2.8
that A is a 4-dimensional nonsymmetric Frobenius K-algebra and 1 D 1A , x, y,
xy D yx form a basis of A over K.
For elements a; b 2 K n f0g, consider the right A -modules
M.a; b/ D A =.ax C by/A ;
where .ax C by/A is the right ideal of A generated by ax C by. Observe that
dimK .ax C by/A D 2 and the elements ax C by and xy D yx form a basis of
.axCby/A over K, because .axCby/x D byx and .axCby/y D axy D ayx.
Then M.a; b/ is an indecomposable right A -module with dimK M.a; b/ D 2,
simple top.M.a; b// and simple soc.M.a; b//. Clearly, every simple module in
mod A is isomorphic to A = rad A , which is the K-vector space K with the zero
actions of x and y. Then we have in mod A the exact sequence
0 ! A .M.a; b//!PA .M.a; b//!M.a; b/ ! 0;
where PA .M.a; b// D A and A .M.a; b// D .ax C by/A . Moreover,
.axCby/A Š M.a; b/ in mod A , because we have .axCby/.axCby/ D
0. Therefore, we obtain A .M.a; b// Š M.a; b/ in mod A . Hence, for any
positive integer m, we have that
Am .M.a; b// Š M ../m a; b/ :
Moreover, for a; b; c; d 2 K n f0g, we have M.a; b/ Š M.c; d / in mod A if

and only if there is a nonzero element 2 K such that c D a and d D b,
or equivalently .a; b/ and .c; d / give the same point .a W b/ D .c W d / on the
projective line P 1 .K/. Therefore, we conclude that a module M.a; b/ is periodic
(A -periodic) if and only if 2m D 1 in K. Summing up, we conclude that the
following conditions are equivalent:
(1) is an n-th root of unity in K, for some n 1.
(2) M.a; b/ is periodic in mod A , for some a; b 2 K n f0g.
(3) M.a; b/ is periodic in mod A , for any pair a; b 2 K n f0g.
We will show now that, for any 2 K n f1; 0; 1g and pair a; b 2 K n f0g, we
have
M.a; b/ Š A M.a; b/
in mod A , and hence M.a; b/ is A -periodic in mod A . Fix elements a; b 2

K n f0g. It follows from the above discussion that M.a; b/ admits a minimal
projective presentation in mod A of the form
p1 p0
P1 ! P0 ! M.a; b/ ! 0;
where P1 D P0 D A , p0 is the canonical epimorphism of right A -modules

A ! A =.ax Cby/A and p1 is the composed epimorphism of right A -modules
p q
A ! A =.ax C by/A ! .ax C by/A , with q an isomorphism. Applying
the Nakayama functor NA D D HomA .; A / W mod A ! mod A , we obtain,
by Proposition III.5.3, an exact sequence in mod A of the form
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A M.a; b/ ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M.a; b// ! 0;
and so A .M.a; b// Š Ker NA .p1 / in mod A . Since NA .p1 / D NA .qp/ D
NA .q/NA .p/ with NA .q/ an isomorphism, we conclude that A M.a; b/ Š
Ker NA .p1 / Š Ker NA .p/, where p W A ! M.a; b/ is the canonical pro-
jective cover of M.a; b/ in mod A . We will show that Ker NA .p/ Š M.a; b/
in mod A , and consequently A M.a; b/ Š M.a; b/. We calculate first the left
A -module HomA .M.a; b/; A /. Observe that we have in mod A the exact
sequence
u p
A ! A ! M.a; b/ ! 0
such that u.1A / D ax C by. This leads to the following commutative diagram
op
in mod A with exact rows:
0 / Ker v i / A v / A
' '
Hom .p; A / Hom .u; A /
0 / HomA .M.a; b/; A /A / HomA .A ; A / A / HomA .A ; A / ,

where ' W A ! HomA .A ; A / is an isomorphism of left A -modules such that

'.c/.d / D cd for c; d 2 A (see Lemma I.6.1), and i W Ker v ! A is the
canonical embedding. Observe that, for c 2 A , we have

v.c/ D '.v.c// 1A D HomA .u; A /'.c/ 1A

D .'.c/u/ 1A D c.ax C by/:
Since .ax C by/.ax C by/ D 0, we conclude that Ker v D A .ax C by/.

Moreover, is an isomorphism of left A -modules, and so we have an isomorphism
HomA .M.a; b/; A / Š A .ax C by/

op
in mod A . We calculate now the right A -module D.A .ax C by//. Consider
the canonical embedding w W A .ax C by/ ! A of left A -modules. This gives
the epimorphism D.w/ W D.A / ! D.A .ax C by// of right A -modules. Let
' W A ! K be the K-linear homomorphism such that ' .1A / D 0, ' .x/ D 0,
' .y/ D 0 and ' .xy/ D 1. We know from Example 2.8 that Ker ' does
not contain nonzero right ideals of A . Then it follows from the proof of Theo-
rem 2.1 that the K-linear map W A ! D.A / such that .m/.n/ D ' .mn/ for
m; n 2 A is an isomorphism of right A -modules. Hence, D D.w/ W A !
D .A .ax C by// is an epimorphism of right A -modules. Observe that
dimK Ker D dimK A dimK D.A .ax C by// D 4 2 D 2:
Moreover, .m/ D D.w/. .m// D .m/w for any m 2 A . Then we obtain

the equalities
.ax by/ .A .ax C by// D .ax by/w .A .ax C by//
D ' ..ax by/A .ax C by//
D ' ..ax by/K.ax C by//
D K' ..ax by/.ax C by// D 0;
and hence ax by 2 Ker . This shows that Ker D .ax by/A . This
leads to an isomorphism M.a; b/ D A =.ax by/A Š D.A .ax C by// in
mod A . Therefore, we obtain a commutative diagram in mod A with exact rows
0 / A .M.a; b// j
/ A h / M.a; b/ /0

%
NA .p/
0 / Ker NA .p/ / NA .A / / NA .M.a; b//

with NA .A / D D.A / and the vertical homomorphisms being isomorphisms.
Summing up, we have in mod A isomorphisms
A M.a; b/ Š Ker NA .p/ Š A .M.a; b// Š M.a; b/ D M.a; b/:
In particular, for any pair a; b 2 K n f0g, M.a; b/ is an indecomposable

A -periodic module in mod A of A -period 1.
Take now an element 2 K n f1; 0; 1g which is not n-th root of unity, for any
natural number n 2. Observe that for K D C we have many such elements. Then,
from earlier observation, for a; b 2 K n f0g, M.a; b/ Š A .M../m a; b// ©
Am .M.a; b// for any positive integer m, that is, M.a; b/ is not A -periodic.
Since A is a Frobenius algebra, there exists a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear
form .; / W A A ! K, and the associated Nakayama automorphism D
A of A . We claim that is an automorphism of A of infinite order. Indeed,
by Proposition 3.13, the functors NA and NA0 D ./ 1 from mod A to mod A

are naturally isomorphic. Hence, if is an automorphism of finite order, then the
Nakayama functor NA W mod A ! mod A has finite order, and consequently,
by Proposition 10.5, an indecomposable module M in mod A is A -periodic if
and only if M is A -periodic. Since the modules M.a; b/, a; b 2 K n f0g, are
A -periodic but not A -periodic, we conclude that the Nakayama automorphism
D A of A is of infinite order.
The following characterization of selfinjective Nakayama algebras shows that
sometimes we may recover a finite dimensional selfinjective algebra A and its
module category mod A from the action of the syzygy operator A (respectively,
the Auslander–Reiten translation A ) on the simple modules in mod A.
Theorem 10.8. Let A be an indecomposable finite dimensional selfinjective K-
algebra over a field K. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A2 .S/ is simple for any simple module S in mod A.
(ii) A S is simple for any simple module S in mod A.
(iii) A is a Nakayama algebra with ``.A/ 2.
Proof. Since A is a selfinjective algebra, we conclude that the Nakayama functors
NA D D HomA .; A/ and NA1 D HomAop .; A/D from mod A to mod A are
exact. Hence it follows that, for any simple module S in mod A, the modules
NA .S/ and NA1 .S / are also simple. We also note that if one of the conditions (i),
(ii), or (iii) holds, then every simple module in mod A is not projective (equivalently,
not injective).
Observe first that the implication (iii) ) (ii) follows from the description of
almost split sequences over Nakayama algebras given in Theorem III.8.7. Indeed,
for a simple module S and its projective cover P ! S in mod A, we have S D
P = rad P and an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! rad P = rad2 P ! P = rad2 P ! P = rad P ! 0:
Hence A S D rad P = rad2 P is simple, because P is a uniserial module.
Assume (ii) holds. Let S be a simple module in mod A. Then T D NA1 .S / is a
simple module in mod A and S Š NA .T /. Further, by (ii), A T is a simple module
in mod A. Applying now Theorem 8.5, we conclude that A2 .S / Š A2 .NT .T // Š
A T in mod A. Since the modules A2 .S / and A T belong to modP A, using
Lemma III.4.3, we infer that A2 .S / Š A T in mod A. Therefore, A2 .S / is a
simple module in mod A. This shows that (ii) implies (i).
Assume (i) holds. Let S be a simple module in mod A. Then we have an exact
sequence in mod A of the form
i g h
0 ! A2 .S / ! PA .rad P / ! P ! S ! 0;
h
where P ! S is a projective cover of S in mod A, rad P D Ker h D Im g D
A .S/. It follows from (i) that A2 .S / is a simple module in mod A. Further,
by Proposition 8.3, we have A2 .A2 .S // Š S and i W A2 .S / ! PA .rad P /
is an injective envelope of A2 .S / in mod A. Since A2 .S / is simple, we con-
clude that PA .rad P / is an indecomposable projective module, and consequently
rad P = rad2 P D top.rad P / is a simple module. This show that the radical rad P
of any indecomposable projective module P in mod A has simple top. Take now
an arbitrary nonsimple module M in mod A with top.M / a simple module. Then
we obtain a commutative diagram in mod A of the form
0 / rad PA .M / i / PA .M / u / top.PA .M // /0
g h top.h/
j
0 / rad M /M v / top.M / /0
with rad M ¤ 0, where h W PA .M / ! M is a projective cover of M in mod A.

Moreover, top.h/ is an isomorphism and PA .M / is an indecomposable projective
module, because top.M / is simple. We claim that g is an epimorphism. Take an el-
ement x 2 rad.M /. Since h is an epimorphism, there exists an element y 2 PA .M /
such that j.x/ D h.y/. Then we obtain that top.h/u.y/ D vh.y/ D vj.x/ D 0.
Hence u.y/ D 0, because top.h/ is an isomorphism. Thus Ker u D Im i im-
plies that y D i.z/ for some element z 2 rad PA .M /. But then we obtain that
j.x/ D h.y/ D h.i.z// D j.g.z//, and hence x D g.z/, since j is a monomor-
phism. Therefore, indeed g is an epimorphism. Applying now Lemma I.5.18, we
obtain that top.g/ W top.rad PA .M // ! top.rad M / is an epimorphism. Since, by
the first part of the proof, top.rad PA .M // is simple, we conclude that top.rad M / is
also simple. Summing up, we infer that, for any indecomposable projective module
P in mod A, the radical series
P rad P rad2 P radm1 P radm P D 0
of P is a composition series of P . This shows that P is a uniserial right A-module,

by Proposition I.10.1. Since proj A D inj A, it follows from Proposition I.8.16, that
every indecomposable projective left A-module Q is also uniserial. This shows that
A is a Nakayama algebra. Moreover, by the assumption (i), we have ``.A/ 2.
Therefore, (i) implies (iii).
Corollary 10.9. Let A be an indecomposable finite dimensional selfinjective K-

algebra over a field K. Then the following conditions are equivalent.
(i) A .S/ is simple for any simple module S in mod A.
(ii) A is a Nakayama algebra with ``.A/ D 2.
Proof. Assume (i) holds. Then A2 .S / D A .A .S // is simple for any simple
module S in mod A. Hence it follows from Theorem 10.8 that A is a Nakayama
algebra with ``.A/ 2. On the other hand, for any indecomposable projective
module P in mod A we have the canonical exact sequence
0 ! rad P ! P ! P = rad P ! 0:
Since top.P / D P = rad P is simple and rad P D A .top.P //, we conclude that
rad P is a simple module. Clearly, then .rad P /.rad A/ D rad2 P D 0. This shows
that .rad A/2 D 0, and hence ``.A/ D 2, because rad A ¤ 0. Thus, (i) implies (ii).
Assume (ii) holds. Then, for any indecomposable projective module P in
mod A, the radical series of P is a unique composition series of P , and is of
the form P rad P rad2 P D 0. In particular, we have rad P D soc.P /
and is simple, because P is an indecomposable injective module in mod A. Then,
for any simple module S in mod A, A .S / D rad.PA .S // is a simple module in
mod A, because PA .S / is an indecomposable projective module. This shows that
(ii) implies (i).
The following result proved by F. G. Carlson in [Car], called the Carlson the-
orem, provides an interesting property of indecomposable periodic modules over
finite dimensional selfinjective algebras.
K and M be an indecomposable periodic module in mod A of period d . More-
over, let N.M / be the ideal of the algebra ExtA .M; M / generated by all nilpotent
homogeneous elements. Then there is an isomorphism of graded K-algebras
ExtA .M; M /=N.M / Š F Œx;
where F Œx is the graded K-algebra of polynomials in one variable x of degree d
over the finite dimensional division K-algebra F D EndA .M /= rad EndA .M /.
Proof. We identify (see Theorems 9.6 and 9.8)
HomA .Ai .M /; M / D ExtAi .M; M / D HomA .M; Ai .M //;
for any i 1. Let f 2 HomA .As .M /; M / be a homogeneous nilpotent element
of ExtA .M; M / and g 2 HomA .Am .M /; M / an arbitrary homogeneous element
of ExtA .M; M /. We claim that
f g D f As .g/ 2 HomA .AmCs .M /; M /
is again a nilpotent element of ExtA .M; M /.
Choose r such that r.m C s/ D qd , for some q 1, and consider the element
h D .f As .g//r in ExtA .M; M /. Then
h 2 HomA .Aqd .M /; M / Š HomA .M; M /;

because Aqd .M / Š M . Suppose h is an isomorphism. Then f W As .M / ! M is

a retraction in mod A, and hence f f 0 D idM for some f 0 2 HomA .M; As .M //.
But then .f /n .f 0 /n D idM for any n 1, and hence f is not nilpotent in
ExtA .M; M /, a contradiction. Therefore, h belongs to the radical of the local
algebra EndA .M /, and hence h is nilpotent. Then Aid .h/ 2 EndA .M / are nilpo-
tent elements for all i 0, and hence belong to the radical of EndA .M /. Since
.rad EndA .M //l D 0 for some l 1, we get hl D 0 in ExtA .M; M /. But then
f g D f As .g/ is a nilpotent element in ExtA .M; M /. Similarly, using
ExtAi .M; M / D HomA .M; Ai .M //; i 1;
we prove that g f is nilpotent in ExtA .M; M /.

Let s ¤ pd , for all p 1. We show that any element f 2 HomA .As .M /; M /
is a nilpotent element of ExtA .M; M /. Choose r 1 such that rs D qd , for some
q 1, and take h D f r in ExtA .M; M /. Since d is the period of M and s is
not divisible by d , we conclude that f is not an isomorphism. Then h is not an
isomorphism, hence h 2 EndA .M / is nilpotent. Therefore, h is a nilpotent element
in ExtA .M; M /, and so f is nilpotent in ExtA .M; M /.
Let x 2 HomA .Ad .M /; M / Š HomA .M; M / correspond to the residue class
idM of the identity map idM from M to M . Observe that x is not nilpotent in
ExtA .M; M /. We claim thatPx n … N.M / for any n 1. Suppose that x t 2 N.M /
for some t 1. Then x t D gi fi hi , where fi are homogeneous nilpotent ele-
ments of ExtA .M; M / and gi , hi are elements of ExtA .M; M /. We may assume that
the elements gi , hi are also homogeneous. It follows from the first part of the proof
that gi fi hi D .gi fi /hi arePnilpotent elements in ExtA .M; M /, and hence are
nilpotent in EndA .M /. But then gi fi hi is nilpotent in EndA .M /, and hence
in ExtA .M; M /. This implies that x t , and hence x, is nilpotent
L1 in Ext

A .M; M /, a

contradiction. We conclude that ExtA .M; M /=N.M / Š pD0 F x D F Œx as p
graded K-algebras, with x of degree d , and F D EndA .M /= rad EndA .M /.
We will present now a method allowing us to construct periodic modules over

trivial extension algebras T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ of algebras A which admit A -periodic
modules of projective dimension one.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. We denote by
T.mod A/ D mod A Ë . ˝ D.A//
the category whose objects are pairs .X; ˛/, where X is a module in mod A and
˛ W X ˝A D.A/ ! X is a homomorphism in mod A with ˛.˛ ˝D.A// D 0. More-
over, if .X; ˛/ and .Y; ˇ/ are objects of T.mod A/ then a morphism u W .X; ˛/ !
.Y; ˇ/ in T.mod A/ is a homomorphism u W X ! Y in mod A such that the diagram
of homomorphisms in mod A,
X ˝A D.A/
˛ /X
u˝D.A/ u
ˇ
Y ˝A D.A/ /Y,
is commutative. Recall also (Example 2.7) that the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D
AËD.A/ of A by the A-bimodule D.A/ D HomK .A; K/ is a symmetric K-algebra
whose underlying K-vector space is A ˚ D.A/ and the multiplication in T.A/ is
given by
.a; f /.b; g/ D .ab; ag C f b/
for a; b 2 A and f; g 2 D.A/.
Lemma 10.11. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then there
is a canonical equivalence of categories

mod T.A/
! T.mod A/:
Proof. Let X be a module in mod T.A/. Since T.A/ D A ˚ D.A/, then X is

a module in mod A by xa D x.a; 0/ for any x 2 X and a 2 A. Moreover,
we have the A-bilinear map X D.A/ ! X given by xf D x.0; f / for any
x 2 X and f 2 D.A/. Then it follows from Proposition II.3.1 that we have the
induced K-linear homomorphism ˛ D ˛X W X ˝A D.A/ ! X , which is clearly a
homomorphism in mod A. Further, for x 2 X and f; g 2 D.A/, we have
˛ .˛ ˝ D.A// .x ˝ f ˝ g/ D ˛.˛.x ˝ f / ˝ g/ D .x.0; f //.0; g/

D x..0; f /.0; g// D x.0; 0/ D 0:
Hence ˛.˛ ˝ D.A// D 0. Observe that then x.a; f / D x..a; 0/ C .0; f // D

x.a; 0/ C x.0; f / D xa C ˛.x ˝ f / for x 2 X , a 2 A, f 2 D.A/. Conversely,
if .X; ˛/ is an object of T.mod A/ then we have the canonical right T.A/-module
structure given for x 2 X , a 2 A, f 2 D.A/ by
x.a; f / D xa C ˛.x ˝ f /;
which is well defined because ˛.˛ ˝ D.A// D 0. Finally, we conclude that

u W .X; ˛X / ! .Y; ˛Y / is a homomorphism in mod T.A/ if and only if u W X ! Y
is a homomorphism in mod A, with the induced (restricted) A-module structures
on X and Y , and ˛Y .u ˝ D.A// D u˛X .
The canonical equivalence of categories established above allows us to identify
mod T.A/ and T.mod A/. Observe that A is the quotient algebra of T.A/ by the
two-sided ideal 0 ˚ D.A/, and modules X from mod A are identified with the pairs
.X; 0/, where 0 W X ˝A D.A/ ! X is the zero homomorphism in mod A. We

also note that if e1 ; : : : ; en is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents
of T.A/ with 1A D e1 C C en , then eQ1 D .e1 ; 0/; : : : ; eQn D .en ; 0/ is a set of
pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of T.A/ with 1T.A/ D eQ1 C C eQn .
Then it follows from Proposition I.8.2 that every nonzero projective module P in
mod T.A/ is a direct sum P D P1 ˚ ˚ Pm , where each Pj , j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, is
isomorphic to a module eQi T.A/ D .ei ; 0/ T.A/ with i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Observe that,
under identification mod T.A/ D T.mod A/, eQi T.A/ D .ei A ˚ D.Aei /; ˛eQi T.A/ /,
with ˛eQi T.A/ W .ei A ˚ D.Aei // ˝A D.A/ ! ei A ˚ D.Aei / the homomorphism in
mod A given by ˛eQi T.A/ ..ai ; fi / ˝ g/ D .0; ai g/ for ai 2 ei A, fi 2 D.Aei / and
g 2 D.A/. For modules X , Y in mod A and a homomorphism ' W X ˝A D.A/ ! Y
of right A-modules, we denote by .X; Y; '/ the induced module .X ˚ Y; '/ Q in
mod T.A/ D T.mod A/ with 'Q the composed homomorphism
h i
0 0
' 0
.X ˚ Y / ˝A D.A/
! .X ˝A D.A// ˚ .Y ˝A D.A// ! X ˚ Y:
Observe that then we have
Pz D .P; idP ˝A D.A/ / D .P; P ˝A D.A/; idP ˝A D.A/ /:
Moreover, X D .X; 0/ D .X; 0; 0/ D .0; X; 0/ for any module X in mod A.
an indecomposable module in mod A with pdA M D 1. Then T.A/ M Š A M in
mod T.A/.
Proof. Since pdA M D 1, X admits a minimal projective resolution in mod A of
the form p1 p0
0 ! P1 ! P0 ! M ! 0:
Then, applying Proposition III.5.3, we conclude that there is in mod A an exact
NA .p1 / NA .p0 /
0 ! A M ! NA .P1 / ! NA .P0 / ! NA .M / ! 0;
where NA D D HomA .; A/ W mod A ! mod A is the Nakayama functor. Further,
by Proposition III.5.2, the functors NA and ˝A D.A/ from mod A to mod A are
naturally isomorphic. Therefore, we obtain an exact sequence in mod A of the form
p1 ˝A D.A/ p0 ˝A D.A/
! A M
0 ! P1 ˝A D.A/ ! P0 ˝A D.A/ ! M ˝A D.A/
! 0:
On the other hand, from the description of projective modules in mod T.A/ D
T.mod A/ it follows that M admits a projective cover of the form
.p ;0/
Pz0 D .P0 ; P0 ˝A D.A/; idP0 ˝A D.A/ / ! .M; 0; 0/:
0
Then Ker.p0 ; 0/ D .P1 ; P0 ˝A D.A/; p1 ˝ D.A//. Thus Ker.p0 ; 0/ admits a

projective cover in mod T.A/ D T.mod A/ of the form
.idP ;p1 ˝D.A//
Pz1 D .P1 ;P1 ˝A D.A/; idP1 ˝A D.A/ / ! .P1 ;P0 ˝A D.A/; p1 ˝ D.A//:
1
Hence we conclude that there are in mod T.A/ isomorphisms
2T.A/ .M / Š Ker.idP1 ; p1 ˝ D.A// D .0; Ker.p1 ˝ D.A//; 0/ D .0; A M; 0/

D A M:
Since T.A/ is a symmetric algebra, applying Corollary 8.6, we obtain that T.A/ M Š
2T.A/ .M / in mod T.A/. Therefore, T.A/ M Š A M in mod T.A/.
Corollary 10.13. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and
M be an indecomposable A -periodic module with pdA M D 1. Then M is an
indecomposable T.A/ -periodic and T.A/ -periodic module in mod T.A/.
Example 10.14. Let r be a positive integer, Q.r/ the quiver
0 Z5o
˛
r
55
ˇ
ˇ1 55

r
o o ::: o o
1 ˇ2 2 r 2 ˇr1 r 1
and A.r/ D KQ.r/ the path algebra of Q.r/ over a field K (see Exercise III.12.32).
It follows from Theorem I.9.5 that A.r/ is a hereditary algebra, and so pdA.r/ X D 1
for any indecomposable nonprojective module X in mod A.r/. Moreover, the
simple right A.r/-modules S.1/; S.2/; : : : ; S.r 1/, associated to the vertices
1; 2; : : : ; r 1 of Q.r/, and the right A.r/-module E
K Z5o
1
K
55
55
5
0o 0o ::: o 0o 0
lie on the mouth of a stable tube T of A.r/ of rank r, and we have A S.i / D S.i 1/,
for i 2 f2; : : : ; r 1g, A S.1/ D E and A E D S.r 1/. In particular, all indecom-
posable modules in T are A -periodic of period r. Applying now Proposition 10.12,
we conclude that T is also a stable tube of rank r in T.A/ , and consequently
all indecomposable right A-modules in T are T.A/ -periodic indecomposable right
T.A/-modules of period r. Moreover, since T.A/ is a symmetric algebra, we
have T.A/ M Š 2T.A/ .M / for any indecomposable nonprojective module M in
mod T.A/. Therefore, we obtain that all modules in T are T.A/ -periodic inde-
composable right T.A/-modules of period dividing 2r. In fact, a direct checking
11. Periodic algebras 427
shows that the modules T.A/ .S.1//; T.A/ .S.2//; : : : ; T.A/ .S.r 1//; T.A/ .E/
are not isomorphic to any of the modules S.1/; S.2/; : : : ; S.r 1/; E. Clearly, we
have 2T.A/ .S.i // Š T.A/ .S.i // D S.i 1/ for i 2 f2; : : : ; r 1g, 2T.A/ .S.1// Š
T.A/ .S.1// D E and 2T.A/ .E/ Š T.A/ E D S.r 1/. Hence, we conclude that
all modules in the stable tube T are T.A/ -periodic indecomposable right T.A/-
modules of period 2r.
11 Periodic algebras
In this section we introduce as well as describe properties of periodic finite di-
mensional algebras. Moreover, we show that the periodic algebras have periodic
module categories.
Proposition 11.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and
e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A with 1A D
e1 C C en . The following statements hold.
(i) fij D ei0 ˝ ej , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is a set of pairwise orthogonal idempotents
of Ae with X
1Ae D fij :
1 i;j n
(ii) There is a decomposition

M
Ae D fij Ae
1 i;j n
of the enveloping algebra Ae of A into a direct sum of projective right Ae -

submodules.
(iii) Every indecomposable projective module P in mod Ae is isomorphic to a
direct summand of a projective right Ae -module fij Ae , for some i; j 2
f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. (i) For i; j; k; l 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have the equalities
fij fkl D .ei0 ˝ ej /.ek0 ˝ el / D ei0 ek0 ˝ ej el D .ek ei /0 ˝ ej el D ıik ıj l fij :
Moreover, we have also the equalities

X
n X
n X X
1Ae D 1Aop ˝ 1A D ei0 ˝ ej D ei0 ˝ ej D fij :
iD1 j D1 1 i;j n 1 i;j n
(ii) It is a direct consequence of Lemma I.5.7, Proposition I.8.2 and (i).

(iii) Since Ae is a finite dimensional K-algebra, it follows from Corollary I.5.9

that there is a decomposition
Ae D f1 Ae ˚ ˚ fm Ae
of Ae in mod Ae into a direct sum of indecomposable right ideals, where f1 ; : : : ; fm
are pairwise orthogonal idempotents of Ae such that 1Ae D f1 C C fm . Further,
by Proposition I.8.2, P is isomorphic as right Ae -module to a module fk Ae for
some k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. On the other hand, by (ii), we have a decomposition
M
Ae D fij Ae
1 i;j n
in mod Ae . Taking now decompositions of all modules fij Ae , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng,

into direct sums of indecomposable right Ae -modules, we conclude, using Theo-
rem I.4.6, that fk Ae , and hence P , is isomorphic in mod Ae to a direct summand
of a projective module of the form fij Ae , for some i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
The following example shows that the projective right Ae -modules (A-bimod-
ules) fij Ae D Aei0 ˝K ej A, for primitive idempotents ei and ej of A, are not
necessarily indecomposable, and hence the idempotents fij D ei0 ˝ ej are not
necessarily primitive.
Example 11.2. Consider the 2-dimensional R-algebra C of complex numbers.
Then the identity 1C of C is a unique nonzero idempotent of C, and hence 1C
is a primitive idempotent of the R-algebra C. We have a canonical isomorphism
of R-algebras C Š RŒx=.x 2 C 1/. This leads to the following isomorphisms of
R-algebras
Ce Š Cop ˝R C D C ˝R C Š C ˝R RŒx=.x 2 C 1/
Š CŒx=.x 2 C 1/ D CŒx=.x C i /.x i /
Š CŒx=.x C i / CŒx=.x i /
Š C C;
which shows that Ce admits two orthogonal central idempotents f1 and f2 with
1Ce D f1 C f2 , corresponding to the central idempotents e1 D .1; 0/ and e2 D
.0; 1/ of C C. In particular, we obtain that 1Ce D 1C ˝ 1C is not a primitive
idempotent of the R-algebra Ce .
We also note that the above example shows also that the tensor product of two
fields (respectively, division algebras, simple algebras) is not necessarily a simple
algebra.
On the other hand, the next proposition and corollary show that for a wide class
of finite dimensional K-algebras, containing all bound quiver K-algebras KQ=I ,
the situation is very nice.
Proposition 11.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K, B D

A= rad A, and e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A
with 1A D e1 C Cen . Assume that B Š Mn1 .K/ Mnr .K/ as K-algebras,
for some positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr . The following statements hold.
(i) fij D ei0 ˝ ej , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive
idempotents of Ae with X
1Ae D fij :
1 i;j n
(ii) There is a decomposition

M
Ae D fij Ae
1 i;j n
of Ae into a direct sum of indecomposable projective right Ae -submodules.

(iii) Every indecomposable projective module P in mod Ae is isomorphic to a
projective right Ae -module fij Ae , for some i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. Let N D rad Aop ˝K A C Aop ˝K rad A. Then N is a nilpotent two-sided
ideal of Ae , since rad Aop and rad A are nilpotent two-sided ideals of rad Aop and A,
respectively (Corollary I.3.4). Consider the canonical K-algebra homomorphism
' W Ae =N ! B e
given by '.a0 ˝ b C N / D .a0 C rad Aop / ˝ .b C rad A/ for a; b 2 A. Apply-

ing Proposition II.3.1, we conclude that we have also the well-defined K-algebra
homomorphism
W B e ! Ae =N
such that ..a0 C rad Aop / ˝ .b C rad A// D a0 ˝ b C N . Then ' and are
mutually inverse homomorphisms of K-algebras, and consequently Ae =N Š B e
as K-algebras. Since N is a nilpotent two-sided ideal of Ae , we conclude from
Lemma I.3.12 that fij D ei0 ˝ ej , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is a set of pairwise orthogonal
primitive idempotents of Ae D Aop ˝K A whose sum is the identity 1Ae of Ae
if and only if fNij D fij C N , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is a set of pairwise orthogonal
primitive idempotents of Ae =N whose sum is the identity 1Ae =N of Ae =N . The
latter is equivalent to the statement: eNi0 ˝ eNj D .ei0 C rad Aop / ˝ .ej C rad A/,
i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of B e D
B op ˝K B D .Aop = rad Aop / ˝K .A= rad A/ whose sum is the identity 1B e D
1B op ˝ 1B of B e , because Ae =N is isomorphic to B e . Clearly, the idempotents
eNi0 ˝ eNj , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, are pairwise orthogonal and their sum is the identity 1B e
of B e . Fix i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. We claim that eNi0 ˝ eNj is a primitive idempotent of B e .
By Corollary I.8.9, it is enough to prove that .eNi0 ˝ eNj /B e .eNi0 ˝ eNj / D .eNi B eNi /op ˝K
.eNj B eNj / is a local K-algebra. It follows from Lemma I.4.4, Proposition I.5.16
and Corollaries I.8.8 and I.8.9, that eNi D ei C rad A and eNj D ej C rad A are
primitive idempotents of B. Invoking now our assumption B Š Mn1 .K/
Mnr .K/ as K-algebras, we infer that eNi B eNi Š K and eNj B eNj Š K. Then we
obtain that .eNi B eNi /op ˝K .eNj B eNj / Š K ˝K K Š K as K-algebras. This ensures
that .eNi0 ˝ eNj /B e .eNi0 ˝ eNj / is a local K-algebra. Summing up, we have proved
that fij D ei0 ˝ ej , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, is a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive
idempotents of Ae with X
1Ae D fij ;
1 i;j n
so the statement (i) holds. The statements (ii) and (iii) are now consequences of (i)
and Proposition I.8.2.
Corollary 11.4. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra such that A= rad A Š
K K as K-algebras. Then rad Ae D rad Aop ˝ A C Aop ˝ rad A.
Proof. We know that N D rad Aop ˝K A C Aop ˝K rad A is a nilpotent two-sided
ideal of Ae D Aop ˝K A such that Ae =N Š .A= rad A/op ˝K .A= rad A/ as K-
algebras. Now it follows from our assumption that both algebras are isomorphic to
a product K K of a finite number of copies of K. Applying Lemma I.3.5,
we conclude that N D rad Ae .
We exhibit now some properties of the enveloping algebras of finite dimensional
algebras.
Proposition 11.5. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A
is a selfinjective algebra if and only if Ae is a selfinjective algebra.
Proof. We will show first that it is enough to prove the required equivalence for A
a basic algebra. Consider the canonical decomposition
X
nA mX
A .i/
1Ae D eij ;
iD1 j D1
of 1A into sum of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of A such that

eij A Š eil A for j; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g;
eij A © ekl A for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; nA g; with i ¤ k and all
j 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .k/g;
in mod A, the associated primitive idempotents ei D ei1 , i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, and the
basic idempotent
XnA X
nA
eA D ei1 D ei
iD1 iD1
of A. Then Ab D eA AeA is the associated basic algebra of A. Moreover, by

Theorem II.6.16, A is Morita equivalent to Ab . In particular, we conclude from
Proposition 3.10 that A is selfinjective if and only if Ab is selfinjective.
It follows from Proposition 11.1 that fij;kl D eij0 ˝ ekl , for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; nA g,
j 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g, l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .k/g, are pairwise orthogonal idempotents of
the enveloping algebra Ae D Aop ˝K A such that
X X X
1Ae D fij;kl
1 i;k nA 1 j mA .i/ 1 l mA .k/
and there is a decomposition

M M M
Ae D fij;kl Ae
1 i;k nA 1 j mA .i/ 1 l mA .k/
of Ae into a direct sum of projective right Ae -submodules.

Applying Lemma I.8.12, we obtain isomorphisms in mod Aop D A-mod
Aeij Š Aeil for j; l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g; i 2 f1; : : : ; nA g:
Therefore, we obtain isomorphisms in mod Ae D bimod A
fij;kl Ae D Aeij ˝K ekl A Š Aeir ˝K eks A D fir;ks Ae
for i; k 2 f1; : : : ; nA g, j; r 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g, l; s 2 f1; : : : ; mA .k/g.

Consider now the idempotent Ae of the form
X X
fA D ei0 ˝ ek D 0
ei1 ˝ ek1 D eA0 ˝ eA :
1 i;j n 1 i;j n
Observe that every right Ae -submodule of Ae of the form fij;kl Ae for i; k 2

f1; : : : ; nA g, j 2 f1; : : : ; mA .i /g, l 2 f1; : : : ; mA .k/g is isomorphic in mod Ae
to a direct summand of the module fA Ae . Hence, there are a positive integer m
and an epimorphism .fA Ae /m ! Ae of right Ae -modules which shows that fA Ae
is a projective generator (progenerator) in mod Ae (see Proposition II.5.3). Ap-
plying now the Morita equivalence Theorem II.6.7, we conclude that Ae is Morita
equivalent to EndAe .fA Ae /. Invoking Corollary I.8.8, we obtain isomorphisms of
K-algebras
EndAe .fA Ae / Š fA Ae fA D .eA0 ˝ eA /.Aop ˝K A/.eA0 ˝ eA /

D eA0 Aop eA0 ˝K eA AeA D .eA AeA /op ˝K eA AeA
D .Ab /op ˝K Ab D .Ab /e :
Hence, we conclude that Ae is Morita equivalent to .Ab /e . Moreover, it follows

from Proposition 3.10 that Ae is a selfinjective if and only if .Ab /e is a selfinjective.
Now let A be a basic algebra, that is, A Š Ab .

Assume A is a selfinjective algebra. Then A is a Frobenius algebra, by Propo-
sition 3.9. Then it follows from Theorem 2.1 that there are isomorphisms AA Š
D.A/A in mod A and A A Š A D.A/ in mod Aop . We obtain then isomorphisms of
right Ae -modules (A-bimodules)
Ae D Aop ˝K A Š D.Aop / ˝K D.A/ Š D.Aop ˝K A/ D D.Ae /:
This shows that Ae is a Frobenius algebra, and consequently a selfinjective algebra,

by Theorem 2.1 and Proposition 3.8.
Conversely, assume that Ae is a selfinjective algebra. Then proj Ae D inj Ae . It
follows also from Proposition I.8.2 (ii) that every indecomposable projective right
Ae -module is isomorphic to a direct summand of the right Ae -module Ae . Since
proj Ae D inj Ae , we obtain that every indecomposable projective right Ae -module
is injective and isomorphic to a direct summand of the right Ae -module D.Ae /.
Hence, Ae is a direct summand of a module D.Ae /t in mod Ae D bimod A, for
some positive integer t . In particular, we obtain that Ae is a direct summand of
D.Ae /t in mod A. Observe now that there are isomorphisms of right A-modules
op /
Ae D Aop ˝K A Š AdimK .A
and
op
D.Ae / D D.Aop ˝K A/ Š D.Aop / ˝K D.A/ Š D.A/dimK D.A / :
op op
Thus .AA /dimK .A / is isomorphic to a direct summand of D.A/t dimK D.A / in
mod A. Clearly, this implies that AA is an injective module in mod A. Therefore,
A is a selfinjective algebra.
A finite dimensional K-algebra A over a field K is said to be separable if A
is a projective module in mod Ae . Our next aim is to show that every separable
K-algebra is a semisimple K-algebra. We need some preliminary facts.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. For a bimodule M in
bimod A, consider the K-vector space
M .A/ D fm 2 M j am D ma for all a 2 Ag :
Observe that, if ' W M ! N is a homomorphism in bimod A, then '.M .A/ /

N .A/ , because a'.m/ D '.am/ D '.ma/ D '.m/a for all m 2 M .A/ and
a; b 2 A. Therefore, we have the covariant K-linear functor
./.A/ W bimod A ! mod K:
Lemma 11.6. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then the
functors HomAe .A; / and ./.A/ from bimod A to mod K are naturally isomor-
phic.
Proof. For a bimodule M in bimod A, consider the K-linear map

M W HomAe .A; M / ! M .A/
given by M .'/ D '.1A / for any ' 2 HomAe .A; M /. Observe that '.1A / belongs
to M .A/ , because, for a 2 A, we have a'.1A / D '.a1A / D '.1A a/ D '.1A /a.
Clearly, M is a monomorphism of K-vector spaces. Moreover, for any m 2 M .A/ ,
the map 'm W A ! M such that 'm .a/ D am D ma for a 2 A belongs to
HomAe .A; M /, and M .'m / D 'm .1A / D 1A m D m. This shows that M is an
isomorphism of K-vector spaces. Further, for a homomorphism f W M ! N in
bimod A D mod Ae , the following diagram in mod K,
M
HomAe .A; M / / M .A/
HomAe .A;f / f .A/ Df jM .A/

N

HomAe .A; N / / N .A/ ,
is commutative. Therefore, the family of K-linear maps M , for M bimodules in

bimod A, defines a natural isomorphism W HomAe .A; /
! ./.A/ of functors
from bimod A to mod K.
(i) The functor ./.A/ W bimod A ! mod K is left exact.
(ii) The functor ./.A/ W bimod A ! mod K is exact if and only if A is a separable
K-algebra.
Proof. It follows from Lemma II.2.5 and Proposition II.2.6 that the functor
HomAe .A; / W bimod A ! mod K is left exact, and is exact if and only if A
is a projective module in bimod A D mod Ae . Then the required statements are
consequences of Lemma 11.6.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M; N modules
in mod A. Then the K-vector space HomK .M; N / has a natural structure of A-
bimodule such that the left multiplication au and the right multiplication ua of
u 2 HomK .M; N / by a 2 A are given by
.au/.m/ D u.ma/ and .ua/.m/ D u.m/a
for m 2 M . Observe that, for a; b 2 A, u 2 HomK .M; N /, and m 2 M , we have
..au/b/.m/ D .au/.m/b D u.ma/b D .ub/.ma/ D .a.ub//.m/;
and hence .au/b D a.ub/. Moreover, we have
HomA .M; N / D HomK .M; N /.A/ :
Proposition 11.8. Let A be a finite dimensional separable K-algebra over a field

K. Then A is a semisimple K-algebra.
Proof. In order to prove that A is a semisimple K-algebra, it is enough to show that
every module in mod A is projective (see Corollary I.8.24). Let M be a module
in mod A and f W X ! Y be an epimorphism in mod A. Then f W X ! Y is
an epimorphism in mod K, and hence the induced homomorphism of K-vector
spaces HomK .M; f / W HomK .M; X / ! HomK .M; Y /, which assigns to ' 2
HomK .M; X/ the homomorphism HomK .M; f /.'/ D f ', is an epimorphism.
We claim that HomK .M; f / is a homomorphism of A-bimodules. Indeed, for
a 2 A, ' 2 HomK .M; X /, and m 2 M , we have the equalities
.HomK .M; f /.a'// .m/ D .f .a'//.m/ D f .'.ma//

D .f '/.ma/ D .a.f '//.m/
D .a HomK .M; f /.'// .m/
and
.HomK .M; f /.'a// .m/ D .f .'a//.m/ D f .'.m/a/

D f .'.m//a D ..f '/a/.m/
D .HomK .M; f /.'/a/ .m/;
and hence HomK .M; f /.a'/ D a HomK .M; f /.'/ and HomK .M; f /.'a/ D
HomK .M; f /.'/a. Moreover, we have from Lemma 11.6 the commutative dia-
gram of K-vector spaces
HomK .M;X /
HomAe .A; HomK .M; X // / Hom .M; X /.A/
K
HomAe .A;HomK .M;f // .HomK .M;f //.A/

HomK .M;Y /
HomAe .A; HomK .M; Y // / Hom .M; Y /.A/ ,
K
where the horizontal homomorphisms are isomorphism. Further, since A is a pro-

jective module in mod Ae , the functor HomAe .A; / W bimod A ! mod K is exact.
Then HomAe .A; HomK .M; f // is an epimorphism, because HomK .M; f / is an
epimorphism in bimod A. This implies that HomA .M; f / D .HomK .M; f //.A/ is
also an epimorphism. Therefore, M is a projective module in mod Ae D bimod A.

As a direct consequence of Propositions 5.4 and 11.8, we obtain the following
fact.
Corollary 11.9. Let A be a finite dimensional separable K-algebra over a field K.
Then A is a semisimple module in mod Ae .
We will now explain (without proofs) that in general the class of finite dimen-
sional separable K-algebras over a field K is a proper subclass of the class of all
finite dimensional semisimple K-algebras over K.
Let K L be a finite field extension. Then K L is called a separable exten-
sion if the minimal irreducible polynomial fa .x/ 2 KŒx of any element a 2 L has
no multiple roots. Further, a field K is called perfect if every finite field extension
of K is separable. We note that the class of perfect fields contains: all algebraically
closed fields, all fields of characteristic 0, and all finite fields. For a finite dimen-
sional division K-algebra F , the center C.F / D fa 2 F j ab D ba for all b 2 F g
is a finite field extension of K.
Proposition 11.10. Let K L be a finite field extension. The following conditions
are equivalent.
(i) K L is separable extension.
(ii) Le D L ˝K L is a semisimple K-algebra.
The following general result gives a description of finite dimensional separable
algebras over arbitrary fields.
Theorem 11.11. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The
(i) A is a separable K-algebra.
(ii) Ae D Aop ˝K A is a semisimple K-algebra.
(iii) There exist positive integers n1 ; : : : ; nr and finite dimensional division K-
algebras F1 ; : : : ; Fr whose centers C.F1 /; : : : ; C.Fr / are separable field ex-
tensions of K and
A Š Mn1 .F1 / Mnr .Fr /
as K-algebras.
(iv) There exist a separable finite field extension L of K and positive integers
m1 ; : : : ; ms such that
A ˝K L Š Mm1 .L/ Mms .L/
as K-algebras.
(v) For any finite field extension L of K, A ˝K L is a semisimple K-algebra.
For proofs of Proposition 11.10 and Theorem 11.11 we refer to Chapters 5 and 6
of [DK] and Chapter 10 of [P].
Corollary 11.12. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a perfect field K.

Then A is a separable K-algebra if and only if A is a semisimple K-algebra.
A is a separable K-algebra if and only if every finite dimensional A-bimodule in
semisimple.
Lemma 11.14. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and P be
a projective module in mod Ae D bimod A. Then P is a projective left A-module
and a projective right A-module.
Proof. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of
A with 1A D e1 C C en . It follows from Propositions I.8.2 and 11.1 that
P is isomorphic to a direct sum of indecomposable projective right Ae -modules
(A-bimodules) which are isomorphic to direct summands of projective right Ae -
modules of the form fij Ae D Aei ˝K ej A, for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Observe that, for
fixed i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, there are isomorphisms

fij Ae
! .Aei /dimK ej A
of left A-modules, and

fij Ae
! .ej A/dimK Aei
of right A-modules, and consequently fij Ae is a projective left A-module and a
projective right A-module. Therefore, P is also a projective left A-module and a
projective right A-module.
Lemma 11.15. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and P a
projective module in mod Ae . Then the following statements hold.
(i) For any module M in mod A, M ˝A P is a projective module in mod A.
(ii) For any module N in mod Aop , P ˝A N is a projective module in mod Aop .
Proof. (i) Since the functor M ˝A W mod Aop ! mod A commutes with direct
sums (see Exercise II.8.2), we may assume that P is an indecomposable right
Ae -module. Then, by Proposition 11.1, P is isomorphic to an indecomposable
direct summand of a right Ae -module fij Ae D Aei ˝K ej A for some primitive
idempotents ei and ej of A. Hence, M ˝A P is isomorphic in mod A to a direct
summand of M ˝A fij Ae . Applying Lemma II.3.2, we obtain isomorphisms of
right A-modules
M ˝A fij Ae D M ˝A .Aei ˝K ej A/ Š .M ˝A Aei /˝K ej A Š .ej A/dimK .M ˝A Aei /;
and hence M ˝A P is a projective module in mod A, by Lemma I.8.1.

Lemma 11.16. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then, for
any positive integer i, Ai e .A/ is a projective left A-module and a projective right
A-module.
Proof. Consider a minimal projective resolution
di C1 di di 1 d1 d0
! PiC1 ! Pi ! Pi1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! A ! 0
of A in mod Ae . Then, for any positive integer i, we have in mod Ae an exact

ui vi
0 ! AiC1
e .A/ ! Pi ! Ae .A/ ! 0:
i
Since mod Ae D bimod A, it is also an exact sequence in mod Aop D A-mod and
in mod A. Moreover, we have in mod Ae the exact sequence
u0 v0
0 ! Ae .A/ ! P0 ! A ! 0;
with v0 D d0 , being also an exact sequence in mod Aop and mod A. Since A
is in proj Aop and proj A, we conclude by Lemma I.8.1, that d0 is a retraction in
mod Aop and in mod A. Then, by Lemma III.3.1, we obtain that u0 is a section in
mod Aop and in mod A. Applying now Lemma I.4.2, we conclude that there are
isomorphisms P0 Š Ae .A/ ˚ A in mod Aop and in mod A. Therefore, Ae .A/
belongs to proj Aop and proj A, by Lemma I.8.1. Then, by induction on i 1, we
conclude that vi is a retraction and ui a section in mod Aop and mod A, and hence
all syzygy right Ae -modules (A-bimodules) Ai e .A/ are projective left A-modules
and projective right A-modules.
a module in mod A. Then, for each i 0, we have an isomorphism
Ai .M / Š M ˝A Ai e .A/
in mod A.
Proof. Observe that, for i D 0, we have A0 .M / D M Š M ˝A A D M ˝A
A0 e .A/, in mod A (see Lemma II.3.5), and hence in mod A. Consider now a
minimal projective resolution
di C1 di di 1 d1 d0
! PiC1 ! Pi ! Pi1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! A ! 0
of A in mod Ae . It follows from Lemma 11.16 (and its proof) that we have in
mod Ae , hence in mod Aop and mod A, exact sequences
ui vi
0 ! AiC1
e .A/ ! Pi ! Ae .A/ ! 0
i
with ui sections and vi retractions in mod Aop and mod A, for all i 0. Since the
tensor functor M ˝A W mod Aop ! mod K is right exact (see Lemma II.3.3), we
obtain exact sequences of K-vector spaces
idM ˝ui idM ˝vi
M ˝A AiC1
e .A/ ! M ˝A Pi ! M ˝A Ai e .A/ ! 0;
and therefore in mod A, for all i 0. Furthermore, since the homomorphisms
ui W AiC1
e .A/ ! Pi are sections in mod A
op
and mod A, we conclude that the maps
idM ˝ui W M ˝A AiC1

e .A/ ! M ˝A Pi ; i 0;
are also sections, hence monomorphisms, in mod A. Further, by Lemma 11.15 (i),
M ˝A Pi , i 0, are projective modules in mod A. Summing up, we conclude that
idM ˝di C1 idM ˝di
::: / M ˝A PiC1 / M ˝A Pi / M ˝A Pi1
ED
BC
GF
@A idM ˝d0
````0 : : : / M ˝A P0 / M ˝A A /0
is a projective resolution of M ˝A A Š M in mod A. Applying now Proposi-

tion 8.1 (v), we conclude that, for any positive integer i , we have in mod A an
isomorphism
M ˝A Ai e .A/ Š Ai .M / ˚ P .i /
for some module P .i / in proj A, and hence a required isomorphism
M ˝A Ai e .A/ Š Ai .M /
in mod A.
Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and a K-algebra
automorphism of A. For an A-bimodule M , we denote by M the A-bimodule
with M D M as K-vector space and amb D am .b/ for all a; b 2 A and
m 2 M.
Proposition 11.18. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Assume
there exists a positive integer d and a K-algebra automorphism of A such that
Ad e .A/ Š A in mod Ae . Then A is a selfinjective algebra.
Proof. If follows from Lemma II.3.5 that the K-linear homomorphism
' W D.A/ ˝A A ! D.A/
given by '.f ˝ a/ D f a, for f 2 D.A/ and a 2 A , is an isomorphism of
A-bimodules. Consider a minimal projective resolution
di C1 di d1 d0
! PiC1 ! Pi ! Pi1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! A ! 0
of A in mod Ae . Then we obtain in mod Ae an exact sequence

ud 1 vd 1
0 ! Ad e .A/ ! Pd 1 ! Ad e1 .A/ ! 0
such that ud 1 is a section and vd 1 is a retraction simultaneously in mod Aop and

in mod A. Letting ˛ D idD.A/ ˝ud 1 and ˇ D idD.A/ ˝vd 1 , this leads to the
exact sequence in mod A of the form
˛ ˇ
0 ! D.A/ ˝A Ad e .A/ ! D.A/ ˝A Pd 1 ! D.A/ ˝A Ad e1 .A/ ! 0:
Invoking now the assumption Ad e .A/ Š A in mod Ae , we conclude that there is
a composed monomorphism in mod A:

D.A/
! D.A/ ˝A A
! D.A/ ˝A Ad e .A/ ! D.A/ ˝A Pd 1 :
On the other hand, the automorphism induces an isomorphism A 1 ! A of

A-bimodules, and consequently the A-bimodules D.A/ D D. A/ and 1 D.A/ D
D.A 1 / are isomorphic. Therefore, we obtain that there is a monomorphism of
right A-modules D.A/A D 1 D.A/A ! D.A/ ˝A Pd 1 , which is a section be-
cause D.A/ is in inj A (Lemma I.8.13). In particular, by Lemma I.4.2, D.A/ is a di-
rect summand of D.A/˝A Pd 1 in mod A. Since, by Lemma 11.15, D.A/˝A Pd 1
is in proj A, we infer that D.A/ is also in proj A. Applying now Proposition I.8.19,
we obtain that inj A D proj A, equivalently A is a selfinjective algebra.
A finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K is said to be a periodic algebra
if A is a periodic module in mod Ae D bimod A, that is, Ame .A/ Š A in mod Ae
for some positive integer m. The smallest positive integer d with Ad e .A/ Š A
in mod Ae is called the period of A. Observe that, by Proposition 11.18, every
periodic algebra is a selfinjective algebra.
Theorem 11.19. Let A be a finite dimensional periodic K-algebra over a field K
and d the period of A. Then the following statements hold.
(i) The module category mod A is periodic.
(ii) For any module M in modP A, the period of M in mod A divides d .
Proof. Let M be a module in modP A. Since Ad e .A/ Š A in mod A, it follows
from Propositions 11.17 and 11.18 that A is a selfinjective algebra and we have in
mod A isomorphisms
Ad .M / Š M ˝A Ad e .A/ Š M ˝A A Š M:
Moreover, by Proposition 8.1, Ad .M / is in modP A D modI A. Applying now

Lemma III.4.3, we infer that Ad .M / Š M in mod A. Therefore, M is a periodic
module and its period divides d . This shows that (i) and (ii) hold.
Example 11.20. Let n 2 be a natural number and A D KŒX =.X n / the quotient
polynomial algebra over a field K, and denote by x the coset of X in A. Then
1 D 1A ; x; : : : ; x n1 is a basis of A over K. The enveloping algebra Ae D Aop ˝K
A D A ˝K A is a commutative K-algebra and the elements x i ˝ x j , i; j 2
f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g, form a basis of Ae over K. In particular, every element in Ae has
a unique expression in the form
X
n1
ij x i ˝ x j
i;j D0
with ij 2 K, for i; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g. Moreover, since A is a local K-algebra

with A= rad A Š K, we conclude, by Proposition 11.3, that 1Ae D 1A ˝1A D 1˝1
is a unique nonzero idempotent of Ae . In particular, Ae is a unique indecomposable
projective right Ae -module (up to isomorphism), by Proposition I.8.2. Consider
now the augmentation map W Ae ! A such that .a ˝ b/ D ab for a; b 2 A.
Clearly, is an epimorphism of right Ae -modules. Further, a direct checking
shows that Ker is the right Ae -module .x ˝ 1 1 ˝ x/Ae generated by x ˝ 1
1 ˝ x. Let ! W Ae ! Ae be the homomorphism of right Ae -modules such that
!.1 ˝ 1/PD x ˝ 1 1 ˝ x. Then Ker ! is the right Ae -module yAe generated
by y D n1 iD0 x
n1i
˝ x i (see Excercise 16.46). Therefore, we have a minimal
!
Ae ! Ae ! A ! 0
of A in mod Ae with Ae .A/ D Ker D .x ˝ 1 1 ˝ x/Ae and A2 e .A/ D
Ker ! D yAe . Observe that
dimK Ae .A/ D dimK Ae dimK A D .dimK A/2 dimK A:
Hence, we obtain
dimK A2 e .A/ D dimK Ae dimK Ae .A/ D dimK A:
Then the canonical epimorphism of right Ae -modules % W A ! yAe D A2 e .A/

given by %.1/ D y is an isomorphism, and consequently A Š A2 e .A/ in mod Ae .
This shows that A is a periodic algebra. Moreover, for n 3, we have
dimK Ae .A/ D .dimK A/2 dimK A D n2 n ¤ n D dimK A;
so A is of period 2. On the other hand, for n D 2, we have dimK Ae .A/ D dimK A,
and so the canonical epimorphism of right Ae -modules W A ! .x˝11˝x/Ae D
Ae .A/ given by .1/ D x ˝ 1 1 ˝ x is an isomorphism, and consequently A
is of period 1.
We present now a general result proved byA. Dugas [Du], extending the previous
partial results by K. Erdmann and T. Holm [EH] and S. Brenner, M. C. R. Butler and
A. D. King [BKK] to the general case, whose proof uses the classification of Morita
equivalence classes of selfinjective algebras of finite representation type over an
arbitrary algebraically closed field.
Theorem 11.21. Let A be a nonsimple, indecomposable, finite dimensional self-
injective K-algebra of finite representation type over an algebraically closed field
K. Then A is a periodic algebra.
We end this section with a result describing the periodic blocks of group algebras
over algebraically closed fields.
Let K be an algebraically closed field, G a finite group, and KG the group
algebra of G over K. We know from Maschke’s Theorem I.6.18 that KG is a
semisimple algebra if and only if the characteristic of K does not divide the order
of G. In general, the group algebra KG has a unique decomposition
KG D B1 ˚ B2 ˚ ˚ Bs
into a direct sum of indecomposable two-sided ideals
B1 D e1 .KG/; B2 D e2 .KG/; : : : ; Bs D es .KG/;
for central idempotents e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; es of KG with 1KG D e1 C e2 C C es , called

the blocks of KG (see Proposition I.3.16). We know also from Theorem 4.12 that
every nonsimple block B of KG of finite representation type is Morita equivalent
to a Brauer tree algebra A.TSm /. Moreover, such a block B is a periodic algebra,
by a result of K. Erdmann and T. Holm [EH], and also by Theorem 11.21.
The following result proved by K. Erdmann and A. Skowroński [ES] completes
the picture.
Theorem 11.22. Let K be an algebraically closed field of positive characteristic
p, G a finite group whose order is divisible by p, and B a block of KG of infinite
representation type. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) The module category mod B is periodic.
(ii) B is a periodic algebra.
e .B/ Š B in mod B .
4 e
(iii) B
We note that if the block B in the above theorem is periodic then p D 2
and B belongs to one of 12 families of algebras of quaternion type described by
K. Erdmann in [Er].
12 The Green–Snashall–Solberg theorems

In this section we discuss the properties of finite dimensional algebras all of whose
simple modules are periodic.
Lemma 12.1. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and M be
a finite dimensional A-bimodule such that A M is projective in mod Aop and MA is
projective in mod A. Then M.rad A/ D .rad A/M .
Proof. We will show only the inclusion .rad A/M M.rad A/, because the con-
verse inclusion will follow in a similar way.
Consider the canonical homomorphism of K-algebras L W A ! EndA .MA /
given for a 2 A and m 2 M by L.a/.m/ D am. Take a 2 rad A L and set f D L.a/.
Since MA is a projective module in mod A, we may write MA D m iD1 Pi for some
indecomposable projective right A-modules P1 ; : : : ; Pm . Then f is of the form
M
m M
m
f D .fij / W Pj ! Pi ;
j D1 iD1
with fij W Pj ! Pi homomorphisms in mod A. Since a 2 rad A, it follows

from Lemmas III.1.3 and III.1.4 that fij W Pj ! Pi is a nonisomorphism, or
equivalently not an epimorphism, for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Hence we have
Im fij rad Pi D Pi .rad A/ for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; mg, because rad Pi is the
P maximal right A-submodule of Pi , by Proposition I.5.16. This implies
unique
that jmD1 Im fij Pi .rad A/, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Therefore, we obtain the
inclusions
m X
M m Mm M
m
Im f Im fij .Pi rad A/ D Pi .rad A/ :
iD1 j D1 iD1 iD1
Hence, aM M.rad A/ for any a 2 rad A, and consequently .rad A/M

M.rad A/, as desired.
The following important result has been proved by E. L. Green, N. Snashall and
Ø. Solberg in [GSS].
Theorem 12.2. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. The
(i) Every simple module in mod A is periodic.
(ii) There exists a natural number d and a K-algebra automorphism of A such
that Ad e .A/ Š A in mod Ae , and .e/A Š eA in mod A for any primitive
idempotent e of A.
12. The Green–Snashall–Solberg theorems 443
Proof. We prove first that (i) implies (ii). Assume that every simple module in
mod A is periodic. Let d be the minimal natural number such that Ad .S / Š S for
any simple right A-module S . Let B D Ad e .A/. We know from Lemma 11.16
that Ad e .A/ is a projective left A-module and a projective right A-module. Then
we have the exact functors
˝A B W mod A ! mod A and B ˝A W mod Aop ! mod Aop
(see Lemma II.3.3 and Exercise II.8.8).
Let S be a simple module in mod A. We will show that S ˝A B Š S in mod A.
Observe first that S ˝A B is a semisimple module in mod A. Indeed, applying
Lemma 12.1 to the A-bimodule B, we obtain
.S ˝A B/ rad A D S ˝A .B.rad A// D S ˝A ..rad A/B/ D .S rad A/ ˝A B D 0;
which implies that S ˝A B is a semisimple right A-module, by Proposition I.5.13
and Corollary I.5.15. As a consequence, we obtain also that S ˝A B belongs to
modP A, because all simple modules in mod A are periodic. Further, applying
Proposition 11.17, we obtain isomorphisms
S Š Ad .S / Š S ˝A Ad e .A/ D S ˝A B
in mod A. Then, by Lemma III.4.3, we have also S Š S ˝A B in mod A, because
S and S ˝A B are in modP A. Clearly, then `.S ˝A B/ D `.S / D 1.
We claim that `.M ˝A B/ D `.M / for any module M in mod A. Indeed, let
M be a nonzero module in mod A. Then there is in mod A an exact sequence
0 ! L ! M ! S ! 0
with L a right A-submodule of M and S D M=L a simple right A-module (see
Proposition I.7.4). Applying the exact functor ˝A B W mod A ! mod A, we
obtain in mod A an exact sequence
0 ! L ˝A B ! M ˝A B ! S ˝A B ! 0:
Then, by Lemma I.7.6, we have `.L/ D `.M /`.S / D `.M /1 and `.L˝A B/ D
`.M ˝A B/ `.S ˝A B/ D `.M ˝A B/ 1. Hence, by induction on the length
of a module in mod A, we conclude that `.M ˝A B/ D `.M /.
Our next aim is to show that B Š AA in mod A. Let P be an indecomposable
projective right A-module. We have the canonical exact sequence in mod A
i h
0 ! rad P ! P ! top.P / ! 0;
and hence an exact sequence of the form
i˝idB h˝idB
0 ! rad P ˝A B ! P ˝A B ! top.P / ˝A B ! 0:
Since P is isomorphic to a direct summand eA of AA (see Proposition I.8.2), we

conclude that P ˝A B is isomorphic to a direct summand eA ˝A B of A ˝A B D B
in mod A. Further, by Lemma 11.16, B is a projective module in mod A, and
so (Lemma I.8.1) P ˝A B is also a projective module in mod A. It follows
from the first part of the proof that top.P / ˝A B is a simple right A-module
isomorphic to the simple right A-module top.P /. Moreover, by Lemma I.5.18,
top.h ˝ idB / W top.P ˝A B/ ! top.top.P / ˝A B/ D top.P / ˝A B is an epimor-
phism of semisimple right A-modules. Consequently, top.P ˝A B/ Š Ker.top.h˝
idB // ˚ .top.P / ˝A B/ Š Ker.top.h ˝ idB // ˚ top.P / (see Lemma I.5.4). Ap-
plying Theorem I.8.4 (and its proof) we conclude that P is isomorphic to a direct
summand of P ˝A B, because P ˝A B and P are projective covers of top.P ˝A B/
and top.P / in mod A, respectively. On the other hand, `.P ˝A B/ D `.P /, by
the first part of the proof. This shows that P ˝A B Š P in mod A. Therefore,
B Š AA in mod A, because A ˝A B Š B in mod A and AA is a direct sum of
indecomposable projective right A-modules.
We will show now that B Š A A in mod Aop . By the arguments from the previous
part of the proof, it is enough to show that B ˝A T Š T in mod Aop for any simple
left A-module T . Let T be a simple module in mod Aop . It follows from the first
part of the proof and Lemma II.3.2 that S ˝A .B ˝A T / Š .S ˝A B/˝A T Š S ˝A T
in mod K for any simple right A-module S . Observe also that the canonical exact
sequence of right A-modules
0 ! rad A!A!A= rad A ! 0:
induces the exact sequence of K-vector spaces
.rad A/ ˝A T !A ˝A T !.A= rad A/ ˝A T ! 0;
with .rad A/ ˝A T D .A rad A/ ˝A T D A ˝A .rad A/T D 0, and hence we get

that .A= rad A/ ˝A T Š A ˝A T Š T in mod Aop . Therefore, we obtain that
.A= rad A/ ˝A .B ˝A T / Š T in mod Aop . On the other hand, we have in mod Aop
the commutative diagram with exact rows
rad A ˝A .B ˝A T / / A ˝A .B ˝A T / / .A= rad A/ ˝A .B ˝A T / /0
Š Š Š

.rad A/.B ˝A T / / B ˝A T / .B ˝A T /=.rad A/.B ˝A T / / 0,
and hence .B ˝A T /=.rad A/.B ˝A T / Š T in mod Aop . Moreover, since B Š AA

in mod A, we have isomorphisms of K-vector spaces B ˝A T Š A ˝A T Š T .
This shows that .rad A/.B ˝A T / D 0, and consequently B ˝A T Š T in mod Aop .
Summing up, we have proved that A B Š A A in mod Aop and BA Š AA in
mod A.
12. The Green–Snashall–Solberg theorems 445
Let W A ! B be an isomorphism of left A-modules, and b D .1A /. Then

.a/ D ab, for a 2 A, and Ab D B. Define the map W A ! A by .a/ D
1
.ba/, for a 2 A. Then, for a 2 A, we have
1
ba D . .ba// D . .a// D ..a/1A / D .a/ .1A / D .a/b:
Next we show that is a homomorphism of K-algebras. Obviously, is K-linear

and .1A / D 1 .b/ D 1A . Moreover, for a; a0 2 A, we have
.aa0 /b D b.aa0 / D .ba/a0 D . .a/b/a0 D .a/.ba0 /

D .a/. .a0 /b/ D . .a/ .a0 //b:
Hence, we obtain
..aa0 // D . .aa0 /1A / D .aa0 / .1A / D .aa0 /b D . .a/ .a0 //b

D . .a/ .a0 // .1A / D . .a/ .a0 //;
and so .aa0 / D .a/ .a0 /, because is an isomorphism. Therefore, is a

homomorphism of K-algebras.
We claim that is in fact an automorphism. It is enough to show that Ker D 0.
Let a 2 Ker . Then 0 D .a/b D ba and hence Ba D .Ab/a D A.ba/ D 0.
Since B is isomorphic to A as a right A-module, we obtain Aa D 0, and hence
a D 0. Therefore, indeed Ker D 0.
Finally, observe that the isomorphism W A ! B of left A-modules is an
isomorphism W A ! B of A-bimodules. Indeed, for x; a 2 A, we have
.x.a// D .x .a//b D x. .a/b/ D x.ba/ D .xb/a D .x/a:
Therefore, we obtain Ad e .A/ Š A in mod Ae .

Let e be a primitive idempotent of A. Then .e/ is a primitive idempotent of A
and .e/A=.e/ rad A is a simple right A-module. Further, using Proposition 11.17,
we obtain in mod A isomorphisms

.e/A= .e/ rad A ! Ad .e/A= .e/ rad A

! .e/A= .e/ rad A ˝A Ad e .A/

! .e/A= .e/ rad A ˝A A

! .e/A= .e/ rad A

! eA=e rad A:
Since the simple right A-modules are nonprojective, it follows from Lemma III.4.3
that .e/A=.e/ rad A Š eA=e rad A in mod A. Passing to the projective covers
of these simple modules we obtain that .e/A Š eA in mod A.
This completes the proof of implication (i) ) (ii).
Assume now that Ad e .A/ Š A in mod Ae for a positive natural number d
and a K-algebra automorphism of A such that .e/A Š eA in mod A for any
primitive idempotent e of A. Then it follows from Propositions 11.5 and 11.18
that A and Ae are selfinjective algebras. Moreover, since Ad e .A/ D A , we
conclude from Proposition 6.8 and Corollary 11.9 that all simple modules in mod A
are nonprojective. Let S be a simple module in mod A. Then there is a primitive
idempotent of A such that S Š eA=e rad A in mod A (see Corollary I.8.6). Further,
applying Proposition 11.17, we obtain isomorphisms in mod A,
Ad .S / Š S ˝A Ad e .A/ Š S ˝A A Š S ;
where the right A-module S is simple. Since Ad .S / and S are in modP A,
it follows from Lemma III.4.3 that Ad .S / Š S in mod A. On the other hand,
since eA Š .e/A in mod A, the automorphism induces isomorphisms of right
A-modules eA ! .eA/ , e rad A ! .e rad A/ , and hence an isomorphism
of simple right A-modules S ! S . Therefore, we obtain that Ad .S / Š S in
mod A. This shows that (ii) implies (i).
As a direct consequence of Proposition 11.18 and Theorem 12.2 we obtain the
announced fact.
Corollary 12.3. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K such that
every simple module in mod A is periodic. Then A is a selfinjective algebra.
We present now another result proved by E. L. Green, N. Snashall and Ø. Solberg
in [GSS].
Theorem 12.4. Let A be an indecomposable finite dimensional K-algebra over a
field K. Assume that An e .A/ Š A in mod Ae for a positive integer n and an
algebra automorphism of A. Moreover, let N.A/ be the ideal of the algebra
ExtA e .A; A/ generated by all nilpotent homogeneous elements. Then there are
isomorphisms of graded K-algebras
´
F if A is nonperiodic,
ExtA e .A; A/=N.A/ Š
F Œx if A is periodic,
where F is the finite dimensional division K-algebra EndAe .A/= rad EndAe .A/.
Proof. Since An e .A/ Š A , it follows from Propositions 11.5 and 11.18 that A
and Ae are selfinjective algebras. Recall also that the Ext-algebra of A in mod Ae
is of the form
1
M
ExtA e .A; A/ D HomAe .Ar e .A/; A/:
rD0
If Ame .A/ Š A in mod Ae for some positive integer m, then, by Carlson’s Theo-
rem 10.10, we have an isomorphism of graded K-algebras ExtA e .A; A/=N.A/ Š
13. Dynkin and Euclidean graphs 447
F Œx, where F Œx is the graded polynomial algebra over the division K-algebra
F D EndAe .A/= rad EndAe .A/ in variable x of degree d , being the period of A in
mod Ae . Observe that this situation occurs if the automorphism is of finite order.
Assume now that Ame .A/ © A in mod Ae for any positive integer m. Then
is of infinite order. Let s 1 and
2 HomAe .As e .A/; A/. We claim that
is
nilpotent in ExtA e .A; A/. Assume first that s D np, for some p 1. Then, for any
i 1, we have that Ai npe .A/ Š A ip is an indecomposable right A -module and
e
e
the induced homomorphism of right A -modules
A.i1/np
e .
/ W Ai np .i1/np
e .A/ ! Ae .A/
is not an isomorphism. Further, our assumption An e .A/ Š A implies that the
indecomposable right Ae -modules Ai np
e .A/, i 1, have bounded length (dimen-
sion). Then, applying the Harada–Sai Lemma III.2.1, we conclude that there exists
a natural number t such that

t D Atnp 2np np
e .
/ : : : Ae .
/Ae .
/ D 0
in the algebra ExtA e .A; A/. Hence,

is nilpotent. Now consider an arbitrary n with
An e .A/ Š A in mod Ae and take positive integers r and q such that rs D nq.
Then
r 2 HomAe .Anqe .A/; A/, and hence (by the above argument)
r is nilpotent,
and consequently
is nilpotent.
Observe also that, since A is an indecomposable module in mod Ae , the radical
rad EndAe .A/ of the local K-algebra EndAe .A/ is the set of all nilpotent elements
of EndAe .A/, and F D EndAe .A/= rad EndAe .A/ is a finite dimensional division
K-algebra (see Lemma I.3.8 and Corollary I.3.9). Therefore, ExtA e .A; A/ Š F as
K-algebras
13 Dynkin and Euclidean graphs

In this section we introduce Dynkin graphs and Euclidean graphs and present their
combinatorial characterizations through the associated Cartan matrices.

Let I be a finite set. A Cartan matrix on I is a matrix C D Cij i;j 2I with
integral coefficients satisfying the following conditions:
(1) Ci i D 2 for all i 2 I ;
(2) Cij 0 for all i ¤ j in I ;
(3) Cij D 0 if and only if Cj i D 0, for i; j 2 I .
A Cartan matrix C on I is completely determined by the associated valued graph

.C /. The set I is the set of vertices of .C /. For i ¤ j in I there is an edge in
.C / connecting i and j if and only if Cij ¤ 0, and this edge has the valuation
.jCij j;jCj i j/
:
i j
.1;1/
In order to simplify the notation, we will write instead of .
A Cartan matrix C on I is said to be indecomposable if for all proper partitions
I D I 0 [ I 00 of I there exist i 2 I 0 and j 2 I 00 with Cij ¤ 0. Clearly, a Cartan
matrix C on I is indecomposable if and only if the associated valued graph .C / is
connected. We also note that the transpose C T of a Cartan matrix C D ŒCij i;j 2I
on I is also a Cartan matrix on I and its valued graph .C T / is obtained from the
valued graph .C / by changing the valuations of all edges
.jCij j;jCj i j/ .jCj i j;jCij j/

on :
i j i j
For a valued graph , without loops and multiple edges, we denote by C. / the
Cartan matrixon the set I D 0 of vertices of such that D .C. //.
Let C D Cij i;j 2I be a Cartan matrix on a finite set I . A function d W I !
P
NC D f1; 2; 3; : : : g is said to be an additive function
P for C if i2I di Cij D 0 for
all j 2 I , and a subadditive function for C if i2I di Cij 0 for all j 2 I , where
we write di D d.i / for all i 2 I .
We will show that the existence of a subadditive or additive function for a Cartan
matrix C on a finite set I forces a distinguished shape of the associated valued graph
.C /.
Consider the following valued graphs, called Dynkin graphs,
An W ::: (n vertices), n 1
.1;2/
Bn W ::: (n vertices), n 2
.2;1/
Cn W ::: (n vertices), n 3
MMM
MMM
Dn W ::: (n vertices), n 4
qqq
qqq

E6 W

E7 W


E8 W

.1;2/
F4 W
.1;3/
G2 W ,
and the following valued graphs, called Euclidean graphs,
.1;4/
z 11 W
A
.2;2/
z 12 W
A
iiii
UUUUU
iiii UUUU
zn W
A iiii UUUU (n C 1 vertices), n 4
ii UUUU
iiii U
: : :
.1;2/ .2;1/
zn W
B ::: (n C 1 vertices), n 2
.2;1/ .1;2/
znW
C ::: (n C 1 vertices), n 2
.1;2/ .1;2/
fnW
BC ::: (n C 1 vertices), n 2

qqq
fnW .1;2/ qqq
BD ::: MMM (n C 1 vertices), n 3
MMM

qqq
e
CDn W
.2;1/
:::
qqq
MMM
MMM
(n C 1 vertices), n 3

MMM
MMM qqq
zn W qqq
D ::: MMM (n C 1 vertices), n 4
qqqqq MMM
q

z6 W
E

z7 W
E

z8 W
E

.1;2/
Fz41 W
.2;1/
Fz42 W
.1;3/
z 21 W
G
.3;1/
z 22 W
G .
Lemma 13.1. Let C D C. / be the Cartan matrix associated to a Euclidean

graph . Then the following statements hold.
(i) There is an additive function for C .
(ii) Every subadditive function for C is additive.
Proof. (i) Examples of additive functions for the Cartan matrices of the Euclidean
graphs are listed below.
Az 11 W 2 1
Az 12 W 1 1
zn W 1
A
1 1 1 1 1 1
zn W 1 1 1
B 1 1 1
znW 1 2 2
C 2 2 1
fnW 2 2 2
BC 2 2 2
1
fnW 2 2 2
BD 2 2
1
e
CDn W 1 2 2 2 2
1
1
1 1
zn W
D 2 2 2 2
1 1
1
z6 W
E 2
1 2 3 2 1
z7 W 2
E
1 2 3 4 3 2 1
z8 W 3
E
2 4 6 5 4 3 2 1
Fz41 W 1 2 3 2 1
Fz42 W 1 2 3 4 2
z 21 W 1 2 1
G
z 22 W 1 2 3
G
(ii) Let I be the set of vertices of and d W I ! NC be a subadditive function
for the Cartan matrix C . Take the additive function e for the transpose Cartan
matrix C T , associated to the Euclidean graph op to , listed
opposite in the
above table. Then we obtain that e.dC /T D e C T d T D eC T d T D 0,
where d and e are considered as the corresponding one row matrices indexed by I .
Since all coefficients of the matrix e are strictly positive and all coefficients of the
matrix .dC /T are nonnegative, we conclude that .dC /T D 0, and hence dC D 0.
Therefore, d is an additive function for C .
Let C 0 and C be indecomposable Cartan matrices on finite sets I 0 and I ,

respectively. We say that C 0 is strictly smaller than C if there is an injection
W I 0 ! I such that jCij0 j jC .i/ .j / j for all i; j 2 I 0 , and either .I 0 / ¤ I or
jCij0 j < jC.i/ .j / j for some i ¤ j in I 0 .
Lemma 13.2. Let C 0 and C be indecomposable Cartan matrices on finite sets I 0 and
I , respectively. Assume W I 0 ! I is an injection such that C 0 is strictly smaller
than C . Then for any subadditive function d W I ! NC for C the composition
d 0 D d W I 0 ! NC is a subadditive but not additive function on C 0 .
Proof. Let d W I ! NC be a subadditive function for C . Then for any j 2 I 0 we

have the inequalities
X X X
di0 Cij0 d .i/ C .i/ .j / dl Cl.j / 0;
i2I 0 i2I 0 l2I
and hence d 0 is a subadditive function for C 0 . In order to prove that d 0 is not an

additive function for C 0 , we have two cases to consider.
Assume first that .I 0 / ¤ I . Since the Cartan matrices C 0 and C are indecom-
posable, we may choose k 2 I n .I 0 / and j 2 I 0 such that Ck.j / ¤ 0. Then we
obtain the inequalities
X X X
di0 Cij0 d .i/ C .i/ .j / > d.i/ C.i/.j / C dk Ck.j /
i2I 0 i2I 0 i2I 0
X
dl Cl.j / 0;
l2I
and so d 0 is not additive.

Assume jCi00 j0 j < jC0 .i0 /.j0 / j for some i0 ; j0 2 I 0 . Then we have the inequal-
ities X X X
di0 Cij0 0 > d .i/ C .i/ .j0 / dl Cl.j0 / 0;
i2I 0 i2I 0 l2I
0
which shows that d is not additive.
The following characterizations of Dynkin and Euclidean graphs are due to

E. B. Vinberg [Vin] and S. Berman, R. Moody and M. Wonenburger [BMW] (see
also [HPR]).
Theorem 13.3. Let C be the Cartan matrix on a finite set I and .C / the associated
valued graph. Assume that d is a subadditive function for C . Then the following
statements hold.
(i) .C / is either a Dynkin graph or a Euclidean graph.
(ii) If d is not additive, then .C / is a Dynkin graph.
Proof. (i) Suppose .C / is neither a Dynkin graph nor a Euclidean graph. Then
there is a subset I 0 of I and a Cartan matrix C 0 on I 0 such that C 0 is strictly smaller
than C , via the inclusion map W I 0 ! I , and .C 0 / is a Euclidean graph. Then
d 0 D d W I 0 ! NC is, by Lemma 13.2, a subadditive but not additive function
for C 0 . On the other hand, by Lemma 13.1 (ii), every subadditive function for C 0 is
additive, since .C 0 / is a Euclidean graph. This gives a contradiction. Therefore,
.C / is either a Dynkin graph or a Euclidean graph.
The statement (ii) follows from (i) and Lemma 13.1 (i).
Corollary 13.4. Let be a finite connected valued graph without loops and multiple
edges. Then is a Dynkin graph if and only if the Cartan matrix C. / associated
to admits a subadditive but not additive function.
Proof. In case is a Dynkin graph, C. / is strictly smaller than the Cartan matrix
z associated to the Euclidean graph .
C. / z Then the required equivalence follows
from Lemma 13.2 and Theorem 13.3.
14 Canonical mesh algebras of Dynkin type

Let K be a field and be a Dynkin graph An .n 1/, Bn .n 2/, Cn .n 3/,
Dn .n 4/, E6 , E7 , E8 , F4 , or G2 . We associate to the double quiver Q as
follows.
QAn W o
a0
/ o a1
/ o : : : / o an2
/
.n 1/ 0 aN 0 1 aN 1 2 n2 aN n2 n1
14. Canonical mesh algebras of Dynkin type 453
1 o a3 3 o 2n 5o a2n3 2n 3
0 : : : 0
}
a1 }}}} 00
>
G 00 G
}}}} 00 aN 00 aN
QBn W ~}}}}} aN 2 00 4 00 2n2
0 ÀAA 0 : : : 00
.n 2/ AAAAaN 1 000 000 aN 2n3
AAAA 00aN 3 00
a2 AAA 0

o a o : : : oa
2 4
4 2n 4 2n2 2n 2
0 ÀAA
AAAAa0
AAAA
QCn W aN 1 AAA a2 an1
o / o : : : / o /
.n 3/ } }}>
aN 0 } } 2 aN 2 3 n1 aN n1 n
}}}}}}a
~}}} 1
1
0 ÀAA
AAAAa0
AAAA
QDn W aN 0 AAA a2 an2
/ o / o /
} > o
: : :
.n 4/ aN 1 }}}}2 aN 2 3 n1 aN n2 n
}}}}
~}}}}} a1
1
O 0
aN 0 a0
QE6 W
o
a1
/ o a2
/ o a3
/ o a4
/
1 aN 1 2 aN 2 3 aN 3 4 aN 4 5
O 0
aN 0 a0
QE7 W
o
a1
/ o a2
/ o a3
/ o a4
/ o a5
/
1 aN 1 2 aN 2 3 aN 3 4 aN 4 5 aN 5 6
O 0
aN 0 a0
QE8 W
o
a1
/ o a2
/ o a3 / o a4
/ o a5
/ o a6
/
1 aN 1 2 aN 2 3 aN 3 4 aN 4 5 aN 5 6 aN 6 7
2 o a4 4
0
}
a2 }}}} 00
>
G
}} 00 aN
}
~ }}}}}aN 3 00 5
a1
/ }
QF4 W o A 00
1 aN 1 0 ÀAAAAAaN 2 000 aN
AAAA 00 4
a3 AAA

o a
5
3 5
> 2
aN 1}}}}}
}}
} }}}}}a2
a1
/ ~ }
QG2 W o A
1 aN 3 0 ÀAAAAAaN 2
AAAA
a3 AAA
3
Our rule for the labelling of arrows comes from the automorphism of Q
where:
(1) D idQ for D An ; Dn ; E6 ; E7 ; E8 ;
(2) is the canonical automorphism of Q of order 2 for D Bn ; Cn ; F4 ;
(3) is the canonical automorphism of Q of order 3 for D G2 , with .1/ D

2, .2/ D 3, .3/ D 1, .0/ D 0.
Then for each arrow a of Q there is a unique arrow in Q of the form
aN / .s.a// :
t .a/
Therefore, for a given vertex v of Q , we have in Q a mesh of the form
t .a1 /
tt
a1t: MMMaN 1
MMM
tt &
tt ::
V JJ .v/
JJaJr : aN r qq8
JJ q
$ qqq
t .ar /
given by all arrows a1 ; : : : ; ar of Q1 having v as the source, where r 2 f1; 2; 3g.

We define the canonical mesh algebra (see [ES]) associated to to be the bound
quiver algebra ƒ. / D KQ =I , where KQ is the path algebra of Q and I
is the admissible ideal of KQ generated by the elements of the form
X
aaN
a;s.a/Dv
for all vertices v of Q . When is a Dynkin graph of type An .n 1/, Dn .n 4/,

E6 , E7 , E8 (with trivial valuations .1; 1/), then the mesh algebra ƒ. / coincides
with the preprojective algebra P . /, introduced by I. M. Gelfand and V. A. Pono-
marev [GePo].
We note that ƒ.A1 / D K, and hence is a simple algebra. On the other hand,
for ¤ A1 , the set of arrows of Q is nonempty, and hence ƒ. / D KQ =I
is a basic, indecomposable but not semisimple K-algebra, by Proposition I.3.15,
15. The Riedtmann–Todorov theorem 455
Lemma I.6.16, and Lemma II.6.17. In particular, it follows from Propositions 5.4
and 11.8 that, for ¤ A1 , ƒ. / is an indecomposable nonprojective module in
mod ƒ. /e .
Theorem 14.1. Let be a Dynkin graph different from A1 , K a field, and ƒ. /

the canonical mesh algebra of over K. Then the following statements hold.
(i) ƒ. / is a finite dimensional Frobenius K-algebra.
(ii) 3ƒ./ .S / is simple for any simple module S in mod ƒ. /.
(iii) ƒ. / is a periodic algebra.
We have also the following theorem proved by A. Schofield [Sch], and K. Erd-
mann and N. Snashall [ESn].
Theorem 14.2. Let P . / be the preprojective algebra of a Dynkin type An .n 2/,

Dn .n 4/, E6 , E7 , E8 . Then P6 ./e .P . // Š P . / in mod P . /e .
15 The Riedtmann–Todorov theorem

The aim of this section is to describe a general shape of the Auslander–Reiten quiver
A of a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra A of finite representation type
over a field K.
Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra over a field K. We know
from Proposition III.8.6 that, for an indecomposable projective (equivalently, in-
jective) right A-module P we have in mod A an almost split sequence of the form
0 ! rad P ! .rad P = soc P / ˚ P ! P = soc P ! 0:
We denote by As the translation quiver, called the stable Auslander–Reiten quiver of
A, obtained from A by removing all indecomposable projective-injective modules
and the arrows attached to them. Observe that the Auslander–Reiten translations
A D D Tr and A1 D Tr D are mutually inverse operations defined on all modules
of As . We also note that we may recover the whole Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A
from its stable Auslander–Reiten As if we know the positions of all indecomposable
modules P = soc P (equivalently, rad P ) in As , for all indecomposable projective
right A-modules P .
Lemma 15.1. Let A be a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra of finite rep-

resentation type over a field K. Then there is a common bound on the length of
sectional paths in A .
Proof. Since A is of finite representation type, there is a common bound on the

length of indecomposable modules in mod A. Take a positive integer m such that
`.X/ m for any indecomposable module X in mod A. Let
.a1 ;b1 / .a2 ;b2 / .an1 ;bn1 / .an ;bn /
X0 ! X1 ! : : : ! Xn1 ! Xn
be a sectional path in A . Then there is a sectional path of irreducible homomor-

phisms in mod A,
f1 f2 fn1 fn
X0 ! X1 ! ! Xn1 ! Xn ;
and we have fn : : : f2 f1 ¤ 0, by Theorem III.11.2. Applying now the Harada–Sai

Lemma III.2.1, we obtain that n < 2m 1. Therefore, the length of any sectional
path in A is bounded by 2m 1.

K. Assume there exist in A different sectional paths
.a1 ;b1 / .ar ;br /
X D M0 ! M1 ! Mr1 ! Mr D Y;
.c1 ;d1 / .cs ;ds /
X D N0 ! N1 ! Ns1 ! Ns D Z;
with Y D Am Z for some integer m. Then A is of infinite representation type.
Proof. We may assume that Mi ¤ At Nj in A for all i 2 f1; : : : ; r 1g, j 2

f1; : : : ; s 1g, and integers t. Moreover, in order to simplify notation, in the
considerations below the valuations of arrows in A will be omitted. Since A is a
selfinjective algebra, it follows from Proposition III.8.6 that every sectional path in
A passing through an indecomposable projective module P has the target arrow
rad P ! P or the source arrow P ! P = soc P , and rad P D A .P = soc P /
in A . Hence, we conclude that all indecomposable modules Mi and Nj , for
i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; rg and j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; sg, are nonprojective. Therefore, we obtain,
using again the selfinjectivity of A, the families of indecomposable nonprojective
right A-modules An Mi and An Nj , for all i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; rg, j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; sg, and
integers n. Moreover, by the imposed assumption, we have also Ap Mi ¤ Aq Nj in
A , for all integers p; q and i 2 f1; : : : ; r 1g, j 2 f1; : : : ; s 1g. Observe now
that we have in A a sectional path
As Z D As Ns ! As1 Ns1 ! ! A N1 ! N0 D X;
induced by the sectional path
X D N0 ! N1 ! ! Ns1 ! Ns D Z:
Then we obtain in A a sectional path
As Z D As Ns / s1 Ns1 / ::: / A N1

A
BC
ED
GF
@A
/X / M1 / ::: / Mr1 / Mr D Y
of length r C s, because A M1 ¤ A N1 . Applying Ams to this path, we obtain in

A a sectional path
Y D Am Z / m1 Ns1 / ::: / msC1 N1

A A
BC
ED
GF
@A
/ ms X / ms M1 / ::: / ms Mr1 / ms Mr D ms Y
A A A A A
of length r C s. Let a D m s and b D m 1. Then the above sectional path in

A is of the form
Y ! Ab Ns1 ! ! Aa Mr1 ! Aa Y;
and is of length r C s. Hence, we obtain in A sectional paths
Ata Y ! AtaCb Ns1 ! ! A.tC1/a Mr1 ! A.tC1/a Y
of length r C s, for all nonnegative integers t . Since Ap Mi ¤ Aq Nj in A for

all integers p and q, combining these sectional paths, we conclude that, for any
positive integer t , we have in A a sectional path
Y ! Aa Y ! ! A2a Y ! Ata Y
of length t.r C s/. Applying Lemma 15.1, we conclude that A is of infinite repre-
sentation type.
x is one
A valued quiver is said to be a Dynkin quiver if its underlying graph
of the Dynkin graphs An .n 1/, Bn .n 2/, Cn .n 3/, Dn .n 4/, E6 , E7 , E8 ,
F4 , or G2 .
Proposition 15.3. Let be a Dynkin quiver and G an admissible group of auto-
morphisms of the valued translation quiver Z . Then G is an infinite cyclic group
and contains a power m , with m 1, of the translation of Z .
Proof. The proof is obtained by a careful analysis of the shapes of the valued
translation quivers Z for all Dynkin quivers (see Exercises III.12.38 and III.12.40–
III.12.46) and is left to the reader.
Proposition 15.4. Let A be a nonsimple indecomposable finite dimensional self-

injective K-algebra of finite representation type over a field K. The following
(i) As is not connected.
(ii) As has exactly one A -orbit.
(iii) A is a Nakayama algebra of Loewy length 2.
(iv) As Š ZA1 =. n / for a positive integer n.
Proof. It follows from the assumption and Proposition 6.8 that every simple module
in mod A is nonprojective, and hence As admits at least one A -orbit. Then As is
not connected if and only if the almost split sequences in mod A are of the form
0 ! rad P ! P ! P = soc P ! 0;
where P are projective-injective indecomposable modules and rad P and soc P

are simple modules. Moreover, by Theorem III.8.7, the almost split sequences of
Nakayama selfinjective algebras of Loewy length 2 are exactly of the above form.
Then the conditions (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) are easily equivalent.
Lemma 15.5. Let A be a nonsimple indecomposable finite dimensional selfinjective

K-algebra of finite representation type over a field K, and X , Y be indecomposable
nonprojective right A-modules lying in different A -orbits of A . Then there is in
As a sectional path from X to Am Y , for some integer m.
Proof. It follows from the assumption that As has at least two different A -orbits,
and hence As is connected, by Proposition 15.4. Then there is in As a walk
.a1 ;b1 / .a2 ;b2 / .an ;bn /

X D Z0 Z1 Z2 ::: Zn1 Zn D Y
.ai ;bi / .ai ;bi / .ai ;bi /

with n 1, where Zi1 Zi means Zi1 ! Zi or Zi1 Zi
for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Observe that the claim is obvious for n D 1. Let n 2.
We may assume by induction that there is in As a sectional path
.c1 ;d1 / .c2 ;d2 / .cs ;ds /

Z1 D N0 ! N1 ! N2 ! ! Ns1 ! Ns D Ap Y
with s 1 and p an integer.

Observe that, if X D A N1 , then we have in As a sectional path
.c2 ;d2 / .cs ;ds /

X D A N1 ! A N2 ! ! A Ns1 ! A Ns D ApC1 Y:
Similarly, if X D A1 N1 , then we have in As a sectional path

.c2 ;d2 / .cs ;ds /
X D A1 N1 ! A1 N2 ! ! A1 Ns1 ! A1 Ns D Ap1 Y:
Clearly, if X D N1 , then we have in As a sectional path

.c2 ;d2 / .cs ;ds /
X D N1 ! N2 ! ! Ns1 ! Ns D Ap Y:
Therefore, assume that X ¤ A N1 , X ¤ A1 N1 and X ¤ N1 in As . Then, if

.a1 ;b1 / .a1 ;b1 /
Z0 Z1 is an arrow Z0 ! Z1 , we have in As a sectional path
.a1 ;b1 / .c1 ;d1 / .cs ;ds /

X D Z0 ! N0 ! N1 ! ! Ns1 ! Ns D Ap Y:
.a1 ;b1 / .a1 ;b1 /

Finally, if Z0 Z1 is an arrow Z0 Z1 , then we have in As a sectional
path
.b1 ;a1 / .c1 ;d1 / .cs ;ds /
X ! A1 N0 ! A1 N1 ! ! A1 Ns1 ! A1 Ns D Ap1 Y:
Summing up, in all above cases, we have a sectional path in As from X to Am Y for
an integer m.
The following theorem has been proved by C. Riedtmann in [Rie] for algebras
over an algebraically closed field and extended by G. Todorov in [Tod] to algebras
over an arbitrary field.
Theorem 15.6. Let A be a nonsimple indecomposable finite dimensional selfin-
jective K-algebra of finite representation type over a field K. Then there exist a
Dynkin quiver and an admissible infinite cyclic group G of automorphisms of
the valued translation quiver Z such that the stable Auslander–Reiten quiver As
of A is isomorphic to the orbit valued translation quiver Z =G.
Proof. Since A is a selfinjective algebra of finite representation type, we conclude
from Proposition 10.2 that the module category mod A is A -periodic. Hence, there
exists a positive integer m such that Am X Š X for any indecomposable nonpro-
jective module X in mod A. Further, it follows from Lemma III.9.1 and Proposi-
tion III.9.6 that, if X; Y are indecomposable nonprojective modules in mod A and
there is an arrow from X to Y in A , then we have in As the valued arrows
A X: X 1 X
:: .d ;d 0 / A === .d ;d 0 / A@ ??? .dX Y ;d 0 /
:: XY XY == X Y X Y ?? XY
:: == ??
:: = ??
: .dXY
0 ;dXY / == .d 0 ;dX Y / ?
XY
A Y Y A1 Y .
Therefore, A is an automorphism of the stable valued translation quiver As such

that Am is the identity automorphism of As . Further, since A is an indecomposable
algebra of finite representation type, it follows from Theorem III.10.2 that A is
connected. Moreover, by Proposition 15.4, we may assume that As is connected
and has at least two A -orbits.
Fix a vertex (module) M in As . We denote by D M the full valued subquiver
of the valued quiver As formed by all modules N in As lying on sectional paths
.a1 ;b1 / .a2 ;b2 / .as1 ;bs1 / .as ;bs /
M D M0 ! M1 ! ! Ms1 ! Ms D N
in As starting from M . It follows from Lemmas 15.1, 15.5 and Proposition 15.2 that
is a finite valued tree and intersects every A -orbit in As exactly once. Clearly,
M is a unique source of . We will show that is a Dynkin quiver.
We denote by x the underlying graph (tree) of and by C D C. / x the
associated Cartan matrix on the set I of vertices of ,x which is also the set 0 of
vertices of D M . We consider also the transposed Cartan matrix C T of C .
Observe that for each arrow
0
.dXY ;dXY /
X ! Y
0 0
in , we have CXY D dXY and CYX D dXY T
, and hence CXY D dXY and
CYX D dXY . Clearly, we have CXX D 2 D CXX for any module X on . We
T T
claim that C T admits a subadditive but not additive function.

Let Y be an indecomposable nonprojective module in mod A, equivalently a
vertex of As . Then it follows from Lemma III.9.1 and Proposition III.9.6 that As
admits a valued mesh of the form
;dX1 Y /nnn7
X1 OO
0
.dX
n OOO.dX Y ;d 0 /
1Y
n nn OOO1 X1 Y
n
n nn e ee2 X XXXXXXXXOOOOO
neneneeee0eeee
2
XXXXO'
A Y SSS .dX2 Y ;dX2 Y / :: .dX2 Y ;dX0 2 Y / lXl,5 Y
SSS : lll
SSS
SS l llll 0
.dX0 ;d
S
/ S)
l
ll .dXr Y ;dXr Y /
r Y Xr Y Xr
such that there is in mod A an almost split sequence
M
r 0
dX
jY
0 ! A Y ! Xj ˚ PY ! Y ! 0;
j D1
where PY D 0 or PY is an indecomposable projective module. In particular, we

obtain the inequalities
X
r X
r
`.Y / C `.A Y / D `.PY / C `.Xj /dX0 j Y `.Xj /dX0 j Y ;
j D1 j D1
and the right inequality is strict if and only if PY ¤ 0.

Consider now the function d W I ! NC D f1; 2; 3; : : : g defined for any module
X in I by
X
m1
d.X / D `.Ai X /:
iD0
Observe that d.X / D d.A X / for any module X in , because Am Z D Z for any

module Z in As . Then, for any module Y in I , we have the inequalities
X X
d.X/CXY T
D d.Y /CYTY C d.X /CXY T
X2I X2I nfY g

X
0
D 2d.Y / d.X /dXY
X2I nfY g
X
m1
X m1
X
0
D `.Ai Y / C `.AiC1 Y / `.Ai X / dXY
iD0 X2I nfY g iD0
X
m1
X
m1 X
0
D `.Ai Y / C `.AiC1 Y / `.Ai X /dXY
iD0 iD0 X2I nfY g
X
m1
X
m1 X
D `.Ai Y / C `.AiC1 Y / `.Ai X /d0 i X i Y
A A
iD0 iD0 X2I nfY g
X
m1 X
D `.Ai Y / C `.AiC1 Y / `.Ai X /d0 i X i Y
A A
iD0 X2I nfY g
0;
because there are in mod A almost split sequences
M
r
d0 i i
0 ! AiC1 Y ! .Ai Xj / A XA Y ˚ P i Y ! Ai Y ! 0;
A
j D1
with d 0 i iY
0
D dXY , P i Y D 0 or P i Y an indecomposable projective module,
A XA A A
for all i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g. Moreover,
X
T
d.X /CXY > 0;
X2I
if P i Y ¤ 0, for some i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g. Since the valued quiver intersects

A
every A -orbit of As and A contains projective modules, we conclude that there are
modules Y on such that P i Y ¤ 0 for some i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; m 1g. Therefore, we
A
conclude that d W I ! NC is a subadditive but not additive function for the Cartan
matrix C T . Then it follows from Corollary 13.4 that the valued graph .C T / of
C T is a Dynkin graph. Observe now that .C T / is the graph obtained from the
underlying graph x of by changing the valuations of all edges
0
.dXY ;dXY / 0
.dX Y ;dX Y /
X Y on X Y :
x is also a Dynkin
Hence, looking on the shapes of Dynkin graphs, we conclude that
graph, and consequently is a Dynkin quiver.
Consider now the valued translation quiver Z of D M . Recall that
.Z /0 D Z 0 D f.i; X / j i 2 Z; X 2 0 g
is the set of vertices of Z . Further, the set .Z /1 of arrows of Z consists of the

valued arrows
0
.dXY ;dXY / 0
.dX Y ;dX Y /
.i; X / ! .i; Y / and .i C 1; Y / ! .i; X /
for all arrows

0
.dXY ;dXY /
X ! Y
in and all i 2 Z. Moreover, the translation W .Z /0 ! .Z /0 is defined by
.i; X/ D .i C 1; X /. Then we have the canonical covering of valued translation
quivers
W Z ! As
such that 0 W .Z 0 / ! .As /0 is given by 0 .i; X / D Ai X for any i 2 Z and any
X 2 0 , and 1 W .Z /1 ! .As /1 assigns to a valued arrow
0
.dXY ;dXY /
.i; X / ! .i; Y / of Z
the valued arrow

0
.dXY ;dXY /
Ai X ! Ai Y of As ;
0
with dXY D d i X i Y and dXY D d 0i iY , and to a valued arrow
A A A XA
0
.dXY ;dXY /
.i C 1; Y / ! .i; X / of Z
the valued arrow

0
.dXY ;dXY /
AiC1 Y ! Ai X of As ;
0
with dXY D d i C1 Y i X and dXY D d 0 i C1 iX
. Observe also that evidently
A A A Y A
W Z ! As is a covering of valued translation quivers.
Finally, let G be the group of all automorphisms g of the valued translation quiver
Z such that, for vertices .i; X / and .j; Y / in .Z /0 , we have g.i; X / D .j; Y /
if and only if Ai X D 0 .i; X / D 0 .j; Y / D Aj Y in As . We note that, for X
and Y in 0 , the equality Ai X D Aj Y in As forces X D Y , because intersects
every A -orbit in As exactly once. A simple checking shows that G is an admissible
group of automorphisms of Z , and clearly contains m because Am Z D Z for any
module Z in As . Moreover, by Proposition 15.3, G is an infinite cyclic group. It
follows from definition of G, that the covering W Z ! As of valued translation
quivers induces an isomorphism
Z =G ! As
of valued translation quivers.
Let A be a nonsimple indecomposable finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra

of finite representation type over a field K. Then it follows from Exercises III.12.40–
III.12.46 and Theorem 15.6 that we may associate to A a Dynkin graph .A/, called
the Dynkin type of A, such that As Š Z =G for a valued Dynkin quiver with
x D .A/ and an admissible infinite cyclic group G of automorphisms of Z .

We also note that in view of Proposition III.9.12, Theorem 15.6 gives a complete
description of the shapes of the stable Auslander–Reiten quivers of finite dimen-
sional selfinjective algebras of finite representation type over an arbitrary field.
Example 15.7. Let A be a nonsimple indecomposable finite dimensional selfinjec-

tive Nakayama K-algebra over a field K. Then it follows from Theorems I.10.5 and
I.10.7 that A is of finite representation type and every indecomposable module in
mod A is isomorphic to a module of the form P = radr P for some indecomposable
projective module P in mod A and an integer r with 1 r ``.P / D `.P /.
Moreover, if r < ``.P /, then we have in mod A an almost split sequence of the
form
0 ! rad P = radrC1 P ! .rad P = radr P / ˚ P =.radrC1 P / ! P = radr P ! 0;
by Theorem III.8.7. We note that, for r D ``.P /, we have radr P D 0, and

hence P = radr P is a projective, and hence also injective, module in mod A. Since
A is indecomposable as K-algebra and of finite representation type, it follows
from the Auslander’s Theorem III.10.2 that the Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A
is connected. Moreover, since A is nonsimple, all simple modules in mod A are
nonprojective (see Proposition 6.8). Let ``.A/ D m C 1 and n be the number
of pairwise nonisomorphic simple modules in mod A. Observe that, by the de-
scription of almost split sequences in mod A, we have `.A X / D `.X / for any
indecomposable nonprojective module X in mod A. Therefore, we conclude that
the stable Auslander–Reiten quiver As has exactly m A -orbits, and every A -orbit
in As consists of n indecomposable modules having a fixed length r 2 f1; : : : ; mg.

Moreover, the maximal sectional paths in A are of the forms
soc.P / ! ! rad P ! P;
P ! P = soc.P / ! ! top.P /;
and hence, the maximal sectional paths in As are of the forms
soc.P / ! ! rad P;
P = soc.P / ! ! top.P /;
for indecomposable projective modules P in mod A. In particular, we obtain that

As is isomorphic to the orbit translation quiver Z =. n /, where is the linear
quiver
/ / ::: / / ;
1 2 m1 m
and hence A is of Dynkin type .A/ D Am , with m D ``.A/ 1.
Example 15.8. Let Q be the quiver
2 @@ 3 4
@@ ~~~
@ˇ
˛ @@ ~~
~~

1
and A D KQ the path algebra of Q over a field K. It follows from Exam-

ple III.9.11 (b) thatA is of finite representation type and the Auslander–Reiten quiver
A of A is of the form
P .2/ > X2 CC S.2/ D I.2/

; DD <
xxx DD }}} CC yyy
x DD } CC y
xx DD }} CC yy
xx ! }} ! yy
S.1/ D P .1/ / P .3/ /M / X3 / I.1/ / S.3/ D I.3/
FF
FF zz= AAA {{ = EE
E
FF zz AA {{ EE
FF zzz AA
A {{{ EE
E"
# z {
P .4/ X4 S.4/ D I.4/ ,
where S.i /, P .i /, I.i / denote the simple, projective, injective module in mod A D
repK .Q/ at the vertex i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g, respectively.
Consider the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/. Then T.A/ is iso-
morphic to the bound quiver algebra K =J , where is the quiver

2 @_@@ 3
@@@@˛0 ˇ ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~~~~
˛ @@@ ~~~~ ˇ 0
~

1 O
0

4
and J is the admissible ideal of the path algebra K of generated by the elements
˛ 0 ˛ ˇ 0 ˇ, ˇ 0 ˇ 0 , ˛ˇ 0 , ˛ 0 , ˇ˛ 0 , ˇ 0 , ˛ 0 , ˇ 0 . Observe that the path algebra
A0 D KQ0 of the quiver
2 @_ @ O 3 4
@@ 0 ~ ~?
@@ˇ ~~
˛0 @ ~~~ 0

1
is also a quotient algebra of T.A/, and we have isomorphism T.A/ Š T.A0 / of
K-algebras. Since Q0 D Qop , we have A0 Š Aop as K-algebras. Hence, A0 is an
algebra of finite representation type and the Auslander–Reiten quiver A0 of A0 is
of the form
S.2/0 D P .2/0 Y2 = I.2/0
EE
EE {{= == }> DD
DD
EE {{ == }}} DD
EE {{ == }} DD
" { { = }} "
S.3/0 D P .3/0 / P .1/0 / Y3 /N / I.3/0 / I.1/0 D S.1/0 ,
y y< CC
C @ AA
AA zz
<
yy CC AA zz
yyy CC AA zz
y C ! zz
S.4/0 D P .4/0 Y4 I.4/0
where S.i /0 , P .i /0 , I.i /0 denote the simple, projective, injective module in mod A0 D
repK .Q0 / at the vertex i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g, respectively. Clearly, in mod T.A/ D
repK . ; J / D mod T.A0 /, we have S.i / D S.i /0 for any i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g. Further,
for i 2 f1; 2; 3; 4g, let Pz .i / be the indecomposable projective-injective module
in mod T.A/ with top.Pz .i // D S.i / and soc.Pz .i // D S.i /, since T.A/ is a
symmetric, hence weakly symmetric K-algebra (Corollary 6.4). Applying Propo-
sition III.8.6, we conclude that we have in mod T.A/ almost split sequences of the
forms
0 ! rad Pz .1/ ! .rad Pz .1/=S.1// ˚ Pz .1/ ! Pz .1/=S.1/ ! 0;
0 ! rad Pz .4/ ! .rad Pz .4/=S.4// ˚ Pz .4/ ! Pz .4/=S.4/ ! 0:
Invoking now Proposition I.8.27, we deduce that the indecomposable modules oc-
curring in the above four almost split sequences are of the form as shown below:
K AÀA 1 0 01 } > K K ?_?? K K ?_?? K

AAAA }}}} ????0 1 ? ????1 0 ?
AAA ~}}}}}1 0 ? ? ? ?
0 1 ? 0 0 ? 1
Pz .1/ W 1 K 2O z
rad P .1/ W KO z
P .1/=S.1/ W KO
0
0 1 1 0

10
1
K K K

K 2AÀA 01 0 K ?_?? 0 K ?_?? 0
AAAA @ ????1 @ ????0 @
AAA

??? ???
10 0 1
Pz .2/ W KO rad Pz .2/ W KO Pz .2/=S.2/ W KO

0 0 0
0 <^<< 1 0 K 2 0 =^== K 0 =^== K

<<<< }}}> ==== 0 ? ==== 1 ?
<<< ~}}}}}} === ===
} 01 1 0
Pz .3/ W KO rad Pz .3/ W KO Pz .3/=S.3/ W KO

0 0 0
0 @_@@ 0 0 =^== 0 0 =^== 0

@@@@ ~~~? ==== @ ==== @
@@@ ~~~~~~ === ===
~
Pz .4/ W
KO rad Pz .4/ W KO Pz .4/=S.4/ W KO
0
10 1 0 0 1
1

K2 K K
and
rad Pz .1/=S.1/ D S.2/ ˚ S.3/ ˚ S.4/; rad Pz .1/ D I.1/; Pz .1/=S.1/ D P .1/0 ;
rad Pz .2/=S.2/ D S.1/; rad Pz .2/ D I.2/0 ; Pz .2/=S.2/ D P .2/;
rad Pz .3/=S.3/ D S.1/; rad Pz .3/ D I.3/0 ; Pz .3/=S.3/ D P .3/;
rad Pz .4/=S.4/ D S.1/; rad Pz .4/ D I.4/0 ; Pz .4/=S.4/ D P .4/:
Since T.A/ Š T.A0 / and A, A0 are hereditary K-algebras (Theorem I.9.5), apply-
ing Proposition 10.12, we conclude that T.A/ X Š A X for any indecomposable
module X in mod A and T.A/ Y Š A0 Y for any indecomposable module Y in
mod A0 . Summing up, we obtain that the Auslander–Reiten quiver T.A/ of T.A/ is
obtained by glueing the Auslander–Reiten quivers A and A0 of A and A0 , adding
the indecomposable projective-injective modules Pz .1/, Pz .2/, Pz .3/, Pz .4/, and is

of the form given below.
Pz .2/ Pz .1/
@ ==
= H ..
== ..
= ..
I.2/ Pz .3/ P@ .2/;
0 . I.2/0
S.2/ A >> ..
XB 1:: @ Y2 88
>> @ >> ; A
>> >> ;; ::
: >> .. 88
>> >> ;; : >> . 88

0 / S.1/ / P .3/ / / / I.1/ / S.3/ / 0 / / N / I.3/0
I.3/ M X P .1/ Y
? ?? A 999 A << ? == B <<<
2 3
??
?? 99 <<
==
= <<
9 < <
=
0
I.4/ P .4/
@
X3 S.4/ Y4 I.4/0
>>
>>>>

Pz .4/
s
In particular, the stable Auslander–Reiten quiver T.A/ is isomorphic to the trans-
lation quiver ZQ=. /. Moreover, .A/ D D4 .
5
Example 15.9. Let A be the R-subalgebra

² ³
R 0 a 0 ˇ
AD D ˇ
2 M2 .C/ a 2 R; b; c 2 C
C C c b
of the matrix algebra M2 .C/, and

1 0 0 0
e1 D R and e2 D
0 0 0 1C
the standard primitive idempotents of A with 1A D e1 C e2 . Hence, we have

in mod A two indecomposable projective modules P1 D e1 A, P2 D e2 A, and
two indecomposable injective modules I1 D D.Ae1 /, I2 D D.Ae2 /. It follows
from Example III.10.6 (a) that the Auslander–Reiten quiver A of A is the valued
translation quiver of the form
P2 A I2
}}> AA .2;1/ ~~?
}}
.1;2/ AA
~~
~
}} AA
}} ~~ .1;2/
P1 I1 .
Moreover, S1 D P1 is a simple projective but noninjective module and S2 D I2 is

a simple injective but nonprojective module in mod A. Further, rad P2 D S1 ˚ S1
is semisimple and projective. Therefore, A is a hereditary R-algebra (see Theo-
rem I.9.1).
We will describe the Auslander–Reiten quiver T.A/ of the trivial extension

algebra T.A/ of A. We have in T.A/ the standard primitive idempotents eQ1 D .e1 ; 0/
and eQ2 D .e2 ; 0/ with 1T.A/ D .1A ; 0/ D eQ1 C eQ2 . Hence, we have in mod T.A/
the indecomposable projective modules
Pz1 D eQ1 T.A/ D e1 A ˚ e1 D.A/ D e1 A ˚ D.Ae1 /;

Pz2 D eQ2 T.A/ D e2 A ˚ e2 D.A/ D e2 A ˚ D.Ae2 /;
Since T.A/ is a symmetric algebra, Pz1 and Pz2 are also indecomposable injective
modules in mod T.A/ with soc.Pz1 / Š top.Pz1 / and soc.Pz2 / Š top.Pz2 /, because
every symmetric algebra is weakly symmetric (see Corollary 6.4). Moreover, A is
the quotient algebra T.A/ by the two-sided ideal D.A/ D 0 ˚ D.A/ with D.A/2 D
0. Further, rad A ˚ D.A/ is a two-sided ideal of T.A/ such that
.rad A ˚ D.A//.rad A ˚ D.A// rad2 A ˚ D.rad A/:
Hence, rad A ˚ D.A/ is a nilpotent ideal of T.A/, because rad A is a nilpotent ideal
of A (Corollary I.3.4), and T.A/=.rad A˚D.A// ! A= rad A D RC. Applying
Lemma I.3.5, we conclude that rad T.A/ D rad A ˚ D.A/. As a consequence, we
obtain that
rad Pz1 D eQ1 .rad A ˚ D.A// D e1 .rad A/ ˚ e1 D.A/ D rad e1 A ˚ D.Ae1 /;

rad Pz2 D eQ2 .rad A ˚ D.A// D e2 .rad A/ ˚ e2 D.A/ D rad e2 A ˚ D.Ae2 /:
Similarly, we have
Pz1 = soc.Pz1 / D Pz1 =S1 D .e1 A ˚ D.Ae1 // =S1 D e1 A ˚ .D.Ae1 /=S1 /;

Pz2 = soc.Pz2 / D Pz2 =S2 D .e2 A ˚ D.Ae2 // =S2 D e2 A ˚ .D.Ae2 /=S2 /:
Since P1 D e1 A is simple, we have rad e1 A D 0, and so rad Pz1 D D.Ae1 / D I1 .

Similarly, since I2 D D.Ae2 / is simple, we have D.Ae2 /=S2 D 0, and hence
Pz2 = soc.Pz2 / D e2 A D P2 . Moreover, since Pz1 and Pz2 are indecomposable
projective-injective right T.A/-modules, applying Proposition III.8.6, we conclude
that there are in mod T.A/ almost split sequences of the form
0 ! rad Pz1 ! .rad Pz1 =S1 / ˚ Pz1 ! Pz1 =S1 ! 0;

0 ! rad Pz2 ! .rad Pz2 =S2 / ˚ Pz2 ! Pz2 =S2 ! 0:
Further, it follows from Proposition 10.12 that T.A/ I1 D A I1 D P1 and T.A/ I2 D

A I2 D P2 , and consequently the almost split sequences
0 ! P1 ! P2 ! I1 ! 0;
0 ! P2 ! I1 ˚ I1 ! I2 ! 0
1
in mod A remain almost split sequences in mod T.A/. Observe that T.A/ I1 D
.1;2/
1
T.A/ .rad Pz1 / D Pz1 =S1 and T.A/ has the valued arrow I1 ! I2 . Hence,
.2;1/
applying Proposition III.9.6, we infer that T.A/ admits the valued arrow I2 !
Pz1 =S1 , and it is the unique arrow of T.A/ with source I2 . This leads to an almost
split sequence in mod T.A/ of the form
0 ! I2 ! .Pz1 =S1 / ˚ .Pz1 =S1 / ! T.A/

1
I2 ! 0:
Hence, we conclude that

` 1 I2 D 2`.Pz1 =S1 / `.I2 / D 2.`.P1 / C `.I2 // `.I2 / D 3;
T.A/
because P1 D S1 and I2 D S2 are simple modules in mod T.A/. Further, applying

.1;2/
Proposition III.9.6 again, we infer that T.A/ admits the valued arrow Pz1 =S1 !
1
T.A/ I2 , and hence we have in mod T.A/ an almost split sequence
0 ! Pz1 =S1 ! T.A/

1 1
I2 ! T.A/ .Pz1 =S1 / ! 0:
Hence, we obtain that

1 1
` T.A/ .Pz1 =S1 / D ` T.A/ I2 `.Pz1 =S1 / D 3 2 D 1;
1
and so T.A/ .P1 =S1 / is simple right T.A/-module. Observe that S2 D I2 and
1
T.A/ S2 D A S2 D P2 . Moreover, T.A/ T.A/ .P1 =S1 / D P1 =S1 . Since
1
top.P2 / D S2 and top.P1 =S1 / D S1 , we conclude that T.A/ .P1 =S1 / D S1 D P1 .
Summing up, we have proved that T.A/ admits a connected component C of
the form
z
~? P2 ??
~~ ??
~~ ??
~ ??
~
z P2
>} P2@@
rad
? >>> ? I2 ??
.1;2/ }} @@ .1;2/ >> ?? .2;1/
} @@ >>
.1;2/ ??
} @ ??
}} .2;1/ @ .2;1/ >
z
P1 =S1 P 1 I1> z
P? 1 =S1 :
>>
>>
>>
>

Pz1
Then using the indecomposability of T.A/ and Auslander’s Theorem III.10.2, we

conclude that C D A and A is of finite representation type. Moreover, the sta-
ble Auslander–Reiten quiver is isomorphic to the orbit valued translation quiver
Z =. 3 /, where is the Dynkin quiver

.1;2/
/ .
In particular, T.A/ is of Dynkin type .T.A// D B2 .

In the second volume of the book we will develop techniques allowing us to
show that, for any Dynkin quiver and admissible group G of automorphisms
of the valued translation quiver Z , there exists a finite dimensional selfinjective
K-algebra A of finite representation type over a field K such that As Š Z =G as
valued translation quivers.
16 Exercises
ˇ
o / o
˛
/ ;
1 2 3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛, , ˛ ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associ-
ated bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a symmetric K-algebra and describe a
nondegenerate associative symmetric K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K.
ˇ
o / o
˛
/ ;
1 2 3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛, ˇ, ˛ ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associated
bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a nonsymmetric Frobenius K-algebra and
describe a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form .; / W A A ! K.
3. Let K be a field and Q the quiver
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~
~~ ~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~

0 O
ˇ3 ˛3

3:
Consider in KQ the ideals
• I1 generated by ˛1 ˇ2 , ˛1 ˇ3 , ˛2 ˇ1 , ˛2 ˇ3 , ˛3 ˇ1 , ˛3 ˇ2 , ˇ1 ˛1 ˇ2 ˛2 ,
ˇ2 ˛2 ˇ3 ˛3 ,
16. Exercises 471
ˇ2 ˛2 ˇ3 ˛3 ,
ˇ2 ˛2 ˇ3 ˛3 ,
and the associated bound quiver algebras A1 D KQ=I1 , A2 D KQ=I2 , A3 D

KQ=I3 . Prove that A1 , A2 , A3 are pairwise nonisomorphic Frobenius algebras
and describe the associated Nakayama permutations of f0; 1; 2; 3g.

˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4
o o o o ;
1 2 3 4 5
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛2 ˛1 , ˛3 ˛2 , ˛4 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the associated
bound quiver algebra. Prove that the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/
is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra K =J , where is the quiver
˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4
o / o / o / o /
1 ˇ1 2 ˇ2 3 ˇ3 4 ˇ4 5
and J the ideal in K generated by the elements ˛2 ˛1 , ˛3 ˛2 , ˛4 ˛3 , ˇ1 ˇ2 , ˇ2 ˇ3 ,

ˇ3 ˇ4 , ˛1 ˇ1 ˇ2 ˛2 , ˛2 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˛3 , ˛3 ˇ3 ˇ4 ˛4 .

˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 ˛5
o o o o o ;
1 2 3 4 5 6
I the ideal in KQ generated by the elements ˛3 ˛2 ˛1 and ˛5 ˛4 ˛3 ˛2 , and A D
KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that the trivial extension algebra
T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra K =J , where is
the quiver
3o ˇ 1
~? // O
˛3 ~~ //
~~ /
~~ //˛2
4 _@ 6 /// ˛1
@@
@@ ˛5 //
˛4 @@ //

o
5 2
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˛3 ˛2 ˛1 , ˛5 ˛4 ˛3 ˛2 , ˛1 ˇ ˛4 ˛3 , ˛2 ˛5 ,
ˇ, ˛4 ˛3 ˛2 ˛4 .

4 5
@
˛1 ~~
~ @@@ ~~
~
~~ ˛2 ˛ @@@ ~~~
~
~ 3 ~

1 2 3
and A D KQ. Prove the following statements.
(a) The trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ is isomorphic to the bound
quiver algebra K =J , where is the quiver
1 @_@@
@@@@˛1
@@@@
ˇ1 @@@ ˛3
/ o /
~? o
~
ˇ2 ~ ~ 4 ~ ˇ3 3 5
~~~~
~~~~~ ˛2
2
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˇ1 ˛2 , ˇ1 ˛3 , ˇ2 ˛1 , ˇ2 ˛3 , ˇ3 ˛1 , ˇ3 ˛2 ,
˛3 , ˇ3 , ˛1 ˇ1 ˛2 ˇ2 , ˛2 ˇ2 ˛3 ˇ3 , ˇ3 ˛3 .
(b) T.A/ is isomorphic to the trivial extension algebra T.A0 / D A0 Ë D.A0 / of the
bound quiver algebra A0 D KQ0 =I 0 , where Q0 is the quiver
3?
/ 5
˛3 ~~
~
~~
~~
1 /
@
ˇ1 4 @@@
@
˛2 @@

2
and I 0 is the ideal in KQ0 generated by ˇ1 ˛2 , ˇ1 ˛3 , ˛3 .

1

˛1 ~~
~ _@@@ ˇ
@@ 1
~~~ @@
~ ˛2 ˇ2
0 _@o o 4 ;
@@ ~
@@ 2 ~~~
˛3 @@ ~
~ ˇ3
~

3
16. Exercises 473
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ1 ˛1 Cˇ2 ˛2 Cˇ3 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the associated

1

˛1 ~~
~ _@@@ ˇ
@@ 1
~~ @
~ ˛2 ˇ2 @%
~
0 _@o o 9 4
@@ ~~
@@ 2
~~ ~
˛3 @@
~~ ˇ3

3
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˇ1 ˛1 C ˇ2 ˛2 C ˇ3 ˛3 , ˛1 , ˇ1 , ˛3 , ˇ3 ,
˛2 ˛2 , ˇ2 ˇ2 .
˛1
1 O / 2
˛4 ˛2

4 o ˛3
3;
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛2 ˛3 and ˛4 ˛1 , and A D KQ=I the associated

˛1
1 O @_@@ / 2
@@@@
˛4 @@@@ ˛2
@@@

4 o ˛3 3
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˛2 ˛3 , ˛4 ˛1 , , , ˛3 ˛4 ˛1 ˛2 ,

˛1 ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 .
˛1
1 O / 2
˛4 ˛2

4 o ˛3
3;
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 , ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 , ˛3 ˛4 ˛1 , ˛4 ˛1 ˛2 , and A D

KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that the trivial extension algebra
T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra K =J , where is

the quiver
ˇ
/
1 Y2Do D
22 DD ˛1 ˛2 zzz<
3
22 DD zz
22 DD" 2 zzz
˛4 2
2
22 O ˛3
2ı2
2
4
and J is the ideal in K generated by ˛1 ˛2 ˛3 , ˛2 ˛3 ˛4 , ˛3 ˛4 ˛1 , ˛4 ˛1 ˛2 , ˇ˛3 ˛1 ı,
˛1 ˛3 , ˛2 ˛4 ˇ, ı˛4 ˛2 .
4

ˇ

˛ / / o

ı / o /
1 2 3 5 6 7 8
and A D KQ. Find a finite quiver and an admissible ideal J in K such that
the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ is isomorphic to the bound quiver
algebra K =J .
4 5 6
@
~ @@@ ~
˛ ~~ ~~
~~ ˇ @@ ~~
~
~ @ ~~ ı

1 2 3
algebra K =J .
O 7

6

o ˛
o
/ o

1 2 ˇ 3 4 5
16. Exercises 475
algebra K =J .
3
@
~~
~ @@
~ @@
~ @@
~
~
oo
˛
_@ ? 5
1 ˇ 2 @@@ ~~
@ ~~
@@ ~~~

4
algebra K =J .
1 2 3 4
5 D 5 D
55
555
5
˛ 55
55

GG w ;
5 GG ww 6
GG ww

GGG ww w
# w
w ; GG
ı ww 7
w GG
GG
www GG
8 w w G# 9
D
44

D 444
%
44! '
44

44
44

;
10 11 12 13
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ˇ, ,

, ı, %!, ' , and A D KQ=I the
associated bound quiver algebra. Find a finite quiver and an admissible ideal J
in K such that the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ is isomorphic to
the bound quiver algebra K =J .
2 5
_@
~ @@@ˇ ~
˛ ~~ ~~
~~ @@ ~
~
~ @ ~~~
1 _? _?
??
?? 4 ???
?
?? ???

;
3 6
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛ , and A D KQ=I the associated bound

quiver algebra. Find a finite quiver and an admissible ideal J in K such that
algebra K =J .
16. Let K be a field and T D TS10 be the Brauer tree

1

2

3

4

5 '&%$
!"#
S
with the exceptional vertex S of multiplicity 10. Describe
(a) The Brauer tree algebra A.TS10 / D KQT 10 =IT 10 .

S S
(b) The bound quiver algebra A.TS10 / D KQT 10 =IT10 isomorphic to A.TS10 /.
S S
17. Let K be a field and T D TS5 the Brauer tree

3 5 8
'&%$
!"#

2 4 6 9
S
1 7 10
(a) The Brauer tree algebra A.TS5 / D KQT 5 =IT 5 .

S S
(b) The bound quiver algebra A.TS5 / D KQT 5 =IT5 isomorphic to A.TS5 /.
S S
16. Exercises 477
18. Let K be a field and T D TS3 be the Brauer tree
D
DD z
DD z zz
D 13
12 DD
1 z
z
zz 2
GG w
11 GG ww 3
GG ww
G ww
10 GGG ww 4
'&%$
!"#w
S
5
6
5
5557
9

8 55

(a) the Brauer tree algebra A.TS3 / D KQT 3 =IT 3 ;

S S
(b) the bound quiver algebra A.TS3 / D KQT 3 =IT3 isomorphic to A.TS3 /.
S S
19. Let K be a field and T D TSma Brauer tree with the exceptional vertex S of
multiplicity m. Prove that the following conditions are equivalent.
(a) m D 1.
(b) A.TSm / D KQTSm =ITSm is isomorphic to the trivial extension algebra T.B/ D
B Ë D.B/ of a finite dimensional K-algebra B.
20. Let K be a field of characteristic 2 and G D Z2 Z2 the Klein 4-group.

Prove that the group algebra KG is isomorphic to the trivial extension algebra
T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ of the quotient polynomial algebra A D KŒx=.x 2 /.
21. Let K be a field of characteristic 2 and Q8 D f˙1; ˙i; ˙j; ˙kg the quaternion
group of order 8 in the quaternion division R-algebra H D R ˚ Ri ˚ Rj ˚ Rk.
Find a finite quiver and an admissible ideal J in K such that the group algebra
KQ8 is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra K =J .
22. Let K be a field of characteristic 2. For a positive integer m, consider the

generalized quaternion group
˝ m ˛
Q2mC2 D x; y j x 2 D y 2 ; xyx D x
of order 2mC2 . Find a finite quiver and an admissible ideal J in K such that
the group algebra KQ2mC2 is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra K =J .
23. Let K be a field of characteristic 2. For a positive integer m 2, consider the

dihedral 2-group
˝ m m ˛
D2mC1 D x; y j x 2 D y 2 D 1; yx D xy 2 1
of order 2mC1 D 2 2m . Find a finite quiver and an admissible ideal J in K
such that the group algebra KD2mC1 is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra
K =J .
24. Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0, m1 ; : : : ; mr a sequence of positive
integers and G D Zpm1 Zpmr the product of the associated cyclic groups
Zpm1 ; : : : ; Zpmr of orders p m1 ; : : : ; p mr , respectively. Find a finite quiver and
an admissible ideal J in K such that the group algebra KG is isomorphic to the
bound quiver algebra K =J .
˛1 ˛2 ˛3
o / o / o / ;
1 ˇ1 2 ˇ2 3 ˇ3 4
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛2 ˛1 , ˛3 ˛2 , ˇ1 ˇ2 , ˇ2 ˇ3 , ˛1 ˇ1 ˇ2 ˛2 , ˛2 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˛3 ,
and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a selfinjective
algebra of finite representation type and describe the Auslander–Reiten quiver of A .
1
?~ @@
˛ ~~ @@%
~~ @@
~o ~ @
2 _@ / o / 4 ;
@@ˇ 3 ~~
@@ ~~
ı @@ ~~~

5
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛, %, ıˇ,
, ˇ,
, ˇ
, ˛% ˇ
,
ı , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a
selfinjective algebra of finite representation type and describe the Auslander–Reiten
quiver of A .
1 @_@@
@@@@˛1
@@@@
ˇ1 @@@ ˛3
/ o / ;
~? o
ˇ2 ~~~ 4 ~ ˇ3 3 5
~~~~
~~~~~ ˛2
2
16. Exercises 479
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ1 ˛1 , ˇ2 ˛2 , ˇ1 ˛3 , ˇ2 ˛3 , ˇ3 ˛1 , ˇ3 ˛2 , ˇ3 , ˛3 ,

˛1 ˇ1 ˛2 ˇ2 , ˛2 ˇ2 ˛3 ˇ3 , ˇ3 ˛3 , and A D KQ=I the associated bound
quiver algebra. Prove that A is a selfinjective algebra of finite representation type
and describe the Auslander–Reiten quiver of A .
1
O
2 eKK ˛ ˇ t9 4
KK
KK tttt
t
9 eK
ttt 0 KKKK
t
tt ı % K
3 5,
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ˇ ı, ˛ˇ
%, ˇ , ı˛, ˇ
, %˛, ı
, %,
ı , %
, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a
selfinjective algebra of finite representation type and describe the Auslander–Reiten
quiver of A .
2 ˇ2 3
/
D
55
ˇ1
55ˇ3

55
$

˛ Z5 4 ;
1 555
ˇ6 55
ˇ

4
o
6 ˇ5 5
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 ˇ1 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 , ˇj ˇj C1 : : : ˇ6 ˛ˇ1 : : : ˇj 1 ˇj ,
for j 2 f2; 3; 4; 5g, ˇ6 ˇ1 , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra.
Prove that A is a symmetric algebra of finite representation type and describe the
Auslander–Reiten quiver of A .
2 ˇ2 3
/
D
55
ˇ1
55ˇ3

55
$

˛ Z5 4 ;
1 555
ˇ6 55
ˇ

4
o
6 ˇ5 5
I the ideal in KQ generated by the elements ˛ 2 .ˇ1 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 /2 , ˛ˇ1 , ˇ6 ˛,

ˇj ˇj C1 : : : ˇ6 ˇ1 : : : ˇj 1 ˇj , for j 2 f2; 3; 4; 5g, and A D KQ=I the associated
bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a symmetric algebra of infinite representation
type.
2 ˇ2 3
/
D
55
ˇ1
55ˇ3

55
$

˛ Z5 4 ;
1 555
ˇ6 55
ˇ

4
o
6 ˇ5 5
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 ˇ1 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 , ˇ6 ˇ1 , ˛ˇ1 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 C
ˇ1 ˇ2 ˇ3 ˇ4 ˇ5 ˇ6 ˛, ˇj ˇj C1 : : : ˇ6 ˛ˇ1 ˇ2 : : : ˇj , for j 2 f2; 3; 4; 5; 6g, and A D
KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove that A is a nonsymmetric self-
injective algebra of infinite representation type.
p p
32. Let Q. 3 2/ be the field extension of Q by 3 2 and consider the Q-algebra
² ³
Q 0p a 0 p ˇ p
AD p D 2 M 2 .Q.
3
2// ˇ a 2 Q; b; c 2 Q.
3
2/ :
Q. 3 2/ Q. 3 2/ c b
Prove that the trivial extension algebra T.A/ D A Ë D.A/ is a symmetric algebra
of finite representation type and the Dynkin type G2 .
2 3 82 3 9
R 0 0 0 ˆ
ˆ a 0 0 0 >
>
6 R R 0 0 7 <6 b c 07
ˇ =
AD6 7 6 0 7 ˇˇ a; b; c 2 R
4C C C 0 5 D ˆ4x y z 05 x; y; z; u; v; w; t 2 C >
:
:̂ >
;
C C C C u v w t
of finite representation type and the Dynkin type F4 .
2 3 82 3 9
R 0 0 < a 0 0 ˇ =
ˇ a2R
A D 4C C 0 5 D 4b c 05 ˇ :
: b; c; x; y; z 2 C ;
C C C x y z
of finite representation type and the Dynkin type B3 .
16. Exercises 481

2 3 82 3 9
R 0 0 < a 0 0 ˇ =
ˇ a; b; c 2 R
A D R R 0 D 4b
4 5 c 05 ˇ :
: x; y; z 2 C ;
C C C x y z
of finite representation type and the Dynkin type C3 .

$ (
˛ h ;
1 ˇ 2
I1 the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 ˇ, ˇ , I2 the ideal in KQ generated by

˛ 2 ˇ, ˇ ˇ˛, ˇ˛ˇ, and A1 D KQ=I1 , A2 D KQ=I2 the associated bound
quiver algebras. Prove the following assertions.
(a) A1 and A2 are finite dimensional symmetric K-algebras.
(b) A1 and A2 are socle equivalent.
(c) A1 and A2 are isomorphic if and only if K is of characteristic different from 2.
(d) A1 and A2 are of finite representation type and the Dynkin type D6 .
(e) The Auslander–Reiten quivers A1 and A2 are isomorphic.

$ (
˛ h ;
1 ˇ 2
I1 the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 , ˛ˇ C ˇ˛, ˇ , ˇ˛ˇ, I2 the ideal in KQ

generated by ˛ 2 ˛ˇ, ˛ˇ C ˇ˛, ˇ, ˇ˛ˇ, and A1 D KQ=I1 , A2 D KQ=I2
the associated bound quiver algebras. Prove that
(a) A1 and A2 are finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebras.
(b) A1 and A2 are not isomorphic.
(c) A1 and A2 are socle equivalent.
(d) For each i 2 f1; 2g, the simple Ai -module S1 at the vertex 1 is not Ai -periodic.
(e) For each i 2 f1; 2g, the simple Ai -module S2 at the vertex 2 is Ai -periodic.

$ (
˛ h ;
1 ˇ 2
I1 the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 3 ˇ, ˇ , ˇ˛ 2 , ˛ 2 , I2 the ideal in KQ

generated by ˛ 3 ˇ, ˇ ˇ˛, ˇ˛ 2 , ˛ 2 , and A1 D KQ=I1 , A2 D KQ=I2
the associated bound quiver algebras. Prove the following statements.
(a) A1 and A2 are finite dimensional symmetric K-algebras.
(b) A1 and A2 are socle equivalent.
(c) A1 and A2 are isomorphic if and only if K is of characteristic different from 3.
(d) The simple A1 -modules S1 and S2 at the vertices 1 and 2 are A1 -periodic.
(e) The simple A2 -modules S1 and S2 at the vertices 1 and 2 are A2 -periodic.

$ ( (
˛ h h ;
1 ˇ 2 % 3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 C ˇ, ˇ C %, % , and A D KQ=I the

associated bound quiver algebra. Prove the following statements.
(a) A is a finite dimensional symmetric K-algebra of infinite representation type.
(b) Every simple right A-module is A -periodic of period 3.
40. Let K be a field, 2 K n f0; 1g, Q the quiver
$ /
˛ o d ˇ ;
1 2
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 , ˇ 2 , ˛ ˇ , ˇ ˛ , and

A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove the following statements.
(b) A4 .S/ Š S for any simple right A-module S.

16. Exercises 483
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~~~~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~
0 O
ˇ3 ˛3

;
3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ1 ˛1 C ˇ2 ˛2 C ˇ3 ˛3 , ˛1 ˇ1 , ˛2 ˇ3 , ˛3 ˇ2 , and
(c) A3 .T / © T for a simple right A-module T .
1 @_@@ 2
@@@@ˇ1 ˛2 ~~~~~?
@@@@ ~~~~
˛1 @@@ ~~~~ ˇ2
~
0 O
ˇ3 ˛3

;
3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ1 ˛1 C ˇ2 ˛2 C ˇ3 ˛3 , ˛1 ˇ1 , ˛2 ˇ2 , ˛3 ˇ3 , and
(a) A is a finite dimensional weakly symmetric K-algebra of infinite representation
type.
(b) A is a symmetric K-algebra if and only if K is of characteristic 2.
(c) A3 .S/ Š S for any simple right A-module S.
2
C 77
77
˛ 77
77
77
ı /
1 o 3;
ˇ
I the ideal in KQ generated by ıˇı ˛ , ˇ˛, .ˇı/3 ˇ, and A D KQ=I the

associated bound quiver algebra. Prove the following statements.
(a) A is a finite dimensional symmetric K-algebra.
(c) A4 .T / © T for a simple right A-module T .
5
~? @@
~~ @@
~~ @@
~
~o o ı @
2 _@ / / 3 ;
@@ 1 ~~
@@ ~
˛ @@ ~~
~~ ˇ

4
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ, ˛
, ı , ˇ˛ı ,
, and A D KQ=I
the associated bound quiver algebra. Prove the following statements.
(a) A is a finite dimensional selfinjective K-algebra.
(b) A is not a weakly symmetric K-algebra.
(c) A12 .S/ Š S for any simple right A-module S.
1 _@@@ ~? 5
@@@@ˇ ! ~~~~~
@@@@ ~
˛ @@@ ~~~~%

/ ~~~
~? o @
4 _@@@@@@@@'
~~~~ 3

~~~~ @@@@
~~~~~ @
2 6;
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ, ˇ, ˛, ,
˛,
, %
, %',
, !, ˛ˇ ,

,
!%, !% ' , and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver algebra.
Prove the following statements.
(a) A is isomorphic to the trivial extension algebra T.H / D H Ë D.H / of the path
algebra H D K of the quiver of the form
3 5 6
@
~ @@ ~~
˛ ~~ @ ~
~~ @@% ~~
~~ @ ~~

1 2 4.
16. Exercises 485
(b) The stable Auslander–Reiten quiver As contains two different connected com-
ponents C and D isomorphic to the stable translation quiver Z such that C
contains the simple modules S1 , S2 , S4 , and D contains the simple modules
S3 , S5 , S6 .
(c) The simple modules S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 are not A -periodic.
(d) The indecomposable right A-modules
K ÀAA @ 0
AAAA0
AAAA

1 AAA
o /
M1 W ~~> K 0 ^===
0 ~~~~ ====
~ ====
~~~~ ====
~~~~~~ 1 =
K 0;
0 _??? ? 0
????
????
????
?
1 /
M2 W ?Ko K _>>>
0 >>>>
>>>>
>>>>
>
0 0;
0 ^=== }> K
==== 0 }}}}
==== }
}} }
=== }~}}}} 1
/
M3 W @ 0o K ÀAA
AAAA0
AAAA

1 AAA
0 K
form the mouth of a stable tube T of A of rank 3 and A M1 D M3 , A M2 D
M1 , A M3 D M2 .
(e) The modules M1 , M2 , M3 are A -periodic of period 6.
(f) The indecomposable right A-modules
K ÀAA ~? 0
AAAA0 ~~~~~~
AAAA ~~~~
1 AAA ~~~~~
1 /
N1 W >Ko K _???
~~~~~ 0 ???? 0
~~ ????
~~~~ ??
1 ???
~~~~~~
0 K;
0 ÀAA >K
AAAA
AAAA 0 }}}}}
AAAA }}}}
A }~}}}} 1
o
1 /
N2 W ~~> K K `@@@
0 ~~~ @@@@
0
~~ @@@@
~~~~ @@@@
~~~~~~ 1 @
K 0;
form the mouth of a stable tube T of A of rank 2 and A N1 D N2 , A N2 D N1 .
(g) The modules N1 , N2 are A -periodic of period 4.
46. Let n 2 be a natural number, A D KŒX =.X n / the quotient polynomial
K-algebra over a field K, and Ae D Aop ˝K A. Consider the homomorphism
of right Ae -modules ! W Ae ! Ae such that !.1 ˝ 1/ D x ˝ 1 1 ˝ x, where
1 D 1A D 1Aop Pand x is the coset of X in A. Prove that Ker ! is the right Ae -module
yA with y D n1
e
iD1 x
n1i
˝ xi .
47. Let K be a field, Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / a finite quiver, Qop D .Q00 ; Q10 ; s 0 ; t 0 / the
opposite quiver of Q, %1 ; : : : ; %r a set of relations in KQ generating an admissible
op op
ideal I in KQ, %1 ; : : : ; %r the associated set of relations in KQop generating
the opposite ideal I op in KQop , and A D KQ=I and Aop D KQop =I op the
associated bound quiver algebras. Consider the quiver Qe D .Q0e ; Q1e ; s e ; t e / such
that Q0e D Q00 Q0 , Q1e D .Q00 Q1 / [ .Q10 Q0 / with s e ; t e W Q1e ! Q0e
defined for .a0 ; ˛/ 2 Q00 Q1 and .ˇ 0 ; b/ 2 Q10 Q0 by

s e .a0 ; ˛/ D .a0 ; s.˛//; t e .a0 ; ˛/ D .a0 ; t .˛//;

s e .ˇ 0 ; b/ D .s 0 .ˇ 0 /; b/; t e .ˇ 0 ; b/ D .t 0 .ˇ 0 /; b/:
Further, denote by I e the ideal in the path algebra KQe of Qe generated by the
relations
.a0 ; %1 /; : : : ; .a0 ; %r / for all vertices a0 2 Q00 ;

op
.%1 ; b/; : : : ; .%op r ; b/ for all vertices b 2 Q0 ;
and the relations in KQe of the forms
.ˇ 0 ; s.˛//.t 0 .ˇ 0 /; ˛/ .s 0 .ˇ 0 /; ˛/.ˇ 0 ; t .˛//
for all arrows ˇ 0 2 Q10 and ˛ 2 Q1 . Prove that

(a) I e is an admissible ideal of the path algebra KQe ;
(b) the bound quiver algebra KQe =I e is isomorphic to the enveloping algebra
Ae D Aop ˝K A of A.
16. Exercises 487
48. Let K be a field, Q D .Q0 ; Q1 ; s; t / a finite acyclic quiver, Qop D .Q00 ; Q10 ;
s 0 ; t 0 / the opposite quiver of Q, and A D KQ, Aop D KQop the associated path
algebras of Q and Qop , respectively. Prove that the enveloping algebra Ae D
Aop ˝K A of A is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra KQe =I e , where Qe D
.Q0e ; Q1e ; s e ; t e / is the quiver defined in Exercise 16.47 and I e is the ideal in KQe
generated by the relations in KQe of the forms
.ˇ 0 ; s.˛//.t 0 .ˇ 0 /; ˛/ .s 0 .ˇ 0 /; ˛/.ˇ 0 ; t .˛//
for all arrows ˇ 0 2 Q10 and ˛ 2 Q1 .
ˇ
o / ;
˛

1 2 3
and A D KQ the associated path algebra. Prove that the enveloping algebra
Ae D Aop ˝K A of A is of infinite representation type.
ˇ
o o
˛
;
1 2 3
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver
Nakayama algebra. Prove that the enveloping algebra Ae D Aop ˝K A is of finite
representation type.
o
˛
/ ;
1 ˇ 2
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˇ˛, ˛ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound quiver
selfinjective Nakayama algebra. Prove that the enveloping algebra Ae D Aop ˝K A
is of infinite representation type.
52. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K. Then A is a symmetric
algebra if and only if Ae is a symmetric algebra.
1
C 88
88 ˛
88
8
3 o ˇ
2;
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ˇ, ˇ, ˛, and A D KQ=I the associated bound
quiver algebra. Prove that A is a periodic algebra.

$ (
˛ h ;
1 ˇ 2
I the ideal in KQ generated by ˛ 2 ˇ, ˇ, and A D KQ=I the associated bound
quiver algebra. Prove that A is a periodic algebra.
55. Let A be a finite dimensional K-algebra over a field K and W Ae ! A the
canonical epimorphism of right Ae -modules (A-bimodules) such that .a0 ˝ b/ D
ab for a; b 2 A. Prove the following assertions.
(a) A is a separable K-algebra if and only if there exists an element f 2 Ae such
that .f / D 1A and af D f a for all a 2 A.
(b) If f is an element f 2 Ae with .f / D 1A and af D f a for all a 2 A, then
f is an idempotent of Ae and Ae D .1 f /ae ˚ eAe as right Ae -modules,
with .1 f /Ae D Ker and fAe Š A in mod Ae .
56. Prove that H ˝R C Š M2 .C/ as R-algebras.
57. Prove that He D Hop ˝R H is a semisimple R-algebra and H is a projective
right He -module.
Chapter V
Hecke algebras
In this chapter we associate to a finite group G generated by a finite number of

reflections of a real Euclidean space V and a nonzero element q of a field K a
finite dimensional K-algebra HK;q ŒG, called a Hecke algebra of G, and prove
that it is a symmetric algebra. Moreover, a classification of finite reflection groups,
established in 1934 by H. S. M. Coxeter [Cox], will be presented. We will follow
the algebraic account of finite reflection groups presented in the book [GrBe] by
L. C. Grove and C. T. Benson. Further, in our treatment of Hecke algebras, we will
show an essential application of the article of N. Iwahori [Iwa].
1 Finite reflection groups

Let V be a real Euclidean space with an inner product .; / W V V ! R, which
p R-bilinear form with .x; x/ > 0 for all nonzero vectors x in V .
is a symmetric
The length .x; x/ of a vector x 2 V will be denoted by kxk. A vector x 2 V
with kxk D 1 is said to be a unit vector of V . We denote by O.V / the group of
orthogonal transformations of V , that is, the group of R-linear automorphisms T
of V such that .T .x/; T .y// D .x; y/ for all vectors x; y 2 V . A distinguished
class of orthogonal transformations of V is given by reflections of V . An R-linear
transformation S W V ! V of V is said to be a reflection of V if S carries each
vector of V to its mirror image with respect to a fixed hyperplane P of V . Then V
admits an orthogonal decomposition V D P ˚ P? , where dimR P D dimR V 1
and P? D fx 2 V j .x; y/ D 0 for all y 2 Pg is a line orthogonal to P. Then, for
each nonzero vector r 2 P? , we have S D Sr , where Sr is defined as
2.x; r/
Sr .x/ D x r
.r; r/
for all x 2 V . Then Sr is called the reflection of V along the vector r or through
the hyperplane P D .Rr/? orthogonal to the line Rr. We note that Sr 2 O.V / and
Sr2 D idV (see Exercise 6.3). The following lemma will be useful.
Lemma 1.1. Let r be a nonzero vector of a real Euclidean space V and T an

element of O.V /. Then T Sr T 1 D ST .r/ .
Proof. Let P D .Rr/? and P0 D T .P/. Then P0 is a hyperplane of V and

P0 D .RT .r//? since T 2 O.V /. Moreover, for y D T .x/ with x 2 P, we
have .T Sr T 1 /.y/ D T .Sr .T 1 .T .x//// D T .Sr .x// D T .x/ D y. Finally,
490 Chapter V. Hecke algebras
.T Sr T 1 /.T .r// D T .Sr .r// D T .r/ D T .r/. Therefore, T Sr T 1 D ST .r/ .

Let G be a subgroup of O.V /. Then the set
VG D fx 2 V j T .x/ D x for all T 2 Gg
is the subspace of V such that the restriction T jVG of every T 2 G is the identity
transformation of VG , and VG is the largest subspace of V with this property. In
particular, V has an orthogonal decomposition V D VG ˚ VG? and every T 2 G
can be represented as

idVG 0
T D D idVG ˚T 0 ;
0 T0
where T 0 D T jV ? . The group G 0 D fT 0 j T 2 Gg is a subgroup of the orthogonal

G
group O.VG? / of the Euclidean space VG? with VG? G 0 D 0, and clearly isomorphic
to G. A subgroup G of O.V / with VG D 0 is called effective. It follows from the
above discussion that studying subgroups of O.V / reduces to studying effective
subgroups of O.W / for real Euclidean subspaces W of V . We also note that a
subgroup G of O.V / generated by a finite number of reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srm along
vectors r1 ; : : : ; rm 2 V is effective if and only if fr1 ; : : : ; rm g contains a basis of
the R-vector space V (see Exercise 6.4).
For a real Euclidean space V , a finite effective subgroup G of O.V / generated
by a finite number of reflections of V is said to be a Coxeter group in V . Hence, if
G is generated by reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srm of V along the vectors r1 ; : : : ; rm of V
then fr1 ; : : : ; rm g contains a basis of V over R and every element T 2 G is of the
form T D Sri1 : : : Srik for some i1 ; : : : ; ik 2 f1; : : : ; mg.
Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V , say n D dimR V . For
a reflection S 2 G there are exactly two unit vectors r and r in V such that
Sr D S D Sr , called (unit) roots of G. The set of all unit vectors r 2 V with
Sr 2 G will be called the (unit) root system of G. Clearly, is a finite set of unit
vectors of V . Moreover, for any T 2 G, we have T . / D . Indeed, for r 2
and T 2 G, T .r/ is a unit vector of V and ST .r/ D T Sr T 1 2 G, by Lemma 1.1.
Since is a finite set of vectors in V , its orthogonal set ? is a proper subspace of
V (see Exercise 6.1), and hence we may choose a vector t 2 V such that .t; r/ ¤ 0
for all vectors r in (see Exercise 6.2). This allows us to divide into two disjoint
subsets
C
t D fr 2 j .t; r/ > 0g;

t D fr 2 j .t; r/ < 0g;
which are subsets of lying on the two sides of the hyperplane .Rt /? of V . Observe
C C C
that
t D t , and hence j t j D j t j. The elements of t (respectively, t )
1. Finite reflection groups 491
are called t-positive roots (respectively, t-negative roots) of G. Further, we may

choose a subset … t of C t which is minimal with respect to the property that every
r 2 Ct is a linear combination of vectors from … t with all coefficients nonnegative.
C
Then, since t D t , every r 2 t is a linear combination of vectors from … t
with all coefficients nonpositive. The set … t is called a t -basis of .
Example 1.2. Let m 3 be a natural number and V D R2 be the Euclidean space
with the canonical inner product .x; y/ D x1 y1 C x2 y2 for x D .x1 ; x2 /; y D
.y1 ; y2 / 2 V . Consider the reflection S D Sr1 of R2 along the vector r1 D .0; 1/
and the counterclockwise rotation R of R2 with the center .0; 0/ through the angle
2
m
. Thus S and R are given in the canonical basis e1 D .1; 0/, e2 D .0; 1/ of R2
by the matrices
" #
1 0 cos 2 sin 2
AD and B D m m
:
0 1 sin 2 cos 2
m m
Then the group
H2m D hR; Si D f1; R; : : : ; Rm1 ; S; SR; : : : ; SRm1 g;
generated by R and S, is called the dihedral group of order 2m in R2 . Moreover,

T D RS, given by the matrix
" #
cos 2 sin 2
BA D m m
;
sin 2
m
cos 2m

is the reflection Sr2 along the vector r2 D sin m
; cos m

. Indeed, we have the
equalities
" #" #
cos 2 sin 2
sin m
T .r2 / D m m
sin 2
m
cos 2m
cos m

2 2 2 2
D cos sin sin cos ; sin sin C cos cos
m m m m m m m m

2 2
D sin ; cos D sin ; cos
m m m m m m
D r2 ;
and so T D Sr2 . Hence, H2m is generated by two reflections Sr1 D S and Sr2 D T ,
and is easily seen to be an effective subgroup of O.R2 /. Therefore, H2m is a Coxeter
group in R2 . Moreover, the set of all roots of H2m is of the form
²
³
k k ˇˇ
D sin ; cos k D 0; 1; : : : ; 2m 1 :
m m

Further, choosing t D cos 4m

; sin 4m , we have
²
³
k k ˇ
DC
D C sin ; cos ˇ0k m1 ;
t
m m
²
³
k k ˇ

D t D sin ; cos ˇ m k 2m 1 ;
m m
and … t D fr1 ; r2 g is a t-basis for (see Exercise 6.10).
The following theorem describes distinguished properties of bases of the root

systems of Coxeter groups.
Theorem 1.3. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V and … t D

fr1 ; : : : ; rm g a t-basis of the root system of G, for some vector t 2 V . Then the
(i) .ri ; rj / 0 for all i ¤ j in f1; : : : ; mg.
(ii) r1 ; : : : ; rm is a basis of the vector space V over R.

(iii) Sri C C
t n fri g D t n fri g, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg.
Proof. (i) Take i ¤ j in f1; : : : ; mg. Then we have ri 2.ri ; rj /rj D Srj .ri / 2 .
Hence, in order to prove that .ri ; rj / 0, it is enough to show that, for any
positive real numbers and , the vector ri rj does not belong to . Suppose
ri rj 2 for some positive real numbers and . Since D C
t [ t , we
C
have two cases to consider. Assume first that ri rj 2 t . Then ri rj D
˛1 r1 C C ˛m rm for some nonnegative real numbers ˛1 ; : : : ; ˛m . For ˛i ,
we have X
0 D .˛i /ri C .˛j C /rj C ˛k rk ;
k¤i;j
and hence the inequalities

X
0 D t; .˛i /ri C .˛j C /rj C ˛k rk
k¤i;j
X
D .˛i /.t; ri / C .˛j C /.t; rj / C ˛k .t; rk /
k¤i;j
.t; rj / > 0;
a contradiction. For ˛i < , we have

X
. ˛i /ri D . C ˛j /rj C ˛k rk ;
k¤i;j
or equivalently,
C ˛j X ˛k
ri D rj C rk ;
˛i ˛i
k¤i;j
C˛ ˛k
with ˛ji and ˛ i
, k ¤ i; j , nonnegative real numbers, which contradicts the
minimality of the t -basis … t D fr1 ; : : : ; rm g of . Hence, ri rj … C t .
C
Assume now that ri rj 2 t . Since
t D t , we obtain that rj ri 2
Ct , which leads to a contradiction (as above). Therefore, .r ;
i jr / 0.
(ii) We prove first that r1 ; : : : ; rm are linearly independent vectors of the real
space V . Assume r1 ; : : : ; rm are linearly dependent vectors of V . Then, after a
renumbering of the vectors r1 ; : : : ; rm , we have an equality
X
m
i ri D 0
iD1
with 1 ; : : : ; k positive and kC1 ; : : : ; m nonpositive real numbers, for some

P
k 2 f1; : : : ; mg. We claim that kiD1 i ri D 0. Indeed, for k < m, we have the
inequalities
Xk 2 X
k X
m

0 i ri D i ri ; j rj
iD1 iD1 j DkC1
X
k X
m

D i .j / ri ; rj 0;
iD1 j DkC1
because i > 0, .j / 0 and .ri ; rj / 0 for i 2 f1; : : : ; kg and j 2 fk C

P
1; : : : ; mg. This shows that kiD1 i ri D 0. But then we obtain that
X k Xk
0 D t; i r i D i .t; ri / > 0;
iD1 iD1
a contradiction. Therefore, r1 ; : : : ; rm are linearly independent vectors of V over R.

We know also that G is generated by a finite number of reflections Sv1 ; : : : ; Svp
along some unit roots v1 ; : : : ; vp of V , which clearly belong to . Since G is
effective, the vectors v1 ; : : : ; vp generate the vector space V over R. On the other
hand, every root r of is a combination of vectors r1 ; : : : ; rm with real coefficients.
Hence, the vectors r1 ; : : : ; rm also generate the vector space V over R.
Summing up, r1 ; : : : ; rm form a basis of the vector space V over R. In particular,
we have m D dimR V .
(iii) Let r 2 C t n fri g. Assume first that r 2 … t , so r D rj for some j ¤ i in
f1; : : : ; mg. Then Sri .rj / D rj 2.rj ; ri /ri with at least one coefficient positive.
Since Sri .rj / 2 D C

t [ t and r1 ; : : : ; rm form a basis of V over R, we
C
conclude that Sri .rj / 2 t , and clearly Sri .rj / ¤ ri , because Sri .Sri .rj // D
rj ¤ ri . Assume now that r … … t . Then
X
m
rD j rj
j D1
with 1 0; : : : ; m 0 and at least two coefficients j positive. Without loss of

generality, we may assume that ri ¤ r1 and 1 > 0. Then we obtain the equalities
X
m
Sri .r/ D Sri j rj
j D1
X
m X
m

D j rj 2 j rj ; ri ri
j D1 j D1
X
m X
m

D 1 r1 C j rj 2 j rj ; ri ri :
j D2 j D1
Since Sri .r/ 2 D C C

t [ t and 1 > 0, we conclude that Sri .r/ 2 t .
Obviously, Sri .r/ ¤ ri , because Sri .Sri .r// D r ¤ ri .
The following theorem is fundamental for understanding the structure of Coxeter

groups.
Theorem 1.4. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V and … t D

fr1 ; : : : ; rn g a t-basis of the root system of G, for some vector t 2 V . Then the
(i) The group G is generated by the reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srn along the vectors
r1 ; : : : ; rn .
(ii) For every reflection S 2 G, there exist T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng such that
S D ST .ri / .
Proof. Denote by H the subgroup of G generated by the reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srn

along the unit roots r1 ; : : : ; rn of … t . Clearly, H is a finite group. Moreover, by
Theorem 1.3 (ii), r1 ; : : : ; rn is a basis of V over R.
We prove first that for any vector v 2 V there exists an element T 2 H such
that .T .v/; ri / 0 for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Take v 2 V . Consider the vector
1 X
v0 D r;
2 C
r2 t
and take an element T 2 H such that .T .v/; v0 / is maximal among all inner
products .R.v/; v0 /, for R 2 H . Applying Theorem 1.3 (iii), we obtain, for any
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the equalities

1 1 X
Sri .v0 / D Sri ri C Sri .r/
2 2 C
r2 t nfri g
1 1 X
D ri C r
2 2
r2C
t nfri g
D v0 ri :
Then, invoking the maximality of .T .v/; v0 /, we obtain that

.T .v/; v0 / .Sri T /.v/; v0 D .Sr2i T /.v/; Sri .v0 /
D .T .v/; v0 ri / D .T .v/; v0 / .T .v/; ri / ;
and hence .T .v/; ri / 0, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.

We prove now that every r 2 C t is of the form r D T .ri / for some T 2 H and
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. For r 2 … t , we may take T D idV . Hence, assume that r … … t .
Since r1 ; : : : ; rn is a basis of V over R, r1 ; : : : ; rn ; r form a linearly dependent set
of vectors of V . Further, r1 ; : : : ; rn ; r belong to C t . Hence, it follows from the
proof of (ii) in Theorem 1.3 that .r; ri1 / > 0 for some i1 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Consider
the vector
v1 D Sri1 .r/ D r 2.r; ri1 /ri1 :
Applying Theorem 1.3 (iii), we conclude that v1 2 C C

t , because r 2 t n fri1 g.
Moreover, we have
.t; v1 / D .t; r/ 2.r; ri1 /.t; ri1 / < .t; r/:
If v1 D ri for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng then, for T D Sri1 2 H , we have r D

Sr2i .r/ D Sri1 .v1 / D Sri1 .ri / D T .ri /. Assume v1 … … t . Then, as above, there
1
exists i2 2 f1; : : : ; ng such that .v1 ; ri2 / > 0. Taking the vector

v2 D Sri2 .v1 / D Sri2 Sri1 .r/
we conclude that v2 2 C
t and
.t; v2 / D .t; v1 / 2.v1 ; ri2 /.t; ri2 / < .t; v1 /:
If v2 D ri for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, then, taking T D Sri1 Sri2 2 H , we obtain

that r D Sri1 Sri2 Sri2 Sri1 .r/ D T .v2 / D T .ri /. For v2 … … t , we may continue
the above process. Since C t is a finite set, the process terminates with some
vk D ri 2 … t of the form

vk D Srik : : : Sri2 Sri1 .r/;
for some i1 ; i2 ; : : : ; ik 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then, for T D Sri1 Sri2 : : : Srik 2 H , we

obtain that

r D Sri1 Sri2 : : : Srik Srik : : : Sri2 Sri1 .r/ D T .vk / D T .ri /:
We note that this shows the statement (ii), because every reflection S 2 G is of the
form S D Sr D Sr for some r 2 C t . For the statement (i), observe that the
group G is generated by the reflections Sr for all r 2 C t . Since, by the above
C
considerations, every r 2 t is of the form r D T .ri / for some T 2 H and
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we obtain that Sr D ST .ri / D T Sri T 1 2 H , by Lemma 1.1. This
shows that G D H .
Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V . It follows from the
above theorem that we may fix a vector t … ? and abbreviate C D C t ,
D t , … D … t . In fact, it is known that there exists a unique t -basis of
(see Exercise 6.6). The elements of C (respectively, ) are called the positive
roots (respectively, negative roots) of the Coxeter group G, and … the basis of .
Moreover, … D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g, where r1 ; : : : ; rn are unit vectors forming a basis of
the R-vector space V . Further, the roots r1 ; : : : ; rn are called the fundamental roots
(or simple roots) of G and the associated reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srn are said to be the
fundamental reflections of G. Hence, G is generated by its fundamental reflections.
The following proposition is fundamental for combinatorial description of Cox-
eter groups.
Proposition 1.5. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V , and
… t D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g a t -basis of the root system of G, for some vector t 2 V .
Then for any i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng there is a positive integer pij such that

.ri ; rj / D cos ;
pij
and pij is the order of the rotation Sri Srj in G.
Proof. For i D j , we may take pij D 1. Moreover, if .ri ; rj / D 0, then Sri Srj D
Srj Sri and we may take pij D 2. Therefore, assume i ¤ j and .ri ; rj / ¤ 0.
Consider the 2-dimensional subspace W of V generated by the vectors ri and rj .
Denote by H the subgroup of G generated by the reflections Sri and Srj . Observe
that for the orthogonal decomposition V D W ˚ W ? of V given by W we have
Sri jW ? D idW ? and Srj jW ? D idW ? . Further, the restrictions Si D Sri jW and
Sj D Srj jW of Sri and Srj to W are reflections of W and generate the Coxeter
group H D fT jW j T 2 H g in W , which is isomorphic (see Exercise 6.11) to the

dihedral group H2m with m 3 the order of Si Sj (equal to the order of Sri Srj ),
described in Example 1.2. Let t D t1 C t2 with t1 2 W and t2 2 W ? . We claim
that fr1 ; r2 g is the t1 -basis of the root system of the Coxeter group H . Suppose
it is not the case. Observe that .t1 ; ri / D .t; ri / > 0 and .t1 ; rj / D .t; rj / > 0.
Then we may choose a root r 2 and an element t10 2 W such that .t10 ; r/ > 0,
.t10 ; ri / > 0, .t10 ; rj / > 0, and fr; rj g is a t10 -basis of , as illustrated below:
t10
t1 X2 K
22 ri
rj fM 22
?
MMM 22
MMM 2
MM2
/r
Observe that, by Theorem 1.3 (i) and our assumption, we have .ri ; rj / < 0, and
hence the angle between ri and rj belongs to the interval 2 ; . Clearly, the root
r of is also a root of , when it is considered as a vector of V , because the
reflection Sr of V along r belongs to the subgroup H of G. On the other hand,
r D i ri j rj for some i > 0 and j > 0, and this contradicts the fact that
every root in is either in C
t or in t . Summing up, it follows from Example 1.2
that indeed we have
.ri ; rj / D cos
pij
where pij D m is the order of Sri Srj .
The above proposition allows us to assign to a Coxeter group G in a real Eu-
clidean space V a marked graph .G/ as follows. The basis … D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g of
the root system of G is the set of vertices of .G/, two vertices ri and rj of .G/
are joined by an edge if pij 3, and then we have in .G/ the marked edge
pij
ri rj :
3
For pij D 3, the edge ri rj of .G/ is usually replaced by the edge
ri rj .
Two Coxeter groups G and G 0 in a real Euclidean space V are said to be
geometrically isomorphic if there exists T 2 O.V / such that G 0 D T GT 1 .
The following lemma shows that a Coxeter group G is uniquely determined by
its marked graph .G/ up to geometric isomorphism.
Lemma 1.6. Let G and G 0 be Coxeter groups in a real Euclidean space V . Then
G and G 0 are geometrically isomorphic if and only if the marked graphs .G/ and
.G 0 / are the same (up to permutation of vertices).
Proof. Let and 0 be the root systems of G and G 0 , and … and …0 the bases of
and 0 , respectively. Assume .G/ D .G 0 /. This means that … and …0 are of
the form
… D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g and …0 D fr10 ; : : : ; rn0 g
with n D dimR V and .ri ; rj / D .ri0 ; rj0 / for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Consider the R-linear map T W V ! V such that T .ri / D ri0 for any i 2
f1; : : : ; ng. Obviously then T 2 O.V /. Moreover, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
T Sri T 1 D ST .ri / D Sri0 , by Lemma 1.1. Further, by Theorem 1.4, G is generated
by Sr1 ; : : : ; Srn and G 0 is generated by Sr10 ; : : : ; Srn0 . Since
T Sri1 Sri2 : : : Srim T 1 D .T Sri1 T 1 /.T Sri2 T 1 / : : : .T Srim T 1 /

D Sri0 Sri0 : : : Sri0 ;
1 2 m
for any i1 ; i2 ; : : : ; im 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we conclude that G 0 D T GT 1 , and hence G

and G 0 are geometrically isomorphic.
Conversely, if G 0 D T GT 1 for some T 2 O.V /, then 0 D T . / and
we may take …0 D T .…/ as the basis of 0 . Hence, for … D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g, we
have …0 D fr10 ; : : : ; rn0 g with ri0 D T .ri / for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then we obtain
.ri0 ; rj0 / D .ri ; rj / for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, which shows that .G/ D .G 0 /.
Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V , the root system of
G and … a basis of . Then G is said to be irreducible if … is not a union of
two nonempty orthogonal subsets. We note that G is irreducible if and only if the
marked graph .G/ is connected (see Exercise 6.7).
We have the following general fact whose proof we leave to the reader (Exer-
cises 6.8 and 6.9).
Proposition 1.7. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V . Then
there is an orthogonal direct sum decomposition
V D V1 ˚ V2 ˚ ˚ Vm
of V such that the following statements hold.
(i) T .Vi / Vi for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg and T 2 G.
(ii) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, Gi D fT jVi j T 2 Gg is an irreducible Coxeter
group in the real Euclidean space Vi .
(iii) The canonical group homomorphism G ! G1 G2 Gm which assigns
to T 2 G the m-tuple .T jV1 ; T jV2 ; : : : ; T jVm / is an isomorphism.
It follows from the above proposition that the classification of Coxeter groups in
a real Euclidean space V reduces to the classification of irreducible Coxeter groups
in Euclidean spaces of dimensions smaller than or equal to dimR V .
2. Coxeter graphs 499
2 Coxeter graphs
The aim of this section is to introduce a distinguished class of marked graphs called
the Coxeter graphs, and provide their combinatorial characterization.
In general, by a marked graph we mean a finite graph without multiple edges
and loops, say with the set of vertices f1; : : : ; mg, such that every edge joining two
vertices i and j is marked by a real number pij > 2, which we denote by
pij
i j :
3
As before, an edge i j will be denoted simply by i j .
Let be a marked graph with the vertices 1; : : : ; m. We associate to the
symmetric m m real matrix A D Œaij defined as follows: ai i D 1 for all i 2
pij
f1; : : : ; mg, aij D cos pij if there is in a marked edge i j joining i and
j , and aij D 0 otherwise. Then we may consider the quadratic form q W Rm ! R
defined by A , that is,
X
m
q .1 ; : : : ; m / D aij i j
i;j D1
for .1 ; : : : ; m / 2 Rm . Recall also that, by the Silvester criterion, the quadratic
form q is positive definite if and only if the principal minors det A.k/
of all principal
submatrices 2 3
a11 a12 : : : a1k
6a21 a22 : : : a2k 7
6 7
A.k/
D 6 :: :: :: 7
4 : : : 5
ak1 ak2 : : : akk
k 2 f1; : : : ; mg, of A are positive.
The following simple lemma will be useful.
Lemma 2.1. Let be a marked graph and i1 a vertex of joined only with one
other vertex i2 . Denote by 1 the marked graph obtained from by removing the
vertex i1 and the unique edge joined to i1 , and by 2 the marked graph obtained
from by removing the vertices i1 ; i2 and the edges attached to them. Moreover,
let p D pi1 i2 . Then we have
det A D det A1 .cos2 =p/ det A2 :
Proof. We may assume (without loss of generality) that 1; 2; : : : ; m is the set of
vertices of , i1 D 1 and i2 D 2. Then the matrix A has the form
2 3
1 cos =p 0
A D 4 cos =p 1 C 5
0 B A2
with
1 C
A 1 D :
B A 2
Hence we obtain the equalities

1 C cos =p C
det A D det C .cos =p/ det
B A2 0 A2
D det A1 .cos2 =p/ det A2 :
Let be a marked graph. By a marked subgraph of we mean a marked graph
† obtained from by the following operations: removing some vertices (and the
edges attached to them), removing some edges, or decreasing the marks of some
edges. For example, the marked graph
5

555

554
5

5

2
1 2 3 4
is a subgraph of the marked graph
5 6 6
5

55
4

554

5 5 10

1 2 3 4.
Proposition 2.2. Let † be a nonempty marked subgraph of a marked graph , and

assume that the quadratic form q is positive definite. Then the quadratic form q†
is also positive definite.
Proof. We may assume (without loss of generality) that 1; 2; : : : ; m are the vertices
of and 1; 2; : : : ; k are the vertices of †, for some k m. Moreover, let A D
.aij / and A† D .bij / be the real matrices associated to and †, respectively.
Since † is a marked subgraph of , we have aij bij for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; kg.
Suppose that the quadratic form q† W Rk ! R is not positive definite. Then there
exists a nonzero vector D .1 ; : : : ; k / 2 Rk such that q† .1 ; : : : ; k / 0.
Consider the nonzero vector D .1 ; : : : ; m / 2 Rm with i D ji j for i 2
f1; : : : ; kg and i D 0 for i 2 fk C 1; : : : ; mg. Hence we obtain the inequalities
X
k X
k
0 q† .1 ; : : : ; k / D bij i j bij ji jjj j
i;j D1 i;j D1
X
k
aij ji jjj j D q .1 ; : : : ; m / > 0;
i;j D1
a contradiction, because ¤ 0 and q is positive definite. Therefore, q† is positive

definite.
By an integral marked graph we mean a marked graph for which every mark
pij is integral. Clearly, the marked graph .G/ of a Coxeter group G is an integral
marked graph.
Consider the following family of integral marked graphs:
An W ::: (n vertices), n 1
Bn W 4
::: (n vertices), n 2
MMM
MM
Dn W ::: (n vertices), n 4
qq
qqq

E6 W

E7 W

E8 W

F4 W
4

G2 W 6

Hn2 W n
n 5, n ¤ 6
I3 W 5

I4 W 5
,
3
where, as above, means . The above graphs are called the
Coxeter graphs.
The following theorem gives a combinatorial characterization of the Coxeter
graphs.
Theorem 2.3. Let be a connected integral marked graph. The following state-
ments are equivalent.
(i) is a Coxeter graph.
(ii) q is a positive definite quadratic form.
Proof. We prove first that (i) implies (ii), showing that the principal minors of the
matrices associated to the Coxeter graphs are positive. We consider the possible
cases.
Case An .n 1/. Observe that the matrix AAn of the graph An is the n n
matrix of the form
2 3
1 12 0 ::: 0 0
6 1 1 12 ::: 0 0 7
6 2 7
6 0 1 1 ::: 0 0 7
6 2 7
6 :: :: :: :: :: 7;
6 : : : : : 7
6 7
4 0 0 0 ::: 1 215
0 0 0 ::: 12 1
since cos 3 D 12 . Hence, for k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the k-th principal minor det A.k/
An
of AAn is the determinant det AAk of the matrix AAk of Ak . We claim that
nC1
det AAn D
2n
for any n 1. Clearly, det AA1 D 1 D 22 and det AA2 D 34 D 3
22
. For n 3,
applying Lemma 2.1, we obtain inductively that

det AAn D det AAn1 cos2 det AAn2
3
n 1n1 nC1
D n1 n2
D :
2 42 2n
Case Bn .n 2/. For n D 2, we have
" p #
2
1 cos 4 1p
AB2 D D 2
cos 4 1 2 1
2
p 2
2
and hence det AB2 D 1 2
D 1
2
> 0. For n 3, applying Lemma 2.1 to the
4
edge , we obtain that

det ABn D det AAn1 cos2 det AAn2
4
n 1n1 1
D n1 n2
D n1 > 0:
2 22 2
Observe also that det A.k/
Bn D det ABk , for k 2 f2; : : : ; ng, and the suitable number-
ing of the vertices of Bn .
Case Dn .n 4/. Applying Lemma 2.1, we obtain that
1
det ADn D det AAn1 det AAn3
4
n n2 1
D n1 D n2 > 0:
2n1 2 2
Moreover, we have also det A.k/ .1/

Dn D det ADk , for k 2 f4; : : : ; ng, det ADn D 1,
det A.2/ .3/
Dn D 1, and det ADn D det AA3 D 2 , for the corresponding numbering of
1
the vertices of Dn .
Case En .n D 6; 7; 8/. Fix n 2 f6; 7; 8g. Applying Lemma 2.1 to the left edge
of En , we obtain that
1
det AEn D det ADn1 det AAn2
4
1 1n1 9n
D n3 D > 0:
2 4 2n2 2n
Moreover, for the suitable numbering of the vertices of En , the remaining principal
minors of AEn are principal minors of ADn1 , and hence are positive.
Case F4 . Applying Lemma 2.1 to the left edge of F4 , we conclude that
1 1 3 1
det AF4 D det AB3 det AA2 D D > 0:
4 4 16 16
Further, for the suitable numbering of the vertices of F4 , the remaining three prin-
cipal minors of AF4 are principal minors of AB3 , and hence are positive.
Case G2 . We have det AG2 D 1 cos2 6 D 1 34 D 14 > 0.
Case Hn2 .n 5; n ¤ 6/. We have det AHn2 D 1 cos2 n > 0.
In order to show the required claim for the graphs I3 and I4 , we calculate first
cos2 5 . We set x D sin 5 and y D cos 5 . Then we have the equalities
2
sin D 2xy;
5
2
cos D y2 x2;
5
4
sin D 4xy.y 2 x 2 / D 4xy 3 4x 3 y;
5
4
cos D .y 2 x 2 /2 .2xy/2 D y 4 6x 2 y 2 C x 4 ;
5
and consequently

4
1 D cos D cos C
5 5
D y.y 6x y C x / x.4xy 3 4x 3 y/
4 2 2 4
D y 5 10x 2 y 3 C 5x 4 y:
Since x 2 C y 2 D 1, this leads to the equality
1 D y 5 10.1 y 2 /y 3 C 5.1 y 2 /2 y
D 16y 5 20y 3 C 5y:
Observe that 16y 5 20y 3 C 5y C 1 is divisible by y C 1, and y D cos 5 ¤ 1.

Hence, we obtain the equality
16y 4 16y 3 4y 2 C 4y C 1 D 0:
Substituting y D z C 14 , we then obtain

1 4 1 3 1 2 1
0 D 16 z C 16 z C 4 zC C4 zC C1

4 4
4
4
3 1 1 3 2 3 1
D 16 z 4 C z 3 C z 2 C z C 16 z 3 C z C zC

8
16
256
4 16 64
1 1 1
4 z C zC
2
C4 zC C1
2 16 4

2
25 5
D 16z 4 10z 2 C D 16 z 2 :
16 16
p p
5 5
Hence we get z D 4
or z D 4
. Since z C 1
4
D y D cos 5 > 0, we conclude
p p
5 1C 5
that z D 4
and y D 4
.
This leads to
p 2 p p
2 1C 5 6C2 5 3C 5
cos Dy D
2
D D :
5 16 16 8
5
Cases I3 and I4 . Applying Lemma 2.1 to the edge , we obtain that

det AI3 D det AA2 cos2 det AA1
5
p p
3 3C 5 3 5
D D > 0;
4 8 8!

det AI4 D det AA3 cos2 det AA2
5
p ! p
1 3C 5 3 73 5
D D > 0:
2 8 4 32
Moreover, for the suitable numbering of the vertices of I3 (respectively, I4 ), the
remaining minors of AI3 (respectively, AI4 ) are minors of AA2 (respectively, AA3 ),
and hence are positive.
This finishes the proof that (i) implies (ii).
We prove now that (ii) implies (i). Consider the following family of marked
graphs
::: MMM
qqqq MM
z q
An W MMM q (n C 1 vertices), n 1
MM qqqq
:::
zn W 4
B :::
4
(n C 1 vertices), n 2
MMM
MM qq
z qqq
Dn W ::: MMM (n C 1 vertices), n 4
qq MM
qqq

MMM
MM
f 4
BDn W q (n C 1 vertices), n 3
:::
q
qqq

z6 W
E

z7 W
E

z8 W
E

z
F4 W
4

Gz2W 6

Iz3 W
q
with cos q D 3
4
Iz4 W
5
5

2
We show that, if is one of the marked graphs A z n .n 1/, Bz n .n 2/,

z f z z z z z z z
Dn .n 4/, BDn .n 3/, E6 , E7 , E8 , F4 , G2 , I3 , or I4 , then det A D 0, and
consequently the quadratic form q is not positive definite.
For D A z n .n 1/, the sum of all rows (respectively, columns) of the matrix
AAz n is zero, and hence det AAz n D 0.
Applying Lemma 2.1 and calculations from the first part of the proof, we obtain
the equalities
1 1 1 1
det ABzn D det ABn det ABn1 D n1 D 0 for n 3;
2 2 2 2n2
1 1 1
det ABz2 D det AB2 det AA1 D D 0;
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
det ADz n D det ADn det ADn2 D n2 D 0 for n 6;
4 2 4 2n4
1 3 1 1
det ADz 4 D det AD4 det AA1 D D 0;
4 4 4
1 1 11
det ADz 5 D det AD5 det AA3 D D 0;
4 8 42
1 1 1 1
e n D det ABn 4 det ABn2 D 2n1 4 2n3 D 0 for n 4;
det ABD
1 1 1
e 3 D det AB3 4 det AA1 D 4 4 D 0;
det ABD
1 3 1 6
det AEz 6 D det AE6 det AA5 D 6 D 0;
4 2 4 25
1 2 1 1
det AEz 7 D det AE7 det AD6 D 7 D 0;
4 2 4 24
1 1 1 2
det AEz 8 D det AE8 det AE7 D 8 D 0;
4 2 4 27
1 1 1 1
det AFz4 D det AF4 det AB3 D D 0;
4 16 4 22
1 1 1
det AGz 2 D det AG2 det AA1 D D 0;
4 4 4 p p p

2 73 5 3 53 5
det AIz4 D det AI4 cos 2
det AI3 D D 0;
5 32 8 8
p p
1C 5
because cos 2
5
D 2 cos2
5
1 D 2 3C85
1 D 4
, and hence cos2 2
5
D
p
3 5
8
. Moreover, we have also
2 3
1 12 0 0
6 1 1 34 0 7
det AIz3 D det 6
4 0
2 7 D 0:
34 1 12 5
0 0 12 1
Assume now that q is positive definite. Then it follows from Proposition 2.2
that does not contain a marked subgraph of the form A z n , and hence is a marked
tree. Further, if contains a marked subgraph of the form G2 (respectively, Hn2 ,
with n 7), then D G2 (respectively, D Hn2 ), because is connected and
does not contain a marked subgraph of the form G z 2 . Since is an integral marked
graph, we may assume that the edges of are marked by 3; 4, or 5. Suppose now
that has an edge marked by 4 or 5, or equivalently B2 is a marked subgraph of .
Then has only one edge with the mark greater than 3, because does not contain
a marked subgraph of the form B z n . Moreover, since does not contain a marked
subgraph of the form BD f n , we conclude that every vertex of has at most two
neighbours. Further, if H52 is a marked subgraph of , then we infer that is one of
the forms H52 , I3 , or I4 , because does not contain a marked subgraph of the form
Iz3 or Iz4 . Finally, if H52 is not a marked subgraph of , then is one of the forms Bn
or F4 , because does not contain Fz4 as a marked subgraph. Therefore, it remains
to consider the case when all edges of are marked by 3. Clearly, if every vertex
3. The Coxeter theorems 507
of has at most two neighbours, then D An for some n 1. Assume ¤ An .

Since does not contain a marked subgraph of the form D z n , we conclude that
admits exactly one vertex having three neighbours, and the remaining vertices of
have at most two neighbours. Since does not contain a marked subgraph of one
z 6, E
of the forms E z 7 , or E
z 8 , we then infer that is one of the forms Dn .n 4/, E6 ,
E7 , or E8 .
3 The Coxeter theorems

The following classification theorem has been proved by H. C. M. Coxeter in 1934
in [Cox] (see Theorems 5.1.3, 5.1.7, 5.3.1 in [GrBe]).
Theorem 3.1. (i) Let G be an irreducible Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space
V . Then the marked graph .G/ of G is one of the Coxeter graphs An .n 1/,
Bn .n 2/, Dn .n 4/, E6 , E7 , E8 , F4 , G2 , Hn2 .n 5; n ¤ 6/, I3 , or I4 .
(ii) For every Coxeter graph G, there exists an irreducible Coxeter group G in
a real Euclidean space V such that .G/ D G.
Proof. The statement (i) follows from Theorem 2.3 and the following simple obser-
vations. Let … D fr1 ; r2 ; : : : ; rn g be the basis of the root system of the Coxeter
group G. It follows from the definition of the marked graph .G/ of G that its
associated matrix A.G/ D Œaij is given by aij D .ri ; rj / for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
P space V over R. Then,
Moreover, we know that r1 ; r2 ; : : : ; rn is a basis of the vector
for any nonzero vector D .1 ; : : : ; n / 2 Rn , v D niD1 i ri is a nonzero vec-
tor of V , and we have
X
n X
n
q.G/ .1 ; : : : ; n / D aij i j D .ri ; rj /i j
i;j D1 i;j D1
X
n X
n
D i ri ; j rj D .v ; v / > 0:
iD1 j D1
Therefore, the quadratic form q.G/ W Rn ! R associated to the marked graph .G/
of G is positive definite.
The proof of the statement (ii) is more involving, and will be provided by the
examples below and Exercises 6.14–6.25.
Observe that for m 3 the dihedral group H2m in R2 is an irreducible Coxeter

group such that .H23 / D A2 , .H24 / D B2 , .H26 / D G2 , and .H2m / D Hm 2
for m 5, m ¤ 6.
The following example shows that the permutation groups may be considered
as Coxeter groups.
Example 3.2. Let n be a positive integer and SnC1 the permutation group of
f1; 2; : : : ; n C 1g. Moreover, let RnC1 be the Euclidean space with the canonical in-
ner product and basis e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; enC1 . Then we may view SnC1 as the subgroup of
O.RnC1 / given by the R-linear automorphisms T of RnC1 with 2 SnC1 such that
T .ei / D e.i/ for any i 2 f1; : : : ; n C 1g. Consider the hyperplane V of RnC1 con-
sisting of all vectors x D .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xnC1 / 2 RnC1 with x1 Cx2 C CxnC1 D 0.
Since
V ? D R.1; 1; : : : ; 1/
˚
D x 2 RnC1 j T .x/ D x for all 2 SnC1 ;
we conclude that SnC1 may be viewed as the effective subgroup of O.V / consisting
of the restrictions T D T jV of all T , 2 SnC1 , to V . For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, let
ri D p1 .eiC1 ei / and Si D Sri be the reflection of V along the vector ri . Observe
2

that, for each transposition .i; i C1/ 2 SnC1 , i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have Si D T.i;iC1/ .
Therefore, SnC1 is a Coxeter group in V generated by the reflections S1 ; : : : ; Sn .
Further,
² ³
1 ˇ
ˇ
D p .ei ej / i ¤ j; 1 i; j n C 1
2
is the set of all roots of SnC1 , and

² ³
1 ˇ
C D C D p .ei ej / ˇ 1 j < i n C 1
t
2
and
² ³
1 ˇ

D
t D p .ei ej / ˇ 1 i < j n C 1
2
for an element t 2 V with .t; ri / > 0, for all i 2 f1; : : : ; ng (see Exercise 6.13).
Moreover, … D … t D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g is the t-basis of . Since
1
.ri ; riC1 / D D cos
2 3
for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and .ri ; rj / D 0 for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng with ji j j 2, we

conclude that .SnC1 / D An .
We refer to [GrBe], (5.3), (see also Exercises 6.14–6.25) for constructions of

irreducible Coxeter groups corresponding to the remaining Coxeter graphs.
For an irreducible Coxeter group G its order jGj, depending on the Coxeter
graph .G/ of G, is described by the table below (see Table 5.4 in [GrBe]).
.G/ jGj
An .n 1/ .n C 1/Š
Bn .n 2/ 2n nŠ
Dn .n 4/ 2n1 nŠ
E6 27 34 5
E7 210 34 5 7
:
E8 214 35 52 7
F4 27 32
G2 12
H2 .n 5; n ¤ 6/
n
2n
I3 2 35
3
I4 26 32 52
In general, a Coxeter group G in a real Euclidean space V is uniquely determined

(up to a geometric isomorphism) by its marked graph .G/ which is a disjoint union
of a finite number of Coxeter graphs.
We will present also (Theorem 3.11) an alternative description of the Coxeter
groups as abstract groups established by H. S. M. Coxeter [Cox].
For further considerations in this section, we need some technical results on
Coxeter groups and their roots.
Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V , the root system
of G, t a fixed element of V with .t; r/ ¤ 0 for all roots r 2 , C D C t ,
and D t the sets of positive roots and negative roots (with respect to t)
in , and … D … t D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g the unique t -basis of . We abbreviate the
fundamental reflections of G as follows Si D Sri for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. It follows
from Theorem 1.4 that S1 ; : : : ; Sn generate the group G, and hence every element
T 2 G can be written as
T D Si1 : : : Sik ;
for some i1 ; : : : ; ik 2 f1; : : : ; ng. We note that in general T may have several
presentations as product of fundamental reflections of G. By the length `.T / of an
element T 2 G nf1g we mean the minimal positive integer k such that T is a product
of k fundamental reflections of G. Moreover, the length `.1/ of the identity 1 of G
is defined to be 0. For an element T 2 G n f1g, a presentation T D Si1 : : : Sik of T
as product of fundamental reflections of G with k D `.T / is said to be a reduced
presentation of T (in G). Our next aim is to provide an alternative description of
the length `.T / of an element T 2 G given by N. Iwahori in [Iwa]. We need some
preliminary results. We keep the notation introduced above.
For an element T 2 G, we introduce the subset (see [Iwa])

C C
T D \T
1
. /
ˇ C ˇ
of C and denote n.T / D j C ˇ 1
. / ˇ D
T j. Observe that n.T / D T \ T
jT . C / \ j.
Lemma 3.3. Let T 2 G and T . C / D C . Then T D 1.
Proof. Suppose T ¤ 1. Since T . C / D C , we have also T .…/ D …, by
the uniqueness of the basis … of D C [ . Let T D Si1 : : : Sik be a
reduced presentation of T . Observe that then k 2, because Si .ri / D ri for any
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then
T .rik / D .Si1 : : : Sik1 /.Sik .rik // D .Si1 : : : Sik1 /.rik /
belongs to …, and so .Si1 : : : Sik1 /.rik / 2 . Set
a0 D .Si1 : : : Sik1 /.rik /;
a1 D Si1 .a0 / D .Si2 : : : Sik1 /.rik /;
a2 D Si2 .a1 / D .Si3 : : : Sik1 /.rik /;
::
:
ak1 D Sik1 .ak2 / D rik :
Observe that a0 2 and ak1 2 C . Hence there exists a positive integer j 2
f1; : : : ; k 1g such that a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; aj 1 2 but aj 2 C . Then we have aj D
Sij .aj 1 / 2 C and Sij .aj / D aj 1 2 . Since Sij . C n frij g/ D C n frij g,
by Theorem 1.3 (iii), we conclude that aj D rij . Thus rij D .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 /.rik /,
and hence, by Lemma 1.1, we have
Sij D Srij D S.Si :::Sik1 /.rik / D .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 /Srik .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 /1
j C1
D .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 /Sik .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 /1 :

This gives the equality
Sij .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 / D .Sij C1 : : : Sik1 /Sik :
But then we obtain that
T D Si1 : : : Sik D .Si1 : : : Sij 1 /.Sij : : : Sik1 /Sik
D .Si1 : : : Sij 1 /.Sij C1 : : : Sik /Sik
D Si1 : : : Sij 1 Sij C1 : : : Sik1
is a product of k 2 fundamental reflections, which is in contradiction to the fact
that k D `.T /.
Lemma 3.4. Let T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then
(i) Si . C C
T n fri g/ D T Si n fri g.
(ii) ri 2 C C C C
T [ T Si but ri … T \ T Si .
Proof. (i) Let r 2 C C

T n fri g. Then r 2 n fri g, and, applying Theorem 1.3
(iii), we conclude that Si .r/ 2 n fri g. Since r 2 C
C
T we have .T Si /.Si .r// D
T .r/ 2 , and hence Si .r/ 2 T Si . This shows that Si . C
C C
T nfri g/ T Si nfri g.
C C
Replacing T by T Si , we obtain the inclusion Si . T Si n fri g/ T n fri g, and
so the inclusion C C
T Si n fri g Si . T n fri g/. Therefore, we get the equality
Si . C C
T n fri g/ D T Si n fri g.
(ii) Observe that .T Si /.ri / D T .ri / D T .ri /. Then ri … C
T forces T .ri / 2
, and then .T Si /.ri / 2 , which contradicts (i). This shows that ri 2 C
C
T [
C C C
T Si . Similarly, if ri 2 T \ T Si , then T .ri / 2 and T .ri / D .T Si /.ri / 2
, a contradiction.
Corollary 3.5. Let T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then we have

´
n.T / 1 if ri 2 C T,
n.T Si / D
n.T / C 1 if ri … C T.
Proof. Assume ri 2 C C C
T . Then ri … T Si , by Lemma 3.4 (ii), and hence T Si D
CT Si n fri g. Applying Lemma 3.4 (i), we obtain the equalities
ˇ ˇ ˇ C ˇ ˇ ˇ
n.T Si / D ˇ C ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ C
T Si D T Si n fri g D Si . T n fri g/
ˇ
ˇ C ˇ ˇ Cˇ
D ˇ n fri gˇ D ˇ ˇ 1 D n.T / 1:
T T
Assume now that ri … C C C

T . Then T D T n fri g and, applying Lemma 3.4 (ii),
we conclude that ri 2 C T Si . Hence, applying Lemma 3.4 (i) again, we obtain the
equalities
ˇ ˇ ˇ C ˇ ˇ ˇ
n.T Si / D ˇ C ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ C ˇ
T Si D T Si n fri g C 1 D Si . T n fri g/ C 1
ˇ C ˇ ˇ Cˇ
D ˇ n fri gˇ C 1 D ˇ ˇ C 1 D n.T / C 1:
T T
Proposition 3.6. For any T 2 G, we have `.T / D n.T /.
Proof. We first show that for every T 2 G the inequality n.T / `.T / holds.
Indeed, if `.T / D k then T D Si1 : : : Sik for some i1 ; : : : ; ik 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and,
applying Corollary 3.5, we obtain the inequalities

n.Si1 / D 1;
n.Si1 Si2 / D n.Si1 / ˙ 1 2;
::
:
n.Si1 : : : Sik / D n.Si1 : : : Sik1 / ˙ 1 .k 1/ ˙ 1 k;
and so n.T / k D `.T /.
We will show now by induction on m D n.T / that n.T / D `.T /. If m D 0,
then it follows from Lemma 3.3 that T D 1, and hence `.T / D 0. Assume
m 1 and n.R/ D `.R/ for all R 2 G with n.R/ < m. Since n.T / 1, the
intersection C C
T D \T
1
. / is
Pnonempty, and so we may choose r 2 C
n
such thatP T .r/ 2 . Hence, r D iD1 i ri with all coefficients i 0, and
T .r/ D niD1 i T .ri / 2 . This forces T .rj / 2 for some j 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
and consequently rj 2 C T . Then it follows from Corollary 3.5 that n.T Sj / D
n.T / 1 D m 1. Hence, by the induction hypothesis, we obtain that n.T Sj / D
`.T Sj /. But then we obtain the inequalities
`.T / D `..T Sj /Sj / `.T Sj / C 1 D n.T Sj / C 1 D .m 1/ C 1 D m D n.T /:
Summing up, we have n.T / D `.T /.
As an immediate consequence of Proposition 3.6 and Corollary 3.5 we obtain
the following fact.
Corollary 3.7. Let T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then we have
´
`.T / C 1 if T .ri / 2 C ,
`.T Si / D
`.T / 1 if T .ri / 2 .
We note that for any T 2 G we have T . / D , and D C [ .

Lemma 3.8. Let T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then there exists a reduced presenta-
tion T D Si1 : : : Sik of T with ik D i if and only if ri 2 C
T.
Proof. Assume that T D Si1 : : : Sik is a reduced presentation of T with ik D i .

Then T Si D Si1 : : : Sik1 is a reduced presentation of T Si . Indeed, if it is not the
case, then n.T Si / D `.T Si / < k 1 and hence n.T / < k, by Corollary 3.5. This
contradicts the equality n.T / D `.T / D k, established in Proposition 3.6. Hence
we have n.T Si / D `.T Si / D k 1 D `.T / 1. Applying Corollary 3.5 again,
we conclude that ri 2 C T.
Conversely, assume that ri 2 C T . Then it follows from Corollary 3.5 that
n.T Si / D n.T / 1. Let T Si D Si1 : : : Sik1 be a reduced presentation of T Si .
Clearly, then n.T Si / D `.T Si / D k 1, and hence `.T / D n.T / D n.T Si /C1 D k.
Then T D Si1 : : : Sik1 Si is a reduced presentation of T .
For two fundamental reflections Si and Sj of G, we denote, as before, by pij the

order of the rotation Si Sj . Then, for m 2 f1; : : : ; pij g, we denote by .: : : Si Sj /m the
product : : : Si Sj Si Sj of m alternating factors Si and Sj , ending on the right with
Sj . Similarly, .Si Sj : : : /m is the product Si Sj Si Sj : : : of m alternating factors
Si and Sj , beginning on the left with Si . For m D 0, we set .: : : Si Sj /m D 1
and .Si Sj : : : /m D 1. Moreover, we denote by .: : : Si Sj : : : /m a product of m
alternating factors Si and Sj .
Lemma 3.9. Let Si and Sj be fundamental reflections of G. Then we have

.: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / 2 C for any m 2 f1; : : : ; pij g.
Proof. If i D j then pij D 1 and .: : : Si Sj /0 D 1, so the claim is trivial. Assume

i ¤ j , or equivalently, pij 2. Suppose the claim in the lemma is false. Take the
smallest m in f1; : : : ; pij g such that .: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / 2 . Observe that then
m 2, by Theorem 1.3 (iii). We have two cases to consider.
Assume that m is even. Then we have
.: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / D .Sj : : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / D Sj .: : : Si Sj /m2 .ri /:

Hence Sj .: : : Si Sj /m2 .ri / 2 and .: : : Si Sj /m2 .ri / 2 C by the minimal-
ity of m. Applying Theorem 1.3 (iii), we conclude that .: : : Si Sj /m2 .ri / D rj .
Then it follows from Lemma 1.1 that
Sj D .: : : Si Sj /m2 Si .: : : Si Sj /1
m2 ;
or equivalently,
Sj .: : : Si Sj /m2 D .: : : Si Sj /m2 Si :
This gives the equality
.Sj : : : Si Sj /m1 D .Si : : : Sj Si /m1 :
But then we obtain that
.Si Sj /m1 D .Si Sj : : : /2m2

D .Si : : : Sj Si /m1 .Sj : : : Si Sj /m1
D .Si : : : Sj Si /m1 .Si : : : Sj Si /m1 D 1;
which contradicts the fact that Si Sj has order pij , since m 1 < pij .
For m odd the proof is similar.
Lemma 3.10. Let i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng and T 2 G be such that `.T Si / D `.T / 1 D

`.T Sj /. Then `.T .: : : Si Sj : : : /m / D `.T / m for any m 2 f0; 1; : : : ; pij g.
Proof. We use induction on m 2 f0; 1; : : : ; pij g. Observe that the claim is obvious
for m D 0 and m D 1. Assume m 2 and that the claim holds for m 1. Since
`.T Si / D `.T / 1 D `.T Sj /, applying Corollary 3.7, we conclude that T .ri / and
T .rj / belong to . Moreover, from Lemma 3.9, we have .: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / 2
C . On the other hand, it follows from the formulae on the reflections Si D Sri
and Sj D Srj that .: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / D ri C rj for some ; 2 R. Then
.: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / 2 C forces 0, 0, and so ¤ 0 or ¤ 0. Further,
we have

T .: : : Si Sj /m1 .ri / D T .ri C rj / D T .ri / C T .rj / 2 :
Then, applying Corollary 3.7 and the induction hypothesis, we obtain that

` T .: : : Sj Si /m D ` T .: : : Si Sj /m1 Si

D ` T .: : : Si Sj /m1 1
D `.T / .m 1/ 1
D `.T / m:

Similarly, one proves that ` T .: : : Si Sj /m D `.T / m.
We denote by
˝ ˛
S1 ; : : : ; Sn j .Si Sj /pij D 1; 1 i; j n
the group given by the generators S1 ; : : : ; Sn and the relations .Si Sj /pij D 1, for
some positive integers pij , 1 i; j n, that is, the factor group of the free group
generated by S1 ; : : : ; Sn by the minimal normal subgroup containing the elements
of the form .Si Sj /pij , 1 i; j n.
The following theorem proved by H. S. M. Coxeter in [Cox] gives a purely
algebraic description of the Coxeter groups. The proof below is taken from [GrBe],
Theorem 6.1.4. We will provide in Section 5 an alternative proof of this theorem,
invoking the Hecke algebras.
Theorem 3.11. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V of dimen-
sion n. Then G is isomorphic to the group
˝ ˛
S1 ; : : : ; Sn j .Si Sj /pij D 1; 1 i; j n ;
where S1 ; : : : ; Sn are fundamental reflections of G and pij the associated orders

of the rotations Si Sj , 1 i; j n.
Proof. We have to show that every relation W D Si1 : : : Sik D 1 in G is a conse-
quence of the relations .Si Sj /pij D 1, 1 i; j n.
Let W D Si1 : : : Sik D 1 for some i1 ; : : : ; ik 2 f1; : : : ; ng. For j 2 f1; : : : ; kg,
Si1 : : : Sij is said to be a partial product of W . Let u be the maximal length of
4. The Iwahori theorem 515
partial products of W . Then we may write W D W1 Si Sj W2 , where `.W1 Si / D u

and every partial product of W1 has length less than u. Let p D pij . Consider
W 0 D W1 .Sj Si : : : /2p2 W2 . Observe that we have in G the equality
W 0 D W1 .Sj Si /p1 W2 D W1 .Si Sj /W2 D W;
since .Si Sj /p D 1 forces .Sj Si /p1 D Si Sj . Then the partial products of W , with
exception of W1 Si , coincide, as the group elements, with the corresponding partial
products of W 0 . Moreover, W 0 has the partial products
W1 Sj ; W1 Sj Si ; : : : ; W1 .Sj Si : : : /2p3
in place of the partial product W1 Si of W . Taking T D W1 Si and using the

relation Si2 D 1, we see that the above partial products of W 0 coincide, as the group
elements, with the products
T .Si Sj : : : /q ; 2 q 2p 2:
Since `.T / D u is the maximal among the length of partial products of W , we have
`.T Si / D `.T / 1 D `.T Sj /. For m 2 f2; : : : ; pg, we get `.T .Si Sj : : : /m / < u,
by Lemma 3.10. For m 2 fp C 1; : : : ; 2p 2g, we have 2 2p m < p and
hence `.T .Si Sj : : : /m / D `.T .Sj Si : : : /2pm / < u, by the equality .Si Sj /p D 1
and Lemma 3.10. Therefore, by applying the relation .Si Sj /pij D 1 in G, we have
replaced the product W D W1 Si Sj W2 by another product W 0 D W1 .Sj Si /p1 W2
all of whose partial products have length less than or equal to u, and there are fewer
partial products of length u. Repeating the above procedure we may replace the
relation W D Si1 : : : Sik D 1 by the relation 1 D 1, and the theorem is proved.

We note that, for i ¤ j in f1; : : : ; ng, the relation .Si Sj /pij D 1, describing
the order of the rotation Si Sj in G, can be written equivalently as
.Si Sj /pij =2 D .Sj Si /pij =2 if pij is even;

.pij 1/=2 .pij 1/=2
.Si Sj / Si D .Sj Si / Sj if pij is odd:
Moreover, the positive integers pij , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, are fully visible in the marked
graph .G/ of G, which is a disjoint union of Coxeter graphs, describing the Coxeter
group G up to a geometric isomorphism.
4 The Iwahori theorem

We are now in position to introduce the Hecke algebras of Coxeter groups.
Let K be a field and q 2 K n f0g. Moreover, let G be a Coxeter group in a real
Euclidean space V , S1 ; : : : ; Sn a set of fundamental reflections generating G, and
pij the order of Si Sj , for any i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. The Hecke algebra HK;q ŒG is the
factor algebra KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i=IK;q ŒG of the polynomial algebra KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i
in n noncommuting variables X1 ; : : : ; Xn over the field K by the ideal IK;q ŒG
generated by the following elements:
(1) .Xi q/.Xi C 1/ for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
(2) .Xi Xj /pij =2 .Xj Xi /pij =2 if pij is even,

.Xi Xj /.pij 1/=2 Xi .Xj Xi /.pij 1/=2 Xj if pij is odd,
for all i ¤ j in f1; : : : ; ng.
We will prove that HK;q ŒG is a finite dimensional symmetric K-algebra. In

fact, we are going to show that HK;q ŒG is as K-vector space isomorphic to the
K-vector space of the group algebra KG of G. For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we denote
by xi the coset Xi C IK;q ŒG of Xi in HK;q ŒG.
Denote by R.G/ the set of all finite sequences .i1 ; : : : ; ir / with i1 ; : : : ; ir 2
f1; : : : ; ng such that `.Si1 : : : Sir / D r. We say that two elements .i1 ; : : : ; ir /
and .j1 ; : : : ; j t / in R.G/ are equivalent, and write .i1 ; : : : ; ir / .j1 ; : : : ; j t /, if
Si1 : : : Sir D Sj1 : : : Sj t . Observe that if .i1 ; : : : ; ir / .j1 ; : : : ; j t / then r D
`.Si1 : : : Sir / D `.Sj1 : : : Sj t / D t . An element .i1 ; : : : ; ir / of R.G/ is said to be
an admissible sequence and r is called its length. Obviously is an equivalence
relation in R.G/. We note that, if .i1 ; : : : ; ir / 2 R.G/, then .i1 ; : : : ; ik / 2 R.G/
for any k 2 f1; : : : ; rg.
We denote by x W R.G/ ! HK;q ŒG the map which assigns to an admissible
sequence D .i1 ; : : : ; ir / in R.G/ the monomial x./ D xi1 : : : xir in HK;q ŒG.
The following combinatorial theorem, proved by N. Iwahori in [Iwa], will be
fundamental for describing the dimension of HK;q ŒG.
Theorem 4.1. For all sequences and in R.G/ with , we have x./ D
x./ in HK;q ŒG.
Proof. Let D .i1 ; : : : ; ir / and D .j1 ; : : : ; jk / be sequences in R.G/ such

as . We shall prove the theorem by induction on the length k of and
. For k D 1, we have D .i1 / D .j1 / D , because Si1 D Sj1 forces
i1 D j1 , and hence x./ D xi1 D xj1 D x./. Assume k 2 and the theorem
is valid for all sequences and
in R.G/ which are equivalent and of length < k.
Observe that, if ik D jk , then Si1 : : : Sik1 Sik D Sj1 : : : Sjk1 Sjk gives the equality
Si1 : : : Sik1 D Sj1 : : : Sjk1 , and `.Si1 : : : Sik1 / D k 1 D `.Sj1 : : : Sjk1 /,
because `.Si1 : : : Sik / D k D `.Sj1 : : : Sjk /. Then 0 D .i1 ; : : : ; ik1 / and 0 D
.j1 ; : : : ; jk1 / are equivalent sequences in R.G/, and, by the induction assumption,
we have xi1 : : : xik1 D x.0 / D x.0 / D xj1 : : : xjk1 . Hence we obtain x./ D
xi1 : : : xik1 xik D xj1 : : : xjk1 xjk D x./. Therefore, we may assume that ik ¤
jk . We divide the proof into several steps.
Since Si1 : : : Sik D Sj1 : : : Sjk , applying Lemma 3.8, we conclude that
Sj1 : : : Sjk .rik / D Si1 : : : Sik .rik / 2 :
Hence there is an integer l 2 f2; : : : ; kg such that Sjl : : : Sjk .rik / 2 C but
Sjl1 Sjl : : : Sjk .rik / 2 . We know from Theorem 1.3 (iii) that the equality
Sjl1 . C n frjl1 g/ D C n frjl1 g holds. Thus we get Sjl : : : Sjk .rik / D rjl1 .
Then, applying Lemma 1.1, we obtain the equality
.Sjl : : : Sjk /Sik .Sjl : : : Sjk /1 D Sjl1 ;
and hence the equality
Sjl : : : Sjk Sik D Sjl1 Sjl : : : Sjk : (1)
We consider two cases: l > 2 and l D 2. Assume first that l > 2. Then
the right side of the equality (1) is a reduced presentation, because Sjl : : : Sjk is a
reduced presentation, and has length k l C 2 < k. Hence the left side of (1) is
also a reduced presentation and has the same length k l C 2. This shows that
.jl ; : : : ; jk ; ik / and .jl1 ; jl ; : : : ; jk / are equivalent sequences in R.G/ of length
< k, and then by the induction assumption we get
xjl : : : xjk xik D xjl1 xjl : : : xjk : (2)
Now (1) and Si1 : : : Sik D Sj1 : : : Sjk imply that
Sj1 : : : Sjl2 Sjl : : : Sjk Sik D Sj1 : : : Sjl2 Sjl1 Sjl : : : Sjk
D Sj1 : : : Sjk D Si1 : : : Sik ;
and hence we obtain the equality
Sj1 : : : Sjl2 Sjl : : : Sjk D Si1 : : : Sik1 :
Both sides of the above equality are reduced presentations of the same length k 1,
and so .j1 ; : : : ; jl2 ; jl ; : : : ; jk / and .i1 ; : : : ; ik1 / are equivalent sequences in
R.G/. Hence we get by our induction assumption that
xj1 : : : xjl2 xjl : : : xjk D xi1 : : : xik1 : (3)
Combining now (2) and (3), we obtain
x./ D xi1 : : : xik D .xi1 : : : xik1 /xik D xj1 : : : xjl2 .xjl : : : xjk xik /
D xj1 : : : xjl2 xjl1 xjl : : : xjk D x./:
Therefore, we may assume that in (1) we have l D 2. Then we have
Si1 : : : Sik D Sj1 : : : Sjk D Sj2 : : : Sjk Sik : (4)

This gives the equality Si1 : : : Sik1 D Sj2 : : : Sjk , where both sides are reduced
presentations of length k 1. Then, by our induction assumption, we obtain that
xi1 : : : xik1 D xj2 : : : xjk :
Therefore, in order to prove that x./ D xi1 : : : xik D xj1 : : : xjk D x./, it is
sufficient to show the equality
xj2 : : : xjk xik D xj1 : : : xjk : ()
Let p D pik jk . Since ik ¤ jk , we have p 2.

Assume p D 2. Then Sik Sjk D Sjk Sik . Using (4) we then obtain that
Sj1 : : : Sjk D Sj2 : : : Sjk Sik D Sj2 : : : Sjk1 Sik Sjk ;
and hence the equality Sj1 : : : Sjk1 D Sj2 : : : Sjk1 Sik . Since the left side of this
equality is a reduced presentation of length k 1, the right side is also a reduced
presentation of length k 1. Hence, by our induction assumption, we get
xj1 : : : xjk1 D xj2 : : : xjk1 xik : (5)
On the other hand, we have in HK;q ŒG the equality xik xjk D xjk xik (as pik jk D 2).
Combining this with (5), we obtain that
xj2 : : : xjk1 xjk xik D xj2 : : : xjk1 xik xjk D xj1 : : : xjk ;
and so the required equality () holds.

Assume p 3. From Theorem 1.3 (iii) and Lemma 3.9 we have Sik .rjk / 2 C
and Sjk Sik .rjk / 2 C . On the other hand, applying Lemma 3.8, we infer that
Sj2 : : : Sjk Sik .rjk / D .Sj1 : : : Sjk1 /Sjk .rjk / 2 . Hence there exists m 2
f3; : : : ; kg such that
Sjm : : : Sjk Sik .rjk / 2 C and Sjm1 Sjm : : : Sjk Sik .rjk / 2 :
Since Sjm1 . C n frjm1 g/ D C n frjm1 g, by Theorem 1.3 (iii), we obtain that

Sjm : : : Sjk Sik .rjk / D rjm1 . Applying now Lemma 1.1, we conclude that
Sjm : : : Sjk Sik Sjk D Sjm1 Sjm : : : Sjk Sik : (6)
Assume now that m > 3. Then both sides of (6) are of length k m C 3 <
k and are reduced presentations, since Sj1 : : : Sjk D Sj2 : : : Sjk Sik are reduced
presentations. Hence, by our induction assumption, we obtain the equality
xjm : : : xjk xik xjk D xjm1 xjm : : : xjk xik : (7)

Observe also that we have from (4) and (6) the equalities
Sj1 : : : Sjk D Sj2 : : : Sjk Sik
D .Sj2 : : : Sjm2 /.Sjm1 Sjm : : : Sjk Sik /
D Sj2 : : : Sjm2 Sjm : : : Sjk Sik Sjk ;
Sj1 : : : Sjk1 D Sj2 : : : Sjm2 Sjm : : : Sjk Sik :
Since the left side of this equality is a reduced presentation we infer that both sides
are reduced presentations of length k 1. Hence, by the induction assumption, we
obtain the equality
xj1 : : : xjk1 D xj2 : : : xjm2 xjm : : : xjk xik : (8)
Combining now (7) and (8), we obtain that
xj2 : : : xjk xik D .xj2 : : : xjm2 /.xjm1 xjm : : : xjk xik /
D xj2 : : : xjm2 xjm : : : xjk xik xjk
D xj1 : : : xjk1 xjk ;
Assume now that in (6) we have m D 3. Then we have
Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk D Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik
D Sj1 : : : Sjk1 Sjk ; (9)
and consequently the equality
Sj1 : : : Sjk1 D Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik :
Since the left side of this equality is a reduced presentation, then both sides are
reduced presentations of length k 1. Then, by the induction assumption, we
obtain that
xj1 : : : xjk1 D xj3 : : : xjk xik : (10)
Assume p D 3. Then we have Sjk Sik Sjk D Sik Sjk Sik . Invoking now the
equalities (9), we obtain the equalities
Sj2 : : : Sjk1 D .Sj2 : : : Sjk1 /.Sjk Sik Sik Sjk /
D .Sj2 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik /Sik Sjk
D .Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /Sik Sjk
D .Sj3 : : : Sjk /.Sik Sjk Sik /Sjk
D .Sj3 : : : Sjk1 /Sjk .Sjk Sik Sjk /Sjk
D Sj3 : : : Sjk1 Sik :
Since Sj2 : : : Sjk1 is a reduced presentation of length k 2, Sj3 : : : Sjk1 Sik is then
also a reduced presentation of length k 2, and so we conclude, by our induction
assumption, that
xj2 : : : xjk1 D xj3 : : : xjk1 xik : (11)
Moreover, we have in HK;q ŒG the equality xjk xik xjk D xik xjk xik , since p D 3.
Applying now (10) and (11), we obtain the equalities
xj2 : : : xjk1 xjk xik D xj3 : : : xjk1 xik xjk xik

D xj3 : : : xjk1 xjk xik xjk

Assume now p 4. Then it follows from Lemma 3.9 that Sjk .rik / 2 C ,
.Sik Sjk /.rik / 2 C , .Sjk Sik Sjk /.rik / 2 C . On the other hand, applying (9) and
Lemma 3.8, we obtain that
.Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /.rik / D .Sj2 : : : Sjk Sik /.rik / 2 :
Hence there exists q 2 f4; : : : ; kg such that
.Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /.rik / 2 C and .Sjq1 Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /.rik / 2 ;
and consequently .Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /.rik / D rjq1 , by Theorem 1.3 (iii). Applying
now Lemma 1.1, we conclude that
Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik D Sjq1 Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk : (12)
Assume now that q > 4. Observe that then the right side of the above equality
is a part of the reduced presentation Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk , and hence is a reduced
presentation. Hence the left side of this equality is also a reduced presentation, and
both sides have length k q C 4 < k. Hence, by our induction assumption, we
obtain the equality
xjq1 xjq : : : xjk xik xjk D xjq : : : xjk xik xjk xik : (13)
Further, it follows from (9) and (12) that
Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik D Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk

D .Sj3 : : : Sjq2 /.Sjq1 Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /
D Sj3 : : : Sjq2 Sjq : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik ;
and hence we get
Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 D Sj3 : : : Sjq2 Sjq : : : Sjk Sik :

Since the left side of this equality is a reduced presentation, we conclude that both
sides are reduced presentations of length k 2 < k. Then, by the induction
assumption, we conclude that
xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 D xj3 : : : xjq2 xjq : : : xjk xik : (14)
Therefore, applying (10), (13) and (14), we obtain the equalities
xj1 : : : xjk1 xjk D xj3 : : : xjk xik xjk

D .xj3 : : : xjq2 /.xjq1 xjq : : : xjk xik xjk /
D .xj3 : : : xjq2 /.xjq : : : xjk xik /xjk xik
D xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 xjk xik ;
and hence the required equality () holds.

Assume that in (12) we have q D 4. Then we have from (9) and (12) the
equalities
Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik D Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk

D Sj4 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik ; (15)
and hence we obtain that
Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 D Sj4 : : : Sjk Sik :
Since the left side of this equality is a reduced presentation, the right side is also a
reduced presentation of the same length k 2 < k, we conclude, by the induction
assumption, that
xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 D xj4 : : : xjk xik : (16)
Assume p D 4. Then .Sik Sjk /4 D 1 gives the equality .Sik Sjk /2 D .Sjk Sik /2 .
Applying (15), we obtain then
Sj3 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik Sjk D Sj4 : : : Sjk1 .Sjk Sik /2

D Sj4 : : : Sjk1 .Sik Sjk /2
D Sj4 : : : Sjk1 Sik Sjk Sik Sjk ;
Sj3 : : : Sjk1 D Sj4 : : : Sjk1 Sik :
Since the left side is a reduced presentation, the right side is also a reduced pre-
sentation of the same length k 3 < k, and then we conclude, by our induction
assumption, that
xj3 : : : xjk1 D xj4 : : : xjk1 xik :
Moreover, we have in HK;q ŒG the equality .xik xjk /2 D .xjk xik /2 . Then, using
(10) and (16), we obtain
xj2 : : : xjk xik D .xj2 : : : xjk1 /xjk xik

D .xj4 : : : xjk xik /xjk xik
D xj4 : : : xjk1 .xjk xik /2
D xj4 : : : xjk1 .xik xjk /2
D .xj4 : : : xjk1 xik /xjk xik xjk
D .xj3 : : : xjk1 /xjk xik xjk
D .xj3 : : : xjk1 xjk xik /xjk

Therefore, we may assume now that p 5.
Assume p D 5. Then it follows from Lemma 3.9 that Sik .rjk / 2 C ,
.Sjk Sik /.rjk / 2 C , .Sik Sjk Sik /.rjk / 2 C , .Sjk Sik /2 .rjk / 2 C . On the
other hand, by (15) and Lemma 3.8, we conclude that
.Sj4 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik /.rjk / D .Sj3 : : : Sjk Sik Sjk /.rjk / 2 :
Hence there exists t 2 f5; : : : ; kg such that
.Sj t : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik /.rjk / 2 C and .Sj t 1 Sj t : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik /.rjk / 2 :
Then it follows from Theorem 1.3 (iii) that
.Sj t : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik /.rjk / D rj t 1 :
Hence, applying Lemma 1.1, we get the equality
Sj t : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik Sjk D Sj t1 Sj t : : : Sjk Sik Sjk Sik :
Further, since pik jk D p D 5, we have also the equality
.Sik Sjk /2 Sik D .Sjk Sik /2 Sjk :
This leads to the equality
Sj t : : : Sjk1 Sik D Sj t1 Sj t : : : Sjk1 : (17)
Since the right side of this equality is a reduced presentation, the left side of this
equality is also a reduced presentation, and both of them have length k t C 1 < k.
Hence, by our induction assumption, we obtain the equality
xj t : : : xjk1 xik D xj t1 xj t : : : xjk1 : (18)

Assume now that t > 5. Then we obtain from (15) and (17) the equalities
Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 D Sj4 : : : Sjk Sik

D Sj4 : : : Sj t2 .Sj t 1 Sj t : : : Sjk1 /Sjk Sik
D Sj4 : : : Sj t2 Sj t : : : Sjk1 Sik Sjk Sik :
Since the first term of these equalities is a reduced presentation, the last term is also
a reduced presentation, and both of them have length k 2 < k. Hence, by the
induction assumption, we get the equality
xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 D xj4 : : : xj t2 xj t : : : xjk1 xik xjk xik :
This leads to the equality
xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 xjk xik D xj4 : : : xj t2 xj t : : : xjk1 .xik xjk /2 xik : (19)
Further, it follows from (9), (15) and (17) that
Sj1 : : : Sjk1 Sjk D Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik

D Sj4 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik Sjk Sik
D Sj4 : : : Sj t2 .Sj t1 Sj t : : : Sjk1 /Sjk Sik Sjk Sik
D Sj4 : : : Sj t2 Sj t : : : Sjk1 Sik Sjk Sik Sjk Sik :
Since .Sik Sjk /2 Sik D .Sjk Sik /2 Sjk , we obtain the equality
Sj1 : : : Sjk1 D Sj4 : : : Sj t2 Sj t : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik Sjk Sik :
Clearly, both sides of this equality are reduced presentations of length k 1, so the
induction assumption implies that
xj1 : : : xjk1 D xj4 : : : xj t2 xj t : : : xjk1 xjk xik xjk xik :
Then, multiplying this equality by xjk , we obtain that
xj1 : : : xjk1 xjk D xj4 : : : xj t2 xj t : : : xjk1 .xjk xik /2 xjk : (20)
Observe that we have in HK;q ŒG the equality .xik xjk /2 xik D .xjk xik /2 xjk , be-
cause pik jk D p D 5. Therefore, combining this with (19) and (20), we obtain the
required equality xj2 : : : xjk xik D xj1 : : : xjk .
Assume now t D 5. Then, applying (15) and (17) again, we obtain that
Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 D Sj4 : : : Sjk Sik

D .Sj4 Sj5 : : : Sjk1 /Sjk Sik
D Sj5 : : : Sjk1 Sik Sjk Sik :
Hence, by the induction assumption, we have the equality
xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 D xj5 : : : xjk1 xik xjk xik ;
which leads to the equality
xj2 xj3 : : : xjk1 xjk xik D xj5 : : : xjk1 .xik xjk /2 xik : (21)
Similarly, using (9), (15) and (17), we obtain the equalities
Sj1 : : : Sjk1 Sjk D Sj2 Sj3 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik

D Sj4 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik Sjk Sik
D Sj5 : : : Sjk1 Sik Sjk Sik Sjk Sik :
Invoking again the equality .Sik Sjk /2 Sik D .Sjk Sik /2 Sjk , we get the equality
Sj1 : : : Sjk1 D Sj5 : : : Sjk1 Sjk Sik Sjk Sik :
Since both sides of this equality are reduced presentations of length k 1, the
induction assumption implies that
xj1 : : : xjk1 D xj5 : : : xjk1 xjk xik xjk xik :
Hence, multiplying this equality by xjk , we get that
xj1 : : : xjk1 xjk D xj5 : : : xjk1 .xjk xik /2 xjk : (22)
Then, as above, the equality .xik xjk /2 xik D .xjk xik /2 xjk combined with (21) and
(22) leads to the required equality xj2 : : : xjk xik D xj1 : : : xjk .
Finally, assume that p 6. We know that the marked graph .G/ of the
Coxeter group G is a disjoint union of Coxeter graphs, which are the connected
components of .G/. Observe now that the Coxeter graphs
6 n
G2 W and Hn2 W ; n 7;
are the unique Coxeter graphs having an edge marked by an integer greater than or
equal to 6. This means that the edge
pik jk
rik rjk ;
with pik jk D p 6, forms a connected component of .G/. In particular, for any

i 2 f1; : : : ; ng n fik ; jk g, we have pi ik D 2 D pijk , or equivalently, Si Sik D Sik Si
and Si Sjk D Sjk Si . Observe also that .ri ; rik / D cos pii D cos 2 D 0 and
k
.ri ; rjk / D cos pij

D cos 2 D 0 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng n fik ; jk g. Since the
k
basis … D fr1 ; : : : ; rn g of the root system of G is a basis of the Euclidean space

V , we have the orthogonal direct sum decomposition V D V 0 ˚ V 00 , where V 0 is
the R-vector subspace of V generated by the vectors ri , i 2 f1; : : : ; ng n fik ; jk g,
and V 00 is the R-vector subspace of V generated by rik and rjk . Moreover, it follows
from the formula on reflection that Si jV 00 D idV 00 for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng n fik ; jk g,
Sik jV 0 D idV 0 and Sjk jV 0 D idV 0 .
Consider now T D Si1 : : : Sik D Sj1 : : : Sjk . Assume that l1 ; : : : ; la (respec-
tively, m1 ; : : : ; mb ) are the consecutive indices from the sequence i1 ; : : : ; ik (respec-
tively, j1 ; : : : ; jk ), different from ik and jk and such that Sl1 : : : Sla and Sm1 : : : Smb
are reduced presentations. Then we have
Si1 : : : Sik D Sl1 : : : Sla .: : : Sjk Sik /u D .: : : Sjk Sik /u Sl1 : : : Sla ;
Sj1 : : : Sjk D Sm1 : : : Smb .: : : Sik Sjk /v D .: : : Sik Sjk /v Sm1 : : : Smb ;
where u, v are from f1; : : : ; pik jk g. Then we have
ˇ
: : : .Sjk jV 00 /.Sik jV 00 / u D .: : : Sjk Sik /u ˇV 00
ˇ
D T ˇV 00
ˇ
D .: : : Sik Sjk /v ˇV 00 D : : : .Sik jV 00 /.Sjk jV 00 / v ;
where .Sik jV 00 / and .Sjk jV 00 / are reflections in V 00 generating the Coxeter group
p
H2 (with p D pik jk ) in V 00 . Since in the equality .: : : .Sjk jV 00 /.Sik jV 00 //u D
.: : : .Sik jV 00 /.Sjk jV 00 //v both sides are reduced presentations, invoking the structure
of the Coxeter group H2p , we conclude that u D v D p2 , if p is even, and u D v D
pC1
2
, if p is odd. Therefore, we obtain the equalities
.: : : Sjk Sik /u D .Sjk Sik /p=2 D .Sik Sjk /p=2 D .: : : Sik Sjk /v ;
if p is even, and
.: : : Sjk Sik /u D .Sik Sjk /.p1/=2 Sik D .Sjk Sik /.p1/=2 Sjk D .: : : Sik Sjk /v ;
if p is odd. Moreover, we obtain that
Sl1 : : : Sla D Sm1 : : : Smb ;
with both sides reduced presentations, and hence a D b. Since a < k, using the
induction assumption, we conclude that
xl1 : : : xla D xm1 : : : xma :
Moreover, we have in HK;q ŒG the equalities
.xik xjk /p=2 D .xjk xik /p=2 if p is even;

.xik xjk /.p1/=2 xik D .xjk xik /.p1/=2 xjk if p is odd:
Further, for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng n fik ; jk g, we have pi ik D 2 D pijk , and hence xi xik D

xik xi and xi xjk D xjk xi . Combining this together, we obtain the equalities
xi1 : : : xik D xl1 : : : xla .: : : xjk xik /u

D xm1 : : : xmb .: : : xik xjk /v
D xj1 : : : xjk :
Summing up, we have proved that
x./ D xi1 : : : xik D xj1 : : : xjk D x./:
We note that in the proof the element q 2 K n f0g as well as the relations
.xi q/.xi C 1/ D 0, i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, in HK;q ŒG did not play any role.
Consider the K-vector space
M

HK;q ŒG D KuT ;
T 2G
isomorphic to the K-vector space of the group algebra KG of G.

The following corollary is an immediate consequence of Theorem 4.1.
Corollary 4.2. There is an isomorphism of K-vector spaces

'G W HK;q ŒG ! HK;q ŒG
such that
(i) 'G .u1 / D 1;
(ii) 'G .uT / D xi1 : : : xik for any T 2 G n f1g and an arbitrary reduced presen-
tation T D Si1 : : : Sik of T as product of fundamental reflections in G.
In particular, we have dimK HK;q ŒG D jGj.
The following theorem due to Iwahori [Iwa] provides a useful interpretation of

Hecke algebras of Coxeter groups up to isomorphism.

Theorem 4.3. The K-vector space HK;q ŒG admits a unique K-algebra structure

(i) u1 is the identity 1 D 1HK;q
ŒG of HK;q ŒG.
(ii) If T D Si1 : : : Sik is a reduced presentation of an element T 2 G n f1g, then

uT D uSi1 : : : uSik .
(iii) u2Si D q C .q 1/uSi for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, where q D q1.

(iv) If T and R are elements of G with `.TR/ D `.T /C`.R/, then uTR D uT uR .
(v) If T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, then

´
uT Si if `.T Si / D `.T / C 1;
uT uSi D
quT Si C .q 1/uT otherwise
and ´
uSi T if `.Si T / D `.T / C 1;
uSi uT D
quSi T C .q 1/uT otherwise.

(vi) For any T 2 G n f1g, uT is an invertible element of HK;q ŒG with inverse
1 1 1
uT D uSi : : : uSi , where T D Si1 : : : Sik is a reduced presentation of T ,
k 1
and
u1
Si D .1 q/=q C .1=q/uSi ;
for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Proof. It follows from definition of the K-algebra HK;q ŒG and Corollary 4.2

that there is a unique K-algebra structure on HK;q ŒG satisfying the conditions
(i)–(iii), and it is the K-algebra structure for which the K-linear isomorphism

'G W HK;q ŒG ! HK;q ŒG is an isomorphism of K-algebras. We will show that

then the statements (iv)–(vi) hold in such K-algebra HK;q ŒG.
(iv) Let T; R 2 G and `.TR/ D `.T / C `.R/. Then, for reduced presentations
T D Si1 : : : Sik and R D Sj1 : : : Sjl , the presentation TR D Si1 : : : Sik Sj1 : : : Sjl
is reduced, because k C l D `.T / C `.R/ D `.TR/. Then we obtain
'G .uTR / D xi1 : : : xik xj1 : : : xjl D .xi1 : : : xik /.xj1 : : : xjl /
D 'G .uT /'G .uR / D 'G .uT uR /;
and hence uTR D uT uR .

(v) Let T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Clearly, if `.T Si / D `.T / C 1, then we
have uT uSi D uT Si , by (iv), because `.Si / D 1. Assume `.T Si / ¤ `.T / C 1.
For the root ri corresponding to Si D Sri , we have T .ri / 2 D C [ and
T Si T 1 D ST .ri / (see Lemma 1.1). On the other hand, by Corollary 3.7, we have
also ´
`.T / C 1 if T .ri / 2 C ,
`.T Si / D
`.T / 1 if T .ri / 2 .
Hence our assumption `.T Si / ¤ `.T / C 1 forces `.T Si / D `.T / 1 and
T .ri / 2 , or equivalently, ri 2 C
T . Applying now Lemma 3.8, we conclude
that T admits a reduced presentation T D Si1 : : : Sik1 Sik with ik D i . Then
we get T Si D .Si1 : : : Sik1 Sik /Si D Si1 : : : Sik1 , and the last term is a reduced
presentation of T Si . Invoking now (iii) and (iv), we obtain the equalities
uT uSi D .uSi1 : : : uSik1 uSi /uSi D .uSi1 : : : uSik1 /.u2Si /

D uT Si .q C .q 1/uSi / D quT Si C .q 1/uT Si uSi
D quT Si C .q 1/uT ;
because uT Si uSi D u.T Si /Si D uT due to `.T / D `.T Si / C 1. The proof of the
second part of (v) is similar by using the corresponding versions of Corollary 3.7
and Lemma 3.8, observing that Si T D .T 1 Si /1 .
(vi) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have, by (iii), the equalities

.1 q/=q C .1=q/uSi uSi D .1 q/=q uSi C .1=q/ u2Si

D .1 q/=q uSi C .1=q/ q C .q 1/uSi

D 1 C .1 q/=q uSi .1 q/=q uSi D 1;

so .1 q/=q C .1=q/uSi is the inverse of uSi in HK;q ŒG. Then for T 2 G n f1g
and a reduced presentation T D Si1 : : : Sik of T , we have the equalities
uT u1 1 1 1
Si : : : uSi D .uSi1 : : : uSik /.uSi : : : uSi / D 1;
k 1 k 1
so indeed u1 1 1
T D uSi : : : uSi .
k 1
5 Hecke algebras
Consider now the K-linear automorphism

W HK;q ŒG ! HK;q ŒG
such that .uT / D uT 1 for any T 2 G.

Lemma 5.1. is a K-algebra antiautomorphism of HK;q ŒG of order 2.
Proof. Clearly, we have 2 .uT / D .uT 1 / D uT for any T 2 G. We have

to show that .uT uR / D .uR / .uT / for all T; R 2 G. We may assume that
T ¤ 1 ¤ R, since .u1 / D u1 . We first show that .uT uSi / D .uSi / .uT / for
any T 2 G and i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Fix i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Applying Theorem 4.3 (v), we
obtain that
´
uT Si if `.T Si / D `.T / C 1;
uT uSi D
quT Si C .q 1/uT otherwise.
We note also that .uSi / D uSi , since Si2 D 1 in G.

5. Hecke algebras 529
Assume `.T Si / D `.T / C 1. Then we obtain that
.uT uSi / D .uT Si / D u.T Si /1 D uSi T 1

D uS 1 uT 1 D .uSi / .uT /;
i
because `.Si T 1 / D `..T Si /1 / D `.T Si / D `.T / C 1 D `.Si / C `.T 1 /, and

the property (iv) in Theorem 4.3 can be applied.
Assume `.T Si / ¤ `.T / C 1. Then we obtain that
.uT uSi / D .quT Si C .q 1/uT / D q .uT Si / C .q 1/ .uT /

D quSi T 1 C .q 1/uT 1
D uSi uT 1 D .uSi / .uT /;
because `.Si T 1 / D `..T Si /1 / D `.T Si / ¤ `.T / C 1 D `.T 1 / C 1.

Take now T; R 2 G n f1g, and let R D Sj1 : : : Sjl be a reduced presentation of
R. Then we get the equalities
.uT uR / D .uT uSj1 : : : uSjl / D .uSjl / : : : .uSj1 / .uT /

D uSjl : : : uSj1 .uT / D uSjl :::Sj1 .uT /
D uR1 .uT / D .uR / .uT /;
because R1 D Sjl : : : Sj1 is a reduced presentation of R1 .

Consider the symmetric K-bilinear form
.; /0 W HK;q

ŒG HK;q ŒG ! K
such that ´
q `.T / if T D R;
.uT ; uR /0 D
0 otherwise.
Observe that the form .; /0 is nondegenerate, because for a nonzero element
X
hD T uT
T 2G
with T 2 K, for T 2 G, and R ¤ 0, we have .h; uR /0 D R q `.R/ ¤ 0.

Lemma 5.2. For all elements h1 ; h2 ; h3 2 HK;q ŒG, we have .h1 h2 ; h3 /0 D
0
.h1 ; h3 .h2 // .
Proof. It is enough to show that .uT1 uT2 ; uT3 /0 D .uT1 ; uT3 .uT2 //0 for all ele-
ments T1 ; T2 ; T3 2 G. We may assume that T2 ¤ 1, since u1 is the identity of

HK;q ŒG.
Assume first that T2 D Si , for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Observe that .uSi / D uSi ,
since Si 2 D 1 in G. We have two cases to consider. Let `.T1 Si / D `.T1 / C 1.
Then uT1 uSi D uT1 Si , by Theorem 4.3 (iv), and we get
´
q `.T1 /C1 if T3 D T1 Si ;
.uT1 uSi ; uT3 /0 D .uT1 Si ; uT3 /0 D
0 otherwise.
On the other hand, if `.T1 Si / ¤ `.T1 / C 1, then `.T1 Si / D `.T1 / 1, by Corol-

lary 3.7. Applying Theorem 4.3 (v), we obtain then uT1 uSi D quT1 Si C.q 1/uT1 ,
and hence 8
ˆ
<q 1
`.T /
if T3 D T1 Si ;
0
.uT1 uSi ; uT3 / D .q 1/q `.T1 /
if T3 D T1 ;
:̂
0 otherwise.
Further, .uT1 ; uT3 .uSi //0 D .uT1 ; uT3 uSi /0 D .uT3 uSi ; uT1 /0 . Then, if `.T3 Si / D
`.T3 / C 1, we have
´
0 q `.T3 /C1 if T1 D T3 Si ;
.uT1 ; uT3 .uSi // D
0 otherwise.
Similarly as above, if `.T3 Si / ¤ `.T3 /C1, then `.T3 Si / D `.T3 /1 and uT3 uSi D
quT3 Si C .q 1/uT3 . Hence we get
8
ˆ
<q 3
`.T /
if T1 D T3 Si ;
0
.uT1 ; uT3 .uSi // D .q 1/q `.T3 /
if T1 D T3 ;
:̂
0 otherwise.
We note that T3 D T1 Si if and only if T1 D T3 Si . Moreover, if this is the case,

then `.T1 Si / D `.T1 / C 1 if and only if `.T3 Si / D `.T3 / 1. Therefore, in all
cases above, we have
.uT1 uSi ; uT3 /0 D .uT1 ; uT3 uSi /0 D .uT1 ; uT3 .uSi //0 :
Take now an arbitrary T2 2 G nf1g, and a reduced presentation T2 D Sj1 : : : Sjl

of T2 . Then we obtain the equalities
.uT1 uT2 ; uT3 /0 D .uT1 uSj1 : : : uSjl ; uT3 /0

D .uT1 ; uT3 uSjl : : : uSj1 /0
D .uT1 ; uT3 uSjl :::Sj1 /0
D .uT1 ; uT3 .uT2 //0 ;
since T21 D Sjl : : : Sj1 is a reduced presentation of T21 , where the second equality
is obtained from Theorem 4.3 (v).
5. Hecke algebras 531

Theorem 5.3. HK;q ŒG is a finite dimensional symmetric K-algebra.
Proof. Consider the K-bilinear form

.; / W HK;q ŒG HK;q ŒG ! K
defined by
.h1 ; h2 / D .h1 ; .h2 //0

for all elements h1 ; h2 2 HK;q ŒG. Hence, for elements T; R 2 G, we have
´
q `.T / if T D R1 ;
.uT ; uR / D
0 otherwise.
In particular, the form .; / is symmetric and nondegenerate. Further, applying
Lemmas 5.1 and 5.2, we obtain that
.h1 h2 ; h3 / D .h1 h2 ; .h3 //0 D .h1 ; .h3 / .h2 //0
D .h1 ; .h2 h3 //0 D .h1 ; h2 h3 /

for all elements h1 ; h2 ; h3 2 HK;q ŒG. Therefore, .; / is a nondegenerate as-

sociative symmetric K-bilinear form on HK;q ŒG, and so HK;q ŒG is a symmetric
algebra, by Theorem IV.2.2.
Corollary 5.4. The Hecke algebra HK;q ŒG is a finite dimensional symmetric K-
algebra.

Proof. We have the isomorphism of K-algebras 'G W HK;q ŒG ! HK;q ŒG, and
the claim follows from Theorem 5.3.
We provide now an alternative proof of Theorem 3.11.
Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V of dimension n, S1 ; : : : ; Sn
a set of fundamental reflections generating the group G, and pij the associated
orders of the rotations Si Sj , for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Consider the group
˝ ˛
G D S1 ; : : : ; Sn j .Si Sj /pij D 1; 1 i; j n ;
that is, the factor group of the free group generated by S1 ; : : : ; Sn by the minimal
normal subgroup containing the elements of the form .Si Sj /pij , 1 i; j n.
Obviously, we have the canonical epimorphism of groups G ! G, which assigns
to the coset of a product Si1 : : : Sir in G the composition Si1 : : : Sir in G. Let
K be a field. Then the Hecke algebra HK;1 ŒG is isomorphic to the group algebra
KG of G over K. Hence, applying Corollary 4.2, we obtain the equalities

jGj D dimK HK;1 ŒG D dimK HK;1 ŒG D dimK KG D jG j:
Therefore, the canonical group epimorphism G ! G is an isomorphism, which
proves Theorem 3.11.
As a direct consequence we obtain the following fact.
Corollary 5.5. The Hecke algebra HK;1 ŒG is isomorphic to the group algebra
KG of G.
Hence we may consider a Hecke algebra HK;q ŒG of a Coxeter group G as
an algebra deformation of the group algebra KG of G over K with respect to an
element q 2 K n f0g.
Example 5.6. Let m 3 be a natural number and H2m be the dihedral group of
order 2m in R2 generated by the reflections S 1 D Sr1 and S2 D Sr2 along the
vectors r1 D .0; 1/ and r2 D sin m
; cos m

(see Example 1.2). Since m is the
order of the rotation S1 S2 and S1 D 1, S2 D 1, where 1 D idR2 , we conclude that
2 2
˚
H2m D 1; S1 ; S2 ; S1 S2 ; : : : ; .S1 S2 /m1 ; S2 .S1 S2 /; : : : ; S2 .S1 S2 /m2
˚
D 1; S1 ; S2 ; S2 S1 ; : : : ; .S2 S1 /m1 ; S1 .S2 S1 /; : : : ; S1 .S2 S1 /m2 ;
because .S1 S2 /p D .S2 S1 /mp for p 2 f1; : : : ; m 1g. Moreover, by Theo-

rem 3.11, H2m is isomorphic to the group
˝ ˛
S1 ; S2 j S12 D 1; S22 D 1; .S1 S2 /m D 1 :
Let K be a field and q 2 K n f0g. Then the Hecke algebra HK;q ŒH2m is the
factor algebra KhX1 ; X2 i=IK;q ŒH2m , where IK;q ŒH2m is the ideal in KhX1 ; X2 i
generated by the elements
(1) X12 C .1 q/X1 q, X22 C .1 q/X2 q,
(2) .X1 X2 /m=2 .X2 X1 /m=2 , if m is even,
.X1 X2 /.m1/=2 X1 .X2 X1 /.m1/=2 X2 , if m is odd.
Moreover, by Corollaries 4.2 and 5.4, HK;q ŒH2m is a symmetric K-algebra of
dimension 2m D jH2m j.
Example 5.7. Let n be a positive integer and SnC1 the permutation group of
f1; 2; : : : ; n C 1g. We showed in Example 3.2 that SnC1 may be considered as
a Coxeter group in the Euclidean hyperplane V of RnC1 given by the equation
x1 C x2 C C xnC1 D 0, and the reflections Si D Sri , with ri D p1 .eiC1 ei /,
2
for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, of V are the fundamental reflections generating SnC1 . Moreover,
.SnC1 / D An .
Let K be a field and q 2 K n f0g. Then the Hecke algebra HK;q ŒSnC1 is
the factor algebra KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i=IK;q ŒSnC1 , where IK;q ŒSnC1 is the ideal in
KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i generated by the elements
(1) Xi2 C .1 q/Xi q for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
(2) Xi XiC1 Xi XiC1 Xi XiC1 for i 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g, Xi Xj Xj Xi for i; j 2
f1; : : : ; ng with ji j j 2.
6. Exercises 533
Moreover, by Corollaries 4.2 and 5.4, HK;q ŒSnC1 is a symmetric K-algebra of

dimension .n C 1/Š D jSnC1 j.
We would like to mention that the Hecke algebras play a prominent role in the
representation theory of the classical groups. For a complex semisimple Lie algebra
g, its Weyl group W D W .g/ is a finite Coxeter group whose marked graph is a
disjoint union of Coxeter graphs of types An .n 1/, Bn .n 2/, Dn .n 4/, E6 ,
E7 , E8 , F4 and G2 . Then for a finite field Fq with q elements and the Chevalley group
G associated to the pair .g; Fq / (constructed in [Che]), we may consider the Hecke
ring H.G; B/ on the free Z-module generated by the double cosets B n G=B of the
actions of G on its Borel subgroup B (see Section 1 of [Iwa] for details). Then for
a field K having q D q1K as an invertible element, the K-algebra H.G; B/ ˝Z K
is isomorphic to the Hecke algebra HK;q .W .g// of the Weyl group W .g/ of g
(see [Iwa], Theorem 3.2). Moreover, for the general linear group G D GLn .Fq /
over a finite field Fq , the Borel subgroup B of G given by the upper triangular
matrices, a field K having q D q1K invertible, the trivial KB-module KB D K
and its extension KBG D KB ˝KB KG to a KG-module, the endomorphism algebra
EndKG .KBG / is isomorphic to the Hecke algebra HK;q ŒSnC1 of the symmetric
group SnC1 , described in Example 5.7 (see [DJ], [Iwa]).
6 Exercises
1. Let V be a real Euclidean space. Prove that V is not a union of a finite number
of hyperplanes.
2. Let V be a real Euclidean space and X a finite set of nonzero vectors in V .
Prove that there exists a vector t in V such that .t; x/ ¤ 0 for any x 2 X .
3. Let V be a real Euclidean space and r a nonzero vector of V . Consider the map
Sr W V ! V given for x 2 V by
2.x; r/
Sr .x/ D x r:
.r; r/
Show that Sr 2 O.V / and Sr2 D idV .
4. Let V be a real Euclidean space, r1 ; : : : ; rm a set of nonzero vectors of V , and G
the subgroup of O.V / generated by the reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srm along the vectors
r1 ; : : : ; rm . Prove that the group G is effective if and only if r1 ; : : : ; rm generate
the vector space V over R.
5. Let V be a real Euclidean space, r1 ; : : : ; rm a set of nonzero vectors of V , and G
the subgroup of O.V / generated by the reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srm along the vectors
r1 ; : : : ; rm . Prove that the group G is commutative if and only if r1 ; : : : ; rm are
pairwise orthogonal.
6. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V , the root system of G,

t a vector of V with .t; r/ ¤ 0 for all r 2 , and …; …0 two t -bases of V of .
Prove that … D …0 .
7. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V . Prove that G is irreducible

if and only if the marked graph .G/ is connected.
8. Let V1 ; : : : ; Vm , with m 2, be a family of real Euclidean spaces and G1 ; : : : ; Gm

Coxeter groups in V1 ; : : : ; Vm , respectively. Prove that G1 Gm is isomorphic
to a Coxeter group in the real Euclidean space V1 ˚ ˚ Vm .
9. Let G be a Coxeter group in a real Euclidean space V . Prove that there exists
an orthogonal direct sum decomposition V D V1 ˚ ˚ Vm of V such that the
following statements hold:
(a) T .Vi / Vi for any i 2 f1; : : : ; mg and T 2 G.
(b) For each i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, Gi D ¹T jVi j T 2 Gº is an irreducible Coxeter group

in Vi .
(c) There is a canonical isomorphism of groups G ! G1 Gm .
10. Let m 3 be a natural number

and H2m D hR; Si D hS; T i the dihedral group
of order 2m in R , and t D sin 4m ; cos 4m
2
. Prove the following statements.
° ±
(a) D cos k m
; sin k
m
j k D 0; 1; : : : ; 2m 1 is the set of all roots of H2m .
° ±
(b) C
t D cos k
m
; sin k
m
j 0 k m 1 .
° ±
(c)
t D cos k
m
; sin k
m
j m k 2m 1 .

(d) For r1 D .0; 1/ and r2 D sin m

; cos m

, the set … t D fr1 ; r2 g is the t -basis
of .
11. Prove that every irreducible Coxeter group G with jGj 2 in the real Euclidean
plane R2 is isomorphic to a dihedral group H2m , for some natural number m 3.
12. Let G be a finite subgroup of the orthogonal group O.R2 / which is not a
Coxeter group. Prove that G is a cyclic group generated by the rotation R given in
the canonical basis e1 D .1; 0/ and e2 D .0; 1/ of R2 by the matrix
" #
cos 2
m
sin 2
m
;
sin 2
m
cos 2
m
for some positive integer m.

6. Exercises 535
13. Let n be a positive integer and let SnC1 be the permutation group of the set
f1; 2; :®: : ; n C 1g, considered as the Coxeter group in the real Euclidean
¯ subspace
V D .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xnC1 / 2 RnC1 j x1 C x2 C C xnC1 D 0 of RnC1 , as de-
fined in Example 3.2. Prove that
² ³
1 ˇ
D p .ei ej / ˇ i ¤ j; 1 i; j n C 1
2
is the root system of SnC1 and find an element t in V such that
² ³
1 ˇ
C ˇ
t D p .ei ej / 1 j < i n C 1 ;
2
² ³
1 ˇ
C ˇ
t D p .ei ej / 1 i < j n C 1 ;
2
® ¯
and … t D p1 .eiC1 ei / j 1 i n is the t -basis of .
2
14. Let Sr1 ; Sr2 ; Sr3 be the reflections of the real Euclidean space R3 along the
vectors

1 1 1 1
r1 D .1; 0; 0/; r2 D p ; p ; 0 ; r3 D 0; p ; p ;
2 2 2 2
respectively, and B3 be the subgroup of O.R3 / generated by Sr1 ; Sr2 ; Sr3 . Prove
that B3 is a Coxeter group in R3 with .B3 / D B3 .
15. Let r1 ; r2 ; r3 be the vectors of the real Euclidean space R3 defined as
r1 D b.2a C 1; 1; 2a/; r2 D b.2a 1; 1; 2a/; r2 D b.2a; 2a 1; 1/;
where a D cos 5 and b D cos 2 5

. Prove that r1 , r2 , r3 are unit vectors and the
reflections Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 of R3 along the vectors r1 , r2 , r3 , respectively, generate a
Coxeter group I3 in R3 with .I3 / D I3 .
16. Let Sr1 ; Sr2 ; Sr3 ; Sr4 be the reflections in the real Euclidean space R4 along
the unit vectors

1 1
r1 D .1; 0; 0; 0/; r2 D p ; p ; 0; 0 ;
2 2

1 1 1 1
r3 D 0; p ; p ; 0 ; r4 D 0; 0; p ; p ;
2 2 2 2
respectively, and B4 the subgroup of O.R4 / generated by Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 . Prove
that B4 is a Coxeter group in R4 with .B4 / D B4 .
17. Let Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 be the reflections in the real Euclidean space R4 along
the unit vectors

1 1 1 1
r1 D p ; p ; 0; 0 ; r2 D p ; p ; 0; 0 ;
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
r3 D 0; p ; p ; 0 ; r4 D 0; 0; p ; p ;
2 2 2 2
respectively. Denote by D4 the subgroup of O.R4 / generated by Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 .
Prove that D4 is a Coxeter group in R4 with .D4 / D D4 .
18. Let Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 be the reflections of the real Euclidean space R4 along
the unit vectors

1 1 1 1
r1 D ; ; ; ; r2 D .1; 0; 0; 0/;
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
r3 D p ; p ; 0; 0 ; r4 D 0; p ; p ; 0 ;
2 2 2 2
respectively. Denote by F4 the subgroup of O.R4 / generated by Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 .
Prove that F4 is a Coxeter group in R4 with .F4 / D F4 .
19. Let r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 be the vectors of the real Euclidean space R4 defined as
r1 D b.2a C 1; 1; 2a; 0/; r2 D b.2a 1; 1; 2a; 0/;

r3 D b.2a; 2a 1; 1; 0/; r4 D b.2a; 0; 2a 1; 1/;
where a D cos 5 and b D cos 2 5

. Prove that r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 are unit vectors and
the reflections Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 of R4 along the vectors r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 , respectively,
generate a Coxeter group I4 in R4 with .I4 / D I4 .
20. Let Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 , Sr5 be the reflections in the real Euclidean space R5
along the unit vectors

1 1 1 1
r1 D p ; p ; 0; 0; 0 ; r2 D p ; p ; 0; 0; 0 ;
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
r3 D 0; p ; p ; 0; 0 ; r4 D 0; 0; p ; p ; 0 ;
2 2 2 2

1 1
r5 D 0; 0; 0; p ; p ;
2 2
respectively. Denote by D5 the subgroup of O.R5 / generated by Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 ,
Sr5 . Prove that D5 is a Coxeter group in R5 with .D5 / D D5 .
6. Exercises 537
21. Let Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 , Sr5 , Sr6 be the reflections of the real Euclidean space
R6 along the unit vectors
p p p p p p !
1C 3 1C 3 1C 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
r1 D p ; p ; p ; p ; p ; p ;
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6

1 1 1 1
r2 D p ; p ; 0; 0; 0; 0 ; r3 D 0; p ; p ; 0; 0; 0 ;
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
r4 D 0; 0; p ; p ; 0; 0 ; r5 D 0; 0; 0; p ; p ; 0 ;
2 2 2 2

1 1
r6 D 0; 0; 0; 0; p ; p ;
2 2
respectively. Denote by E6 the subgroup of O.R6 / generated by Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 ,
Sr5 , Sr6 . Prove that E6 is a Coxeter group in R6 with .E6 / D E6 .
22. Let n 5 be an integer. Describe unit vectors r1 ; : : : ; rn in the real Euclidean

space Rn such that the reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srn of Rn along r1 ; : : : ; rn generate a
Coxeter group G in Rn with .G/ D Bn .
23. Let n 6 be an integer. Describe unit vectors r1 ; : : : ; rn in the real Euclidean

space Rn such that the reflections Sr1 ; : : : ; Srn of Rn along r1 ; : : : ; rn generate a
Coxeter group G in Rn with .G/ D Dn .
24. Describe unit vectors r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 , r5 , r6 , r7 in the real Euclidean space R7

such that the reflections Sr1 , Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 , Sr5 , Sr6 , Sr7 of R7 along r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 ,
r5 , r6 , r7 generate a Coxeter group G in R7 with .G/ D E7 .
25. Describe unit vectors r1 , r2 , r3 , r4 , r5 , r6 , r7 , r8 in the real Euclidean space R8

such that the reflections Sr1 ; Sr2 , Sr3 , Sr4 , Sr5 , Sr6 , Sr7 , Sr8 of R8 along r1 , r2 , r3 ,
r4 , r5 , r6 , r7 , r8 generate a Coxeter group G in R8 with .G/ D E8 .
26. Describe (up to geometric isomorphism) all Coxeter groups in the real Euclidean
spaces R3 , R4 , R5 , R6 , R7 , R8 , R9 and R10 .
27. Let C be the cube in the real Euclidean space R3 with the center at the ori-
gin .0; 0; 0/ and the vertices at the eight points .1; 1; 1/, .1; 1; 1/, .1; 1; 1/,
.1;
˚ 1; 1/, .1; 1; 1/, .1;
1; 1/, .1; 1; 1/, .1; 1; 1/. Let G D G.C / D
T 2 O.R / j T .C / D C be the group of symmetries of C in R . Moreover,
3 3
consider the unit vectors of R3 ,

1 1 1 1
r1 D .1; 0; 0/; r2 D p ; p ; 0 ; r3 D 0; p ; p ;
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
r4 D .0; 1; 0/; r5 D p ; 0; p ; r6 D p ; p ; 0 ;
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
r7 D .0; 0; 1/; r8 D 0; p ; p ; r9 D p ; 0; p ;
2 2 2 2
and the vector t D .1; 2; 3/. Prove that
(a) G is an irreducible Coxeter group in R3 .
(b) D f˙ri j 1 i 9g is the root system of G.
(c) C
t D fri j 1 i 9g.
(d)
t D fri j 1 i 9g.
(e) … t D fr1 ; r2 ; r3 g is the t -basis of G.

(f) G coincides with the Coxeter group B3 from Exercise 6.14.
Chapter VI
Hopf algebras
In this chapter we introduce the finite dimensional Hopf algebras over fields and
show that they are Frobenius algebras for which the Nakayama automorphism has
finite order.
The Hopf algebras were discovered in 1941 by H. Hopf who observed that the
cohomology algebras of compact Lie groups over a field K have extra coalgebra
structures, given by the group structure of Lie groups [Hopf]. Then the Hopf alge-
bras were investigated and successfully applied to problems of algebraic topology in
the papers by A. Borel [Bor], J. F. Adams [Ad], and J. Milnor and J. C. Moore [MM].
Starting with the late 1960s Hopf algebras became a subject of purely algebraic stud-
ies (see [Swe1], [Ab], [DNR]) as well as a natural phenomenom in many fields of
mathematics: in algebraic geometry (affine group schemes (see [DG], [Wat])), Lie
theory (enveloping algebras of Lie algebras (see [Hum], [SF])), quantum mechan-
ics (quantum groups (see [Kas])), : : : . Roughly speaking, a Hopf algebra over a
field K is a bialgebra structure on a K-vector space, given by an algebra structure
and a dual coalgebra structure satisfying compatibility relations, together with an
endomorphism of the underlying K-vector space satisfying a relation invoking the
algebra and coalgebra structures. In particular, the following important results on
finite dimensional Hopf algebras are proved: the Larson–Sweedler theorems on
the structure of Hopf modules and the existence of nondegenerate associative bi-
linear forms, the Radford theorem on the order of the antipode, and the formula
for the Nakayama automorphism established by D. Fischman, S. Montgomery and
H.-J. Schneider.
1 Coalgebras
Let K be a field. Since Mod K D Mod K op D K-Mod for any two nonzero K-
vector spaces U and V we have the tensor product U ˝K V , which we will denote
by U ˝ V . We denote by TU;V W U ˝ V ! V ˝ U the twist K-linear isomorphism
given by TU;V .x ˝ y/ D y ˝ x for x 2 U , y 2 V . Moreover, for a K-vector space
U , we denote by
˛U W K ˝ U ! U and ˇU W U ! K ˝ U
the canonical mutually inverse K-linear isomorphisms, and by
U W U ˝ K ! U and U W U ! U ˝ K
540 Chapter VI. Hopf algebras
the canonical mutually inverse K-linear isomorphisms, given by
˛U . ˝ x/ D x; ˇU .x/ D 1K ˝ x; U .x ˝ / D x; U .x/ D x ˝ 1K ;
for 2 K and x 2 U . We also note that, for finite dimensional K-vector spaces
U and V , we have dimK .U ˝K V / D .dimK U /.dimK V /, because we have
isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
U ˝K V Š U ˝K K dimK V Š .U ˝K K/dimK V Š U dimK V :
For a finite dimensional K-vector space U , we denote by U the dual K-vector

space HomK .U; K/. Then for any finite dimensional K-vectors spaces V1 ; : : : ; Vn ,
n 2, we have the K-linear isomorphism
V1 ;:::;Vn W V1 ˝ ˝ Vn ! .V1 ˝ ˝ Vn /
given, for f1 2 V1 ; : : : ; fn 2 Vn and v1 2 V1 ; : : : ; vn 2 Vn , by
V1 ;:::;Vn .f1 ˝ ˝ fn /.v1 ˝ ˝ vn / D f1 .v1 / : : : fn .vn /;
and we denote by
!V1 ;:::;Vn W .V1 ˝ ˝ Vn / ! V1 ˝ ˝ Vn
the inverse of V1 ;:::;Vn .

Moreover, for a finite dimensional K-vector space V , we denote by
eV W V ! .V / D V
the canonical isomorphism of K-vector spaces given by eV .v/.f / D f .v/ for

v 2 V and f 2 V .
A K-algebra may be defined as a triple .A; m;
/, where A is a K-vector space
and
m W A ˝ A ! A and
W K ! A
are K-linear maps, called the multiplication and the unit of A, respectively, such
that the following diagrams are commutative:
A< ˝ A bEE
y
˝idAyy EEidA ˝
m˝idA
/A˝A y EE
A˝A˝A
yyy EE
y
idA ˝m m K ˝A
FF
m A˝K.
FF x

/ A, FF x xx
A˝A ˛A FF xx
m F" |xxx A
A
1. Coalgebras 541
Moreover, a K-algebra .A; m;

/ is commutative if the diagram
TA;A
A˝A /A˝A
FF
FF xx
FF xxx
m FF xx m
F" |x
x
A
is commutative, where TA;A is the twist isomorphism on A˝A. Further, a homomor-

phism .A; mA ;
A / ! .B; mB ;
B / of K-algebras is a K-linear map f W A ! B
such that the following diagrams are commutative:
A
~~>
mA
/A A~
A˝A ~~
~~
f ˝f f K@ f
@@
/B, @@
B ˝B mB B @@

B.
Dually, a K-coalgebra (coalgebra over K) is defined to be a triple .C; ; "/,

where C is a K-vector space and
W C ! C ˝ C and " W C ! K
are K-linear maps, called the comultiplication and the counit of C , respectively,
such that the following diagrams are commutative:
C
x FFF
/C ˝C ˇC xxx FFC
C xx FF
x FF
x{ x #
˝idC K ˝ CcF C; ˝ K .
FF xx
/C ˝C ˝C , FF xx
C ˝C "˝idC FF
F xx
idC ˝
xx idC ˝"
C ˝C
A K-coalgebra .C; ; "/ is said to be cocommutative if the diagram
C GG
ww GG
www
GG
ww GG
{w
w G#
C ˝C /C ˝C
TC;C
is commutative, where TC;C is the twist isomorphism on C ˝ C .

A homomorphism of K-coalgebras .C; C ; "C / ! .D; D ; "D / is a K-linear

map g W C ! D such that the following diagrams are commutative:
CA
AA "
C
C
/C ˝C AAC
AA
g g
g˝g
>K.
}}}
D / D˝D, }}"
D }} D
D
We will frequently identify a K-coalgebra .C; ; "/ with its underlying vector
space C .
Let C D .C; ; "/ be a K-coalgebra. The following notation for the comulti-
plication, called the sigma notation, will be very useful. For an element c 2 C , the
element
Xm
.c/ D ci;1 ˝ ci;2 2 C ˝ C;
iD1
with ci;1 ; ci;2 2 C for i 2 f1; : : : ; mg, will be abbreviated to
X
.c/ D c1 ˝ c2 :
Then the coassociativity of can be expressed as

X X
c11 ˝ c12 ˝ c2 D c1 ˝ c21 ˝ c22 ;
for any c 2 C , where

X X
. ˝ idC / . .c// D . ˝ idC / c1 ˝ c2 D .c1 / ˝ c2
X
D c11 ˝ c12 ˝ c2 ;
X X
.idC ˝ / . .c// D .idC ˝ / c1 ˝ c2 D c1 ˝ .c2 /
X
D c1 ˝ c21 ˝ c22 :
Similarly, the counity property of " can be expressed as

X X
".c1 /c2 D c D c1 ".c2 /
for any c 2 C , since

X X
".c1 /c2 D ˛C ".c1 / ˝ c2 D ˛C ." ˝ idC / .c/ D ˛C ˇC .c/ D c;
X X
c1 ".c2 / D C c1 ˝ ".c2 / D C .idC ˝"/ .c/ D C C .c/ D c:
1. Coalgebras 543
Further, the K-coalgebra C is cocommutative if and only if

X X
c1 ˝ c2 D c2 ˝ c1
for any c 2 C .
For two K-coalgebras C D .C; C ; "C / and D D .D; D ; "D / the fact that
the K-linear map g W C ! D is a homomorphism of K-coalgebras is equivalent to
the equalities
X X
g.c1 / ˝ g.c2 / D g.c/1 ˝ g.c/2 ; "D g.c/ D "C .c/
P P
for all c 2 C , where c1 ˝ c2 D C .c/ and g.c/1 ˝ g.c/2 D D .g.c//.
Examples 1.1. (a) Let L be a field. Then L is an L-coalgebra with the comultipli-
cation W L ! L ˝ L given by ./ D ˝ 1L D 1L ˝ for any 2 L, and the
counit " D idL W L ! L.
(b) Let C D K 2 and e1 D .1; 0/, e2 D .0; 1/ be the canonical basis of C over
K. Consider the K-linear maps
W C ! C ˝ C and " W C ! K
given by
.e1 / D e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 ; .e2 / D e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 ; ".e1 / D 0; ".e2 / D 1:
Then .C; ; "/ is a 2-dimensional K-coalgebra. Indeed, we have the equalities
. ˝ idC / .e1 / D . ˝ idC / .e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 / D .e1 / ˝ e2 C .e2 / ˝ e1

D e1 ˝ e2 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 ˝ e2
C e 2 ˝ e 2 ˝ e 1 e1 ˝ e 1 ˝ e 1 ;
.idC ˝ / .e1 / D .idC ˝ / .e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 / D e1 ˝ .e2 / C e2 ˝ .e1 /
D e1 ˝ e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 ˝ e1
C e 2 ˝ e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e2 ˝ e1 ;
. ˝ idC / .e2 / D . ˝ idC / .e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 / D .e2 / ˝ e2 .e1 / ˝ e1
D e2 ˝ e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 ˝ e2
e 1 ˝ e 2 ˝ e1 e 2 ˝ e 1 ˝ e1 ;
.idC ˝ / .e2 / D .idC ˝ / .e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 / D e2 ˝ .e2 / e1 ˝ .e1 /
D e2 ˝ e2 ˝ e2 e2 ˝ e1 ˝ e1
e 1 ˝ e 1 ˝ e2 e 1 ˝ e 2 ˝ e1 ;
." ˝ idC / .e1 / D ." ˝ idC / .e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 / D ".e1 / ˝ e2 C ".e2 / ˝ e1

D 1 ˝ e1 D ˇC .e1 /;
." ˝ idC / .e2 / D ." ˝ idC / .e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 / D ".e2 / ˝ e2 ".e1 / ˝ e1
D 1 ˝ e2 D ˇC .e2 /;
.idC ˝"/ .e1 / D .idC ˝"/ .e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 / D e1 ˝ ".e2 / C e2 ˝ ".e1 /
D e1 ˝ 1 D C .e1 /;
.idC ˝"/ .e2 / D .idC ˝"/ .e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 / D e2 ˝ ".e2 / e1 ˝ ".e1 /
D e2 ˝ 1 D C .e2 /;
and hence . ˝ idC / D .idC ˝ / , ." ˝ idC / D ˇC , and .idC ˝"/ D C .

Moreover, observe that
TC;C .e1 / D TC;C .e1 ˝ e2 C e2 ˝ e1 / D e2 ˝ e1 C e1 ˝ e2 D .e1 /;

TC;C .e2 / D TC;C .e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 / D e2 ˝ e2 e1 ˝ e1 D .e2 /;
and hence the coalgebra C is cocommutative.

(c) Let n 2 be a positive integer and Mn .K/ the K-vector space of n n
matrices over K. Consider the canonical basis of Mn .K/ over K formed by the
elementary matrices Eij , i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then the K-linear maps
W Mn .K/ ! Mn .K/ ˝ Mn .K/; " W Mn .K/ ! K;
given by
X n

Eij D Eik ˝ Ekj and " Eij D ıij ;
kD1
for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, lead to an n2 -dimensional K-coalgebra .Mn .K/; ; "/. In-
deed, for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and id D idMn .K/ , ˇ D ˇMn .K/ , D Mn .K/ , we have
the equalities
X
n Xn
. ˝ id/ .Eij / D . ˝ id/ Eik ˝ Ekj D .Eik / ˝ Ekj
kD1 kD1
X
n X
n
D .Eil ˝ Elk / ˝ Ekj
kD1 lD1
Xn X n
D Eil ˝ .Elk ˝ Ekj /
lD1 kD1
X
n
D Eil ˝ .Elj / D .id ˝ / .Eij /;
lD1
1. Coalgebras 545
X
n Xn
." ˝ id/ .Eij / D ." ˝ id/ Eik ˝ Ekj D ".Eik / ˝ Ekj
kD1 kD1
D 1 ˝ Eij D ˇ.Eij /;
X
n Xn
.id ˝"/ .Eij / D .id ˝"/ Eik ˝ Ekj D Eik ˝ ".Ekj /
kD1 kD1
D Eij ˝ 1 D .Eij /;
and hence . ˝ id/ D .id ˝ / , ." ˝ id/ D ˇ, .id ˝"/ D . Moreover,

observe that, for the twist map T D TMn .K/;Mn .K/ , we have
X
n Xn
T .E12 / D T E1k ˝ Ek2 D Ek2 ˝ E1k ¤ .E12 /;
kD1 kD1
and hence the coalgebra .Mn .K/; ; "/ is not cocommutative. The coalgebra
.Mn .K/; ; "/ is denoted by Mnc .K/ and is called the n n matrix coalgebra
over K.
(d) Let G be a finite group and KG the underlying K-vector space of the group
algebra KG of G. Consider the K-linear maps
W KG ! KG ˝ KG and " W KG ! K
given by .g/ D g ˝ g and ".g/ D 1 for any g 2 G. Then, for any g 2 G we

have the equalities
. ˝ idKG / . .g// D . ˝ idKG / .g ˝ g/ D .g/ ˝ g D g ˝ g ˝ g

D g ˝ .g/ D .idKG ˝ / .g ˝ g/ D .idKG ˝ / . .g// ;
." ˝ idKG / . .g// D ." ˝ idKG / .g ˝ g/ D ".g/ ˝ g D 1 ˝ g D ˇKG .g/ ;
.idKG ˝"/ . .g// D .idKG ˝"/ .g ˝ g/ D g ˝ ".g/ D g ˝ 1 D KG .g/ ;
TKG;KG . .g// D TKG;KG .g ˝ g/ D g ˝ g D .g/ :
Hence, .KG; ; "/ is a cocommutative K-coalgebra of dimension jGj.

(e) Assume C D .C; C ; "C / and D D .D; D ; "D / are K-coalgebras. Let
C ˝D be the composition map
C ˝D idC ˝TC;D ˝idD
C ˝ D ! C ˝ C ˝ D ˝ D ! C ˝ D ˝ C ˝ D;
and "C ˝D the composition map

"C ˝"D ˛K
C ˝ D ! K ˝ K ! K:
Then C ˝D D .C ˝D; C ˝D ; "C ˝D / is a K-coalgebra, called the tensor product

coalgebra of C and D. Observe that, in the sigma notation, the K-linear map C ˝D
is given for c 2 C and d 2 D by
X
C ˝D .c ˝ d / D c1 ˝ d1 ˝ c2 ˝ d2 ;
P P
where C .c/ D c1 ˝ c2 and D .d / D d1 ˝ d2 . Observe that then we have,
for c 2 C and d 2 D, the equalities
. C ˝D ˝ idC ˝D / . C ˝D .c ˝ d //
X
D . C ˝D ˝ idC ˝D / c1 ˝ d1 ˝ c2 ˝ d2
X
D C ˝D .c1 ˝ d1 / ˝ c2 ˝ d2
X
D c11 ˝ d11 ˝ c12 ˝ d12 ˝ c2 ˝ d2 ;
.idC ˝D ˝ C ˝D / . C ˝D .c ˝ d //
X
D .idC ˝D ˝ C ˝D / c1 ˝ d1 ˝ c2 ˝ d2
X
D c1 ˝ d1 ˝ C ˝D .c2 ˝ d2 /
X
D c1 ˝ d1 ˝ c21 ˝ d21 ˝ c22 ˝ d22 ;
and the last terms of the above equalities coincide, because

X X X X
c11 ˝c12 ˝c2 D c1 ˝c21 ˝c22 ; d11 ˝d12 ˝d2 D d1 ˝d21 ˝d22 :
Hence C ˝D is coassociative. Moreover, for c 2 C , d 2 D, we have also

X X
"C ˝D ..c ˝ d /1 / .c ˝ d /2 D "C ˝D .c1 ˝ d1 / .c2 ˝ d2 /
X
D"C .c1 / "D .d1 / c2 ˝ d2
X X
D "C .c1 / c2 ˝ "D .d1 / d2 D c ˝ d;
X X
.c ˝ d /1 "C ˝D ..c ˝ d /2 / D .c1 ˝ d1 / "C ˝D .c2 ˝ d2 /
X
D .c1 ˝ d1 / "C .c2 / "D .d2 /
X X
D c1 "C .c2 / ˝ d1 "D .d2 / D c ˝ d;
and consequently "C ˝D satisfies the counity condition. Observe also that the coal-
gebra C ˝ D is cocommutative if and only if both coalgebras C and D are cocom-
mutative.
1. Coalgebras 547
(f) Let K be a subfield of a field L, and C D .C; C ; "C / be a K-coalgebra.

Then the extension field L-coalgebra C ˝K L D .C ˝K L; L L
C ; "C / has the
comultiplication
C W C ˝K L ! .C ˝K L/ ˝L .C ˝K L/
L
and the counit

C W C ˝K L ! L
"L
defined for c 2 C and l 2 L by
X X
LC .c ˝ l/ D c1 ˝ l ˝ c2 ˝ 1L D c1 ˝ 1L ˝ c2 ˝ l;
C .c ˝ l/ D "C .c/l D l"C .c/:

"L
(g) Let C D .C; ; "/ be a K-coalgebra and denote cop D TC;C . Then
C cop D .C; cop ; "C / is a K-coalgebra called the co-opposite coalgebra of C .
The following lemmas establish the relationship between the finite dimensional
K-algebras and the finite dimensional K-coalgebras.
Lemma 1.2. Let .A; mA ;
A / be a finite dimensional K-algebra. Consider the
K-linear maps

mA
A
!A;A
A W A ! .A ˝ A/ ! A ˝ A ; "A W A ! K D K:

(i) .A ; A ; "A / is a finite dimensional K-coalgebra.
(ii) The coalgebra .A ; A ; "A / is cocommutative if and only if the algebra
.A; mA ;
A / is commutative.
Pm
Proof. (i) Let f 2 A and A .f / D
iD1 gi ˝ hi with gi ; hi 2 A , for
i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. Further, let
X
ri
X
si
0 00
A .gi / D gi;j ˝ gi;j and A .hi / D h0i;k ˝ h00i;k
j D1 kD1
0 00
with gi;j ; gi;j 2 A , for j 2 f1; : : : ; ri g, and h0i;k ; h00i;k 2 A , for k 2 f1; : : : ; si g.
Then we have
m X
X ri
0 00
. A ˝ idA / A .f / D gi;j ˝ gi;j ˝ hi ;
iD1 j D1
X
m X
si
.idA ˝ A / A .f / D gi ˝ h0i;k ˝ h00i;k :
iD1 kD1
Consider the K-linear maps
A;A W A ˝ A ! .A ˝ A/ ; A;A;A W A ˝ A ˝ A ! .A ˝ A ˝ A/ :
Then for a; b; c 2 A we have the equalities
X
m X
ri X
m X
ri
0 00 0 00
A;A;A gi;j ˝ gi;j ˝ hi .a ˝ b ˝ c/ D gi;j .a/gi;j .b/hi .c/
iD1 j D1 iD1 j D1
X
m X
ri
0 00
D A;A gi;j ˝ gi;j .a ˝ b/hi .c/
iD1 j D1
X
m
D A;A . A .gi // .a ˝ b/hi .c/
iD1
Xm

D A;A !A;A mA .gi /.a ˝ b/hi .c/
iD1
X
m X
m
D mA .gi /.a ˝ b/hi .c/ D gi .ab/hi .c/
iD1 iD1
X
m
D A;A gi ˝ hi .ab ˝ c/ D A;A . A .f // .ab ˝ c/
iD1

D A;A !A;A mA .f /.ab ˝ c/ D mA .f /.ab ˝ c/ D f ..ab/c/:
Similarly, we show that
X
m X
si X
m X
si
A;A;A gi ˝ h0i;k ˝ h00i;k .a ˝ b ˝ c/ D gi .a/h0i;k .b/h00i;k .c/
iD1 kD1 iD1 kD1
X
m X
si
D gi .a/A;A h0i;k ˝ h00i;k .b ˝ c/
iD1 kD1
X
m
D gi .a/A;A . A .hi // .b ˝ c/
iD1
X
m

D gi .a/ A;A !A;A mA .hi /.b ˝ c/
iD1
1. Coalgebras 549
X
m X
m
D gi .a/mA .hi /.b ˝ c/ D gi .a/hi .bc/
iD1 iD1
X
m
D A;A gi ˝ hi .a ˝ bc/ D A;A A .f / .a ˝ bc/
iD1
D .A;A !A;A mA / .f /.a ˝ bc/ D mA .f /.a ˝ bc/ D f .a.bc//:
Therefore, we conclude that . A ˝ idA / A D .idA ˝ A / A . Observe

now that "A .u/ D u.1A / for any u 2 A . Then, for a 2 A, we have the equalities
X
m X
m X
m
"A .gi /hi .a/ D gi .1A /hi .a/ D A;A gi ˝ hi .1A ˝ a/
iD1 iD1 iD1

D .A;A . A .f /// .1A ˝ a/ D A;A !A;A mA .f /.1A ˝ a/
D mA .f /.1A ˝ a/ D f .1A a/ D f .a/;
X
m Xm X
m
gi "A .hi / .a/ D gi .a/hi .1A / D A;A gi ˝ hi .a ˝ 1A /
iD1 iD1 iD1
D .A;A . A .f /// .a ˝ 1A / D .A;A !A;A mA /.f /.a ˝ 1A /
D mA .f /.a ˝ 1A / D f .a1A / D f .a/;
P Pm Pm
and hence m iD1 "A .gi /hi D f D iD1 gi "A .hi / for A .f / D iD1 gi ˝hi .
This finishes the proof of (i).

(ii) Observe first that A;A TA ;A D TA;A A;A . Indeed, for u; v 2 A and
a; b 2 A, we have the equalities
.A;A TA ;A / .u ˝ v/ .a ˝ b/ D A;A .v ˝ u/ .a ˝ b/ D v.a/u.b/

D u.b/v.a/ D A;A .u ˝ v/ .b ˝ a/
D A;A .u ˝ v/ .TA;A .a ˝ b//

D TA;A .A;A .u ˝ v// .a ˝ b/

D .TA;A A;A / .u ˝ v/ .a ˝ b/:
1
Obviously, then we have also TA ;A !A;A D !A;A TA;A , since !A;A D A;A . This
leads to the equalities
A;A TA ;A A D A;A TA ;A !A;A mA D A;A !A;A TA;A

mA

D TA;A mA D .mA TA;A / :
We have also the equality A;A A D A;A !A;A mA D mA . Therefore, we conclude
that TA ;A A D A if and only if .mA TA;A / D mA , or equivalently, mA TA;A D
mA . This proves (ii).
Lemma 1.3. Let ' W .A; mA ;

A / ! .B; mB ;
B / be a homomorphism of finite di-
mensional K-algebras. Then the dual map ' W .B ; B ; "B / ! .A ; A ; "A /
is a homomorphism of K-coalgebras.
Proof. We have to show that the diagrams
B B
BB "
' BB B
B / A BB
B!
and '
B A =K
| ||
' ˝' |
B ˝ B / A ˝ A || "
|| A
A
P
are commutative. Let u 2 B and B .u/ D m
iD1 vi ˝ wi with vi ; wi 2 B for
i 2 f1; : : : ; mg. For x; y 2 A, we have the equalities

A;A . A ' /.u/ .x ˝ y/ D .A;A A .u'// .x ˝ y/

D A;A !A;A mA .u'/.x ˝ y/
D mA .u'/.x ˝ y/ D .u'/.xy/;

A;A .' ˝ ' / B .u/ .x ˝ y/ D A;A .' ˝ ' / . B .u// .x ˝ y/
X
m
D A;A .' ˝ ' / vi ˝ wi .x ˝ y/
iD1
X
m
D A;A ' .vi / ˝ ' .wi / .x ˝ y/
iD1
X
m X
m
D A;A .vi '/ ˝ .wi '/ .x ˝ y/ D .vi '/.x/.wi '/.y/
iD1 iD1
X
m X
m
D vi .'.x//wi .'.y// D B;B vi ˝ wi .'.x/ ˝ '.y//
iD1 iD1

D B;B !B;B mB .u/ .'.x/ ˝ '.y// D mB .u/ .'.x/ ˝ '.y//
D u .'.x/'.y// D u .'.xy// D .u'/.xy/;
and hence A;A . A ' / D A;A ..' ˝ ' / B /. Thus we obtain A ' D
.' ˝ ' / B .
Further, for u 2 B , we have the equalities

"A ' .u/ D "A ' .u/ D "A .u'/ D .u'/ .1A / D u .' .1A //
D u .1B / D "B .u/;
so "A ' D "B . This finishes the proof.
1. Coalgebras 551
Lemma 1.4. Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a finite dimensional K-coalgebra. Consider

the K-linear maps

C;C "
mC W C ˝ C ! .C ˝ C / ! C ;
C W K D K ! C :
C C

(i) .C ; mC ;
C / is a finite dimensional K-algebra.
(ii) The algebra .C ; mC ;
C / is commutative if and only if the coalgebra
.C; C ; "C / is cocommutative.
Proof. (i) Observe first that the multiplication f g D mC .f ˝ g/ of f; g 2 C
is given for c 2 C by
X
.f g/ .c/ D C;C .f ˝ g/ . C .c// D f .c1 /g.c2 /:
Then, for f; g; h 2 C and c 2 C , we obtain the equalities

X X
..f g/ h/ .c/ D .f g/ .c1 /h.c2 / D f .c11 /g.c12 /h.c2 /
X
D C;C;C .f ˝ g ˝ h/ c11 ˝ c12 ˝ c2
X
D C;C;C .f ˝ g ˝ h/ c1 ˝ c21 ˝ c22
X X
D f .c1 /g.c21 /h.c22 / D f .c1 / .g h/ .c2 /
D .f .g h// .c/;
and hence .f g/ h D f .g h/.
The unity map
C is given for 2 K and c 2 C by

C ./.c/ D "C .c/;
and hence
C .1/ D "C . Then, for any f 2 C and c 2 C , we obtain
X X

C .1/ f D "C .c1 /f .c2 / D f "C .c1 /c2 D f .c/;
X X
f
C .1/ D f .c1 /"C .c2 / D f c1 "C .c2 / D f .c/;
and hence
C .1/ f D f D f
C .1/.
(ii) For f; g 2 C and c 2 C , we have
X X
.f g/ .c/ D f .c1 /g.c2 / D C;C .f ˝ g/ c1 ˝ c2 ;
X X
.g f / .c/ D g.c1 /f .c2 / D C;C .f ˝ g/ c2 ˝ c1 :
Hence the commutativity of .C ; mC ;

C / is equivalent to the cocommutativity
of .C; C ; "C /.
Lemma 1.5. Let W .C; C ; "C / ! .D; D ; "D / be a homomorphism of fi-

nite dimensional K-coalgebras. Then the dual map W .D ; mD ;
D / !
.C ; mC ;
C / is a homomorphism of K-algebras.
Proof. Let u; v 2 D and c 2 C . Then we have the equalities

.u v/ .c/ D .u v/ . .c// D D;D .u ˝ v/ . D . .c///
D D;D .u ˝ v/ .. ˝ / . C .c/// D C;C .u ˝ v / . C .c//

D C;C .u/ ˝ .v/ . C .c// D .u/
.v/ .c/;
and hence .u v/ D .u/ .v/ in C . Moreover, we have

D ./ .c/ D .
D .// .c/ D
D ./ . .c// D "D . .c//
D ."D / .c/ D "C .c/ D
C ./ .c/

for any 2 K and c 2 C , and hence
D D
C .
Let C D .C; ; "/ be a K-coalgebra. A K-vector subspace B of C is called a K-
subcoalgebra of C if .B/ B ˝ B. Observe that then B D .B; B ; "B /, where
B and "B are restrictions of and " to B, respectively, is a K-coalgebra. A coideal
of the coalgebra C is a K-vector subspace I of C such that .I / I ˝ C C C ˝ I
and ".I / D 0. We note that if I is a coideal of C , then the quotient K-vector
space Cx D C =I admits a unique K-coalgebra structure Cx D .Cx ; ; x "N/ such that
the canonical surjective K-linear map W C ! Cx , c 7! cN D c C I , becomes a
x x
homomorphism of K-coalgebras. Namely, the K-linear homomorphisms P W C !
x x x x
C ˝ C and "N W C ! K are defined by .c C I / D . ˝ / .c/ D cN1 ˝ cN2
and "N.c C I / D ".c/.
Observe that if G 0 is a subgroup of a finite group G then the group algebra
KG 0 of G 0 is a K-subcoalgebra of the group coalgebra KG, with the K-coalgebra
structures defined in Example 1.1 (d). We also note that, if f W C D .C; C ; "C / !
D D .D; D ; "D / is a homomorphism of K-coalgebras then Ker f is a coideal
of C , Im f D .Im f; D jIm f ; "D jIm f / is a K-subcoalgebra of D, and there is an
isomorphism of K-coalgebras C = Ker f ! Im f (see Exercise 7.6).
2 Hopf algebras
Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a K-coalgebra and A D .A; mA ;
A / be a K-algebra. We
may then consider the convolution product
W HomK .C; A/ HomK .C; A/ ! HomK .C; A/
which assigns to f; g 2 HomK .C; A/ the composition

C f ˝g mA
f g W C ! C ˝ C ! A ˝ A ! A:
2. Hopf algebras 553
In the sigma notation, the convolution f g of f; g 2 HomK .C; A/ is given for

c 2 C by
X
.f g/ .c/ D f .c1 /g.c2 /:
Lemma 2.1. Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a K-coalgebra and A D .A; mA ;

A / be
a K-algebra. Then the convolution product of HomK .C; A/ is associative and
A "C is the identity of HomK .C; A/ with respect to .
Proof. Let u; v; w 2 HomK .C; A/ and c 2 C . Then, using the associativity of mA

and the coassociativity of C , we obtain the equalities
X X
..u v/ w/ .c/ D .u v/ .c1 /w.c2 / D.u.c11 /v.c12 // w.c2 /
X X
D u.c11 /v.c12 /w.c2 / D u.c1 /v.c21 /w.c22 /
X X
D u.c1 / .v.c21 /w.c22 // D u.c1 / .v w/ w.c2 /
D .u .v w// .c/;
and hence .u v/ w D u .v w/. Moreover, by the counity property of "C ,

X X
..
A "C / u/ .c/ D .
A "C / .c1 /u.c2 / D "C .c1 /u.c2 /
X
Du "C .c1 /c2
D u.c/;
X X
Œ4pt .u .
A "C // .c/ D u.c1 / .
A "C / .c2 / D u.c1 /"C .c2 /
X
Du c1 "C .c2 /
D u.c/;
and hence .
A "C / u D u D u .
A "C / for any u 2 HomK .C; A/.
Lemma 2.2. Let H be a K-vector space which is endowed with a K-algebra struc-
ture .H; m;
/ and a K-coalgebra structure .H; ; "/. The following conditions
are equivalent.
(i) The maps and " are homomorphism of K-algebras.
(ii) The maps m and

are homomorphisms of K-coalgebras.
Proof. The map W H ! H ˝K H is a homomorphism of K-algebras if and only

if the following diagrams are commutative:
H ˝H
m /H

˝ K /H

H ˝H ˝H ˝H ˇK

idH ˝T ˝idH K ˝K /H ˝H ,
˝
H ˝H ˝H ˝H /H ˝H ,
m˝m
with T D TH;H . Similarly, " W H ! K is a homomorphism of K-algebras if and

only if the following diagrams are commutative:
H ˝H
m /H
/H
KA
AA
AA
"˝" "
A "
idK AA
/K,
K ˝K ˛K K.
On the other hand, m W H ˝K H ! H is a homomorphism of K-coalgebras if and

only if the first and the third diagrams are commutative. Similarly,
W K ! H is a
homomorphism of K-coalgebras if and only if the second and the fourth diagrams
are commutative. Therefore, indeed the conditions (i) and (ii) are equivalent.
A K-bialgebra (bialgebra over K) is a system .H; m;
; ; "/ such that the
(1) .H; m;
/ is a K-algebra,
(2) .H; ; "/ is a K-coalgebra,
(3) and " are homomorphisms of K-algebras (equivalently, m,
are homomor-
phisms of K-coalgebras).
A homomorphism of K-bialgebras .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H / ! .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B /
is a K-linear map f W H ! B which is a homomorphism .H; mH ;
H / !
.B; mB ;
B / of K-algebras and a homomorphism .H; H ; "H / ! .B; B ; "B /
of K-coalgebras.
Let .H; m;
; ; "/ be a bialgebra over K. Then HomK .H; H / is endowed with
the convolution product . A K-linear map S W H ! H is called an antipode of H
if S is the inverse of the identity map idH with respect to the convolution product
, that is, S idH D
H "H D idH S. In the sigma notation, this is equivalent to
the equalities X X
S.h1 /h2 D ".h/1H D h1 S.h2 /
for any h 2 H .
A K-Hopf algebra (Hopf algebra over K) is a system .H; m;

; ; "; S/, where
.H; m;
; ; "/ is a K-bialgebra and S is an antipode. Observe that the antipode
S of H is unique, because S is the inverse of idH with respect to the convolution
product in HomK .H; H /.
A homomorphism of K-Hopf algebras
.H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / ! .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB /
is a homomorphism
f W .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H / ! .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B /
of K-bialgebras.
The following lemma justifies the above definition.
Lemma 2.3. Let
H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / and B D .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB /
be two Hopf algebras over K and let
f W .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H / ! .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B /
be a homomorphism of K-bialgebras. Then SB f D f SH .

Proof. Consider the K-vector space HomK .H; B/ with the convolution product .
Observe that f , SB f and f SH belong to HomK .H; B/. We have for any h 2 H
the equalities
X X
..SB f / f / .h/ D .SB f / .h1 /f .h2 / D SB .f .h1 // f .h2 /
X
D SB .f .h/1 / f .h/2 D "B .f .h// 1B D "H .h/ 1B
D .
B "H / .h/;
X X
.f .f SH // .h/ D f .h1 /f .SH .h2 // D f h1 SH .h2 /
D f ."H .h/1H / D "H .h/f .1H / D "H .h/ 1B D .
B "H / .h/;
and hence .SB f / f D

B "H D f .f SH /. Therefore, SB f is the left inverse of
f and f SH is the right inverse of f in HomK .H; B/ with respect to , since
B "H
is the unit element of HomK .H; B/ with respect to , by Lemma 2.1. Because the
left inverse and the right inverse of f coincide, we obtain that SB f D f SH .
Examples 2.4. (a) The field K is a Hopf algebra over K with its K-algebra structure,
the K-coalgebra structure described in Example 1.1 (a), and the antipode S D
idK W K ! K.
(b) Let n 2 be an integer and Mn .K/ the K-vector space of nn matrices over
K. Then Mn .K/ admits the obvious K-algebra structure (Example I.1.1 (c)) and
the K-coalgebra structure described in Example 1.1 (c). But there is no K-bialgebra
structure, hence no K-Hopf algebra structure, on Mn .K/ with the considered K-
algebra and K-coalgebra structures. Indeed, the counit " W Mn .K/ ! K is defined
(in Example 1.1 (c)) on the basis of Mn .K/ formed by the elementary matrices
by ".Eij / D ıij for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. In particular, we obtain that Ker " is a
K-subspace of Mn .K/ different from f0n g and Mn .K/. On the other hand, by
Corollary I.6.5, Mn .K/ is a simple K-algebra, and so f0n g and Mn .K/ are unique
two-sided ideals of Mn .K/. This shows that " W Mn .K/ ! K is not a homomor-
phism of K-algebras, and the claim follows.
(c) Let G be a finite group and H D KG the group algebra of G over K (see
Example I.1.1 (e)). We know from Example 1.1 (d) that H admits the K-coalgebra
structure .KG; ; "/, with and " given by .g/ D g ˝ g and ".g/ D 1 for any
element g 2 G. Observe also that
.gg 0 / D gg 0 ˝ gg 0 D .g ˝ g/.g 0 ˝ g 0 / D .g/ .g 0 /;
".gg 0 / D 1 D ".g/".g 0 /;
for all g; g 0 2 G, and hence and " are homomorphisms of K-algebras. This
shows that H D KG is a K-bialgebra. Consider the K-linear map S W KG ! KG
given by S.g/ D g 1 for any g 2 G. Then S is an antipode of the K-bialgebra
H D KG, and hence H D KG is a Hopf algebra over K. Indeed, we have the
equalities
X
S.g1 /g2 D S.g/g D g 1 g D e D ".g/1H ;
X
g1 S.g2 / D gS.g/ D gg 1 D e D ".g/1H ;
for any element g 2 G, because the identity e of G is the unit element 1H of the
K-algebra H D KG.
(d) Let KŒX be the polynomial algebra of one variable X over K. Then there
are unique K-algebra homomorphisms
W KŒX ! KŒX ˝ KŒX ; " W KŒX ! K; S W KŒX ! KŒX ;
such that
.X / D X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X; ".X / D 0; S.X / D X;
where 1 D 1K . Observe that, for id D idKŒX , we have
. ˝ id/ .X / D X ˝ 1 ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ 1 ˝ X D .id ˝ / .X /;
." ˝ id/ .X / D ." ˝ id/.X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X / D ".X / ˝ 1 C ".1/ ˝ X D 1 ˝ X;
.id ˝"/ .X / D .id ˝"/.X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X / D X ˝ ".1/ C 1 ˝ ".X / D X ˝ 1;
.S id/.X / D m.S ˝ id/ .X / D m.S ˝ id/.X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X /

D S.X /1 C S.1/X D X C X D 0 D ".X /1;
.id S/.X / D m.id ˝S/ .X / D m.id ˝S/.X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X /
D X S.1/ C 1S.X / D X X D 0 D ".X /1:
Therefore, KŒX is a Hopf algebra over K with the comultiplication , the counit
", and the antipode S. Obviously KŒX is infinite dimensional.
(e) Let K be of characteristic ¤ 2. Consider the K-algebra
H D KhC; Xi=.C 2 1; X 2 ; CX C XC /;
where KhC; Xi is the polynomial algebra in two noncommuting variables C and

X over K. Let c be the coset of C and x the coset of X in H . Then H is a
4-dimensional K-algebra with basis 1; c; x; cx D xc, and we have in H the
relations c 2 D 1, x 2 D 0, cx D xc of the basis elements. We claim that H
admits a Hopf algebra structure over K with the comultiplication , the counit ",
and the antipode S satisfying the relations
.c/ D c ˝ c; .x/ D c ˝ x C x ˝ 1;
".c/ D 1; ".x/ D 0; S.c/ D c; S.x/ D cx:
Observe that

.c/ .c/ D .c ˝ c/.c ˝ c/ D c 2 ˝ c 2 D 1 ˝ 1 D .1/ D c 2 ;
.x/ .x/ D .c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/.c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/

D c 2 ˝ x 2 C cx ˝ x C xc ˝ x C x 2 ˝ 1 D 0 D .0/ D x 2 ;
.c/ .x/ D .c ˝ c/.c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/ D c 2 ˝ cx C cx ˝ c D 1 ˝ cx C cx ˝ c
D .1 ˝ xc C xc ˝ c/ D .c 2 ˝ xc C xc ˝ c/
D .c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/.c ˝ c/ D .x/ .c/;
".c/".x/ D 0 D ".x/".c/;
which shows that there are well-defined homomorphisms of K-algebras W H !

H ˝H and " W H ! K satisfying the imposed relations. Further, is coassociative,
because
. ˝ idH / .c/ D c ˝ c ˝ c D .idH ˝ / .c/;

. ˝ idH / .x/ D . ˝ idH /.c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/ D .c/ ˝ x C .x/ ˝ 1
Dc˝c˝xCc˝x˝1Cx˝1˝1
D c ˝ .x/ C x ˝ .1/
D .idH ˝ /.c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/ D .idH ˝ / .x/:
Moreover, " is the counit for , because
." ˝ idH / .c/ D ." ˝ idH /.c ˝ c/ D ".c/ ˝ 1 D 1 ˝ c;

.idH ˝"/ .c/ D .idH ˝"/.c ˝ c/ D c ˝ ".c/ D c ˝ 1;
." ˝ idH / .x/ D ." ˝ idH /.c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/ D ".c/ ˝ x C ".x/ ˝ 1 D 1 ˝ x;

.idH ˝"/ .x/ D .idH ˝"/.c ˝ x C x ˝ 1/ D c ˝ ".x/ C x ˝ ".1/ D x ˝ 1:
Therefore, we showed that H is a K-bialgebra with the comultiplication and the

counit ".
We show now that the K-linear map S W H ! H such that S.1/ D 1, S.c/ D c,
S.x/ D cx, and S.cx/ D x, is an antipode of the K-bialgebra H . Indeed, we
have the equalities
.S idH /.c/ D S.c/c D c 2 D 1 D ".c/1;

.idH S/.c/ D cS.c/ D c 2 D 1 D ".c/1;
.S idH /.x/ D S.c/x C S.x/1 D cx cx D 0 D ".x/1;
.idH S/.x/ D cS.x/ C xS.1/ D c 2 x C x D x C x D 0 D ".x/1;
.S idH /.cx/ D S.1/cx C S.cx/c D cx C xc D 0 D ".cx/1;
.idH S/.cx/ D 1S.cx/ C cxS.c/ D x C cxc D x c 2 x D x x D 0
D ".cx/1:
We note also that the Hopf algebra H is neither commutative nor cocommutative.
The algebra H is called the Sweedler algebra. It was the first noncommutative and
noncocommutative Hopf algebra, presented by M. E. Sweedler in [Swe1].
(f) Let n 2 be an integer and be a primitive n-th root of unity in K. Recall
that this means that n D 1K but m ¤ 1K for any positive integer m smaller
than n. In particular, if K is of positive characteristic p, then p does not divide n.
Consider the K-algebra
Hn2 ./ D KhC; Xi=.C n 1; X n ; XC CX /:
Denote by c the coset of C and by x the coset of X in Hn2 ./. Then Hn2 ./ is an
n2 -dimensional K-algebra with basis c i x j , i; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g. Moreover, we
have in Hn2 ./ the relations
c n D 1; x n D 0; xc D cx:
Then, as in the above example, a direct checking shows (see Exercise 7.1) that
Hn2 ./ is a Hopf algebra over K with the comultiplication , the counit ", and the
antipode S satisfying the relations

.c/ D c ˝ c; .x/ D c ˝ x C x ˝ 1;
".c/ D 1; ".x/ D 0;
S.c/ D c n1 ; S.x/ D c n1 x:
We note also that the Hopf algebra Hn2 ./ is neither commutative nor cocommu-
tative. The Hopf algebra Hn2 ./ is called the Taft algebra. Observe that for n D 2
and D 1, H4 .1/ coincides with Sweedler’s 4-dimensional algebra considered
above.
(g) Assume that H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / and B D .B; mB ;
B ; B ;
"B ; SB / are Hopf algebras over K. Then we have on the K-vector space H ˝
B D H ˝K B the K-algebra structure .H ˝ B; mH ˝B ;
H ˝B / with mH ˝B D
.mH ˝ mB /.idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / and
H ˝B D .
H ˝
B /ˇK , and the K-coalgebra
structure .H ˝ B; H ˝B ; "H ˝B / with H ˝B D .idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB /. H ˝ B /
and "H ˝B D ˛K ."H ˝ "B /. Let SH ˝B D SH ˝ SB W H ˝ B ! H ˝ B. We
claim that
H ˝ B D .H ˝ B; mH ˝B ;
H ˝B ; H ˝B ; "H ˝B ; SH ˝B /
is a Hopf algebra over K. We have to show that H ˝B and "H ˝B are homomor-
phisms of K-algebras and SH ˝B is the antipode of H ˝ B.
Let g; h 2 H and x; y 2 B. Then we have the equalities
H ˝B ..g ˝ x/.h ˝ y// D H ˝B .gh ˝ xy/
D .idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / . H .gh/ ˝ B .xy//
D .idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / . H .g/ H .h/ ˝ B .x/ B .y//
D .idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / .. H .g/ ˝ B .x// . H .h/ ˝ B .y///
D .idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / . H .g/ ˝ B .x//
.idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / . H .h/ ˝ B .y//
D H ˝B .g ˝ x/ H ˝B .h ˝ y/
and
"H ˝B ..g ˝ x/.h ˝ y// D "H ˝B .gh ˝ xy/ D "H .gh/"B .xy/
D "H .g/"H .h/"B .x/"B .y/
D ."H .g/"B .x// ."H .h/"B .y//
D "H ˝B .g ˝ x/"H ˝B .h ˝ y/:
Moreover, we have H ˝B .1H ˝B / D 1H ˝B˝H ˝B and "H ˝B .1H ˝B / D 1K , and
so H ˝B and "H ˝B are homomorphisms of K-algebras.
For h 2 H and x 2 B, we have also the equalities
.SH ˝B idH ˝B / .h ˝ x/ D mH ˝B .SH ˝B ˝ idH ˝B / H ˝B .h ˝ x/

D .mH ˝ mB /.idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB /.SH ˝ SB ˝ idH ˝ idB /
.idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / . H .h/ ˝ B .x//
X
D .mH ˝ mB /.idH ˝TH;B ˝ idB / SH .h1 / ˝ SB .x1 / ˝ h2 ˝ x2
X X
D SH .h1 /h2 ˝ SB .x1 /x2 D ."H .h/1H / ˝ ."B .x/1B /
D "H .h/"B .x/ .1H ˝ 1B / D .
H ˝B "H ˝B / .h ˝ x/;
and so SH ˝B idH ˝B D
H ˝B "H ˝B . Similarly, we have idH ˝B SH ˝B D
H ˝B "H ˝B .
The Hopf algebra H ˝ B is called a tensor Hopf algebra of Hopf algebras H
and B over K. We note that if H and B are finite dimensional then the Hopf algebra
H ˝ B is finite dimensional and dimK .H ˝ B/ D .dimK H /.dimK B/.
(h) Let K be a subfield of a field L and H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a
Hopf algebra over K. Then we have the extension field L-Hopf algebra
H ˝K L D .H ˝K L; mH ˝K L ;
H ˝K L ; H
L L
; "H ; SH
L
/
with SH
L
W H ˝K L ! H ˝K L given by SH L
.h ˝ l/ D SH .h/ ˝ l for h 2 H
and l 2 L. Clearly, if H is of finite dimension over K, then H ˝K L is of finite
dimension over L and dimK H D dimL .H ˝K L/.
(i) Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. Consider the K-linear
maps
mop D mTH;H and cop D TH;H :
Then .H; mop ;
/ is the opposite algebra to the K-algebra .H; m;
/ and .H; cop ; "/
is the co-opposite coalgebra to the K-coalgebra .H; ; "/ (see Example I.1.1 (g)
and Example 1.1 (f)). We claim that
H op;cop D .H; mop ;

; cop ; "; S/
is a Hopf algebra over K. In order to prove that .H; mop ;

; cop ; "/ is a K-bialgebra,
we have to show that the following diagrams, with T D TH;H , are commutative:
mop /H
H ˝H
cop ˝cop cop
idH ˝T ˝idH mop ˝mop

H ˝H ˝H ˝H /H ˝H ˝H ˝H / H ˝ H;
mop
K /H H ˝H /H KA /H
AA
AA
ˇK cop "˝" "
idK AA
A "
˝
K ˝K / H ˝ H; K ˝K / K; K:
mK
P P
Let g; h 2 H and .g/ D g1 ˝ g2 , .h/ D h1 ˝ h2 . Then we obtain
the equalities
cop mop .g ˝ h/ D .T mT / .g ˝ h/ D T .hg/ D T .h/ .g/

X X
DT h1 ˝ h2 g1 ˝ g2
X
DT h1 g1 ˝ h2 g2
X
D h2 g2 ˝ h1 g1 ;
.mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;L ˝ idH / . cop ˝ cop / .g ˝ h/

D .mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;L ˝ idH / .T ˝ T /. ˝ /.g ˝ h/
D .mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;L ˝ idH / .T ˝ T /
X X
g1 ˝ g2 ˝ h 1 ˝ h2
D .mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;L ˝ idH /

X X
g2 ˝ g1 ˝ h 2 ˝ h1
X
D .mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;L ˝ idH / g2 ˝ g1 ˝ h2 ˝ h1
X
D .mop ˝ mop / g2 ˝ h2 ˝ g1 ˝ h1
X
D .m ˝ m/ .T ˝ T / g2 ˝ h2 ˝ g1 ˝ h1
X X
D .m ˝ m/ h2 ˝ g2 ˝ h1 ˝ g1 D h2 g2 ˝ h1 g1 ;
."mop / .g ˝ h/ D ".hg/ D ".h/".g/ D ".g/".h/ D mK ." ˝ "/ .g ˝ h/:

Moreover, for 2 K, we have the equalities
. cop
/ ./ D T . .
./// D T . .1H // D T . .1H //
D .1H ˝ 1H // D 1H ˝ 1H D .
˝
/.1K ˝ /
D ..
˝
/ˇK / ./;
."
/ ./ D ".1H / D ".1H / D 1K D idK ./;
and so the above diagrams are commutative. We show now that S is the antipode
of the K-bialgebra .H; mop ;
; cop ; "/. Indeed, for h 2 H , we have the equalities
X
.mop .S ˝ idH / cop / .h/ D mop .S ˝ idH / h2 ˝ h1
X X
D mop S.h2 / ˝ h1 D h1 S.h2 /
D ".h/1H D .
"/.h/;
and hence mop .S ˝ idH / cop D

". Similarly, we conclude that the equality
mop .idH ˝S/ cop D
" holds. The Hopf algebra
H op;cop D .H; mop ;

; cop ; "; S/
is called the opposite-co-opposite Hopf algebra of H .
Proposition 2.5. Let H D .H; mH ;

H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a finite dimensional Hopf
algebra over K. Then
H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH /;

with SH D SH , is a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K.
Proof. It follows from Lemma 1.4 that .H ; mH ;

H / with

H
"H

H;H
mH W H ˝ H ! .H ˝ H / ! H ;
H W K D K ! H ;
is a K-algebra. Further, by Lemma 1.2, we know that .H ; H ; "H / with

mH
H
!H;H
H W H ! .H ˝ H / ! H ˝ H ; "H W H ! K D K;
is a K-coalgebra. We show now that the maps H and "H are homomorphisms
of K-algebras, and consequently .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H / is a K-bialgebra.
P
Observe first that for u 2 H , H .u/ D u1 ˝ u2 2 H ˝ H , and
x; y 2 H , we have

u.xy/ D u .mH .x ˝ y// D mH .u/.x ˝ y/ D H;H !H;H mH .u/ .x ˝ y/
X
D H;H . H .u// .x ˝ y/ D H;H u1 ˝ u2 .x ˝ y/
X
D u1 .x/u2 .y/:
P P
Let u; v 2 H , H .u/ D u1 ˝ u2 , H .v/ D v1 ˝ v2 , and x; y 2 H .
Then we obtain the equalities
..H;H H mH / .u ˝ v// .x ˝ y/

D H;H !H;H mH H H;H .u ˝ v/ .x ˝ y/

D mH H H;H .u ˝ v/ .x ˝ y/ D . H mH / H;H .u ˝ v/ .x ˝ y/
D H;H .u ˝ v/ . H mH .x ˝ y// D H;H .u ˝ v/ . H .xy//
D H;H .u ˝ v/ . H .x/ H .y//
X X
D H;H .u ˝ v/ x1 ˝ x2 y1 ˝ y2
X X
D H;H .u ˝ v/ x1 y1 ˝ x2 y2 D u .x1 y1 / v .x2 y2 / ;
..H;H .mH ˝ mH / .idH ˝TH ;H ˝ idH / . H ˝ H // .u ˝ v// .x ˝ y/

D .H;H .mH ˝ mH /.idH ˝TH ;H ˝ idH /
. H .u/ ˝ H .v///.x ˝ y/

D H;H .mH ˝ mH / .idH ˝TH ;H ˝ idH /
X
u1 ˝ u2 ˝ v1 ˝ v2 .x ˝ y/
X
D H;H .mH ˝ mH / u1 ˝ v1 ˝ u2 ˝ v2 .x ˝ y/
X
D H;H mH .u1 ˝ v1 / ˝ mH .u2 ˝ v2 / .x ˝ y/
X
D mH .u1 ˝ v1 /.x/mH .u2 ˝ v2 /.y/
X

D H H;H .u1 ˝ v1 / .x/ H H;H .u2 ˝ v2 / .y/
X
D .H;H .u1 ˝ v1 / . H .x/// .H;H .u2 ˝ v2 / . H .y///
X X X
D H;H .u1 ˝ v1 / x1 ˝ x2 H;H .u2 ˝ v2 / y1 ˝ y2
X X
D u1 .x1 /v1 .x2 /u2 .y1 /v2 .y2 / D u1 .x1 /u2 .y1 /v1 .x2 /v2 .y2 /
X X X X
D u1 .x1 /u2 .y1 / v1 .x2 /v2 .y2 / D u.x1 y1 / v.x2 y2 /;
and hence
H;H H mH D H;H .mH ˝ mH / .idH ˝TH ;H ˝ idH / . H ˝ H / :
Since !H;H H;H D idH ˝H , we then obtain the equality
H mH D .mH ˝ mH / .idH ˝TH ;H ˝ idH / . H ˝ H / :

Moreover we have, for x; y 2 H , the equalities

.H;H H
H / .1K /.x ˝ y/ D H;H !H;H mH "H .1K /.x ˝ y/
D ."H mH / .1K /.x ˝ y/
D "H mH .x ˝ y/ D "H .xy/ D "H .x/"H .y/;

.H;H
H ˝H / .1K /.x ˝ y/ D H;H ."H ˝ "H /ˇK .1K /.x ˝ y/
D mK ."H ˝ "H / .x ˝ y/ D "H .x/"H .y/;
and hence H;H H
H D H;H
H ˝H . Then we get H
H D
H ˝H .
Therefore, we have proved that H is a homomorphism of K-algebras.
We show now that "H is a homomorphism of K-algebras. Take u; v 2 H .
Then we have the equalities

."H mH .u ˝ v// .1K / D
H H .H;H .u ˝ v// .1K /

D . H
H / H;H .u ˝ v/ .1K / D H;H .u ˝ v/ .. H
H / .1K //
D H;H .u ˝ v/ H .1H / D H;H .u ˝ v/.1H ˝ 1H /
D u.1H /v.1H /;

.mK ."H ˝ "H / .u ˝ v// .1K / D mK
H ˝
H .u ˝ v/ .1K /

D ˇK K;K .u
H ˝ v
H / .1K / D K;K .u
H ˝ v
H / ˇK .1K /
D K;K .u
H ˝ v
H / .1K ˝ 1K / D .u
H / .1K / .v
H / .1K /
D u.1H /v.1H /;
and hence "H mH D mK ."H ˝ "H /. Moreover, we have

."H
H / .1K / D
H "H .1K / D ."H
H / .1K /
D "H
H .1K / D "H .1H / D 1K ;
and hence "H
H D idK D idK . This shows that "H is indeed a homomorphism
of K-algebras.
Summing up, we have proved that .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H / is a K-bialgebra.

We claim now that SH D SH is its antipode. For u 2 H , x 2 H , we have the
equalities
..SH idH / .u// .x/ D .mH .SH ˝ idH / H .u// .x/
X
D H H;H SH ˝ idH u1 ˝ u2 .x/
X
D H;H SH ˝ idH u1 ˝ u2 . H .x//
X X X

D H;H SH .u1 / ˝ u2 x1 ˝ x2 D SH .u1 / .x1 /u2 .x2 /
X X X
D u1 .SH .x1 // u2 .x2 / D H;H u1 ˝ u2 SH .x1 / ˝ x2
X
D H;H . H .u// SH .x1 / ˝ x2
X

D H;H !H;H mH .u/ SH .x1 / ˝ x2
X X
D u mH SH .x1 / ˝ x2 D u SH .x1 /x2 D u ."H .x/1H /

D u .
H "H .x// D .
H "H / .u/.x/ D "H
H .u/.x/ D .
H "H / .u/.x/;
and hence SH idH D

H "H . Similarly, one can show that idH SH D

H "H . Therefore, SH D SH is the antipode of the K-bialgebra H .

As a consequence of Lemmas 1.3 and 1.5 we obtain the following fact.
Corollary 2.6. Let ' W .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / ! .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB / be
a homomorphism of finite dimensional Hopf algebras over K. Then the dual map
' W .B ; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB / ! .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH /
is a homomorphism of Hopf algebras over K.

We note also the following essential fact whose proof is left to the reader (see
Exercise 7.7).
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a finite dimensional
Hopf algebra over K and H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be the
double dual Hopf algebra of H over K. Then the canonical K-linear isomorphism
eH W H ! H D .H / is an isomorphism of K-Hopf algebras.
We exhibit now basic properties of the antipodes of Hopf algebras that play an
important role in further considerations.
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a Hopf algebra over K.
Then the following equalities hold.
(i) SH .hg/ D SH .g/SH .h/ for any g; h 2 H .
(ii) SH .1H / D 1H .
P
(iii) H .SH .h// D SH .h2 / ˝ SH .h1 / for any h 2 H .
(iv) "H .SH .h// D "H .h/ for any h 2 H .
Proof. Since .H; H ; "H / is a K-coalgebra, we may consider the tensor product
coalgebra H ˝ H D .H ˝ H; H ˝H ; "H ˝H / over K, defined in Example 1.1 (e).
Then, using the K-algebra structure H D .H; mH ;
H / on H , we may consider
HomK .H ˝H; H / with the convolution product . Let '; 2 HomK .H ˝H; H /
be the maps defined by
'.h ˝ g/ D SH .g/SH .h/ and .h ˝ g/ D SH .hg/

for h; g 2 H . We also note that the multiplication mH of H is an element of

HomK .H ˝ H; H /. We claim that mH ' D
H "H ˝H and mH D
H "H ˝H
in HomK .H ˝ H; H /, and consequently ' D , because
H "H ˝H is the identity
element in HomK .H ˝ H; H / with respect to , by Lemma 2.1.
Let h; g 2 H . Then we have the equalities
.mH '/.h ˝ g/ D .mH .mH ˝ '/ H ˝H / .h ˝ g/
X
D mH .mH ˝ '/ h1 ˝ g1 ˝ h2 ˝ g2
X
D mH mH .h1 ˝ g1 / ˝ '.h2 ˝ g2 /
X X X
D h1 g1 SH .g2 /SH .h2 / D h1 g1 SH .g2 / SH .h2 /
X X
D h1 ."H .g/1H / SH .h2 / D h1 SH .h2 / ."H .g/1H /
D ."H .h/1H / ."H .g/1H / D ."H .h/"H .g// 1H
D
H "H ˝H .h ˝ g/;
. mH /.h ˝ g/ D .mH . ˝ mH / H ˝H / .h ˝ g/
X
D mH . ˝ mH / h1 ˝ g1 ˝ h2 ˝ g2
X
D mH .h1 ˝ g1 / ˝ mH .h2 ˝ g2 /
X X
D SH .h1 g1 /h2 g2 D SH ..hg/1 / .hg/2
D "H .hg/1H D ."H .h/"H .g// 1H D .
H "H ˝H / .h ˝ g/:
This shows that (i) holds.
(ii) Since H W H ! H ˝ H is a homomorphism of K-algebras we have
H .1H / D 1H ˝H D 1H ˝ 1H . Then it follows from the definition of the antipode
that
S.1H / D S.1H /1H D ".1H /1H D 1K 1H D 1H ;
because "H W H ! K is a homomorphism of K-algebras and 1K 1H D 1H by the
definition of K-algebra.
(iii) Consider the K-coalgebra .H; H ; "H /, the tensor K-algebra H ˝ H D
.H ˝ H; mH ˝H ;
H ˝H /, and HomK .H; H ˝ H / with the convolution product
. Let u; v 2 HomK .H; H ˝ H / be the maps defined by
X
u.h/ D H .SH .h// and v.h/ D SH .h2 / ˝ SH .h1 /
for h 2 H . Observe also that H 2 HomK .H; H ˝ H /. We will show the equali-
ties H u D
H ˝H "H and v H D
H ˝H "H in HomK .H; H ˝H /, and conse-
quently that u D v, because
H ˝H "H is the identity element in HomK .H; H ˝H /
with respect to , again by Lemma 2.1.
Let h 2 H . Then we have the equalities
. H u/.h/ D .mH ˝H . H ˝ u/ H / .h/

X
D mH ˝H . H ˝ u/ h1 ˝ h2
X
D H .h1 / H .SH .h2 //
X
D H h1 SH .h2 /
D H ."H .h/1H /
D "H .h/ H .1H / D "H .h/ .1H ˝ 1H / D .
H ˝H "H / .h/
and
.v H /.h/ D .mH ˝H .v ˝ H / H / .h/
X
D .mH ˝H .v ˝ H // h1 ˝ h2
X
D mH ˝H v.h1 / ˝ H .h2 /
X
D mH ˝H SH .h12 / ˝ SH .h11 / ˝ h21 ˝ h22
D .mH ˝H .SH ˝ SH ˝ idH ˝ idH / .TH;H ˝ idH ˝ idH /
. H ˝ H / H /.h/
D .mH ˝H .SH ˝ SH ˝ idH ˝H / .TH;H ˝ idH ˝H /
.idH ˝ H ˝ idH / .idH ˝ H / H /.h/
D mH ˝H .SH ˝ SH ˝ idH ˝H / .TH;H ˝ idH ˝H /
X
h1 ˝ H .h21 / ˝ h22
D mH ˝H .SH ˝ SH ˝ idH ˝H / .TH;H ˝ idH ˝H /
X
h1 ˝ h211 ˝ h212 ˝ h22
X
D mH ˝H SH .h211 / ˝ SH .h1 / ˝ h212 ˝ h22
X
D SH .h211 /h212 ˝ SH .h1 /h22
X
D ."H .h21 /1H / ˝ SH .h1 /h22
X
D 1H ˝ "H .h21 /SH .h1 /h22
X X
D 1H ˝ SH .h1 / "H .h21 /h22
X
D 1H ˝ SH .h1 /h2 D 1H ˝ "H .h/1H
D "H .h/ .1H ˝ 1H / D .
H ˝H "H / .h/:
This shows that (iii) holds.

P
(iv) Let h 2 H . Since SH is the antipode of H , the equality h1 SH .h2 / D
"H .h/1H holds. Then, applying the K-algebra homomorphism "H W H ! K to
this equality, we obtain that
X
"H .h/ D "H .h/1K D "H .h/"H .1H / D "H ."H .h/1H / D "H h1 SH .h2 /
X X
D "H .h1 /"H .SH .h2 // D "H SH "H .h1 /h2
D "H .SH .h// :
The equalities presented in Proposition 2.8 can be equivalently formulated as
follows.
Corollary 2.9. Let H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a Hopf algebra over K
op cop
and H op;cop D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / its opposite-co-opposite Hopf algebra.
Then the antipode SH W H ! H induces the homomorphism SH W H ! H op;cop
of Hopf algebras over K.
Proof. Observe that the equalities (i) and (ii) in Proposition 2.8 mean that
op
SH W .H; mH ;
H / ! .H; mH ;
H /
is a homomorphism of K-algebras, while the equalities (iii) and (iv) say that
cop
SH W .H; H ; "H / ! .H; H ; "H /
is a homomorphism of K-coalgebras. Then the claim follows, because a homomor-
phism of Hopf algebras is just a homomorphism of underlying bialgebras.
The following simple lemma reduces checking the antipode condition of a K-
linear endomorphism of a K-bialgebra to checking it for the algebra generators.
Lemma 2.10. Let H D .H; m;
; ; "/ be a bialgebra over K and S W H !
H op a homomorphism of K-algebras. Assume g, h are elements of H such that
.S idH /.g/ D
".g/ D .idH S/.g/ and .S idH /.h/ D
".h/ D .idH S/.h/
Then we have also .S idH /.gh/ D
".gh/ D .idH S/.gh/.
Proof. We have the equalities
X X
.S idH / .gh/ D S ..gh/1 / .gh/2 D S .g1 h1 / g2 h2
X X X
D S.h1 /S.g1 /g2 h2 D S.h1 / S .g1 / g2 h2
X X
D S.h1 /".g/h2 D ".g/ S .h1 / h2 D ".g/".h/1H
D ".gh/1H D
.".gh// :
Similarly, we show that .idH S/.gh/ D
.".gh//.
Proposition 2.11. Let H D .H; m;

; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. The
P
(i) S.h2 /h1 D ".h/1H for any h 2 H .
P
(ii) h2 S.h1 / D ".h/1H for any h 2 H .
(iii) S2 D idH .
Proof. We first show that (i) and (iii) are equivalent. Assume (i) holds. For each
h 2 H , we have, by Proposition 2.8, the equalities
X X X
S S2 .h/ D S.h1 /S2 .h2 / D S.h1 /S .S.h2 // D S .S.h2 /h1 /
X
DS S.h2 /h1 D S .".h/1H / D ".h/S.1H / D ".h/1H
D .
"/ .h/;
and hence S S2 D
". Since idH is also the right inverse of S with respect to ,
PS D idH . Hence (i) implies (iii). Assume (iii) holds.2 For any
2
we conclude that
h 2 H we have S.h1 /h2 D ".h/1H . Using Proposition 2.8 again and S D idH ,
we obtain that
X X X X
S.h2 /h1 D S.h2 /S .S.h1 // D S .S.h1 /h2 / D S S.h1 /h2
D S .".h/1H / D ".h/S.1H / D ".h/1H :
Hence, indeed (iii) implies (i).

The proof that (ii) and (iii) are equivalent is similar. For (ii) ) (iii), one proves
that S2 SP
D
", and then S2 D idH . The implication (iii) ) (ii) follows from the
equalities h1 S.h2 / D ".h/1H , for h 2 H , by application of Proposition 2.8.
Corollary 2.12. Let H D .H; m;

; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. Assume
that H is commutative or cocommutative. Then S2 D idH .
P
Proof. Assume H is commutative. For h 2 H , we have S.h1 /hP
2 D ".h/1H ,
by the defining property of S. Since H is commutative, this gives
P h2 S.h1 / D
S.h1 /h2 D ".h/1H , which is the condition (ii) in Proposition 2.11. Therefore,
we get S2 D idH .
Assume H is cocommutative. Then for any h 2 H , we have the equalities
X
S.h2 /h1 D m .S ˝ idH / .TH;H .h// D m .S ˝ idH / . .h//
X
D S.h1 /h2 D ".h/1H ;
and so the condition (i) in Proposition 2.11 is satisfied. This leads to S2 D idH .
It follows from the above corollary that the antipode of a commutative or cocom-
mutative Hopf algebra is a K-linear isomorphism. We will show in Theorem 3.4
that it is also the case for any finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K.
Examples 2.13. (a) Let H D .H; m;

; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K such
that the antipode S is a K-linear isomorphism. Then

H op D H; mop ;
; ; "; S1
is a Hopf algebra over K, called the opposite Hopf algebra of H. Clearly, .H; mop ;
/
is the K-algebra (opposite to H ) and .H; ; "/ is a K-coalgebra. We claim that
and " are also homomorphisms of K-algebras after replacing the algebra H by its
opposite algebra H op . Indeed, for h; g 2 H , we have the equalities
mop .h ˝ g/ D .gh/ D .g/ .h/

X X X
D g1 ˝ g2 h1 ˝ h2 D g1 h1 ˝ g2 h2 ;
.mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;H ˝ idH / . ˝ / .h ˝ g/

X
D .mop ˝ mop / .idH ˝TH;H ˝ idH / h1 ˝ h2 ˝ g1 ˝ g2
X
D .mop ˝ mop / h1 ˝ g1 ˝ h2 ˝ g2
X X
D mop .h1 ˝ g1 / ˝ mop .h2 ˝ g2 / D g1 h1 ˝ g2 h2 ;
"mop .h ˝ g/ D ".gh/ D ".g/".h/ D ".h/".g/ D mK .".h/ ˝ ".g// :

Moreover, we have
D .
˝
/ˇK and "
D idK .
We will show now that S1 is the antipode of the K-bialgebra .H; mop ;
; ; "/.
For h 2 H , we obtain from Proposition 2.8 the equalities
X
S mop .S1 ˝ idH / .h/ D Smop .S1 ˝ idH / h1 ˝ h2
X X
D Smop S1 .h1 / ˝ h2 D S h2 S1 .h1 /
X X 1 X
D S h2 S1 .h1 / D S S .h1 / S .h2 / D h1 S .h2 /
D ".h/1H D ".h/S.1H / D S .".h/1H / D S .
".h// ;

and hence
S mop S1 ˝ idH D S .
"/. Applying S1 , we obtain the equality
mop S1 ˝ idH D
", which shows that the equality S1 idH D
" holds in
HomK .H op ; H op /. Similarly, one shows that the equality idH S1 D
" holds in
HomK .H op ; H op /.
(b) Let H D .H; m;

; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K such that the antipode
S is a K-linear isomorphism. Then

H cop D H; m;
; cop ; "; S1
is a Hopf algebra over K, called the co-opposite Hopf algebra of H . Clearly,

.H; m;
/ is a K-algebra. Moreover, .H; cop ; "/ is a K-coalgebra, where cop D
TH;H (see Example 1.1 (g)). We claim that cop and " are homomorphisms of K-
algebras for the K-algebra structure on H given by m and
. Indeed, for h; g 2 H ,
cop m.h ˝ g/ D TH;H m.h ˝ g/ D TH;H .hg/ D TH;H . .h/ .g//

X X
D TH;H h1 ˝ h2 g1 ˝ g2
X X
D TH;H h1 g1 ˝ h2 g2 D h2 g2 ˝ h1 g1 ;
.m ˝ m/ .idH ˝TH;H ˝ idH / . cop ˝ cop / .h ˝ g/

D .m ˝ m/ .idH ˝TH;H ˝ idH / . cop .h/ ˝ cop .g//
X X
D .m ˝ m/ .idH ˝TH;H ˝ idH / h2 ˝ h1 ˝ g 2 ˝ g1
X
D .m ˝ m/ .idH ˝TH;H ˝ idH / h2 ˝ h1 ˝ g2 ˝ g1
X X
D .m ˝ m/ h2 ˝ g2 ˝ h1 ˝ g1 D h2 g2 ˝ h1 g1 :
Moreover, we have cop

D TH;H
D TH;H .
˝
/ˇK D .
˝
/ˇK , "m D
mK ." ˝ "/, and "
D idK .
We will show now that S1 is the antipode for the K-bialgebra .H; m;
; cop ; "/.
For h 2 H , invoking Proposition 2.8, we obtain the equalities
X
S m.S1 ˝ idH / cop .h/ D Sm.S1 ˝ idH / h2 ˝ h1
X X
D .Sm/ S1 .h2 / ˝ h1 D S S1 .h2 /h1
X X X
D S S1 .h2 /h1 D S .h1 / S S1 .h2 / D S .h1 / h2
D ".h/1H D ".h/S.1H / D S .".h/1H / D S .
".h// ;

and hence S m S1 ˝ idH cop D S .
"/. Applying S1 , we obtain the equality
m S1 ˝ idH cop D
", which shows that S1 idH D
" in HomK .H cop ; H cop /.
Similarly, idH S1 D
" holds in HomK .H cop ; H cop /.
Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. Then a K-vector sub-
space B of H is called a K-Hopf subalgebra of H if B is a K-subalgebra of
H D .H; m;
/, a K-subcoalgebra of H D .H; ; "/, and S.B/ B. Observe that
then B is a K-Hopf algebra B D .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB / with B ; "B ; SB the re-
strictions of , ", S to B. Further, a K-vector subspace I of H is called a Hopf ideal
of H if I is an ideal of H , a coideal of H , and S.I / I . We note that then the factor
space H x D H=I admits a unique K-Hopf algebra structure H x D .H x ; m;
N
; x
x "N; S/
N ;
x
such that the canonical surjective K-linear map W H ! H , .h/ D h C I for
h 2 H , is a homomorphism of K-Hopf algebras. Obviously, the antipode S x of
x x
H is defined by S.h C I / D S.h/ C I for any h 2 H . We also note that, if
f W H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / ! B D .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB / is a homo-
morphism of Hopf algebras over K, then Ker f is a Hopf ideal of H , Im f is a
K-Hopf subalgebra of B, and there is a canonical isomorphism of K-Hopf algebras
H= Ker f ! Im f (see Exercise 7.6).
In the theory of Hopf algebras a prominent role is played by special elements.
Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. An element g of H is
said to be a grouplike element if g ¤ 0 and .g/ D g ˝g. Observe that the identity
1H of H is a grouplike element, because W H ! H ˝ H is a homomorphism
of K-algebras, and hence .1H / D 1H ˝H D 1H ˝ 1H . The set of all grouplike
elements of the Hopf algebra H will be denoted by G.H /.
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. Then
(i) G.H / is a group with respect to the multiplication in H .
(ii) G.H / consists of linearly independent elements of H .
Proof. (i) We know that 1H 2 G.H /. Further, for g; h 2 G.H /, we have .gh/ D
.g/ .h/ D .g ˝ g/.h ˝ h/ D gh ˝ gh, and hence gh 2 G.H /. Observe also
that for g 2 G.H / the counity condition g D g".g/ and g ¤ 0 force ".g/ D 1.
Then, for g 2 G.H /, the antipode conditions lead to the equalities
S.g/g D m.S ˝ idH / .g/ D ".g/1H D 1H ;

gS.g/ D m.idH ˝S/ .g/ D ".g/1H D 1H ;
and hence S.g/ is the inverse g 1 of g in G.H / with respect to the multiplication
in H . Therefore, G.H / is a group.
(ii) Assume that G.H / admits a subset of linearly dependent elements over K.
Let n be the smallest natural number such that
X
n
gD i gi
iD1
for some pairwise distinct elements g; g1 ; : : : ; gn of G.H /, and 1 ; : : : ; n 2 K.

Since the elements of G.H / are nonzero, we have i ¤ 0 for some i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
For n D 1, we have g D 1 g1 , and then 1 D ".g/ D ".1 g1 / D 1 ".g1 / D 1 ,

which gives g D g1 , a contradiction. Hence n 2. Applying to the above linear
dependence relation, we obtain
X
n Xn X
n
g ˝ g D .g/ D i gi D i .gi / D i .gi ˝ gi / :
iD1 iD1 iD1
Then we conclude that

X
n X
n
X
n
j k gj ˝ gk D i .gi ˝ gi / :
j D1 kD1 iD1
On the other hand, it follows from the choice of n that g1 ; : : : ; gn are linearly
independent elements of H . But then gj ˝ gk , j; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, are linearly
independent elements of H ˝ H . Then it follows that j k D 0, for all j ¤ k in
f1; : : : ; ng, and 2i D i for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng. This implies that i D 1 for some
i 2 f1; : : : ; ng and j D 0 for all j ¤ i , again a contradiction.
; ; "; S/ be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra
over K. Then G.H / is a finite group and the group algebra KG.H / of G.H / is a
K-Hopf subalgebra of H .
Proof. It follows from Proposition 2.14 (ii) that the K-linear subspace of H gen-
erated by the elements of G.H / has dimension jG.H /j, and is the underlying
K-vector space of the group algebra KG.H / of G.H /. Moreover, it follows from
Proposition 2.14 (i) and its proof that KG.H / is a K-Hopf subalgebra of H .
Moreover, we have the following fact.
Lemma 2.16. Let H D .H; mH ;
algebra over K and H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / the dual Hopf al-
gebra of H . Then G.H / is the set of all K-algebra homomorphisms from H
to K.
Proof. Let f 2 H D HomK .H; K/. Then H .f / D f ˝ f is equiv-
alent to the equality H;H . H .f // D H;H .f ˝ f /, where H;H W H ˝
H ! .H ˝ H / is the canonical K-linear isomorphism. Further, H;H H D

H;H !H;H mH D mH , and hence H;H . H .f // D mH .f / D f mH . There-

fore, f 2 G.H / if and only if for all elements a; b 2 H we have
f .ab/ D .f mH /.a ˝ b/ D H;H .f ˝ f /.a ˝ b/ D f .a/f .b/:
Further, for f 2 G.H /, we have "H .f / D 1K , or equivalently f .1H / D 1K ,

because "H D
H assigns to f the element f .1H / D f .
H .1K //. Summing up,
we have proved that f 2 G.H / if and only if f W H ! K is a homomorphism of
K-algebras.

over a field K. The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) H is isomorphic as K-algebra to the product K n D K K of n copies

of the field K, for some positive integer n.
(ii) H is isomorphic as Hopf algebra over K to the dual Hopf algebra .KG/ of
the group Hopf algebra KG of a finite group G.
Proof. Assume (i) holds, and H Š K n , for some n 1, as K-algebras. Then

there are exactly n pairwise different K-algebra homomorphisms from H to K
(see Exercise I.12.40). Consider the dual Hopf algebra H of H over K. It follows
from Proposition 2.14 and Lemma 2.16 that G.H / is a finite group of order n and
the group algebra KG.H / is a K-Hopf subalgebra of H . Since
dimK H D dimK H D n D jG.H /j D dimK KG.H /;
we conclude that KG.H / D H . Moreover, by Proposition 2.7, the canonical

K-linear isomorphism H ! .H / induces an isomorphism of the Hopf algebras
H and .H / . Therefore, H is isomorphic to the dual Hopf algebra .KG.H //
of the group Hopf algebra KG.H / of the finite group G.H / of the grouplike
elements in H . This proves (ii).
In order to show that (ii) implies (i), it is enough to show that the dual algebra
.KG/ of the group coalgebra KG of a finite group G is isomorphic to the product
K K of jGj copies of the field K. Let G be a finite group. Then the elements
g 2 G form a basis of KG over K. We consider the dual basis g , g 2 P G, of .KG/
over K. Hence every element u 2 .KG/ has a unique presentation g2G g g ,

where g 2 K for g 2 G. Take now g; h; x 2 G. Then, by Lemma 1.4, we have

g h .x/ D KG KG;KG g ˝ h .x/ D KG;KG g ˝ h . KG .x//

D KG;KG g ˝ h .x ˝ x/ D g .x/h .x/:
Hence, we conclude that .g h / .x/ ¤ 0 if and only if g D h D x. Moreover,

for g D h D x we have .g g / .g/ D g .g/g .g/ D 1K 1K D 1K . This shows
that g h D ıg;h g for all g; h 2 G. Therefore, we obtain an isomorphism of
K-algebras Y
.KG/ D Kg Š K jGj :
g2G
It follows from the above proposition that on a semisimple algebra being the
product K K K of n copies of a field K there are many Hopf algebra
structures given by all finite groups of order n.
Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over a field K. An element
x 2 H is said to be primitive if .x/ D x ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x, where 1 D 1H . We
note that the set P .H / of all primitive elements of H is a K-vector subspace of H .

Observe also that for any element x 2 P .H / we have ".x/ D 0 and S.x/ D x,
because the counity property of " gives x D ".x/1 C ".1/x D ".x/ C x and the
antipode condition of S leads to S.x/ C x D S.x/1 C S.1/x D ".x/1 D 0.
It follows from Example 2.4 (d) that the polynomial algebra KŒX in one variable
X admits a Hopf structure over K with X being a primitive element. More generally,
we have the following example.
Example 2.18. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over K and TK .V / the
tensor algebra of V over K (see Example II.3.6 (b)). Recall that
1
M
TK .V / D TKn .V /;
nD0
where TK0 .V / D K, TK1 .V/ D V , and TKn .V / D V ˝n is the tensor product

V ˝ ˝ V of n copies of V over K, for n 2.
Consider the K-linear maps
W V ! V ˝ V; " W V ! K; S W V ! V
given for x 2 V by
.x/ D x ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x; ".x/ D 0; S.x/ D x:
We will show that we may extend these maps to K-linear homomorphisms
W TK .V / ! TK .V / ˝ TK .V /; " W TK .V / ! K; S W TK .V / ! TK .V /
which define on TK .V / a Hopf algebra structure over K, called the tensor Hopf
algebra of V over K.
In order to avoid possible confusion we introduce the following notation: if
x D x1 ˝ ˝ xm 2 TKm .V / and y D y1 ˝ ˝ yn 2 TKn .V / are two tensor
monomials of TK .V / then we denote by x x̋ y the tensor monomial in TK .V / ˝
TK .V / having x on the first position and y on the second position. For example,
if x D v ˝ v 2 TK2 .V / and y D v 2 TK1 .V /, for some v 2 V , then in our notation
we have x x̋ y D .v ˝ v/ ˝ v and y x̋ x D v ˝ .v ˝ v/.
Denote by i W V ! TK .V / the canonical K-linear monomorphism such that
i.v/ D v 2 TK1 .V / for any v 2 V . Moreover, consider the K-linear map
f W V ! TK .V / ˝ TK .V / defined by f .v/ D v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v for any v 2 V . Then,
by the universal property of TK .V / (see Exercise II.8.4), there exists a unique ho-
momorphism of K-algebras W TK .V / ! TK .V / ˝ TK .V / such that i D f .
Observe that is coassociative. Indeed, for id D idTK .V / and v 2 V , we have

.. ˝ id/ / .v/ D . ˝ id/ v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v D v x̋ 1 x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ 1 x̋ v

D .id ˝ / v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v D ..id ˝ / / .v/;
and hence . ˝ id/ D .id ˝ / , because the elements v 2 V D TK1 .V /

generated the K-algebra TK .V /.
Taking now the zero homomorphism 0 W V ! K, we conclude that there is a
unique homomorphism of K-algebras " W TK .V / ! K such that "i D 0. Then, for
v 2 V , we have the equalities

." ˝ id/ .v/ D ." ˝ id/ v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v D ".v/˝1 C ".1/˝v D 1˝v D ˇ.v/;

.id ˝"/ .v/ D .id ˝"/ v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v D v˝".1/ C 1˝".v/ D v˝1 D .v/;
where ˇ D ˇTK .V / W TK .V / ! K ˝ TK .V / and D TK .V / W TK .V / !
TK .V / ˝ K are the canonical K-linear isomorphisms, and consequently " is the
counit for W TK .V / ! TK .V / ˝ TK .V / defined above. This defines on TK .V /
the requested K-bialgebra structure. We construct now an antipode. Consider the
opposite algebra TK .V /op of TK .V / and the K-linear map g W V ! TK .V /op de-
fined by g.v/ D v for any v 2 V . Then, by the universal property of TK .V /,
there exists a unique homomorphism of K-algebras S W TK .V / ! TK .V /op such
that S.v/ D v for any v 2 i.V / D TK1 .V /. Observe that, for any tensor monomial
x D x1 ˝ ˝ xm 2 TKm .V /, we have S.x/ D S.x1 : : : xm / D S.xm / : : : S.x1 / D
.xm / : : : .x1 / D .1/m xm : : : x1 D .1/m xm ˝ ˝ x1 . We may regard
S W TK .V / ! TK .V / as the antihomomorphism S W TK .V / ! TK .V / of K-
algebras. Observe now that, for v 2 TK1 .V /, we have the equalities
.S id/ .v/ D S.v/1 C S.1/v D v C v D 0 D ".v/1K ;
.id S/ .v/ D vS.1/ C 1S.v/ D v v D 0 D ".v/1K ;
since .v/ D v x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ v. Then the validity of the equalities
.S id/.x/ D 0 D ".x/1K D 0 D .id S/.x/
for an arbitrary tensor monomial x 2 TKm .V /, m 2, follows from Lemma 2.10.
Observe that V consists of primitive elements of TK .V / and generates TK .V / as
K-algebra. We also note that, as K-algebra, TK .V / is isomorphic to the polynomial
algebra KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i of polynomials in noncommuting variables X1 ; : : : ; Xn
over K, where n D dimK V (see Exercise II.8.6). Obviously, TK .V / is an infinite
dimensional Hopf algebra over K.
The next lemma and the following examples show that for finite dimensional
Hopf algebras over a field K, the dimension of the space of primitive elements
depends heavily on the characteristic of K.
over a field K of characteristic zero. Then P .H / D 0.
Proof. Assume that there is a nonzero primitive element x in H . We claim that then,
for any positive integer n, the elements 1 D 1H ; x : : : ; x n are linearly independent.
This will lead to a contradiction, because H has finite dimension over K.
We prove the claim by induction on n. For n D 1, a relation 1 C x D 0 leads

to 0 D ".1 C x/ D ".1/ C ".x/ D , because ".1/ D 1 and ".x/ D 0, and
then x ¤ 0 forces D 0.
Let n 2 and assume that 1; x : : : ; x n1 P
are linearly independent over K. Let
0 ; 1 ; : : : ; n be elements of K such that nrD0 r x r D 0. Since the comul-
tiplication W H ! H ˝ H is a homomorphism of K-algebras, we obtain the
equalities
X
n Xn X
n
0D r x r D r .x r / D 0 .1 ˝ 1/ C r .x r /
rD0 rD0 rD1
X
n
D 0 .1 ˝ 1/ C r .x ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x/r
rD1
Xn r

X
r
D 0 .1 ˝ 1/ C r x i ˝ x ri
rD1
i
iD0
X
n1 X
r
X n

r i n i
D 0 .1 ˝ 1/ C r x ˝ x ri C n x ˝ x ni :
rD1 iD0
i i
iD0
Further, because 1; x; : : : ; x n1 are linearly independent elements of H , we may

choose elements u0 ; u1 ; : : : ; un1 2 H such that us .x t / D ıs;t for any s; t 2
f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g. Consider now the K-linear isomorphism H;H W H ˝ H !
.H ˝ H / . Then we obtain the relation
Xn

n
0 D H;H .u1 ˝ un1 / r x r
D n D nn :
rD0
1
P
This gives n D 0, because K is of characteristic zero. Hence n1
rD0 r x D 0, and
r
we conclude, by our induction assumption, that r D 0 for any r 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n1g.

Examples 2.20. Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0.
(a) Let KŒX be the polynomial algebra of one variable X with the Hopf algebra
structure described in Example 2.4 (d). Then, for any positive integer n, we have
p
n
X
n
pn pn pn p n
X D .X / D .X ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ X / D X i ˝ X p i
i
iD0
pn pn
DX ˝1C1˝X ;
pn n n
because i , for i 2 f1; : : : ; p n 1g, is divisible by p, and so pi X i ˝ X p i D
0. In particular, the space P .KŒX / of primitive elements of KŒX is infinite
dimensional. In fact, it is easy to check that

1
M n
P .KŒX / D KX p :
nD0
pn
n n n
Moreover, we have also " X D " .X /p D 0 and S X p D S .X /p D
n n
.1/p X p for n 1. m
Therefore, for any positive integer m, the principal ideal X p of KŒX gen-
pm
erated by X m is a Hopf ideal of KŒX , and consequently the quotient algebra
KŒX= X p is a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K of dimension p m . More-
m
over, for the coset x D X C X p , we have
M
ı pm m1 r
P KŒX X D Kx p :
rD0
(b) Let n 2 be an integer and KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i be the polynomial algebra in n

noncommuting variables X1 ; : : : ; Xn over K. Then KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i is isomorphic,
as a K-algebra, to the tensor algebra TK .K n / of n-dimensional affine space K n
over K, and consequently admits (see Example 2.18) the structure of Hopf algebra
over K with the comultiplication , the counit ", and the antipode S given by
.Xi / D Xi ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ Xi ; ".Xi / D 0; S.Xi / D Xi
for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.
Fix now positive integers r1 ; : : : ; rn . Then, for any i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we have
ri r ri ri
Xip D .Xi /p i D Xip ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ Xip ;
ri ri
" Xip D " .Xi /p D 0;
ri ri ri ri
S Xip D S .Xi /p D .1/p Xip :
r1 rn
This shows that the ideal X1p ; : : : ; Xnp of KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i generated by
p r1 p rn
X1 ; : : : ; Xn is a Hopf ideal, and consequently the quotient algebra
ı r1 rn
KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i X1p ; : : : ; Xnp
is a Hopf algebra. Observe that it is again an infinite dimensional Hopf algebra.
Indeed, the cosets
r1 rn
.X1 X2 /j C X1p ; : : : ; Xnp ; j 1;
are linearly independent elements of this Hopf algebra.
(c) Let n 2 be an integer and KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i the polynomial Hopf algebra
in n noncommuting variables X1 ; : : : ; Xn over K. Fix positive integers r1 ; : : : ; rn .
Consider the ideal I.r1 ; : : : ; rn / of KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i generated by the elements
ri
• Xip , for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
• Xi Xj Xj Xi , for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng with i ¤ j .
For i ¤ j in f1; : : : ; ng, we have the equalities

Xi Xj Xj Xi D .Xi / .Xj / .Xj / .Xi /
D .Xi ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ Xi /.Xj ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ Xj /
.Xj ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ Xj /.Xi ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ Xi /
D Xi Xj ˝ 1 C Xi ˝ Xj C Xj ˝ Xi C 1 ˝ Xi Xj
Xj Xi ˝ 1 Xj ˝ Xi Xi ˝ Xj 1 ˝ Xj Xi
D .Xi Xj Xj Xi / ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ .Xi Xj Xj Xi /;

" Xi Xj Xj Xi D ".Xi /".Xj / ".Xj /".Xi / D 0;

S Xi Xj Xj Xi D S.Xj /S.Xi / S.Xi /S.Xj /
D .Xj /.Xi / .Xi /.Xj / D Xj Xi Xi Xj
D .Xi Xj Xj Xi /:
Therefore, we conclude that I.r1 ; : : : ; rn / is a Hopf ideal of KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i, and

consequently
H.r1 ; : : : ; rn / D KhX1 ; : : : ; Xn i=I.r1 ; : : : ; rn /
is a Hopf algebra over K. Observe that H.r1 ; : : : ; rn / is isomorphic to the quotient

algebra
r1 rn
KŒX1 ; : : : ; Xn = X1p ; : : : ; Xnp ;
where KŒX1 ; : : : ; Xn is the polynomial algebra in n commuting variables
X1 ; : : : ; Xn over K. Hence we obtain that H.r1 ; : : : ; rn / is a commutative and
cocommutative Hopf algebra of dimension p r1 : : : p rn D p r1 CCrn . Moreover,
the cosets xi D Xi C I.r1 ; : : : ; rn /, i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, are primitive elements of
H.r1 ; : : : ; rn / and K-algebra generators of H.r1 ; : : : ; rn /.
A wide class of finite dimensional Hopf algebras generated (as algebras) by

primitive elements is provided by the restricted enveloping algebras of restricted
Lie algebras over fields of positive characteristic.
Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0. A Lie algebra over K is a pair
.L; Œ; /, where L is a K-vector space and Œ; W L L ! L is a K-bilinear
map, called the Lie bracket, satisfying the following conditions:
(1) Œx; x D 0 for any x 2 L;
(2) ŒŒx; y; z C ŒŒy; z; x C ŒŒz; x; y D 0 for all x; y; z 2 L.

The condition (2) is known as the Jacobi identity. Observe that the condition (1)
forces the anticommutativity condition:
Œx; y D Œy; x for any x; y 2 L:
Indeed, for x; y 2 L, we have the equalities
0 D Œx C y; x C y D Œx; x C Œx; y C Œy; x C Œy; y D Œx; y C Œy; x:
A homomorphism .L; Œ; L / ! .M; Œ; M / of two Lie algebras over K is a
K-linear map f W L ! M such that f .Œx; yL / D Œf .x/; f .y/M for all elements
x; y 2 L. Given a Lie algebra .L; Œ; / over K and an element x 2 L, we
have the K-linear map ad x W L ! L such that .ad x/.y/ D Œx; y for all y 2 L.
Moreover, for a Lie algebra .L; Œ; / over K and a commutative K-algebra R we
may consider the Lie algebra .L ˝K R; Œ; / with the Lie bracket Œ; defined
by Œx ˝ r; y ˝ s D Œx; y ˝ rs for x; y 2 L and r; s 2 R. Then a p-map of a Lie
algebra .L; Œ; / over K is a map Œp W L ! L, x 7! x Œp for x 2 L, satisfying
the following conditions:
(3) ad x Œp D .ad x/p for any x 2 L;
(4) .x/Œp D p x Œp for any 2 K and x 2 L;

P
(5) .x C y/Œp D x Œp C y Œp C p1
iD1 si .x; y/, where the si .x; y/ are given by the
P
identity .ad .x ˝ X C y ˝ 1//p1 .x ˝ 1/ D p1 iD1 i si .x; y/ ˝ X
i1
in the
tensor Lie algebra L ˝K KŒX of L and the polynomial algebra KŒX in one
variable X over K, with the Lie bracket described above.

Following N. Jacobson [Jac] a restricted Lie algebra over K is a triple L; Œ; ; Œp
where .L; Œ; / is a Lie algebra over K and
Œp
W L ! L is a p-map,
with p > 0
the characteristic of K. A homomorphism L; Œ; L ; Œp ! M; Œ; M ; Œp
isa K-linear map f W L ! M such that f .Œx; yL / D
of restricted Lie algebras
Œf .x/; f .y/M and f x Œp D f .x/Œp for all x; y 2 L.
Examples 2.21. Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0.

(a) Let L D K 2 and e1 D .1; 0/, e2 D .0; 1/ be the canonical basis of L over
K. Consider the K-bilinear map Œ; W L L ! L given by
Œe1 ; e1 D 0; Œe2 ; e2 D 0; Œe1 ; e2 D e2 ; Œe2 ; e1 D e2 ;

p
and the map Œp W L ! L given by x Œp
D 1 e1 for x D 1 e1 C 2 e2 2 L.
Then a direct checking shows that L; Œ; ; Œp is a restricted Lie algebra over
K (see Exercise 7.19).
(b) Let n be a positive integer, Hn the .2n C 1/-dimensional K-vector space

with the basis x1 ; : : : ; xn ; y1 ; : : : ; yn ; z. Consider the K-bilinear map Œ; W Hn
Hn ! Hn given by
Œxi ; yj D ıij z; Œyj ; xi D ıij z; Œxi ; xj D 0; Œyi ; yj D 0;
Œxi ; z D 0; Œz; xi D 0; Œyi ; z D 0; Œz; yi D 0;
for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then .Hn ; Œ; / is a Lie algebra over K, called the
Heisenberg algebra over K. The Lie algebra .Hn ;Œ; / may be endowed with
two different structures of restricted Lie algebras Hn ; Œ; ; Œp given by two
different p-maps Œp W Hn ! Hn defined on the basis elements as follows:
(i) xiŒp D 0, yiŒp D 0, z Œp D 0 for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
(ii) xiŒp D 0, yiŒp D 0, z Œp D z for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng.

The standard checking is left to the reader (see Exercise 7.20).
(c) Let A be an arbitrary finite dimensional K-algebra. Consider the maps
Œ; W A A ! A and Œp
W A ! A
given by
Œa; b D ab ba; and aŒp D ap

for all a; b 2 A. Then A; Œ; ; Œp is a restricted Lie algebra over K. Observe
first that .A; Œ; / is a Lie algebra over K. Indeed, for a; b; c 2 A, we have
ŒŒa; b; c C ŒŒb; c; a C ŒŒc; a; b
D Œab ba; c C Œbc cb; a C Œca ac; b
D .ab ba/c c.ab ba/ C .bc cb/a
a.bc cb/ C .ca ac/b b.ca ac/
D abc bac cab C cba C bca cba
abc C acb C cab acb bca C bac D 0:
Moreover, Œa; a D a2 a2 D 0 for any a 2 A.
We show now that Œp W A ! A is a p-map of the Lie algebra .A; Œ; /. For
any x 2 A, consider the linear maps Lx ; Rx W A ! A given by Lx .a/ D xa and
Rx .a/ D ax for a 2 A. Since the maps Lx and Rx commute, we obtain, for any
positive integer m and a 2 A, the equalities
X
m

m
.ad x/m .a/ D .Lx Rx /m .a/ D .1/mi .Lix Rxmi /.a/
i
iD0
X
m

m i mi
D .1/mi x ax :
i
iD0
Then for m D p, we have

.ad x/p .a/ D x p a ax p D .ad x p / .a/ D ad x Œp .a/;

since K is of characteristic p and pi is divisible by p for i 2 f1; : : : ; p 1g. This
proves that ad x Œp D .ad x/p for any x 2 A. Further, for 2 K and x 2 A, we
have .x/Œp D .x/p D p x p D p x Œp . Observe also that A ˝K KŒX is the
K-algebra AŒX of polynomials in one variable X and coefficients in A. Denote by
D W AŒX ! AŒX the A-linear map (differentiation) such that D aX i D i aX i1
for any positive integer i and a 2 A. Take a; b 2 A and consider the polynomial in
AŒX of the form
X
p1
.aX C b/ D a X C b C
p p p p
si .a; b/X i ;
iD1
with si .a; b/ 2 A. Applying the differentiation map D to this equality, we obtain
X
p1 X
p1
.aX C b/i a.aX C b/p1i D i si .a; b/X i1 :
iD0 iD1
p1
Since p is the characteristic of K, we have i
1K D .1/i 1K . Hence the above
equality may be written as
X
p1
X
p1
p1
.1/i .aX C b/i a.aX C b/p1i D i si .a; b/X i1 :
i
iD0 iD1
Applying the first formula for m D p 1 and x D aX C b, we obtain the equalities
X
p1

p1
.ad.aX C b//p1 .a/ D .1/i .aX C b/i a.aX C b/p1i
i
iD0
X
p1
D i si .a; b/X i1 :
iD1
Taking X D 1 in the third formula, we get the required equality
X
p1
.a C b/Œp D aŒp C b Œp C si .a; b/:
iD1

The restricted Lie algebra A; Œ; ; Œp is frequently called the restricted com-
mutator algebra of the K-algebra A, and denoted by A .

Let L D L; Œ; ; Œp be a finite dimensional restricted Lie algebra over a
field K of positive characteristic p. Consider the quotient K-algebra
u.L/ D TK .L/=I.L/
of the tensor K-algebra TK .L/ of L over K by the two-sided ideal I.L/ generated
by the elements
• Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x for all x; y 2 L;
• x Œp x p for all x 2 L.
The K-algebra u.L/ is called the restricted enveloping algebra of the restricted Lie
algebra L.

Proposition 2.22. Let L D L; Œ; ; Œp be a finite dimensional restricted Lie
algebra over a field K of positive characteristic p. Then u.L/ is a Hopf algebra
over K.
Proof. We know from Example 2.18 that TK .L/ is a Hopf algebra over K with the
comultiplication, counit and antipode
W TK .L/ ! TK .L/ ˝ TK .L/; " W TK .L/ ! K; S W TK .L/ ! TK .L/
such that
.x/ D x ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x; ".x/ D 0; S.x/ D x;
for any element x 2 L D TK1 .L/. In particular, TK .L/ is a cocommutative Hopf
algebra generated as K-algebra by any choice of primitive elements forming a basis
of L over K. We claim that I.L/ is a Hopf ideal of TK .L/, and consequently u.L/
is a Hopf algebra over K.
Let x; y 2 L. Then, in the notation for x̋ introduced in Example 2.18, we have
the equalities
.Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x/ D .Œx; y/ .x ˝ y/ C .y ˝ x/

D Œx; y x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ Œx; y .x/ .y/ C .y/ .x/
D Œx; y x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ Œx; y .x x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ x/.y x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ y/
C .y x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ y/.x x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ x/
D .Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x/ x̋ 1 C 1 x̋ .Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x/ ;
".Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x/ D ".Œx; y/ ".x/".y/ C ".y/".x/ D 0;
S.Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x/ D S.Œx; y/ S.x ˝ y/ C S.y ˝ x/
D Œx; y S.xy/ C S.yx/ D Œx; y S.y/S.x/ C S.x/S.y/
D Œx; y .y/ ˝ .x/ C .x/ ˝ .y/
D .Œx; y x ˝ y C y ˝ x/ ;

x Œp x p D x Œp .x p / D x Œp .x/p
D x Œp ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x Œp .x ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x/p
D x Œp ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x Œp x p ˝ 1 1 ˝ x p

D x Œp x p ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x Œp x p ;

" x Œp x p D " x Œp " .x p / D " x Œp ".x/p D 0;

S x Œp x p D S x Œp S .x p / D x Œp .x/p D x Œp x p :
Therefore, we obtain that .I.L// I.L/˝TK .L/CTK .L/˝I.L/, ".I.L// D 0,

S.I.L// I.L/, and so I.L/ is a Hopf ideal of TK .L/. Then u.L/ D TK .L/=I.L/
admits a unique Hopf algebra structure such that the canonical epimorphism of K-
algebras W TK .L/ ! u.L/ is a homomorphism of K-Hopf algebras.
The following famous theorem, named for H. Poincaré, G. Birkhoff and E. Witt,
shows that the restricted enveloping algebras of restricted Lie algebras are finite
dimensional.

Theorem 2.23. Let L D L; Œ; ; Œp be a finite dimensional restricted Lie
algebra over a field K of characteristic p > 0. Let e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en be an ordered
basis of L over K and x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn be the cosets of e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en in u.L/ D
TK .L/=I.L/, respectively. Then the elements
xir11 xir22 : : : xirmm ;
with i1 < i2 < < im in f1; : : : ; ng, m > 0, 0 < rk p 1 for k 2 f1; : : : ; ng,
together with 1, form a basis of u.L/ over K. In particular, we have dimK u.L/ D
p n , where n D dimK L.
The proof of the above theorem follows (see [SF], Theorem 5.1) from the
Poincaré–Birkhoff–Witt theorem, describing the basis of the usual enveloping al-
gebra U.L/ of a Lie algebra L. Since the proof of this theorem is technical and
long, we refer to the book [Hum] for its nice presentation.

Corollary 2.24. Let L D L; Œ; ; Œp be a finite dimensional restricted Lie
algebra over a field K of characteristic p > 0. Then the restricted enveloping
algebra u.L/ is a finite dimensional cocommutative Hopf algebra over K.
3 The Larson–Sweedler theorems

Let .A; m;
/ be a K-algebra. Then a right A-module M may be viewed as a pair
.M; /, where M is a (right) K-vector space and W M ˝ A ! M is a K-linear
3. The Larson–Sweedler theorems 585
map such that the following diagrams are commutative:
M ˝A
q8
idM ˝qqq
qq
˝idA
M ˝A˝A /M ˝A
qqq
idM ˝m M ˝ KL
LLL
LL
M ˝A /M, M LLL
L&
M,
where M .m ˝ / D m for m 2 M and 2 K. Further, a homomorphism of

right A-modules .M; M / ! .N; N / is a K-linear map f W M ! N such that
the following diagram is commutative:
M
M ˝A /M
f ˝idA f
N
N ˝A /N.
Dually, let C D .C; ; "/ be a K-coalgebra. Then a right C -comodule is a pair

.M; %/, where M is a K-vector space and % W M ! M ˝ C is a K-linear map such
that the following diagrams are commutative:
M MM
% MMM
M /M ˝C MMMM
MM&
% idM ˝ % M ˝K,
qqq8
M ˝C / M ˝ C ˝ C, qqq
%˝idC qqq idM ˝"
M ˝C
where M .m/ D m ˝ 1 for m 2 M . Moreover, a homomorphism of right C -

comodules .M; %M / ! .N; %N / is a K-linear map g W M ! N such that the
following diagram is commutative:
%M
M /M ˝C
g g˝idC
%N
N / N ˝ C:
For a K-coalgebra C and a right C -comodule .M; %/, the value of the structure
map % W M ! M ˝C on an element x 2 M is usually written in the sigma notation
as X
%.x/ D x.0/ ˝ x.1/ :
Then the conditions imposed on % may be written in the sigma notation as

X X
x.0/ .0/ ˝ x.0/ .1/ ˝ x.1/ D x.0/ ˝ x.1/ 1 ˝ x.1/ 2 ;
X
x.0/ ".x.1/ / D x;
for any x 2 M . Similarly, the condition for a K-linear map g W M ! N to be a

homomorphism of right C -comodules .M; %M / ! .N; %N / may be written as
X X
g.x/.0/ ˝ g.x/.1/ D g x.0/ ˝ x.1/
for any x 2 M .
Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. A K-vector space M
is called a right H -Hopf module if M is a right H -module, with the action of an
element h 2 H on an element x 2 M denotedP by xh, and a right H -comodule via
the K-linear map % W M ! M ˝ H , %.x/ D x.0/ ˝ x.1/ for x 2 M , such that,
for any x 2 M , h 2 H , the following equality holds:
X
%.xh/ D x.0/ h1 ˝ x.1/ h2 :
A homomorphism of right H -Hopf modules M ! N is a K-linear homo-

morphism f W M ! N which is a homomorphism of right H -modules and a
homomorphism of right H -comodules.
Example 3.1. Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K and V be a
K-vector space. Then we may define on V ˝ H a right H -module structure given
by .v ˝ g/h D v ˝ gh, for v 2 V , g; h 2 H , and a right H -comodule
P structure via
the map % D idV ˝ W V ˝H ! V ˝H ˝H given by %.v ˝h/ D v ˝h1 ˝h2 ,
for v 2 V , h 2 H . Moreover, we have, for v 2 V and g; h 2 H , the equalities
X X
%..v ˝ g/h/ D %.v ˝ gh/ D v ˝ .gh/1 ˝ .gh/2 D v ˝ g1 h1 ˝ g2 h2
X X
D ..v ˝ g1 / h1 / ˝ g2 h2 D .v ˝ g/.0/ h1 ˝ .v ˝ g/.1/ h2 :
Therefore, V ˝H is a right H -Hopf module, called the right tensor H -Hopf module
given by the K-vector space V .
Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K. Then, for a right H -
comodule M D .M; %/, we may consider the K-vector subspace
M coH D fx 2 M j %.x/ D x ˝ 1H g
of M , called the subspace of coinvariants of M , with respect to the right H -

comodule structure on M . Observe that H is a right H -comodule
P via W H !
H ˝H , and then H coH
D K1H . Indeed, if h 2 H coH
, then h1 ˝h2 D .h/ D
P
h ˝ 1, and hence we obtain the equalities h D ".h1 /h2 D ".h/1H . This shows
that H coH K1H . Clearly, for h D 1H 2 K1H , we have .h/ D .1H / D
.1H ˝ 1H / D .1H / ˝ 1H D h ˝ 1H , and so h 2 H coH . Therefore, indeed we
have H coH D K1H .
The following fundamental theorem on Hopf modules, proved by R. G. Larson
and M. E. Sweedler in [LaSw], shows that every right Hopf module is in fact a right
tensor Hopf module.
Theorem 3.2. Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a Hopf algebra over K and M a
right H -Hopf module. Then the K-linear map
f W M coH ˝ H ! M
given by f .x ˝ h/ D xh, for x 2 M coH and h 2 H , is an isomorphism of right

H -Hopf modules, where M coH ˝ H is considered with the right tensor H -Hopf
module structure.
Proof. Let % W M ! M ˝ H be the right H -comodule structure P map of M . Con-
sider the K-linear map g W M ! M given by g.x/ D x.0/ S x.1/ for any
x 2 M . We claim that g.M / M coH . Indeed, for x 2 M , we have the equalities
X X
%.g.x// D % x.0/ S x.1/ D % x.0/ S x.1/
X
D x.0/ .0/ S x.1/ 1 ˝ x.0/ .1/ S x.1/ 2
X
D x.0/ .0/ S x.1/ 2 ˝ x.0/ .1/ S x.1/ 1
X
D x.0/ S x.1/ 22 ˝ x.1/ 1 S x.1/ 21
X
D x.0/ S x.1/ 2 ˝ x.1/ 11 S x.1/ 12
X X
D x.0/ S x.1/ 2 ˝ x.1/ 11 S x.1/ 12
X
D x.0/ S x.1/ 2 ˝ " x.1/ 1 1H
X
D x.0/ S x.1/ 2 " x.1/ 1 ˝ 1H
X X X
D x.0/ S " x.1/ 1 x.1/ 2 ˝ 1H D x.0/ S x.1/ ˝ 1H
D g .x/ ˝ 1H :
We note that in the above transformations we applied the equalities S D

.S˝S/TH;H D TH;H .S˝S/ (Proposition 2.8 (iii)), .%˝idH /% D .idM ˝ /%,
.idM ˝H ˝ /.idM ˝ / D idM ˝.idH ˝ / D idM ˝. ˝ idH / .
Since g.M / M coH , we may define the K-linear map
' W M ! M coH ˝ H
P
by '.x/ D g.x.0/ / ˝ x.1/ for any x 2 M . We will show that ' is inverse of f .
Take x 2 M coH and h 2 H . Then we have the equalities
X X
'.f .x ˝ h// D '.xh/ D g .xh/.0/ ˝ .xh/.1/ D g x.0/ h1 ˝ x.1/ h2
X X
D g .xh1 / ˝ 1H h2 D .xh1 /.0/ S .xh1 /.1/ ˝ h2
X X
D x.0/ h11 S x.1/ h12 ˝ h2 D xh11 S .1H h12 / ˝ h2
X X
D x .h11 S .h12 // ˝ h2 D x".h1 / ˝ h2
X
Dx˝ .".h1 /h2 / D x ˝ h;
P
since x.0/ ˝ x.1/ D x ˝ 1H . This shows that 'f D idM coH ˝H .
Take now x 2 M . Then we have the equalities
X X
f .'.x// D f g x.0/ ˝ x.1/ D f x.0/ .0/ S x.0/ .1/ ˝ x.1/
X X
D x.0/ .0/ S x.0/ .1/ x.1/ D x.0/ S x.1/ 1 x.1/ 2
X X X
D x.0/ S x.1/ 1 x.1/ 2 D x.0/ " x.1/ D x;
since .% ˝ idH /% D .idM ˝ /%. This shows that f ' D idM .

Therefore, f W M coH ˝ H ! M is a K-linear isomorphism. It remains to
show that f is a homomorphism of right H -Hopf modules. For x 2 M coH and
g; h 2 H , we have
f ..x ˝ g/h/ D f .x ˝ gh/ D x.gh/ D .xg/h D f .x ˝ g/h;
which shows that f is a homomorphism of right H -modules. Further, for x 2

M coH and h 2 H , we have the equalities
X X
.%f /.x ˝ h/ D %.f .x ˝ h// D %.xh/ D x.0/ h1 ˝ x.1/ h2 D xh1 ˝ h2
X X
D f .x ˝ h1 / ˝ h2 D .f ˝ idH /.x ˝ h1 ˝ h2 /
D .f ˝ idH /.idM coH ˝ /.x ˝ h/:
This shows that %f D .f ˝ idH /.idM coH ˝ /, which means that f is a homo-
morphism of right H -comodules, because the structure of a right H -comodule on
M coH ˝ H is given by idM coH ˝ W M coH ˝ H ! M coH ˝ H ˝ H .
Let H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over
K. Then it follows from Proposition 2.5 that we have also the finite dimensional
dual Hopf algebra H D .H ; mH ;

H ; H ; "H ; SH / over K, where

H
"H

H;H
mH W H ˝ H ! .H ˝ H / ! H ;
H W K D K ! H ;

mH
H
!H;H
H W H ! .H ˝ H / ! H ˝ H ; "H W H ! K D K;

SH
SH W H ! H :
We will show now that the dual space H admits a canonical structure of a right
H -Hopf module. We denote by
H W H ˝ H ! H
the K-linear map defined for u 2 H and g; h 2 H by H .u ˝ h/.g/ D
u.gSH .h//. Further, we denote by
ıH W H ! HomK .H ; H /
the K-linear map defined for u; v 2 H by ıH .u/.v/ D vu D mH .v ˝ u/.
Moreover, we consider also the K-linear map
!H W H ˝ H ! HomK .H ; H /
defined for u; v 2 H and h 2 H by !H .u ˝ h/.v/ D v.h/u. Observe Pthat !H

is an isomorphism. Indeed, !H is a monomorphism, because, for 0 ¤ riD1 ui ˝

hi 2 H ˝ H we may assume that ui ¤ 0 for i 2 f1; : : : ; rg and h1 ; : : : ; hr are
linearly independent over K, and hence there exists v 2 HP such that v.h1 / D 1
r
and v.hi / D 0 for all i 2 f2; : : : ; rg. This ensures that !H iD1 ui ˝ hi .v/ D
v.h1 /u1 D u1 ¤ 0. Then !H is an isomorphism because dimK .H ˝ H / D
.dimK H /.dimK H / D .dimK H /.dimK H / D dimK HomK .H ; H /. This
allows us to define the composed K-linear map
1
!H
ıH
%H W H ! HomK .H ; H / ! H ˝ H:
P
We note that %H is defined as follows:
P for u 2H we have %H .u/ D u.0/ ˝
u.1/ 2 H ˝ H if and only if vu D v u.1/ u.0/ for any v 2 H . Indeed, for

u; v 2 H , we have the equalities
X
vu D ıH .u/.v/ D ..!H %H /.u// .v/ D !H u.0/ ˝ u.1/ .v/
X
D v u.1/ u.0/ :

algebra over K. Then the dual K-vector space H is a right H -Hopf module via
the K-linear maps
H W H ˝ H ! H and %H W H ! H ˝ H:
Proof. Observe first that H defines a right H -module structure on H . Indeed,

applying Proposition 2.8 (i) and (ii), we obtain, for u 2 H and g; h; h0 2 H , the
equalities

H .u ˝ hh0 /.g/ D u gSH .hh0 /

D u gSH .h0 /SH .h/ D u gSH .h0 / SH .h/

D H .u ˝ h/ gSH .h0 / D H H .u ˝ h/ ˝ h0 .g/;
H .u ˝ 1H /.g/ D u .gSH .1H // D u .g1H / D u.g/:
We will show now that %H W H ! H ˝ H defines a right H -comodule

structure on H . We have to show that the following diagrams are commutative:
H NN
%H NNN
H / H ˝ H NNHN
NNN
'
%H idH ˝H %H H7 ˝ K:
pp
H ˝ H / H ˝ H ˝ H , pp ppp
%H ˝idH ppp idH ˝"H
H ˝ H
For u 2 H , we have
X
.%H ˝ idH /.%H .u// D .%H ˝ idH / u.0/ ˝ u.1/
X
D %H u.0/ ˝ u.1/
X
D u.0/ .0/ ˝ u.0/ .1/ ˝ u.1/ ;
X
.idH ˝ H /.%H .u// D .idH ˝ H / u.0/ ˝ u.1/
X
D u.0/ ˝ H u.1/
X
D u.0/ ˝ u.1/ 1 ˝ u.1/ 2 :
We set z D .%H ˝ idH /.%H .u// .idH ˝ H /.%H .u// 2 H ˝ H ˝ H , and

claim that z D 0. Take v; w 2 H D HomK .H; K/ and consider the composed
K-linear map
idH ˝v˝w
v;w W H ˝ H ˝ H ! H ˝ K ˝ K ! H ;
where is the canonical isomorphism given by .u ˝ ˝ / D u for u 2 H ,

; 2 K. We show that D 0. Indeed, we have the equalities

v;w .z/
X
v;w ..%H ˝ idH / %H .u// D v;w u.0/ .0/ ˝ u.0/ .1/ ˝ u.1/
X
D u.0/ .0/ v u.0/ .1/ w u.1/
X X X
D v u.0/ .1/ u.0/ .0/ w u.1/ D vu.0/ w u.1/
X
Dv w u.1/ u.0/ D v .wu/ ;
X
v;w ..idH ˝ H / %H .u// D v;w u.0/ ˝ u.1/ 1 ˝ u.1/ 2
X
D u.0/ v u.1/ 1 w u.1/ 2
X X X
D u.0/ v u.1/ 1 w u.1/ 2 D u.0/ .vw/ u.1/
X
D .vw/ u.1/ u.0/ D .vw/ u;
and consequently v;w .z/ D v.wu/ .vw/u D 0. Finally, we conclude that

z D 0. Let e1 ; : : : ; en be a basis of H over K, and e1 ; : : : ; en the associated dual
basis of H , so we have ei .ej / D ıij for i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. We may write
X
zD 'i;j ˝ ei ˝ ej 2 H ˝ H ˝ H:
Then, for fixed i0 ; j0 2 f1; : : : ; ng, we obtain

X
0 D ei ;ej .z/ D ei ;ej 'i;j ˝ ei ˝ ej D 'i0 ;j0 :
0 0 0 0
This shows that z D 0. Therefore, we have proved that .%H ˝ idH /%H D
.idH ˝ H /%H . Further, for u 2 H , we have
X X
.idH ˝"H /.%H .u// D .idH ˝"H / u.0/ ˝ u.1/ D u.0/ ˝ "H u.1/
X X
D u.0/ "H u.1/ ˝ 1K D u.0/ "H u.1/ ˝ 1K
X
D "H u.1/ u.0/ ˝ 1K D "H u ˝ 1K D u ˝ 1K
D H .u/;
because "H D
H .1H / is the identity 1H of the K-algebra H . Hence the
required equality .idH ˝"H /%H D H holds. Summing up, we have proved
that %H W H ! H ˝ H defines a right H -comodule structure on H .
It remains to show that, for u 2 H and h 2 H , the equality
X
%H .uh/ D u.0/ h1 ˝ u.1/ h2
holds. This is equivalent to the equality

X
v.uh/ D v u.1/ h2 u.0/ h1
for all u; v 2 H and h 2 H . For u; v 2 H and g; h 2 H , we have the equalities

.v.uh//.g/ D .mH .v ˝ uh// .g/ D . H H;H /.v ˝ uh/ .g/
X
D H;H .v ˝ uh/ . H .g// D H;H .v ˝ uh/ g 1 ˝ g2
X X
D v.g1 /.uh/.g2 / D v.g1 / .H .u ˝ h// .g2 /
X X X
D v.g1 /u .g2 SH .h// D v.g1 /u g2 SH h1 "H .h2 /
X X
D v.g1 /"H .h2 /u .g2 SH .h1 // D v .g1 "H .h2 // u .g2 SH .h1 //;
X X
v u.1/ h2 u.0/ h1 .g/ D v u.1/ h2 u.0/ h1 .g/
X X
D v u.1/ h2 H u.0/ ˝ h1 .g/ D v u.1/ h2 u.0/ .gSH .h1 //
X X
D .h2 v/ u.1/ u.0/ .gSH .h1 // D ..h2 v/ u/ .gSH .h1 //
X
D H;H ..h2 v/ ˝ u/ H .gSH .h1 //
X
D H;H ..h2 v/ ˝ u/ H .g/ H .SH .h1 //
X X X
D H;H ..h2 v/ ˝ u/ g1 ˝ g2 SH .h12 / ˝ SH .h11 /
X X
D H;H ..h2 v/ ˝ u/ g1 SH .h12 / ˝ g2 SH .h11 /
X
D .h2 v/ .g1 SH .h12 // u .g2 SH .h11 //
X
D v .g1 SH .h12 / h2 / u .g2 SH .h11 //
X X X
D H;H .v ˝ u/ g1 ˝ g2 SH .h12 / h2 ˝ SH .h11 /
X X X
D H;H .v ˝ u/ g1 ˝ g2 SH .h21 / h22 ˝ SH .h1 /
X X X
D H;H .v ˝ u/ g1 ˝ g2 SH .h21 / h22 ˝ SH .h1 /
X
D H;H .v ˝ u/ .g1 "H .h2 / ˝ g2 SH .h1 //
X
D v .g1 "H .h2 // u .g2 SH .h1 // ;
P . H
because ˝ idH/ H D .idH ˝ H / H , and consequently v.uh/ D
v u.1/ h2 u.0/ h1 . We note that in the above transformations the left H -module
structure on H given for g; h 2 H , u 2 H by .hu /.g/ D u.gh/ is involved.

Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K. Then
the space H D HomK .H; K/ admits the canonical structure of a right H -Hopf
module described in Proposition 3.3. In particular, we may consider the subspace
of coinvariants
˚
.H /coH D u 2 H j %H .u/ D u ˝ 1H :
Observe that
˚
.H /coH D u 2 H j vu D v.1H /u for any v 2 H
˚
D u 2 H j vu D "H .v/u for any v 2 H :
The following theorem proved in [LaSw] by R. G. Larson and M. E. Sweedler

is crucial for the representation theory of finite dimensional Hopf algebras.

over K. Then the following statements hold.
(i) dimK .H /coH D 1.
(ii) There is a canonical isomorphism H ! H of right H -Hopf modules.
(iii) The antipode S W H ! H is a K-linear isomorphism.
Proof. It follows from Theorem 3.2 that there is a canonical isomorphism
f W .H /coH ˝ H ! H
of right H -Hopf modules given by f .u˝h/ D uh D H .u˝h/ for u 2 .H /coH

and h 2 H . In particular, we obtain the equalities

dimK .H /coH .dimK H / D dimK .H /coH ˝ H D dimK H ;
and consequently dimK .H /coH D 1, because dimK H D dimK H .

Further, for a nonzero element ' 2 .H /coH , the K-linear map f' W H ! H
given by f' .h/ D f .' ˝ h/, for h 2 H , is an isomorphism of right H -Hopf
modules (see also Example 3.1). This shows that (i) and (ii) hold.
We show now that the antipode S W H ! H is an isomorphism. It is enough to
show that S is a monomorphism. Suppose S.h/ D 0 for a nonzero element h 2 H .
Then, for a nonzero element u 2 .H /coH , we obtain that .f .u ˝ h//.g/ D
.uh/.g/ D u.gS.h// D 0 for any g 2 H , and hence f .u ˝ h/ D 0. This is a
contradiction, because u ˝ h ¤ 0 and f is a monomorphism. Hence, indeed S is
a monomorphism, and consequently an isomorphism.
The space .H /coH is called the space of left integrals for H and denoted by
R` R`
H (see [Swe2]). Moreover, the elements u of H are called left integrals of H .
Rr
The space of right integrals H for H is defined as
Z r
˚
D u 2 H j uv D v.1H /u for any v 2 H
H
˚
D u 2 H j uv D "H .v/u for any v 2 H
Rr
and the elements u of H are called right integrals of H . Observe that
Rr R` R` Rr
H D .H cop / and H D .H cop / .


algebra over K. Then, for the antipode SH D SH of the dual Hopf algebra H ,
we have
Z Z
Z Z
` r r `
SH D and SH D :
H H H H
Proof. It follows from Theorem 3.4 (iii) that SH W H ! H is a K-linear iso-

R`
morphism. Take u 2 H nf0g and v 2 H . Moreover, let w 2 H be such that
v D SH .w/. Then, applying Proposition 2.8, we obtain that
SH .u/v D SH .u/SH .w/ D SH .wu/ D SH ."H .w/u/ D "H .w/SH .u/

D "H .SH .w// SH .u/ D "H .v/SH .u/;
Rr R`
Rr R`
and hence SH .u/ 2 H nf0g. Since
H and H D .H cop / are of dimension 1,
R` Rr Rr
by Theorem 3.4, we conclude that SH H D H . The proof that SH H D
R`
H is similar.
The following consequence of Theorem 3.4 shows that the finite dimensional
Hopf algebras form a class of Frobenius algebras.
over K. Then H is a Frobenius algebra over K.
Proof. Choose a nonzero element ' 2 .H /coH and consider the K-bilinear form
.; /' W H H ! K
given by .x; y/' D '.xy/ for all elements x; y 2 H . Clearly, .; /' is asso-
ciative, because, for x; y; z 2 H , we have .xy; z/' D '..xy/z/ D '.x.yz// D
.x; yz/' .
We prove now that the form .; /' is nondegenerate. Let y be a nonzero
element of H . Since S W H ! H is a K-linear isomorphism by Theorem 3.4,
4. The Radford theorem 595
we conclude that y D S.z/ for some z 2 H . Observe that, for x 2 H , we have

.x; S.z//' D '.xS.z// D .'z/.x/, because the right H -module structure on the
H -Hopf module H is given by the map H W H ˝ H ! H . Then we have
the following equalities in H :
.; y/' D .; S.z//' D 'z D f .' ˝ z/ ¤ 0:
Similarly, as in the proof of Theorem IV.2.1, we show that .x; /' D 0 implies
.; x/' D 0, and hence x D 0, by the above arguments.
4 The Radford theorem

Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K. Our main
task in this section is to show that the antipode S has finite order. We will prove first
a series of preparatory facts. In particular, we will consider the following module
structures:
(1) the left H -module structure on H , given by .h * u/.g/ D u.gh/, for
g; h 2 H and u 2 H ;
(2) the right H -module structure on H , given by .u ( h/.g/ D u.hg/, for
g; h 2 H and u 2 H ;
P
(3) the left H -module structure on H , given by u * h D u.h2 /h1 , for u 2 H
and h 2 H ;
P
(4) the right H -module structure on H , given by h ( u D u.h1 /h2 , for
u 2 H and h 2 H .
We note the following useful lemma.
; ; "; S/ be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over
K. Then the following statements hold.
(i) H is an H -bimodule, with the left H -module structure .1/ and the right
H -module structure .2/.
(ii) H is an H -bimodule, with the left H -module structure .3/ and the right
H -module structure .4/.
Proof. (i) For u 2 H and g; h; x 2 H , we have the equalities
.h * .u ( g//.x/ D .u ( g/.xh/ D u.g.xh//

D u..gx/h/ D .h * u/.gx/
D ..h * u/ ( g/.x/;
and hence h * .u ( g/ D .h * u/ ( g.
(ii) For u; v 2 H and h 2 H , we have the equalities

X X
u * .h ( v/ D u * v.h1 /h2 D v.h1 / .u * h2 /
X X
D v.h1 /u.h22 /h21 D v.h11 /u.h2 /h12
X X
D u.h2 /.h1 ( v/ D u.h2 /h1 ( v
D .u * h/ ( v;
P P
because h1 ˝ h21 ˝ h22 D h11 ˝ h12 ˝ h2 .
Recall that we agreed to identify the category H -mod of finite dimensional left
H -modules with the category mod H op of finite dimensional right H op -modules,
where H op is the opposite algebra of H . In a similar way, the category H -mod
of finite dimensional left H -modules is identified with the category mod.H /op
of finite dimensional right .H /op -modules. Moreover, the functor
D D HomK .; K/ W mod K ! mod K op D mod K
induces the dualities

D /
mod H o mod H op
D
with 1mod H Š D B D and 1mod H op Š D B D, and the dualities
D / mod.H /op
mod H o
D
with 1mod H Š D B D and 1mod.H /op Š D B D.

Then observe that the left H -module structure on H D D.H / given in (1)
is induced from the canonical right H -module structure on H , while the right H -
module structure on H D D.H / given in (2) is induced from the canonical left
H -module structure on H . Similarly, the left H -module structure on H given in
(3) induces the canonical right H -module structure on H D D.H /, while the
right H -module structure on H given in (4) induces the canonical left H -module
structure on H D D.H /.
We note also the following useful lemma.

; ; "; S/ be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over
K and u 2 H . Then the following equalities hold.
R`
(i) u 2 H if and only if u * h D u.h/1H for any h 2 H .
Rr
(ii) u 2 H if and only if h ( u D u.h/1H for any h 2 H .
Proof. (i) Let h 2 H . Then the equality u * h D u.h/1H holds if and only if
v.u * h/ D v .u.h/1H / for any element v 2 H . Moreover, we have
X X X
v.u * h/ D v u.h2 /h1 D u.h2 /v.h1 / D v.h1 /u.h2 / D .vu/.h/;
v .u.h/1H / D u.h/v .1H / D v .1H / u.h/ D .v.1H /u/ .h/:
Obviously, vu D v.1H /u if and only if .vu/.h/ D .v.1H /u/ .h/ for any h 2 H .
This shows that the equivalence (i) holds.
The proof that the equivalence (ii) holds is similar.
We will need also the following lemma.
algebra over K. Consider H with the left H -module structure given in (3) and
H with the canonical left H -module structure given by the multiplication mH
in H . Then there is an isomorphism H ! H of left H -modules.
Proof. It follows from Theorems 3.2 and 3.4 (and Proposition 3.3) that, for any
Rl
nonzero element u 2 .H /coH D H , the map fu W H ! H given by fu .h/ D
f .u ˝ h/ D uh D H .u ˝ h/ for h 2 H is an isomorphism of right H -Hopf
modules. In particular, fu W H ! H is a homomorphism of right H -comodules,
that is, %H fu D .fu ˝ idH / H . Then, for any h 2 H , we obtain the equalities
X
%H .f .u ˝ h// D .f ˝ idH /.u ˝ H .h// D f .u ˝ h1 / ˝ h2 :
Consider now the K-linear isomorphism !H W H ˝ H ! HomK .H ; H /

given for v; w 2 H and h 2 H by !H .w ˝ h/.v/ D v.h/w. Then !H %H D
ıH W H ! HomK .H ; H /, where ıH is defined by ıH .w/.v/ D vw D
mH .v ˝ w/ for v; w 2 H . Hence, we obtain the equalities
v .fu .h// D ıH .fu .h//.v/ D ıH .f .u ˝ h//.v/

X
D !H .%H .f .u ˝ h/// .v/ D !H f .u ˝ h1 / ˝ h2 .v/
X X
D v.h2 /f .u ˝ h1 / D v.h2 /fu .h1 /
X
D fu v.h2 /h1 D fu .v * h/;
for any v 2 H and h 2 H . This shows that the K-linear isomorphism fu W H !

H is a required isomorphism of left H -modules.
For an element g 2 G.H /, we consider the K-vector spaces
˚
Lg .H / D u 2 H j vu D v.g/u for any v 2 H ;
˚
Rg .H / D u 2 H j uv D v.g/u for any v 2 H :
R`
Observe that 1 D 1H is a grouplike element of H , and we have L1 .H / D H
Rr
and R1 .H / D H . The space Lg .H / is called the space of left g-integrals of
H . Similarly, the space Rg .H / is called the space of right g-integrals of H .
We also note that an element g 2 G.H / induces on the one-dimensional K-
vector space K a left H -module structure g K and a right H -module structure
Kg given by
u D u.g/ and u D u.g/;
for u 2 H and 2 K, because, for v; w 2 H , we have
.vw/.g/ D .H;H .v ˝ w/ /.g/ D H;H .v ˝ w/.g ˝ g/

D v.g/w.g/ D w.g/v.g/:
Lemma 4.4. For a grouplike element g of a finite dimensional Hopf algebra H D

.H; m;
; ; "; S/ over K, there are canonical isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
Lg .H / Š Hom.H /op .g K; H / and Rg .H / Š HomH .Kg ; H /:
Proof. Consider the K-linear map
'g W Lg .H / ! Hom.H /op .g K; H /
which assigns to an element u 2 Lg .H / the K-linear map 'g .u/ W g K ! H

given by 'g .u/./ D u for 2 g K. Observe that 'g .u/ is a homomorphism of
left H -modules. Indeed, for v 2 H and 2 g K, we have 'g .u/.v/ D .v/u D
.v.g//u D v.g/u D .vu/ D v.u/ D v'g .u/./, since u 2 Lg .H /.
Conversely, for any homomorphism f W g K ! H of left H -modules, we have
u D f .1K / 2 Lg .H / and f D 'g .u/, because vu D vf .1K / D f .v1K / D
f .v.g/1K / D v.g/f .1K / D v.g/u for any v 2 H and f ./ D f .1K / D
f .1K / D u for 2 g K. This shows that 'g is a K-linear isomorphism.
Similarly, the K-linear map
g W Rg .H / ! HomH .Kg ; H /
which assigns to an element u 2 Rg .H / the K-linear map g .u/ W Kg ! H ,

given by g .u/./ D u for 2 Kg , is an isomorphism of K-vector spaces.
algebra over K and H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / the associated dual
Hopf algebra over K. Then the following statements hold.
(i) Lg .H /, g 2 G.H /, is the family of all pairwise different one-dimensional
two-sided ideals of the K-algebra H .
(ii) Rg .H /, g 2 G.H /, is the family of all pairwise different one-dimensional
Proof. (i) Fix g 2 G.H /. Observe first that Lg .H / is a two-sided ideal of H .

Indeed, for u 2 Lg .H /, and v; w 2 H , we have the equalities
w.vu/ D w.v.g/u/ D v.g/.wu/ D v.g/.w.g/u/ D w.g/.v.g/u/ D w.g/.vu/;

w.uv/ D .wu/v D .w.g/u/v D w.g/.uv/;
and hence vu and uv belong to Lg .H /. Further, by Lemma 4.3, there is an

isomorphism H ! H of left H -modules, where the left H -module structure
on H is given by (3) and the left H -module structure on H is given by the
multiplication in H . Moreover, as pointed above, the left H -module structure
on H induces on H D D.H / D HomK .H; K/ the canonical right H -module
structure given by the multiplication in H . Applying now Lemma I.8.7, Lemma 4.4
and the duality functors D between mod H and mod.H /op D H -mod, we
obtain isomorphisms of K-vector spaces
Lg .H / Š Hom.H /op .g K; H / Š Hom.H /op .g K; H /

Š HomH .D.H /; D.g K// Š HomH .H ; Kg / Š Kg ;
and consequently dimK Lg .H / D 1. Assume now that I is a one-dimensional

two-sided ideal of the K-algebra H . Take 0 ¤ x 2 I , so I D Kx D xK. Since
I is a left H -submodule of H , for every v 2 H , there exists a unique scalar
.v/ 2 K such that vx D .v/x. Observe that, for v; w 2 H , we have .wv/x D
.wv/x D w.vx/ D w..v/x/ D .v/.wx/ D .v/.w/x D .w/.v/x, and
so .wv/ D .w/.v/. Moreover, .1H / x D 1H x D x D 1K x, which gives
.1H / D 1K . Therefore, we conclude that W H ! K is a homomorphism of
K-algebras. Applying Lemma 2.16, we then obtain that is a grouplike element
of the double dual Hopf algebra H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH /
of H over K. Further, by Proposition 2.7, we have the canonical isomorphism
eH W H ! H D .H / of Hopf algebras over K which assigns to an element
h 2 H the element eH .h/ 2 H D .H / such that eH .h/.v/ D v.h/ for any
v 2 H . In particular, eH induces an isomorphism G.H / ! G.H / of the
groups of grouplike elements of H and H . Hence there exists g 2 G.H / such
that D eH .g/. But then we obtain vx D .v/x D eH .g/.v/x D v.g/x for any
v 2 H . This shows that x 2 Lg .H /, and consequently I D Kx Lg .H /.
Since dimK Lg .H / D 1 D dimK I , we obtain that I D Lg .H /.
We also note that, for g; h 2 G.H /, the equality Lg .H / D Lh .H / implies
that there is a nonzero u 2 H such that v.g/u D v.h/u for all v 2 H , and then
g D h. The final conclusion follows from the fact that G.H / consists of linearly
independent elements (Proposition 2.14), and hence for g ¤ h there exists v 2 H
such that v.g/ D 1 and v.h/ D 0.
(ii) We know from Theorem 3.4 that the antipode SH is a K-linear isomorphism,
so we may consider also the finite dimensional co-opposite Hopf algebra H cop D
cop 1 cop
.H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / of H , where H D TH;H H . Clearly, we have
G.H / D G.H cop /. Take g 2 G.H /. Then, for u; v 2 H D HomK .H; K/ D

.H cop / , we have H;H .u ˝ v/ H D uv in H and H;H .v ˝ u/ H cop D vu in
.H cop / . Moreover, .v ˝ u/ H cop D .v ˝ u/TH;H H D .u ˝ v/ H . This shows
that
Rg .H / D Lg .H cop / :
Observe also that .H cop / D .H /op as K-algebras. Applying (i) to H cop , we
conclude that Rg .H / is a one-dimensional two-sided ideal of .H op / and hence
of H , because every two-sided ideal of .H op / is a two-sided ideal of .H /op D
.H op / . Conversely, every two-sided ideal of H is a two-sided ideal of .H op / D
.H /op D .H cop / , and hence, applying (i) again, we conclude that, for a one-
dimensional two-sided ideal I of H , there exists an element g 2 G.H cop / D
G.H / such that I D Lg ..H cop / / D Rg .H /. Moreover, as above we conclude
that, if g; h 2 G.H / and Rg .H / D Rh .H /, then g D h.
We note that it follows from the proof of (i) that every one-dimensional left
(respectively, right) ideal of H is a two-sided ideal of H .
over K. Then there exists a unique element a 2 G.H / such that Ra .H / D
R`
L1 .H / D H .
The element a 2 G.H / such that Ra .H / D L1 .H / is called the distin-
guished grouplike element of H .
Let H D .H; mH ;
K, and H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / the associated dual Hopf algebra
over K. For an element g 2 G.H /, consider the K-linear homomorphisms
lg W H ! H and rg W H ! H:
given by lg .x/ D gx and rg .x/ D xg for any x 2 H . Since g is an invertible
element of H with the inverse g 1 D SH .g/, lg and rg are K-linear isomorphisms.
We claim that lg and rg are isomorphisms of K-coalgebras. Indeed, for h 2 H , we
have the equalities
X
H .lg .h// D H .gh/ D H .g/ H .h/ D .g ˝ g/ h1 ˝ h2
X X
D gh1 ˝ gh2 D .lg ˝ lg / h1 ˝ h2 D .lg ˝ lg / . H .h// ;
"H .lg .h// D "H .gh/ D "H .g/"H .h/ D "H .h/;
and hence H lg D .lg ˝ lg / H and "H lg D "H . Similarly, we have H rg D
.rg ˝ rg / H and "H rg D "H . Applying Lemma 1.5, we conclude that the dual
homomorphisms
lg W H ! H and rg W H ! H :
are isomorphism of K-algebras. Observe that lg .u/.h/ D u.lg .h// D u.gh/ and
rg .u/.h/ D u.rg .h// D u.hg/, for h 2 H and u 2 H .
Then we have the following lemma.
algebra over K, and g; h 2 G.H /. Then the following statements hold.
(i) Lh1 g .H / D lh .Lg .H // D Lg .H / ( h.
(ii) Lgh1 .H / D rh .Lg .H // D h * Lg .H /.
(iii) Rh1 g .H / D lh .Rg .H // D Rg .H / ( h.
(iv) Rgh1 .H / D rh .Rg .H // D h * Rg .H /.
Proof. (i) Let u 2 Lg .H / and v 2 H . Then v D lh .v 0 / for some v 0 2 H ,
since lh is an isomorphism. We have the equalities
vlh .u/ D lh .v 0 /lh .u/ D lh .v 0 u/ D lh .v 0 .g/u/ D v 0 .g/lh .u/
D v 0 .h.h1 g//lh .u/ D lh .v 0 /.h1 g/lh .u/ D v.h1 g/lh .u/:

This shows that lh Lg .H / Lh1 g .H /. Then we obtain lh Lg .H / D
Lh1 g .H /, since both sides of the equality are of dimension 1. Moreover, for
u 2 H and x 2 H , we have the equalities
lh .u/.x/ D u .lh .x// D u.hx/ D .u ( h/.x/;

and hence lh .u/ D u ( h. Thus lh Lg .H / D Lg .H / ( h also holds.
The proofs of the equalities in (ii), (iii), (iv) are similar.
algebra over K. Then, for any g 2 G.H /, we have the equalities
g * Lg .H / D L1 .H / D Lg .H / ( g:
Let H D .H; mH ;
K. Recall that, by Lemma 2.16, the set G .H / of grouplike elements in the dual
Hopf algebra H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / is the set AlgK .H; K/ of
all K-algebra homomorphisms from H to K. For any element u 2 G.H /, we
may define the K-vector subspaces of H
Lu .H / D fx 2 H j hx D u.h/x for any h 2 H g ;

Ru .H / D fx 2 H j xh D u.h/x for any h 2 H g :
The following proposition describes the distinguished properties of these K-

vector spaces.

algebra over K. Then the following statements hold.
(i) Lu .H /, u 2 G.H /, is the family of all pairwise different one-dimensional

(ii) Ru .H /, u 2 G.H /, is the family of all pairwise different one-dimensional

Proof. Consider the canonical isomorphism of Hopf algebras over K
eH W .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / ! .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH /
induced by the canonical isomorphism eH W H ! H of K-vector spaces (see

Proposition 2.7). Let u 2 G.H /. Then we have the equalities of K-vector spaces

eH .Lu .H // D Lu .H / D Lu .H / ;

eH .Ru .H // D Ru .H / D Ru .H / :
Hence the required statements (i) and (ii) follow from the statements (i) and (ii)
of Proposition 4.5 applied to the dual Hopf algebra H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ;
"H ; SH /.
As a direct consequence of the above result we obtain the following fact.

algebra over K. Then there exists a unique element ˛ 2 G.H / such that R˛ .H / D
L"H .H /.
The element ˛ 2 G.H / such that R˛ .H / D L"H .H / is called the distin-

guished grouplike element of H .
Moreover, we have the following version of Corollary 4.8.

algebra over K. Then, for any u 2 G.H /, we have the equalities
u * Lu .H / D L"H .H / D Lu .H / ( u:
In the next technical lemmas we assume that H D .H; mH ;

H ; H ; "H ; SH /
is a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K and H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ;
"H ; SH / is the dual Hopf algebra of H over K.
Lemma 4.12. Let u 2 G.H /, g 2 G.H /, v; w 2 H , x 2 Lu .H /, and assume

that v * x D g D x ( w. Then v 2 Lg .H / and w 2 Rg .H /.
Proof. Let r; t 2 H . Then we have the equalities
.rt v/.x/ D .rt /.v * x/ D .rt /.g/ D r.g/t .g/

D r.v * x/t .g/ D .rt .g//.v * x/
D .rt .g/v/.x/;
and hence .r.t v t .g/v//.x/ D 0, or equivalently, .t v t .g/v/.x ( r/ D 0. Thus

we obtain that .t v t .g/v/.x ( H / D 0. Observe that, by Corollary 4.11, we
have L"H .H / ( H D Lu .H / ( uH Lu .H / ( H D x ( H , because
x ¤ 0 and dimK Lu .H / D 1. This gives the equality L"H .H / D x ( H .
On the other hand, by Proposition 3.3, the dual Hopf algebra H is a right
H -Hopf module. Applying now Theorem 3.2 we infer that the K-linear map

f W .H /coH ˝ H ! H given by f .y ˝ n/ D y n for y 2 .H /coH
and n 2 H , is an isomorphism of right H -Hopf modules. Invoking now
the canonical isomorphism eH W H ! H of Hopf algebras and the fact that

eH L"H .H / D .H /coH , we conclude that the canonical K-linear homomor-
phism fH W L"H .H / ˝ H ! H , given by fH .z ˝ n/ D z ( n for z 2 L"H .H /
and n 2 H , is an isomorphism of right H -Hopf modules. In particular, we obtain
that L"H .H / ( H D H , and consequently x ( H D H . This proves that
tv D t.g/v and so v 2 Lg .H /. The fact that w 2 Rg .H / can be proved in a
similar way.
Corollary 4.13. Let v 2 H and x 2 L"H .H / be such that v * x D 1 D 1H .

Then v 2 L1 .H / and x ( v D a (the distinguished grouplike element of H ).
Proof. The proof that v 2 L1 .H / follows immediately from Lemma 4.12. Fur-
ther, for u 2 H , we have the equalities
X X
u.x ( v/ D u v.x1 /x2 D v.x1 /u.x2 / D .vu/.x/ D .u.a/v/.x/
D u.a/v.x/ D u.v.x/a/;
because vP2 L1 .H / D Ra .H /. Moreover, by our assumption v * x D 1H ,

we have
P v.x2 /x1PD 1H . Applying "HP, we obtain that 1K D "H .1H / D
"H . v.x2 /x1 / D v.x2 /"H .x1 / D v . x2 "H .x1 // D v.x/. Therefore, we
get u.x ( v/ D u.a/ for any u 2 H . This implies x ( v D a.
Lemma 4.14. Let g 2 G.H /, u 2 G.H /, x 2 Lu .H /, v 2 H , and assume that

v * x D g. Then for any w 2 H we have
X
u.g/w.1H / D w.x1 /v.gx2 /:
Proof. We have the equalities

u.g/w.1H /

D u.g/w g 1 g D u.g/w mH g 1 ˝ g

D u.g/mH .w/ g 1 ˝ g D u.g/ H;H !H;H mH
.w/ g 1 ˝ g

D u.g/ .H;H H / .w/ g 1 ˝ g
X X
D u.g/H;H w1 ˝ w2 g 1 ˝ g D u.g/w1 g 1 w2 .g/
X X X
D u.g/w1 g 1 w2 .v * x/ D w1 g 1 w2 v.x2 /x1 u.g/
X X
D w1 g 1 w2 v.x2 /x1 u.g/
X X X
D w1 g 1 w2 v.gx2 /gx1 D w1 g 1 w2 .v.gx2 /gx1 /
X X
D w1 g 1 w2 .gx1 / v.gx2 /
X
D .H;H H .w// g 1 ˝ gx1 v.gx2 /
X X

D mH .w/ g 1 ˝ gx1 v.gx2 / D w mH g 1 ˝ gx1 v.gx2 /
X X
D w g 1 gx1 v.gx2 / D w.x1 /v.gx2 /;
because x 2 Lu .H /, and hence we have the equalities
X
u.g/ x1 ˝ x2 D u.g/ H .x/ D H .u.g/x/ D H .gx/ D H .g/ H .x/
X X
D .g ˝ g/ x1 ˝ x2 D gx1 ˝ gx2 :
Lemma 4.15. Let g 2 G.H /, u 2 G.H /, x 2 Lu .H /, v 2 H , and assume that
v * x D g. Then for any h 2 H we have

SH g 1 .u * h/ D .v ( h/ * x:
Proof. Let w 2 H . Then, applying Lemma 4.14, we obtain the equalities
X
w SH g 1 .u * h/ D w SH g 1 u.h2 /h1
X X
D u.h2 /w SH g 1 h1 D u.h2 /w SH .h1 / SH g 1
X X
D u.h2 /w .SH .h1 / g/ D u gg 1 h2 w .SH .h1 / g/
X
D u.g/w .SH .h1 / g/ u g 1 h2
X
D u.g/ .wSH / g 1 h1 u g 1 h2
X
D u.g/ ..wSH / u/ g 1 h D u.g/ w1 "H .w2 / SH u g 1 h
X
D u.g/ ...w1 w2 .1H // SH / u/ g 1 h
X
D ..w1 SH / u/ g 1 h u.g/w2 .1H /
X
D ..w1 SH / u/ g 1 h w2 .x1 /v.gx2 /
X
D ..w1 SH / u/ g 1 h w2 .v.gx2 /x1 /
X
D .w1 SH / g 1 h1 u g 1 h2 w2 .v.gx2 /x1 /
X
D w1 SH g 1 h1 w2 v.gx2 /u g 1 h2 x1
X
D w1 SH .h1 / SH g 1 w2 v gg 1 h22 x2 g 1 h21 x1
X
D w1 .SH .h1 / g/ w2 v .h22 x2 / g 1 h21 x1
X
D w SH .h1 / gg 1 h21 x1 v .h22 x2 /
X X
D w .SH .h1 / h21 x1 v .h22 x2 // D w .SH .h11 / h12 x1 v .h2 x2 //
X X X
D w ."H .h1 /x1 v .h2 x2 // D w x1 v "H .h1 /h2 x2
X
D w .x1 v .hx2 // D w ..v ( h/ * x/ ;
P P
because
P 1 h1 ˝ h21 ˝ h22 DP h11 ˝ h12 ˝ h2 , where we have used the equal-
ity u g h2 x1 ˝ x2 D g 1 h21 x1 ˝ g 1 h22 x2 induced by the equality
u g1 h2 x D g 1 h2 x, since x 2 Lu .H /. Therefore, the required equality
SH g 1 .u * h/ D .v ( h/ * x holds.

algebra over K, a 2 G.H / and ˛ 2 G.H / the distinguished grouplike elements
of H and H , h 2 H , and v; w 2 H . Then the following statements hold.
(i) If x 2 L"H .H / and v * x D 1H , then SH .h/ D .v ( h/ * x.

1
(ii) If x 2 R˛ .H / and v * x D 1H , then SH .˛ * h/ D .h * v/ * x.

(iii) If x 2 R˛ .H / and x ( w D a, then SH .h ( ˛/a1 D x ( .h * w/.
1
1
(iv) If x 2 L"H .H / and x ( w D g, then SH g h D x ( .w ( h/.
Proof. The above statements (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are special cases of Lemma 4.15
for the Hopf algebras H , H cop , H op;cop and H op , respectively.
We note that, for a finite dimensional Hopf algebra H D .H; mH ;

H ; H ;
"H ; SH / over K and elements h 2 H , and u; v 2 H , by Lemma 4.1 we have the
well-defined element
u * h ( v D .u * h/ ( v D u * .h ( v/:
Theorem 4.17. Let H D .H; mH ;

algebra over K and a 2 G.H /, ˛ 2 G.H / the distinguished grouplike elements
of H and H . Then for any h 2 H we have

SH
4
.h/ D a1 ˛ * h ( ˛ 1 a:
Proof. Recall that L1H .H / D Ra .H / and L"H .H / D R˛ .H /. Take a nonzero

element x in L"H .H /. Since mH D mH cop ,
H D
H cop and "H D "H cop , we have
L"H .H / D L"H cop .H cop /. We know that the K-linear map
fH cop W L"H cop .H cop / ˝ .H cop / ! H cop
given by fH cop .z ˝ w/ D z ( w, for z 2 L"H cop .H cop / and w 2 .H cop / ,

is an isomorphism of right .H cop / -Hopf modules, and hence an isomorphism of
K-vector spaces. In particular, we obtain the following K-linear P isomorphism
cop cop
.H cop / ! H cop given for w 2 .H cop / by fHx cop .w/ D
fHx cop W P w x1 x2 ,
cop cop
where x1 ˝ x2 D H cop .x/. Since H cop D TH;H H , we obtain that
P cop cop P P
w x1 x2 D w .x2 / x1 , where H .x/ D x1 ˝ x2 . Therefore, the K-
Q Q P
linear map fH W H ! H given for w 2 H by fH .w/ D w.x2 /x1 D w * x
x x
is a K-linear isomorphism. In particular, we may choose v 2 H such that v *

x D 1H . Then, by Corollary 4.13, we get v 2 L1 .H / and x ( v D a.
We claim now that SH 4
.h/ * v D v ( SH 2
.˛h/. Since ˛ 2 G.H /, we have
1
˛SH D SH .˛/ D SH .˛/ D ˛ , and so ˛SH 4
D ˛SH 2
D ˛. Moreover, by
Proposition 2.8 (iii), we have H SH D .SH ˝ SH /TH;H H , and hence H SH 4
D
.SH ˝ SH / H . Applying the relations (i) and (ii) in Corollary 4.16, we obtain the
4 4
equalities
4 1

SH .h/ * v * x D SH ˛ * SH 4
.h/
X 4
1
D SH ˛ SH 4
.h/2 SH .h/1
X 4
1
D SH ˛ SH 4
.h2 / SH .h1 /
X
1
D SH ˛SH 4
.h2 /SH 4
.h1 /
X
1
D SH ˛.h2 /SH 4
.h1 /
X
1
D SH SH
4
˛.h2 /h1
2
D SH SH .˛ * h/

D v ( SH 2
.˛ * h/ * x:
Since fQHx W H ! H is an isomorphism, we obtain that SH4

.h/ * v D v (
SH .˛ * h/. On the other hand, applying the relations (iii) and (iv) in Corol-
2
lary 4.16, we obtain the equalities

1
1 2
x ( v ( SH
2
.˛ * h/ D SH a SH .˛ * h/
X
1
D SH a1 SH
2
˛.h2 /h1
X
1
D SH a1 2
˛.h2 /SH .h1 /
X
1
D SH SH
2
.a1 / ˛.h2 /SH2
.h1 /
X
1
D SH SH
2
a1 ˛.h2 /h1
1
2 1
D SH SH a .˛ * h/

D SH a1 .˛ * h/

D SH a1 .˛ * h/ aa1
1
D SH a ˛ * h ( ˛ 1 a ( ˛ a1

D x ( a1 ˛ * h ( ˛ 1 a * v ;
because a ( ˛ D ˛.a/a. Recall also that the K-linear map fHx W H ! H given
for w 2 H by fHx .w/ D x ( w is an isomorphism. Therefore, we obtain the
equality

x ( SH 2
.˛ * h/ D a1 ˛ * h ( ˛ 1 a * v;

SH
4
.h/ * v D a1 ˛ * h ( ˛ 1 a * v:
Finally, observe that the map uv W H ! H , given for g; h 2 H by uv .h/.g/ D

.h * v/.g/ D v.gh/, is a K-linear isomorphism. In fact, the K-linear homo-
morphism h * v D .; h/v W H ! H is associated with the nondegenerate
K-linear form.; /v W H H ! H . Hence, we obtain the required equality
SH
4
.h/ D a1 ˛ * h ( ˛ 1 a for any h 2 H .
We need also the following lemma.

algebra over K, g 2 G.H /, h 2 H , and u 2 G.H /. Then the following equalities
hold.
(i) u * g 1 hg D g 1 .u * h/g.
(ii) g 1 hg ( u D g 1 .h ( u/g.
Proof. (i) Since H .g/ D g ˝g, H .g 1 / D g 1 ˝g 1 , and H W H ! H ˝H

and u W H ! K are homomorphisms of K-algebras, we obtain the equalities
X
u * g 1 hg D u g 1 hg 2 g 1 hg 1
X
D u g 1 h2 g g 1 h1 g
X
D u g 1 u .h2 / u .g/ g 1 h1 g
X
D g 1 u.g/1 u.g/u.h2 /h1 g
X
D g 1 u.h2 /h1 g
D g 1 .u * h/g:

We are now in position to exhibit the theorem proved in 1976 by D. Radford
[Rad].
algebra over K. Then the antipode SH has finite order, smaller than or equal to
4 dimK H .
Proof. Let h 2 H and n be a positive integer. Then, applying Lemmas 4.1, 4.18
and Theorem 4.17, we conclude, by induction on n, that
SH
4n
.h/ D an .˛ n * h ( ˛ n / an :
Further, by Corollary 2.15, G.H / and G.H / are finite groups whose orders are
bounded by dimK H . Since a 2 G.H / and ˛ 2 G.H /, we have ak D 1H and
˛ k D "H for some k dimK H . Moreover, by the counity property, we have
"H * h D h D h ( "H . Therefore, we conclude that SH 4k
D idH .
We end this section with a result showing that the finite dimensional Hopf
algebras with the antipode of odd order are very special.
H ; H ; "H ; SH / be a finite dimensional
Hopf algebra over K with SH of odd order. Then H is commutative, cocommutative
and SH D idH .
Proof. Let r D 2k C 1, for some k 0, be the order of SH . Then, applying
Proposition 2.8 (i), we obtain the equalities
2k 2k
xy D SH r
.xy/ D SH SH .xy/ D SH SH 2k
.x/SH .y/
2k 2k 2kC1 2kC1
D SH SH .y/ SH SH .x/ D SH .y/SH .x/
D SH .y/SH .x/ D yx;
r r
5. The Fischman–Montgomery–Schneider formula 609
for any elements x and y in H . Hence H is a commutative K-algebra. But then

SH
2
D idH , by Corollary 2.12. Therefore, r D 1 and SH D idH . Moreover, by
Proposition 2.8 (iii), we obtain that
X X
H .h/ D H .SH .h// D SH .h2 / ˝ SH .h1 / D h2 ˝ h1
D TH;H H .h/;
for any h 2 H , and so H is also cocommutative.
Example 4.21. Let G be a finite group with the property g D g 1 for any element
g 2 G, or equivalently, G is isomorphic to an elementary 2-group .Z=2Z/
.Z=2Z/. Then, for any field K, the group algebra KG of G is a commutative and
cocommutative Hopf algebra whose antipode is the identity idKG .
5 The Fischman–Montgomery–Schneider formula

Let H D .H; m;
; ; "; S/ be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K. We
know from Theorem 3.6 that H is a Frobenius algebra over K with nondegenerate
associative K-bilinear form .; /' W H H ! K given by .x; y/' D '.xy/,
R`
where ' is a nonzero element (left integral) from .H /coH D H . We note that '
R`
is determined uniquely up to a nonzero scalar from K because dimK H D 1.
Then the Nakayama automorphism H of H associated to .; /' is a K-algebra
automorphism of H such that .H .x/; y/' D .y; x/' for all x; y 2 H (see Propo-
sition IV.3.1).
The next theorem, proved by D. Fischman, S. Montgomery and H.-J. Schnei-
der in [FMS], provides the formula for the Nakayama automorphism of a finite
dimensional Hopf algebra over a field.
algebra over K, ˛ 2 G.H / the distinguished grouplike element of H , and
.; /' the nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form on H given by a nonzero
left integral ' of H . Then the Nakayama automorphism H of H associated to
.; /' is given by the formula
2 2
H .h/ D ˛ * SH .h/ D SH .˛ * h/
for any h 2 H .
Proof. It follows from Theorem 3.2 and Proposition 3.3 that there is a canonical
isomorphism of right H -Hopf modules
Z `
fW ˝H ! H
H
R`
given by f .u ˝ h/ D H .u ˝ h/ for u 2 H and h 2 H . Moreover, f .u ˝
h/.g/ D H .u ˝ h/.g/ D u.gSH .h// for any g 2 H . Therefore, f .u ˝ h/ D
R` R`
SH .h/ * u for u 2 H and h 2 H . Choose now a nonzero element ' 2 H .
Then there exists exactly one element x 2 H such that f .' ˝ x/ D "H . Take
t D SH .x/. Then we obtain that t * ' D "H , or equivalently, '.gt / D .t *
'/.g/ D "H .g/ for any g 2 H . In particular, we conclude that '.t / D '.1H t / D
R`
"H .1H / D 1K . Since ' 2 H , by Lemma 4.2, we have also
X
'.h2 /h1 D ' * h D '.h/1H
for any h 2 H . We claim now that t 2 L"H .H /. For g; h 2 H , we have the

equalities
.ht * '/.g/ D '.g.ht// D '..gh/t / D "H .gh/ D "H .g/"H .h/ D "H .h/"H .g/
D "H .h/'.gt / D ' ."H .h/gt/ D ' .g ."H .h/t //
D ."H .h/t * '/ .g/:
Hence, for any h 2 H , we have ht * ' D "H .h/t * ', and then ht D "H .h/t ,
because the K-linear map f' W H ! H which assigns to z 2 H the K-linear
form f' .z/ D z * ' is an isomorphism. Therefore, we have t 2 L"H .H /. Since
L"H .H / D R˛ .H /, we have also t 2 R˛ .H /, and consequently t h D ˛.h/t for
any h 2 H . Our next aim is to prove that
X
1
'.ht2 /SH .t1 / D h
for any h 2 H . Indeed, for h 2 H , we have the equalities

X X X
1 1 1
'.ht2 /SH .t1 / D .'.ht2 /1H / SH .t1 / D .' * ht2 / SH .t1 /
X X
1 1
D ' ..ht2 /2 / .ht2 /1 SH .t1 / D ' .h2 t22 / h1 t21 SH .t1 /
X
1
D ' .h2 t2 / h1 t12 SH .t11 /
X X X
1
D ' .h2 t2 / h1 t12 SH .t11 / D ' .h2 t2 / h1 "H .t1 /
X X X
D ' h2 "H .t1 /t2 h1 D ' .h2 t / h1
X X
D ' ."H .h2 /t/ h1 D '.t / h1 "H .h2 / D '.t /h D h;
since '.t/ D 1K . Replacing h by H .h/, we obtain the equalities

X X
1 1
H .h/ D ' .H .h/t2 / SH .t1 / D .H .h/; t2 /' SH .t1 /
X X X
1 1 1
D .t2 ; h/' SH .t1 / D ' .t2 h/ SH .t1 / D SH .t1 /' .t2 h/ ;
for any h 2 H . Further, applying SH 2

, we obtain, for any h 2 H , the equalities
X X
1
SH2
.H .h// D SH
2
SH .t1 /' .t2 h/ D SH .t1 / .' .t2 h/ 1H /
X X
D SH .t1 / .' * t2 h/ D SH .t1 /' ..t2 h/2 / .t2 h/1
X X
D SH .t1 /' .t22 h2 / t21 h1 D SH .t11 /' .t2 h2 / t12 h1
X X X
D SH .t11 /t12 ' .t2 h2 / h1 D "H .t1 /' .t2 h2 / h1
X X X
D ' "H .t1 /t2 h2 h1 D ' .t h2 / h1
X X
D ' .˛.h2 /t/ h1 D '.t / ˛.h2 /h1 D ˛ * h;
since '.t/ D 1K and t 2 R˛ .H /. Therefore, we obtain that

2
H .h/ D SH .˛ * h/
for any h 2 H . Moreover, since ˛ 2 G.H /, we have the equalities ˛SH D
2
SH .˛/ D SH .˛/ D ˛ 1 , and hence ˛SH 2
D ˛ and ˛SH D ˛. Then, applying
Proposition 2.8 (iii), we obtain that
X 2 X 2
2 2 2
˛ * SH .h/ D ˛ SH .h/2 SH .h/1 D ˛ SH .h2 / SH .h1 /
X X
2 2 2
D ˛SH .h2 /SH .h1 / D ˛.h2 /SH .h1 /
X
2 2
D SH ˛.h2 /h1 D SH .˛ * h/ ;
for any h 2 H . Summing up, we have proved that the required formula
2 2
H .h/ D ˛ * SH .h/ D SH .˛ * h/ for h 2 H;
holds.
Observe that the formula on the Nakayama automorphism H of a finite dimen-
sional Hopf algebra H does not depend on the choice of the nonzero left integral '
of H creating the K-bilinear form .; /' on H .
algebra over K and H the Nakayama automorphism associated to the nondegen-
erate associative K-bilinear form .; /' given by a nonzero left integral ' of H .
Then H has finite order, smaller than or equal to 2 dimK H .
2 2
Proof. It follows from Theorem 5.1 that H .h/ D ˛ * SH .h/ D SH .˛ * h/

for any h 2 H , where ˛ is the distinguished grouplike element of H . Then for
any positive integer m and h 2 H , we have
2m
m
H .h/ D ˛ m * SH .h/:
2.m1/
Indeed, assume by induction that Hm1
.h/ D ˛ m1 * SH .h/ for some
m 2 and any h 2 H . Then we obtain the equalities
m1 2.m1/
m
H .h/ D H H .h/ D H ˛ m1 * SH .h/
2
m1 2.m1/ 2m

D ˛ * SH ˛ * SH .h/ D ˛ * ˛ m1 * SH .h/
2m
D ˛ m * SH .h/:
We know from Theorem 4.19 (and its proof) that SH

4k
D idH for a positive integer
k dimK H with the property ˛ D "H . Clearly, then we have
k
4k
2k
H .h/ D ˛ 2k * SH .h/ D "H * h D h
for any h 2 H . Therefore H

2k
D idH for k dimK H .
In fact, we have a better information on the order of the Nakayama automorphism
of a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over a field.
The following Hopf algebra freeness theorem was proved by W. D. Nichols and
M. B. Zoeller in [NZ].
Theorem 5.3. Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K and B a K-Hopf
subalgebra of H . Then H is a free left and right B-module. In particular, dimK B
divides dimK H .
Corollary 5.4. Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K. Then order of
G.H / divides dimK H .
Proof. It follows from Corollary 2.15 that the group algebra KG.H / of G.H /
is a K-Hopf subalgebra of H . Then, applying Theorem 5.3, we conclude that
jG.H /j D dimK KG.H / divides dimK H .
algebra over K. Then the following statements hold.
(i) The order of the antipode SH divides 4 dimK H .
(ii) The order of the Nakayama automorphism H of H divides 2 dimK H .
We have also the following criterion for a finite dimensional Hopf algebra to be
a symmetric algebra.
algebra over K. Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i) H is a symmetric algebra.
(ii) SH
2
.h/ D ˛ * chc 1 , for an invertible element c of H , the distinguished
grouplike element ˛ of H and any h 2 H .
Proof. It follows from Theorem 5.1 that the Nakayama automorphism H of H , as-
sociated to a K-bilinear form .; /' on H given by a nonzero left integral ' of H ,
2
is given by the formula H .h/ D SH .˛ * h/. Further, by Corollary IV.3.4, we
conclude that H is a symmetric algebra if and only if H is an inner automorphism of
H . Hence H is a symmetric algebra if and only if there exists an invertible element
2
b 2 H such that SH .˛ * h/ D bhb 1 , or equivalently, ˛ * h D SH 2
.bhb 1 /,
1
for any h 2 H . Observe that the equality ˛ * h D SH .bhb / is equivalent to
2
the equality SH2

.h/ D ˛ * chc 1 , for c D b 1 . Therefore the statements (i) and
(ii) are equivalent.
algebra over K which is commutative or cocommutative, and ˛ be the distinguished
grouplike element of H . Then the following statements are equivalent.
(i) H is a symmetric algebra.
(ii) bhb 1 D ˛ * h for an invertible element b of H and any element h 2 H .
Proof. Since H is either commutative or cocommutative, we have SH 2
D idH , by
Corollary 2.12. Then the equivalence of (i) and (ii) follows from Corollary 5.6.

Example 5.8. Let G be a finite group and KG the group algebra of G over K.
Then KG is a Hopf algebra over K with the comultiplication , the counit ", and
the antipode S given by
.g/ D g ˝ g; ".g/ D 1K ; S.g/ D g 1 ; for any g 2 G:
(see Examples 1.1 (d) and 2.4 (c)). We claim that
L" .KG/ D Kt D R" .KG/;

P
where t D g2G g. Since L" .KG/ and R" .KG/ are K-vector subspaces of KG
of dimension 1, it is enough to show that t 2 L" .KG/ and t 2 R" .KG/. This is
obvious because for any element h 2 G we have the equalities
X
ht D hg D t D ".h/t;
g2G
X
th D gh D t D ".h/t:
g2G
In particular, we conclude that the distinguished grouplike element ˛ of .KG/

P " of KG. Hence,
coincides with the counity P for any element x 2 KG, we have
˛ * x D " * x D ".x2 /x1 D x1 ".x2 / D x. Moreover, S2 D idKG .
Hence, we obtain that KG .x/ D ˛ * S2 .x/ D ˛ * x D x, for any x 2 KG,
which shows that KG D idKG and confirms that KG is a symmetric K-algebra.
R`
We describe now the space L1 ..KG/ / D Le ..KG/ / D .KG/ , where
1 D 1KG D e is the identity of KG and G, of left integrals of .KG/ . Consider
the K-linear map
' W KG ! K
P
defined for x D g2G g g in KG by '.x/ D e (the coefficient ofPx at the unit
element e of G). Then, for arbitrary elements u 2 .KG/ and x D g2G g g 2
KG, we have the equalities
X
.u'/.x/ D KG;KG .u ˝ '/ .x/ D KG;KG .u ˝ '/ g .g ˝ g/
g2G
X X
D g u.g/'.g/ D e u.e/ D u.e/' g g D u.e/'.x/;
g2G g2G
R`
and hence u' D u.e/'. This shows that ' 2 .KG/ . Similarly, we show that
Rr
'u D u.e/' for any u 2 .KG/ , and hence also ' 2 .KG/ . Since ' is nonzero
R` Rr
and .KG/ , .KG/ are one-dimensional K-vector spaces, we obtain that
Z ` Z r
Le ..KG/ / D D K' D D Re ..KG/ /:
.KG/ .KG/
In particular, we conclude that e is the distinguished grouplike element of KG.

Finally, observe that the nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form
.; /' W KG KG ! K
P P
associated to ' is given, for x D g2G g g and y D g2G g g in KG, by
X
.x; y/' D '.xy/ D g g 1 ;
g2G
and hence coincides with the K-bilinear form .; / defined in Example IV.2.6.
Example 5.9. Let n 2 be an integer and be a primitive n-th root of unity in K.

Consider the n2 -dimensional Taft algebra
Hn2 ./ D KhC; Xi=.C n 1; X n ; XC CX /
defined in Example 2.4 (f). Denote by c the coset of C and by x the coset of X in
Hn2 ./. Then the elements c i x j , i; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g, form a basis of Hn2 ./
over K, and we have the relations
c n D 1; x n D 0; xc D cx:
Further, the comultiplication , the counit ", and the antipode S of Hn2 ./ are
defined on the K-algebra generators c and x as
.c/ D c ˝ c; .x/ D c ˝ x C x ˝ 1;
".c/ D 1; ".x/ D 0; S.c/ D c n1 ; S.x/ D c n1 x:
Moreover, the Hopf algebra Hn2 ./ is neither commutative nor cocommutative.
Since S.c/ D c n1 D c 1 and S.x/ D c n1 x D c 1 x, we obtain that S2 .c/ D
S.c 1 / D c and
S2 .x/ D S.c 1 x/ D S.c 1 x/ D S.x/S.c 1 /

D c n1 xc D c n1 cx D c n x D x:
Then we conclude that the antipode S of Hn2 ./ has order 2n, because is a
primitive n-th root of unity in K. Consider the element
X
n1
tD c m x n1
mD0
of Hn2 ./. We claim that

L" .Hn2 .// D Kt:
Indeed, for a basis element h D c i x j , i; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g, we have ".h/ D
".c i x j / D ".c/i ".x/j equals 1 if j D 0 and 0 if j ¤ 0. Hence, we have two cases
to consider. For j D 0, h D c i and then
X
n1 X
n1
ht D c i c m x n1 D c mCi x n1 D t D ".c i /t D ".h/t:
mD0 mD0
For j 1, we obtain that

X
n1
j 1 j 1
ht D c x t D .c x
i j i
/.xt / D .c xi
/ xc m x n1
mD0
X
n1
j 1
D .c x i
/ m m n
c x D 0 D ".h/t:
mD0
Hence t 2 L" .Hn2 .//, and consequently L" .Hn2 .// D Kt , because t ¤ 0 and
L" .Hn2 .// is of dimension 1. Observe also that
X
n1
".t / D ".c/m ".x/n1 D 0;
mD0
and hence L" .Hn2 .// Ker ".

Our next aim is to describe the distinguished grouplike element ˛ of Hn2 ./ ,
that is, an element ˛ 2 G.Hn2 ./ / such that R˛ .Hn2 .// D L" .Hn2 .// D Kt .
Hence, we are looking for a K-algebra homomorphism ˛ W Hn2 ./ ! K (see
Lemma 2.16) such that t h D ˛.h/t for any element h 2 Hn2 ./. Since ˛.c i x j / D
˛.c/i ˛.x j / for any basis element c i x j of Hn2 ./, it is enough to determine ˛.c/
and ˛.x/. We have the equalities
X
n1 X
n1
tx D m n1
c x xD c m x n D 0;
mD0 mD0
X
n1 X
n1
X
n1

tc D c m x n1 c D c m x n1 c D c m n1 cx n1
mD0 mD0 mD0
X
n1
D n1 c mC1 x n1 D n1 t;
mD0
and hence ˛.c/ D n1 D 1 and ˛.x/ D 0. Moreover, we have the equalities
˛ * c D ˛.c/c D n1 c;
˛ * x D ˛.x/c C ˛.1/x D x:
Hence, applying Theorem 5.1, we obtain that the Nakayama automorphism associ-
ated to a nondegenerate associative K-bilinear form .; /' W Hn2 ./Hn2 ./ !
R`
K, given by a nonzero element ' 2 L1 .Hn2 ./ / D H 2 ./ , is defined on the
n
algebra generators c and x of Hn2 ./ as
.c/ D ˛ * S2 .c/ D ˛ * c D n1 c;

.x/ D ˛ * S2 .x/ D ˛ * 1 x D 1 .˛ * x/ D n1 x:
Therefore, for an arbitrary basis vector c i x j , i; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g of Hn2 ./,

is given by
.c i x j / D .c/i .x/j D .n1/.i Cj / c i x j :
Observe also that has order n, again because is a primitive n-th root of unity
in K.
6 The module category

In this section we exhibit some properties of the category mod H of finite dimen-
sional right H -modules over a finite dimensional Hopf algebra H over a field K.
We know from Theorem 3.6 that every such an algebra H is a Frobenius algebra,
hence a selfinjective algebra (see Proposition IV.3.8), and consequently the full
6. The module category 617
subcategory proj H of mod H consisting of the projective modules coincides with

the full subcategory inj H of mod H consisting of the injective modules.
The following semisimplicity criterion of finite dimensional Hopf algebras has
been established by R. G. Larson and M. E. Sweedler in [LaSw].

algebra over K. The following statements are equivalent.
(i) H is a semisimple K-algebra.
(ii) "H .L"H .H // ¤ 0.
(iii) H D Ker "H ˚ L"H .H / as H -bimodules.
Proof. Assume that H is a semisimple K-algebra. Consider the K-algebra epimor-

phism "H W H ! K. Then Ker "H is a two-sided ideal of H with dimK Ker "H D
dimK H 1. Clearly, Ker "H is a left H -submodule of H . Since H is a semisimple
K-algebra, H is a semisimple left H -module, so it follows from Lemma I.5.4 that
there exists a left H -submodule X of H such that H D Ker "H ˚ X . Observe that
dimK X D dimK H dimK Ker "H D 1. Let 1H D y C x with y 2 Ker "H and
x 2 X. Then x ¤ 0, because 1H … Ker "H , and so X D Kx. For any h 2 H , we
have hx 2 X. On the other hand, we have h D .h "H .h/1H / C "H .h/1H , and
then hx D .h "H .h/1H /x C "H .h/x D .hx "H .h/x/ C "H .h/x. Observe that
"H .hx "H .h/x/ D "H .hx/ "H ."H .h/x/ D "H .h/"H .x/ "H .h/"H .x/ D 0,
and so hx "H .h/x 2 Ker "H . Since H D Ker "H ˚ X and hx D 0 C hx, with
hx 2 X, we conclude that hx D "H .h/x. Therefore, x 2 L"H .H /, and clearly
"H .x/ ¤ 0, because x … Ker "H . This shows that "H .L"H .H // ¤ 0. Thus (i)
implies (ii).
Assume now that "H .L"H .H // ¤ 0. Then there exists an element z 2 L"H .H /
such that "H .z/ ¤ 0. Take t D "H .z/1 z 2 L"H .H /, so "H .t / D 1. Let M be
a nonzero module in H -mod D mod H op . We will show that M is a semisimple
left H -module. Take an arbitrary left H -submodule N of M , and consider the
inclusion homomorphism ! W N ! M of left H -modules. Since ! is a section in
K-mod D mod K, there exists a K-linear map p W M ! N such that p! D idN .
We will show that ! is a section in H -mod D mod H op . We define the K-linear
map W M ! N by
X
.m/ D t1 p .SH .t2 /m/
for any m 2 M . We show that is a homomorphism of left H -modules. Indeed,
for h 2 H and m 2 M , we have the equalities
X XX
h.m/ D ht1 p .SH .t2 /m/ D h1 "H .h2 / t1 p .SH .t2 /m/
X X
D h1 t1 p .SH .t2 /"H .h2 /m/ D h1 t1 p .SH .t2 /SH .h21 /h22 m/
X X
D h1 t1 p .SH .h21 t2 /h22 m/ D h11 t1 p .SH .h12 t2 /h2 m/
X X
D .h1 t /1 p .SH ..h1 t /2 / h2 m/ D "H .h1 /t1 p .SH .t2 /h2 m/
X X X
D t1 p SH .t2 / "H .h1 /h2 m D t1 p .SH .t2 /hm/ D .hm/;
P P
because
P h1 ˝ h21 ˝ h22 D h11 ˝ h12 ˝ h2 and h1 t D "H .h1P /t implies
.h1 t/1 ˝.h1 t /2 D .h1 t / D ."H .h1 /t / D "H .h1 / .t / D "H .h1 / . t1 ˝ t2 /.
Moreover, for any n 2 N , we have
X X X
!.n/ D t1 p .SH .t2 /n/ D t1 SH .t2 /n D t1 SH .t2 / n
D ."H .t /1H / n D n;
because "H .t / D 1 and SH .t2 /n 2 N . Hence is a homomorphism in H -

mod D mod H op with ! D idN . Applying now Lemma I.4.2, we conclude
that M D Im ! ˚ Ker D N ˚ Ker . Therefore, M is a semisimple left
H -module, by Lemma I.5.4. Summing up, we have proved that every nonzero
module in H -mod D mod H op is semisimple. Then, by the Wedderburn structure
Theorem I.6.3, we conclude that H op , and hence H , is a semisimple K-algebra.
Thus (ii) implies (i).
The equivalence of the statements (ii) and (iii) follows from the fact that Ker "H
and L"H .H / are two-sided ideals of H of dimensions dimK Ker "H D dimK H 1
and dimK L"H .H / D 1.
We note that the above theorem is an extension of the classical Maschke’s

theorem (Theorem I.6.18). Indeed, let G be a finite group and H D KG the group
Hopf algebraP P Example 5.8 that L"H .H / D Kt ,
of G over a field K. It follows from
where t D g2G g. Moreover, "H .t / D g2G "H .g/ D jGj1K . Hence, we

obtain that "H L"H .H / ¤ 0 if and only if the characteristic of K does not divide
the order jGj of the group G.
We also point out that every Taft algebra Hn2 ./ is a nonsemisimple finite
dimensional algebra (see Example 5.9). In particular, in contrast to the group
algebras case, there are many nonsemisimple finite dimensional Hopf algebras over
fields of characteristic 0 (for example, the field C of complex numbers).
Let H D .H; mH ;
K. The comultiplication H W H ! H ˝ H allows us to consider the covariant
K-linear functor
˝ D ˝K W mod H mod H ! mod H
defined as follows. For two modules M and N in mod H with the right H -module
structures given by K-linear homomorphisms M W M ˝ H ! M and N W N ˝
H ! N , the right H -module structure on the K-vector space M ˝ N D M ˝K N
is given by the composition M ˝N W M ˝ N ˝ H ! M ˝ N of the K-linear

homomorphisms
idM ˝ idN ˝H idM ˝TN;H ˝idH
M ˝N ˝H / M ˝N ˝H ˝H / M ˝H ˝N ˝H
M ˝N

M ˝N .
Hence, in the sigma notation, we have
X X
.m˝n/h D M ˝N .m˝n˝h/ D M .m˝h1 /˝N .n˝h2 / D mh1 ˝nh2 ;
P
for m 2 M , n 2 N , h 2 H , where H .h/ D h1 ˝ h2 . Observe that, for
m 2 M , n 2 N , and h; g 2 H , we have the equalities
X X
.m ˝ n/.hg/ D m.hg/1 ˝ n.hg/2 D m.h1 g1 / ˝ n.h2 g2 /
X X
D .mh1 /g1 ˝ .nh2 /g2 D .mh1 ˝ nh2 /g
D ..m ˝ n/h/g;
.m ˝ n/1H D m1H ˝ n1H D m ˝ n;

because H W H ! H ˝ H is a homomorphism of K-algebras. Therefore, indeed
M ˝N is a module in mod H of dimension dimK .M ˝N / D .dimK M /.dimK N /.
Finally, for homomorphisms u W M ! M 0 and v W N ! N 0 in mod H , the K-linear
map u ˝ v W M ˝ N ! M 0 ˝ N 0 is a homomorphism of right H -modules, because
X X
.u ˝ v/..m ˝ n/h/ D .u ˝ v/ mh1 ˝ nh2 D u.mh1 / ˝ v.nh2 /
X
D u.m/h1 ˝ v.n/h2 D .u.m/ ˝ v.n// h
D .u ˝ v/.m ˝ n/h:
Further, the counit "H W H ! K allows us to consider K as a right H -module via
idK ˝"H ˛K
the composed K-linear homomorphism K W K ˝ H ! K ˝ K ! K,
that is, h D K . ˝ h/ D "H .h/ for 2 K and h 2 H . Clearly, we have
.hg/ D "H .hg/ D ."H .h/"H .g// D ."H .h//"H .g/ D .h/g and 1H D
"H .1H / D 1K D , for 2 K, and h; g 2 H , because "H W H ! K is a
homomorphism of K-algebras. The right H -module K defined above is called the
trivial H -module.
We note the following property of the trivial module.
algebra over K. Then for any module M in mod H the K-linear isomorphisms
˛M W K ˝ M ! M and M W M ˝ K ! M;
given by ˛M . ˝ m/ D m and M .m ˝ / D m, for 2 K, m 2 M , are

isomorphisms of right H -modules.
Proof. For 2 K, m 2 M and h 2 H , we have the equalities

X X
˛M .. ˝ m/h/ D ˛M h1 ˝ mh2 D ˛M "H .h1 / ˝ mh2
X X
D "H .h1 /mh2 D .m/ "H .h1 /h2
D .m/h
D ˛M . ˝ m/h;
X X
M ..m ˝ /h/ D M mh1 ˝ h2 D M mh1 ˝ "H .h2 /
X X
D mh1 "H .h2 / D .m/ h1 "H .h2 /
D .m/h
D M .m ˝ /h;
by the counity property of "H . Hence ˛M and M are isomorphisms of right H -

modules.
Let H D .H; mH ;
K. For two modules M and N in mod H , the K-vector space HomK .M; N / has
the natural structure of a right H -module given by
X
.uh/.m/ D u .mSH .h1 // h2
P
for u 2 HomK .M; N /, m 2 M , and h 2 H , with H .h/ D h1 ˝ h2 . Indeed,
for u 2 HomK .M; N /, m 2 M , and g; h 2 H , we have the equalities
X X
..ug/h/.m/ D .ug/ .mSH .h1 // h2 D u .mSH .h1 /SH .g1 // g2 h2
X X
D u .mSH .g1 h1 // g2 h2 D u .mSH ..gh/1 // .gh/2
D .u.gh//.m/;
.u1H /.m/ D u .mSH .1H // 1H D u.m/;
and hence .ug/h D u.gh/ and u1H D u. Further, for homomorphisms v W X ! M

and w W N ! Y in mod H , the induced K-linear homomorphisms
HomK .v; N / W HomK .M; N / ! HomK .X; N /;

HomK .M; w/ W HomK .M; N / ! HomK .M; Y /
are homomorphisms of right H -modules. Indeed, for u 2 HomK .M; N /, m 2 M ,

x 2 X, and h 2 H , we have the equalities
X
HomK .v; N /.uh/.x/ D .uh/.v.x// D u .v.x/SH .h1 // h2
X X
D u .v .xSH .h1 /// h2 D .uv/ .xSH .h1 // h2
D ..uv/h/.x/
D .HomK .v; N /.u/h/ .x/;
HomK .M; w/.uh/.m/ D .w.uh//.m/ D w ..uh/.m//

X X
Dw u mSH .h1 / h2 D w .u .mSH .h1 /// h2
D ..wu/h/.m/
D .HomK .M; w/.u/h/ .m/;
and hence HomK .v; N /.uh/ D HomK .v; N /.u/h and HomK .M; w/.uh/ D
HomK .M; w/.u/h. Summing up, we obtain the covariant functor
HomK .M; / W mod H ! mod H;
HomK .; N / W mod H ! mod H:
The next lemma exhibits another useful property of the trivial modules of Hopf
algebras.

algebra over K and M and N be modules in mod H . Then there is a canonical
K-linear isomorphism
.M; N / W HomH .K; HomK .M; N // ! HomH .M; N /
which is natural in M and N .
Proof. Observe that there is a canonical K-linear isomorphism
.M; N / W HomK .K; HomK .M; N // ! HomK .M; N /
of K-vector spaces which assigns to a K-linear map f W K ! HomK .M; N / the

homomorphism .M; N /.f / D f .1K / 2 HomK .M; N / and .M; N / is natural
in M and N . We will show that it restricts to a K-linear isomorphism
.M; N / W HomH .K; HomK .M; N // ! HomH .M; N /:

Take f 2 HomH .K; HomK .M; N // and abbreviate f D .M; N /.f /. Then
for any h 2 H we have the equalities
f h D f .1K /h D f .1K h/ D f ."H .h/1K / D "H .h/f .1K / D "H .h/ f :
We claim that f 2 HomH .M; N /. Indeed, for m 2 M and h 2 H , we have the

equalities
X X
f .mh/ D f m D
h1 "H .h2 / f ..mh1 /"H .h2 //
X X
D ."H .h2 / f /.mh1 / D f h2 .mh1 /
X X
D f ..mh1 /SH .h21 // h22 D f ..mh11 /SH .h12 // h2
X X X
D f m h11 SH .h12 / h2 D f .m"H .h1 // h2
X
D f .m/ "H .h1 /h2
D f .m/h;
P P
because h1 ˝h21 ˝h22 D h11 ˝h12 ˝h2 . Assume now that a homomorphism
f 2 HomK .K; HomK .M; N // has the property f D f .1K / 2 HomH .M; N /.
Then, for any m 2 M and h 2 H , we have the equalities
X X
. f h/.m/ D f .mSH .h1 // h2 D f .m/SH .h1 /h2
X
D f .m/ SH .h1 /h2 D f .m/"H .h/

D "H .h/ f .m/;
and hence f h D "H .h/ f . This gives f .1K /h D "H .h/f .1K / D f .1K "H .h// D
f .1K h/, and so f belongs to HomH .K; HomK .M; N //.
Let H D .H; mH ;
K and M be a module M in mod H . Then we have the covariant functors ˝K M
and HomK .M; / from mod H to mod H . The following theorem asserts that
˝K M is left adjoint to HomK .M; /.

algebra over K. For any modules M , X , Y in mod H there is a K-linear isomor-
phism
M .X; Y / W HomH .X ˝K M; Y / ! HomH .X; HomK .M; Y //
which is natural in M , X and Y .

Proof. It follows from the adjoint theorem Theorem II.4.3 that there is a K-linear
isomorphism
'M .X; Y / W HomK .X ˝K M; Y / ! HomK .X; HomK .M; Y //;
natural in M , X and Y , given by
..'M .X; Y /.f // .x// .m/ D f .x ˝ m/
for f 2 HomK .X ˝K M; Y /, x 2 X , m 2 M . Observe also that X ˝K M , Y , X ,

HomK .M; Y / are modules in mod H , and consequently HomK .X ˝K M; Y / and
HomK .X; HomK .M; Y // are modules in mod H .
Applying Lemma 6.3, we obtain the commutative diagram of K-linear isomor-
phisms
HomH .K;'M .X;Y //

HomH .K; HomK .X ˝K M; Y // / HomH .K; HomK .X; HomK .M; Y ///
.X ˝K M;Y / .X;HomK .M;Y //

M .X;Y /

HomH .X ˝K M; Y / / HomH .X; HomK .M; Y // .
Clearly, the required isomorphism M .X; Y / is natural in M , X and Y .

algebra over K, M a module in mod H , and P a projective module in mod H .
Then P ˝ M is a projective module in mod H .
Proof. Consider the covariant functor
HomK .P ˝ M; / W mod H ! mod K:
It follows from Theorem 6.4 that HomH .P ˝ M; / is isomorphic to the composi-

tion HomH .P; HomK .M; // of the functors HomK .M; / W mod H ! mod H
and HomH .P; / W mod H ! mod K. Since P is a projective module, we con-
clude from Proposition II.2.6 that the functor HomH .P; / is exact. Obviously the
functor HomK .M; / is exact. Therefore, the functor HomH .P ˝ M; / is exact,
and, applying Proposition II.2.6 again, we conclude that P ˝ M is a projective
module in mod H .
The following theorem shows that the periodicity of the module category mod H
of a finite dimensional Hopf algebra H over K reduces to the periodicity of its trivial
module K.

algebra over K. The following statements are equivalent.
(i) mod H is periodic.

(ii) The trivial H -module K is periodic.
Proof. Obviously (i) implies (ii). Assume that K is an H -periodic module, say
Hn
.K/ Š K in mod H for some n 1. Then there exists a long exact sequence
in mod H of the form
0 ! K ! Pn1 ! ! P1 ! P0 ! K ! 0
with P0 ; P1 ; : : : ; Pn1 projective modules. Let M be an indecomposable nonpro-

jective module in mod H . Applying the functor M ˝K W mod H ! mod H to
the above long exact sequence, we obtain the long exact sequence in mod H of the
form
0 ! K˝K M ! Pn1 ˝K M ! ! P1 ˝K M ! P0 ˝K M ! K˝K M ! 0;
where K ˝K M Š M in mod H and Pn1 ˝K M; : : : ; P1 ˝K M; P0 ˝K M

are projective right H -modules, by Lemma 6.2 and Proposition 6.5. Hence, it
follows from Proposition IV.8.1 (v) that we have in mod H an isomorphism M Š
Hn
.M / ˚ P for some projective right H -module P . Moreover, H n
.M / is an
indecomposable nonprojective module in mod H , by Propositions IV.8.1 and IV.8.3.
This leads to P D 0, and an isomorphism M Š H n
.M / in mod H . Therefore,
the category mod H is periodic. This shows that (ii) implies (i).
Example 6.7. Let n 2 be an integer, a primitive n-th root of unity in K, and
H D Hn2 ./ D KhC; Xi=.C n 1; X n ; XC CX /
the associated Taft algebra. Denote by c the coset of C and by x the coset of X
in H . Then we have the relations
c n D 1; x n D 0; xc D cx;
and the elements c i x j , i; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g, form a basis of H over K. Recall

also that H is a Hopf algebra with the comultiplication , counit " and the antipode
S, defined on the K-algebra generators c and x as
.c/ D c ˝ c; .x/ D c ˝ x C x ˝ 1;
In particular, H is neither commutative nor cocommutative. Moreover, H is a

Frobenius algebra whose Nakayama automorphism H has order n (see Exam-
ple 5.9). We will show that H is a Nakayama algebra having n pairwise noniso-
morphic indecomposable projective right H -modules, each of them of dimension n.
In fact, we want to show that H is isomorphic to the bound quiver algebra KQ=I ,
where Q D Q.n/ is the quiver
1
˛1 n ˛2
n |
2\
˛n ˛3

n1 M 3
˛n1 ˛4

:
˛i C1 - ˛i
i
and I D I.n/ is the admissible ideal in the path algebra KQ of Q generated by the
paths ˛rCn1 : : : ˛rC1 ˛r , r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, where ˛nCs D ˛s for s 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g.
Observe that I is generated by all paths of Q of length n. Consider the elements
1 X ri i
n1
er D c ; r 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
n
iD0
of H . Note that the fact that is a primitive n-th root of unity forces that the
characteristic of K does not divide n, and so we have in K the element n1 . Moreover,
; 2 ; : : : ; n1 ; n D 1 D 1K are pairwise different n-th roots of 1K . We claim
that e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en are pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of H such that
1H D e1 C e2 C C en . Observe first that
X 1 X X ri i 1 X X ri i
n n n1 n1 n
er D c D c
rD1
n rD1 n rD1
iD0 iD0
1
n1 X
X n
D n1H C ri c i
n rD1
iD1
D 1H ;
P
because nrD1 ri D 0 for any fixed index i 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g. For any r 2
f1; : : : ; ng, we have also the equalities
1 X ri i X rj j 1 X r.iCj / iCj
n1 n1 n1
er2 D c c D c
n2 n2
iD0 j D0 i;j D0
1 X rk k 1 X rk k
n1 n1
D 2 n c D c D er :
n n
kD0 kD0
Further, for any r ¤ s in f1; : : : ; ng, we have
1 X ri i X sj j 1 X riCsj iCj
n1 n1 n1
er es D c c D c
n2 n2
iD0 j D0 i;j D0
1 X X 1 n X l
n1 n1 n1
D 2 k
c l
D 2 c D 0:
n n .1 /
kD0 lD0 lD0
In order to show that the idempotents e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en are primitive, it is enough

to prove, by Corollary I.5.8, that e1 H; e2 H; : : : ; en H are indecomposable right
H -modules. Since e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en are pairwise orthogonal idempotents of H with
1H D e1 C e2 C C en , applying Corollary I.5.10, we conclude that there is in
mod H a decomposition
HH D e1 H ˚ e2 H ˚ ˚ en H:
We claim now that e1 H; e2 H; : : : ; en H are uniserial right H -modules of dimension

n over K. Observe first that .H xH /n D 0 forces x 2 rad H , by Lemma I.3.5. For
any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the elements
1 X ri i j
n1
er x j D c x ; j 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g;
n
iD0
are linearly independent (over K) elements of the right H -module er H , and hence
dimK er H n. Since n2 D dimK H D dimK .e1 H ˚ e2 H ˚ ˚ en H / D
dimK e1 H C dimK e2 H C C dimK en H , we conclude that dimK er H D n
and the elements er ; er x; : : : ; er x n1 form a basis of er H over K, for any r 2
f1; : : : ; ng. Recall also that radk .er H / D er .rad H /k for any positive integer k
(see Proposition I.5.13). Therefore, we conclude that, for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the
right H -module er H is of Loewy length n, the radical series
er H rad er H rad2 er H radn1 er H radn er H D 0
of er H is the unique composition series of er H , and radp er H , for p 2 f1; : : : ; n

1g, is the K-vector space with the basis er x p ; er x pC1 ; : : : ; er x n1 (see also Propo-
sition I.10.1). Hence, indeed e1 H; e2 H; : : : ; en H are uniserial projective right
H -modules. Since HH D e1 H ˚ e2 H ˚ ˚ en H in mod H , applying Propo-
sition I.8.2, we conclude that every indecomposable projective module in mod H
is uniserial. Invoking now the fact that H is a Frobenius (hence selfinjective)
algebra, we obtain from Propositions I.8.19 and I.10.1 that H is a Nakayama al-
gebra. Obviously, the uniseriality of the modules e1 H; e2 H; : : : ; en H also implies
that the idempotents e1 ; e2 ; : : : ; en are primitive. Furthermore, the indecompos-
able projective right H -modules e1 H; e2 H; : : : ; en H are pairwise nonisomorphic.
Indeed, take r ¤ s in f1; : : : ; ng. Observe that every element z in er H can

be written in the form z D er C y with 2 K and y 2 er .rad H /, and
hence zes D er es C yes D yes belongs to er .rad H /es . This shows that
er Hes D er .rad H /es , and hence er H and es H are nonisomorphic right H -
modules, by Lemma I.8.12.
Summing up, we have proved that H is a basic Nakayama algebra and e1 ; : : : ; en
form a complete set of pairwise orthogonal primitive idempotents of H with 1H D
e1 C C en .
For each r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, set ar D er x, and observe that
1 X ri i 1 X .r1/i i i
n1 n1
ar D c xD c x
n n
iD0 iD0
1 X
n1
D .r1/i xc i D xer1
n
iD0
because xc D cx, where e0 D en . In particular, we have ar D er ar er1 D

er xer1 , for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then we obtain, for any r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the
equalities
arCp : : : arC1 ar D erCp x pC1 er1 for p 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g:
Recall also that H D e1 H ˚ e2 H ˚ ˚ en H , where each er H is the K-vector

space with the basis er x i with i 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g. Therefore, we conclude that
the K-linear map ' W KQ=I ! H defined by
'."r C I / D er for r 2 f1; : : : ; ng;

'.˛rCp : : : ˛rC1 ˛r C I / D arCp : : : arC1 ar for p 2 f0; 1; : : : ; n 1g;
r 2 f1; : : : ; ng;
is an isomorphism of K-algebras. In particular, it follows from Theorem I.2.10 that

there exists a K-linear equivalence of categories
F W mod H ! repK .Q; I /;
where repK .Q; I / is the category of finite dimensional K-linear representations of

the quiver Q bound by the relations generating the ideal I . On the other hand,
we know from Theorems I.10.5 and III.8.7 that every indecomposable module in
mod H is isomorphic to a module of the form P = radm P for some indecomposable
projective module P and m 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g, and we have in mod H an almost
split sequence
0 ! rad P = radmC1 P ! .rad P = radm P /˚.P = radmC1 P / ! P = radm P ! 0:

Therefore, the modules Mr;k D er H=er radk H , r; k 2 f1; : : : ; ng, form a complete
family of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable modules in mod H . Observe
that Pr D Mr;n D er H are the indecomposable projective modules and Sr D
Mr;1 D er H=er rad H are the simple modules in mod H , for r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. In
particular, the Auslander–Reiten quiver H of H consists of n2 indecomposable
modules lying on the n sectional paths
Pr ! Mr;n1 ! Mr;n2 ! ! Mr;2 ! Sr ;
r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, as well as on the n sectional paths
SrC1 ! MrC1;2 ! MrC2;3 ! ! Mr1;n1 ! Pr ;
with SrC1 Š radn1 Pr D soc Pr , MrC1;2 Š radn2 Pr , MrC2;3 Š radn3 Pr ,

: : : , Mr1;n1 Š rad Pr , for r 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Then we conclude that the stable
Auslander–Reiten quiver H s
of H is of the form ZAn1 =. n /, H has the upper
part of the form
P1 ? ? P2 ? ? P3 ? P? n1? ? Pn ? ? P1
??
?? ???? ?? ???? ????

M1;n1 M2;n1 ::: Mn1;n1 Mn;n1
? ?? ? ?? ? ?? ? ??
?? ?? ?? ?? ??

Mn;n2 M1;n2 M2;n2 ::: Mn2;n2 Mn1;n2 Mn;n2
?? ? ?? ? ?? ? ?? ? ?? ?

:: :: :: ::
: : : :
and the lower part of the form
:: :: :: ::
: : : :
?? ?? ?? ?? ??

M2;3 M3;3 M4;3 ::: Mn;3 M1;3 M2;3
?? ? ?? ? ?? ? ?? ? ?? ?
?? ?? ?? ??

M2;2 M3;2 ::: Mn;2 M1;2
? ??
? ? ??
?? ?? ? ??
? ? ??
??
? ?
S1 S2 S3 Sn1 Sn S1 :
In particular, we obtain that H n

M Š M and H m
M © M if m 2 f1; : : : ; n 1g, for
any indecomposable nonprojective module M in mod H , and hence M has period
n with respect to the Auslander–Reiten operator H D D Tr. Observe also that the
Nakayama permutation of f1; : : : ; ng D f1; : : : ; nH g is given by .1/ D n and
.i / D i 1 for i 2 f2; : : : ; ng. Clearly, has order n, which is also the order of
the Nakayama automorphism H of H (see Example 5.9).
We also note that, for r 2 f1; : : : ; ng, the simple H -module Sr D er H=er rad H
is isomorphic to the one-dimensional right H -module Kr with Kr D K as K-vector
space and c D r , x D 0 for 2 K. In particular, the trivial right H -module
K coincides with Kn , because n D 1, "H .c/ D 1, "H .x/ D 0, and consequently
is isomorphic to the simple module Sn D en H=en rad H .
It follows from Proposition IV.3.13 that the Nakayama functor
NH D D HomH .; H / W mod H ! mod H
is equivalent to the functor

0
NH D ./ 1 W mod H ! mod H
H
1
induced by the inverse H of the Nakayama automorphism H . Then we con-
clude that NH Š 1mod H . Moreover, by Theorem IV.8.5, for any indecomposable
n
nonprojective module M in mod H , there are isomorphisms

2
H .NH .M // Š H M Š NH .H
2
.M //;
and consequently H 2n
.M / Š M in mod H .
In fact, for any indecomposable nonprojective module M in mod H , we have
H2
.M / Š M and H .M / © M , which shows that M has period 2 with respect
to the syzygy operator H . Indeed, for M D Mr;k D er H=er radk .er H /, r; k 2
f1; : : : ; ng, we have short exact sequences
u
0 ! Mrk;nk ! Pr ! Mr;k ! 0;
v
0 ! Mr;k ! Prk ! Mrk;nk ! 0;
in mod H , with u and v the canonical epimorphisms (projective covers) Pr !

Pr = radk Pr and Prk ! Prk = radnk Prk , respectively, because Ker u D
radk Pr Š Mrk;nk and Ker v D radnk Prk Š Mr;k , where l D n jlj
for l 2 f0; 1; 2; : : : ; n C 1g. Observe also that Mr;k has the simple com-
position factors of the form Sr ; Sr1 ; : : : ; SrkC1 while Mrk;nk has the sim-
ple composition factors of the form Srk ; Srk1 ; : : : ; SrC1 , and consequently
Mr;k and Mrk;nk are nonisomorphic. This shows that H 2
.Mr;k / Š Mr;k but
H .Mr;k / D Mrk;nk © Mr;k .
Summing up, we have proved that mod H is periodic with H -period n and
H -period 2.
7 Exercises
In all exercises below K will denote a field.
1. Let n 2 be a natural number and a primitive n-th root of unity in K. Consider

the K-algebra
Hn2 ./ D KhC; Xi=.C n 1; X n ; XC CX /;
and denote by c the coset of C and by x the coset of X in Hn2 ./. Show that
Hn2 ./ is a Hopf algebra with the comultiplication , counit " and the antipode S
satisfying the relations
.c/ D c ˝ c; .x/ D c ˝ x C x ˝ 1;
2. Assume K is of characteristic different from 2. Prove that any 2-dimensional

Hopf algebra over K is isomorphic to the group algebra KC2 of the cyclic group
C2 of order 2.
3. Assume K is of characteristic 2 and C2 the cyclic group of order 2. Prove the

following statements.
(a) The group algebra KC2 and its dual algebra .KC2 / are nonisomorphic K-Hopf
algebras.
(b) The Hopf algebra H2 D KŒX =.X 2 / with the comultiplication , counit " and
the antipode S given by .x/ D x ˝ 1 C 1 ˝ x, ".x/ D 0, S.x/ D x, where
x is the coset of X in H2 , is neither isomorphic to KC2 nor to .KC2 / .
(c) Every 2-dimensional Hopf algebra H over K is isomorphic to KC2 , .KC2 / ,

or H2 .
4. Assume K is algebraically closed. Describe the 3-dimensional Hopf algebras

over K.
5. Let H be the K-vector space with infinite basis cn , n 2 N. Consider the K-linear
homomorphisms
W H ! H ˝ H and m W H ˝ H ! H
given on the basis vectors of H by
X
n

nCp
.cn / D ci ˝ cni ; m.cn ˝ cp / D cnCp ;
n
iD0
7. Exercises 631
for n 2 N. Prove that there exists K-linear homomorphisms

W K ! H; " W H ! K; S W H ! H;
such that .H; m;

; ; "; S/ is a K-Hopf algebra.
6. Let H D .H; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / ! B D .B; mB ;
B ; B ; "B ; SB / be a
homomorphism of K-Hopf algebras. Prove the following assertions.
(a) Ker f is a Hopf ideal of H .
(b) Im f is a K-Hopf subalgebra of B.
(c) There is a canonical isomorphism of K-Hopf algebras H= Ker f

! Im f
induced by f .
7. Let H D .H; mH ;
K and H D .H ; mH ;
H ; H ; "H ; SH / the double dual Hopf alge-
bra of H over K. Prove that the evaluation K-linear isomorphism eH W H ! H
is an isomorphism of K-Hopf algebras.
8. Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a nonzero finite dimensional K-coalgebra and let

.C ; mC ;
C / be the associated dual K-algebra, where mC D C C;C and
C D "C . Prove that C is a simple K-coalgebra (the only K-subcoalgebras of C

are 0 and C ) if and only if C is a simple K-algebra.
9. Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a nonzero finite dimensional K-coalgebra. Prove that:
(a) C contains a nonzero simple K-subcoalgebra.
(b) The sum corad C of all simple K-subcoalgebras of C (coradical of C ) is a

K-subcoalgebra of C .
.C ; mC ;
C / be its dual K-algebra. Prove that C D corad C (C is cosemisim-
ple) if and only if rad C D 0 (C is a semisimple K-algebra).
11. Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a nonzero finite dimensional K-coalgebra and G.C /
the set of all grouplike elements of C . Prove that Cg D Kg , g 2 G.C /, is the
family of all pairwise different one-dimensional K-subcoalgebras of C .
.C ; mC ;
C / be its dual K-algebra. Prove that the following statements are
equivalent:
(a) Every simple K-subcoalgebra of C is one-dimensional (C is a pointed coalge-

bra).
(b) corad C D KG.C /.

(c) C is a basic K-algebra.
13. Let C D .C; C ; "C / be a nonzero finite dimensional K-coalgebra, M a finite
dimensional left H -module via a K-linear homomorphism M W M ! C ˝M , and
N a finite dimensional right H -module via a K-linear homomorphism %N W N !
N ˝ C . Moreover, let .C ; mC ;
C / be the dual K-algebra of C . Consider the
K-linear homomorphisms

TM;C

M;C M
M W M ˝ C ! .M ˝ C / ! .C ˝ M / ! M ;

C;N TC;N %
%N W C ˝ N ! .C ˝ N / ! .N ˝ C / ! N :
N
Prove that
(a) M is a right C -module via M ;
(b) N is a left C -module via %N .
14. Let A D .A; mA ;
A / be a finite dimensional K-algebra and let further A D
.A ; A ; "A / be the associated dual K-coalgebra, where A D !A;A mA and
"A D
A . Moreover, let M be a finite dimensional left A-module via a K-
linear homomorphism M W A ˝ M ! M and N a finite dimensional right A-
module via a K-linear homomorphism "N W N ˝ A ! N . Consider the K-linear
homomorphisms
1

A;M
M TA ;M
M W M ! .A ˝ M / ! A ˝ M ! M ˝ A ;
1

N;A
'N TN ;A
'N W N ! .N ˝ A/ ! N ˝ A ! A ˝ N :
Prove that
(a) M is a right A -comodule via M ;
(b) N is a left A -comodule via 'N .
15. Assume K is algebraically closed of characteristic 0. Let H be a K-Hopf
algebra of dimension 4. Prove that
(a) H is pointed as a K-coalgebra;
(b) dimK G.H / > 1.
16. Assume K is algebraically closed of characteristic 0. Let H be a K-Hopf
algebra of dimension 4. Prove that H is isomorphic to one of the following K-
Hopf algebras:
7. Exercises 633
(a) the group algebra KC4 of the cyclic group C4 of order 4,

(b) the group algebra K.C2 C2 / of the Klein 4-group C2 C2 ,
(c) the Sweedler algebra H4 (Example 2.4 (e)).
17. Assume K is of characteristic 0. Let H be a finite dimensional commutative
Hopf algebra over K. Prove that H is isomorphic (as a K-Hopf algebra) to the dual
algebra .KG/ of the group algebra KG of a finite group G.
18. Assume K is of characteristic 0. Let H be a finite dimensional cocommutative
Hopf algebra over K. Prove that H is isomorphic (as a K-Hopf algebra) to the
group algebra KG of a finite group G.
19. Let K be of characteristic p > 0. Let L D K 2 with the canonical basis
e1 D .1; 0/, e2 D .0; 1/ over K. Consider the K-bilinear map Œ; W L L ! L
given by
Œe1 ; e1 D 0; Œe2 ; e2 D 0; Œe1 ; e2 D e2 ; Œe2 ; e1 D e2 ;

p
map WŒpL ! L given by x D 1 e1 for x D 1 e1 C 2 e2 2 L. Show
Œp Œp
and the
that L; Œ; ; is a restricted Lie algebra over K and describe the restricted
enveloping algebra u.L/ of L.
20. Let K be of characteristic p > 0 and n be a positive integer. Consider the
.2n C 1/-dimensional K-vector space Hn with the basis x1 ; : : : ; xn ; y1 ; : : : ; yn ; z
and the K-bilinear map Œ; W Hn Hn ! Hn given by
Œxi ; yj D ıij z; Œyj ; xi D ıij z; Œxi ; xj D 0; Œyi ; yj D 0;

Œxi ; z D 0; Œz; xi D 0; Œyi ; z D 0; Œz; yi D 0;
for all i; j 2 f1; : : : ; ng. Prove the following assertions.

(a) .Hn ; Œ; / is a Lie algebra over K.
(b) There exists a p-map Œp W Hn ! Hn such that xiŒp D 0, yiŒp D 0, z Œp D 0,
for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and describe
the restricted enveloping algebra u.Hn / of the
restricted Lie algebra Hn D Hn ; Œ; ; Œp .
(c) There exists a p-map Œp W Hn ! Hn such that xiŒp D 0, yiŒp D 0, z Œp D z,
for i 2 f1; : : : ; ng, and describe
the restricted enveloping algebra u.Hn / of the
restricted Lie algebra Hn D Hn ; Œ; ; Œp .
21. Let H be a finite dimensional cocommutative Hopf algebra over K and M and
N modules in mod H . Prove that the right H -modules M ˝ N and N ˝ M are
isomorphic.
22. Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K, M a module in mod H ,

and P a projective module in mod H . Prove that M ˝ P is a projective module in
mod H .
23. Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K and M a module in mod H .
Prove that the right H -modules M and M D .M / are isomorphic.
24. Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K and M and N modules in
mod H . Prove that the right H -modules HomK .M; N / and M ˝ N are isomor-
phic.
25. Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra over K and M and N modules
in mod H . Prove that there is a K-linear isomorphism HomH .K; M ˝ N / Š
HomH .N ; M /.
Prove that M is a direct summand of M ˝ M ˝ M in mod H .
Prove that the following conditions are equivalent:
(a) M is projective in mod H .
(b) M ˝ M is projective in mod H .
(c) M ˝ M is projective in mod H .
(d) M is projective in mod H .
28. Let K be a field of characteristic p > 0, G a p-group, and H D KG the

group algebra of G over K. Prove that the trivial module K is a unique simple right
H -module (up to isomorphism).
29. Let K be a field of characteristic ¤ 2 and
H D K hC; Xi =.C 2 1; X 2 ; CX C XC /;
Sweedler’s Hopf algebra. Prove the following statements.
(a) For any simple right H -modules S and T , S ˝ T is a simple right H -module.
(b) For any indecomposable projective right H -modules P and Q, P ˝ Q is a

direct sum of two indecomposable projective right H -modules.
30. Let K be an algebraically closed field of characteristic 3, SL2 .F3 / the group of
2 2 matrices of determinant 1 over the field F3 with three elements (regarded as
the prime subfield of K) and H D K SL2 .F3 / the group algebra of SL2 .F3 / over
7. Exercises 635
K. Let KŒX; Y be the polynomial algebra in two commuting variables X and Y ,

considered as the right H -modules, with the right actions of elements

a b
c d
of SL2 .F3 / on KŒX; Y as polynomial automorphisms given on X and Y by

a b a b
X D aX C bY; Y D cX C d Y:
c d c d
Let S1 D K be the trivial right H -module, S2 the right H -submodule of KŒX; Y

formed by the linear homogeneous polynomials, and S3 the right H -submodule of
KŒX; Y formed by the homogeneous polynomials of degree 2. Show that
(a) S2 is a simple nonprojective right H -module;
(b) S3 is a simple projective right H -module;
(c) S2 ˝ S2 Š S1 ˚ S3 in mod H .
Bibliography
The numbers at the end of each item refer to the pages on which the respective work is cited.
[Ab] E.Abe, Hopf algebras. Cambridge Tracts in Math. 74, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, New York, 1980. 539
[Ad] J. F. Adams, On the non-existence of elements of Hopf invariant one. Ann. of Math.
72 (1960), 20–104. 539
[ASS] I. Assem, D. Simson and A. Skowroński, Elements of the representation theory of
associative algebras 1: Techniques of representation theory. London Math. Soc.
Student Texts 65, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. 291
[Au1] M. Auslander, Representation theory of Artin algebras II. Comm. Algebra 1 (1974),
269–310. 303
[Au2] M. Auslander, Applications of morphisms determined by modules. In Represen-
tation theory of algebras, Lecture Notes in Pure Appl. Math. 37, Marcel Dekker,
New York, 1978, 24–327. 303
[AB] M. Auslander and M. Bridger, Stable module theory. Mem. Amer. Math. Soc. 94,
Amer. Math. Soc., Providence R.I., 1969. 235
[AR1] M. Auslander and I. Reiten, Representation theory of Artin algebras III. Almost
split sequences. Comm. Algebra 3 (1975), 239–294. 273, 278
[AR2] M. Auslander and I. Reiten, Representation theory of Artin algebras IV. Invariants
given by almost split sequences. Comm. Algebra 5 (1977), 443–518. 278
[AR3] M. Auslander and I. Reiten, Representation theory of Artin algebras V. Methods
for computing almost split sequences and irreducible morphisms. Comm. Algebra
5 (1977), 519–554. 278
[AR4] M.Auslander and I. Reiten, Representation theory ofArtin algebrasVI.A functorial
approach to almost split sequences. Comm. Algebra 6 (1978), 257–300. 278
[ARS] M. Auslander, I. Reiten and S. O. Smalø, Representation theory of Artin algebras.
Cambridge Stud. Adv. Math. 36, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995.
278
[Azu1] G. Azumaya, Corrections and supplementaries to my paper concerning Krull-
Remak-Schmidt’s theorem. Nagoya Math. J. 1 (1950), 117–124. 43
[Azu2] G. Azumaya, A duality theory for injective modules. Amer. J. Math. 81 (1959),
249–278. 180
[Azu3] G. Azumaya, Completely faithful modules and self-injective rings. Nagoya Math.
J. 27 (1966), 697–708. 200
[Bae] R. Baer, Abelian groups that are direct summands of every containing abelian
group. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 46 (1940), 800–806. 80
[Bas1] H. Bass, The Morita theorems. Oregon Lectures, 1962. 123, 155
[Bas2] H. Bass, Algebraic K-theory. W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1968. 123
638 Bibliography
[Bau] R. Bautista, Irreducible morphisms and the radical of a category. An. Inst. Mat.
Univ. Nac. Autónoma México 22 (1982), 83–135. 262
[BS] R. Bautista and S. O. Smalø, Nonexistent cycles. Comm. Algebra 11 (1983), 1755–
1767. 312
[BMW] S. Berman, R. Moody and M. Wonenburger, Cartan matrices with null roots and
finite Cartan matrices. Indiana Univ. Math. J. 21 (1971/72), 1091–1099. 452
[Bo] K. Bongartz, On a result of Bautista and Smalø on cycles. Comm. Algebra 11
(1983), 2123–2124. 312
[Bor] A. Borel, Sur la cohomologie des espaces fibrés principaux et des espaces ho-
mogènes de groupes de Lie compacts. Ann. of Math. 57 (1953), 115–207. 539
[BrNe] R. Brauer and C. Nesbitt, On the regular representations of algebras. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. USA 23 (1937), 236–240. 336, 340, 341
[BKK] S. Brenner, M. C. R. Butler and A. D. King, Periodic algebras which are almost
Koszul. Algebr. Represent. Theory 5 (2002), 331–367. 441
[Buc] D. A. Buchsbaum, Exact categories and duality. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 80 (1955),
1–34. 175
[Car] F. G. Carlson, Periodic modules over group algebras. J. London Math. Soc. 15
(1977), 431–436. 422
[CE] H. Cartan and S. Eilenberg, Homological algebra. Princeton Landmarks in Math-
ematics, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1999 (originally published in
1956). 77, 88, 409
[Che] C. Chevalley, Sur certains groupes simples. Tôhoku Math. J. 7 (1955), 14–66. 533
[Coh1] P. M. Cohn, Skew fields. Theory of general division rings. Encyclopedia Math.
Appl. 57, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. 2
[Coh2] P. M. Cohn, Classic algebra. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, 2000. 23
[Coh3] P. M. Cohn, Further algebra and applications. Springer-Verlag, London, 2003. 3
[Cox] H. S. M. Coxeter, Discrete groups generated by reflections. Ann. of Math. 35
(1934), 588–621. 489, 507, 509, 514
[Da] E. C. Dade, Blocks with cyclic defect groups. Ann. of Math. 84 (1966), 2–48. 367
[DNR] S. Dǎscǎlescu, C. Nǎstǎsescu and Ş. Raianu, Hopf algebras: An introduction.
Monogr. Textbooks Pure Appl. Math. 235, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2001.
539
[Ded] R. Dedekind, Zur Theorie der aus n Haupteinheiten gebildeten complexen Grössen.
Göttinger Nachrichten (1885), 141–159. 4
[DG] M. Demazure and P. Gabriel, Groupes algébriques. Tome I: Géométrie algébrique,
généralités, groupes commutatifs. Masson & Cie, North-Holland Publishing Co.,
Amsterdam, 1970. 539
[DJ] R. Dipper and G. James, Representations of Hecke algebras of general linear
groups. Proc. London Math. Soc. 52 (1986), 20–52. 533
Bibliography 639
[DK] Yu. A. Drozd and V. V. Kirichenko, Finite dimensional algebras. Springer-Verlag,

Berlin, 1994. 3, 435
[Du] A. Dugas, Periodic resolutions and self-injective algebras of finite type. J. Pure
Appl. Algebra 214 (2010), 990–1000. 440
[EM] S. Eilenberg and S. MacLane, General theory of natural equivalences. Trans. Amer.
Math. Soc. 58 (1945), 231–294. 175
[Er] K. Erdmann, Blocks of tame representation type and related algebras. Lecture
Notes in Math. 1428, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990. 441
[EH] K. Erdmann and T. Holm, Twisted bimodules and Hochschild cohomology for
self-injective algebras of class An . Forum Math. 11 (1999), 177–201. 440, 441
[ESn] K. Erdmann and N. Snashall, Preprojective algebras of Dynkin type, periodicity
and the second Hochschild cohomology. In Algebras and modules, II, Canad. Math.
Soc. Conf. Proc. 24, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, 1998, 183–193. 455
[ES] K. Erdmann and N. Skowroński, Periodic algebras. In Trends in representation
theory of algebras and related topics, European Math. Soc. Series of Congress
Reports, European Math. Soc. Publ. House, Zürich, 2008, 201–251. 441, 454
[Fe] W. Feit, Possible Brauer trees. Illinois J. Math. 28 (1984), 43–56. 368
[FMS] D. Fischman, S. Montgomery and H.-J. Schneider, Frobenius extensions of sub-
algebras of Hopf algebras. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 349 (1997), 4857–4895. 609
[Fro0] F. G. Frobenius, Über lineare Substitutionen und bilineare Formen. Borchardt J.
84 (1877), 1–63. 3
[Fro1] F. G. Frobenius, Über vertauschbare Matrizen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin
(1896), 601–614. 4
[Fro2] F. G. Frobenius, Über die Darstellung der endlichen Gruppen durch lineare Sub-
stitutionen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (1897), 944–1015. 3, 12
[Fro3] F. G. Frobenius, Über die Darstellung der endlichen Gruppen durch lineare Sub-
stitutionen II. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (1899), 482–500. 13
[Fro4] F. G. Frobenius, Theorie der hyperkomplexen Grössen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Berlin (1903), 504–537. 14, 15, 333, 334
[Fro5] F. G. Frobenius, Theorie der hyperkomplexen Grössen II. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Berlin (1903), 634–645. 14, 15, 333, 334
[Ga1] P. Gabriel, Unzerlegbare Darstellungen. I. Manuscripta Math. 6 (1972), 71–103.
6
[Ga2] P. Gabriel, Indecomposable representations. II. Symposia Mat. Inst. Naz. Alta Mat.
11 (1973), 81–104. 6
[GePo] I. M. Gelfand and V. A. Ponomarev, Model algebras and representations of graphs.
Funkc. Anal. and Priloz. 13 (1979), 1–12. 454
[GSS] E. L. Green, N. Snashall and O. Solberg, The Hochschild cohomology ring of a
selfinjective algebra of finite type. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 131 (2003), 3387–3393.
442, 446
640 Bibliography
[GrBe] L. C. Grove and C. T. Benson, Finite reflection groups. Grad. Texts in Math. 99,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1985. 489, 507, 508, 509, 514
[Hal] M. Hall, A type of algebraic closure. Ann. of Math. 40 (1939), 360–369. 180
[Ham] W. R. Hamilton, Lectures on quaternions. Dublin, 1853. 3
[HPR] D. Happel, U. Preiser and C. M. Ringel, Vinberg’s characterization of Dynkin
diagrams using subadditive functions with application to DTr-periodic modules.
In Representation theory II, Lecture Notes in Math. 832, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1980, 280–294. 452
[HaSa] M. Harada andY. Sai, On categories of indecomposable modules. I. Osaka J. Math.
7 (1970), 323–344. 207
[Hopf] H. Hopf, Über die Topologie der Gruppen-Mannigfaltigkeiten und ihre Verallge-
meinerungen. Ann. of Math. 42 (1941), 22–52. 539
[Hum] J. E. Humphreys, Introduction to Lie algebras and representation theory. Grad.
Texts in Math. 9, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1972. 539, 584
[Ike] M. Ikeda, A characterization of quasi-Frobenius rings. Osaka J. Math. 4 (1952),
203–209. 180
[Iwa] N. Iwahori, On the structure of the Hecke ring of a Chevalley group over a field. J.
Faculty Science University Tokyo, Section 1, 10 (1964), 215–236. 489, 509, 510,
516, 526, 533
[Jac] N. Jacobson, Lie algebras. Interscience Tracts in Pure Appl. Math. 10, Interscience
Publishers, New York, London, 1962. 580
[Ja] G. J. Janusz, Indecomposable modules for finite groups. Ann. of Math. 89 (1969),
209–241. 367
[Kas] C. Kassel, Quantum groups. Grad. Texts in Math. 155, Springer-Verlag, NewYork,
1995. 539
[Jor] C. Jordan, Traité des substitutions et des équations algébriques. Gauthier-Villars,
Paris, 1870. 23
[Kro] L. Kronecker,Algebraische Reduktion der Scharen bilinearer Formen. Sitzungsber.
Akad. Wiss. Berlin (1890), 1225–1237. 25
[Kru] W. Krull, Über verallgemeinerte endliche Abelsche Gruppen. Math. Z. 23 (1925),
161–196. 43
[Ku1] H. Kupisch, Projective Moduln endlicher Gruppen mit zyklischer p-Sylow
Gruppe. J. Algebra 10 (1968), 1–7. 367
[Ku2] H. Kupisch, Unzerlegbare Moduln endlicher Gruppen mit zyklischer p-Sylow
Gruppe. Math. Z. 108 (1969), 77–104. 367
[Lam] T. Y. Lam, Lectures on modules and rings. Grad. Texts in Math. 189, Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1999. 180
[LaSw] R. G. Larson and M. E. Sweedler, An associative orthogonal bilinear form for Hopf
algebras. Amer. J. Math. 91 (1969), 75–94. 587, 593, 617
Bibliography 641
[Loe1] A. Loewy, Über die Reducibilität der Gruppen linearer homogener Substitutionen.
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 4 (1903), 44–64. 68
[Loe2] A. Loewy, Über die Reducibilität der reellen Gruppen linearer homogener Substi-
tutionen. Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 4 (1903), 171–177. 68
[ML1] S. Mac Lane, Duality for groups. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 56 (1950), 485–516. 175
[ML2] S. Mac Lane, Categories for the working mathematician. Grad. Texts in Math. 5,
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1971. 20, 141
[Mas] H. Maschke, Beweis des Satzes, dass diejenigen endlichen linearen Substitutions-
gruppen, in welchen einige durchgehends verschwindende Coefficienten auftreten,
intransitive sind. Math. Ann. 52 (1899), 363–368. 65
[MM] J. Milnor and J. C. Moore, On the structure of Hopf algebras. Ann. of Math. 81
(1965), 211–264. 539
[Mol] T. Molien, Über Systeme höherer complexer Zahlen. Math. Ann. 41 (1892), 83–
156. 4
[Mor] K. Morita, Duality for modules and its applications to the theory of rings with
minimum condition. Sci. Rep. Tokyo Kyoiku Daigaku Sect. A 6 (1958), no. 150,
83–142. 123, 155, 201
[NaNa] H. Nagao and T. Nakayama, On the structure of M0 - and Mu -modules. Math. Z.
59 (1953), 164–170. 77
[Nak1] T. Nakayama, Some studies of regular representations, induced representations
and modular representations. Ann. of Math. 39 (1938), 361–369. 52, 77, 336
[Nak2] T. Nakayama, On Frobeniusean algebras I. Ann. of Math. 40 (1939), 611–633.
180, 336, 340, 341, 345, 377, 380, 391
[Nak3] T. Nakayama, On Frobeniusean algebras II. Ann. of Math. 42 (1941), 1–21. 104,
336, 340, 341, 376, 380, 382
[NaNe] T. Nakayama and C. Nesbitt, Note on symmetric algebras. Ann. of Math. 39 (1938),
659–668. 378
[Nes] C. Nesbitt, On the regular representations of algebras. Ann. of Math. 39 (1938),
634–658, 336
[NeSc] C. Nesbitt and W. M. Scott, Some remarks on algebras over an algebraically closed
field. Ann. of Math. 44 (1943), 534–553. 173
[NZ] W. D. Nichols and M. B. Zoeller, A Hopf algebra freeness theorem. Amer. J. Math.
111 (1989), 381–385. 612
[Noe1] E. Noether, Hyperkomplexe Grössen und Darstellungstheorie. Math. Z. 30 (1929),
641–692. 2, 15
[Noe2] E. Noether, Nichtkommutative Algebren. Math. Z. 37 (1933), 514–541. 15
[P] R. S. Pierce, Associative algebras. Grad. Texts in Math. 88, Springer-Verlag, New
York, 1982. 435
[Pon] L. Pontrjagin, Topological groups. Princeton Math. Ser. 2, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, N.J., 1939. 175
642 Bibliography
[Rad] D. Radford, The order of the antipode of a finite dimensional Hopf algebra is finite.
Amer. J. Math. 98 (1976), 333–355. 608
[Rem] R. Remak, Über die Zerlegung der endlichen Gruppen in direkte unzerlegbare
Faktoren. J. Reine Angew. Math. 139 (1911), 293–308. 43
[Rie] C. Riedtmann, Algebren, Darstellungsköcher, Überlagerungen und zurück. Com-
ment. Math. Helv. 55 (1980), 199–224. 459
[Ro] A. V. Roiter, Unboundedness of the dimensions of the indecomposable represen-
tations of an algebra which has infinitely many indecomposable representations.
Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Mat. 32 (1968), 1275–1282 (in Russian). 304
[Schm] O. Schmidt, Über unendliche Gruppen mit endlicher Kette. Math. Z. 29 (1928),
34–41. 43
[Sch] A. Schofield, Wild algebras with periodic Auslander–Reiten translate. Preprint
1980. 455
[Schu1] I. Schur, Über eine Klasse von Matrizen, die sich einer gegebenen Matrix zuordnen
lassen. Dissertation, Berlin, 1901. 45
[Schu2] I. Schur, Neue Begründung der Theorie der Gruppencharaktere. Sitzungsber. Akad.
Wiss. Berlin (1905), 406–432.
[SS1] D. Simson and A. Skowroński, Elements of the representation theory of associative
algebras 2: Tubes and concealed algebras of Euclidean type. London Math. Soc.
Student Texts 71, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. 26, 291
[SS2] D. Simson and A. Skowroński, Elements of the representation theory of associative
algebras 3: Representation-infinite tilted algebras. London Math. Soc. Student
Texts 72, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. 291
[SW] A. Skowroński and J. Waschbüsch, Representation-finite biserial algebras. J. Reine
Angew. Math. 345 (1983), 172–181. 365
[SY] A. Skowroński and K. Yamagata, A general form of non-Frobenius self-injective
algebras. Colloq. Math. 105 (2006), 135–141. 386
[SF] H. Strade and R. Farnsteiner, Modular Lie algebras and their representations.
Monogr. Textbooks Pure. Appl. Math. 116, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1988.
539, 584
[Suz] Y. Suzuki, Dominant dimension of double centralizers. Math. Z. 122 (1971), 53–56.
194
[Swe1] M. E. Sweedler, Hopf algebras. W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1969. 539, 558
[Swe2] M. E. Sweedler, Integrals for Hopf algebras. Ann. of Math. 89 (1969), 323–335.
594
[Tac] H. Tachikawa, Duality theorem of character modules for rings with minimum
condition. Math. Z. 68 (1958), 479–487. 180
[Tod] G. Todorov, Almost split sequences for TrD-periodic modules. In Representation
theory, II, Lecture Notes in Math. 832, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1980, 600–631.
459
Bibliography 643
[Vin] E. B. Vinberg, Discrete linear groups that are generated by reflections. Izv. Akad.
Nauk SSSR Ser. Mat. 35 (1971), 1072–1112. 452
[Wat] W. C. Waterhouse, Introduction to affine group schemes. Grad. Texts in Math. 66,
Springer-Verlag, New York 1979. 539
[Wed] J. H. M. Wedderburn, On hypercomplex numbers. Proc. London Math. Soc. 6
(1908), 77–118. 56
[Wei] K. Weierstrass, Zur Theorie der aus n Haupteinheiten gebildeten complexen
Grössen. Göttinger Nachrichten (1984), 395–414. 4
Index
A-bilinear map, 134 Brauer quiver, 359

A-bimodule, 125 Brauer tree, 359
acyclic quiver, 6 Brauer tree algebra, 360
additive function of Cartan
matrix, 448 canonical decomposition, 375
adjoint pair of functors, 141 canonical mesh algebra, 454
adjoint theorem, 144 Carlson theorem, 422
adjunction of categories, 141 Cartan matrix of algebra, 106
adjunction of functors, 141 Cartan matrix on set, 447
admissible group, 293 category, 123
admissible ideal, 9 center of algebra, 368
admissible sequence, 516 central algebra, 370
algebraically closed field, 2 central idempotent, 35
almost split sequence, 270 class of morphisms, 123
˛-camp, 359 class of objects, 123
A-module homomorphism, 16 co-opposite coalgebra, 547
A-module isomorphism, 16 co-opposite Hopf algebra, 571
antipode, 554 coalgebra, 541
arrow ideal, 9 cocommutative, 541
arrows of quiver, 6 cogenerator of category, 175
associative bilinear form, 336 coideal, 552
A-submodule, 18 cokernel, 19
Auslander–Reiten quiver, 282 commutative ring, 1
Auslander–Reiten theorem, 273 comodule, 585
Auslander–Reiten translation, 244 component, 291
composite of functors, 141
Baer sum, 213 composition multiplicity, 70
basic algebra, 172, 173 composition of functors, 123
basic idempotent, 376 composition series, 68
basic primitive idempotent, 375 composition vector, 106
basis of root system, 496 comultiplication of coalgebra, 541
ˇ-camp, 359 connected quiver, 6
bialgebra, 554 contravariant functor, 124
bimodule, 125 convolution product, 552
block, 40 coradical of coalgebra, 631
bound quiver, 9 cosemisimple coalgebra, 631
bound quiver algebra, 9 cosyzygy module, 392
bound representation, 26 counit of adjunction of functors, 142
646 Index
counit of coalgebra, 541 exact functor, 132

covariant functor, 124 exact sequence of modules, 88
covering morphism, 292 exceptional cycle, 359
Coxeter graph, 501 Ext-algebra, 414
Coxeter group, 490 extension, 209
cycle, 6
factor representation, 21
degree of the representation, 12 factor right module, 18
dense functor, 157 faithful functor, 157
density theorem, 61 faithful module, 154
dihedral group, 491 fibered product, 114
dimension, 13 fibered sum, 115
direct product, 199 field, 2
direct sum, 19 finite dimensional algebra, 2
direct sum of modules, 19, 199 finite dimensional module, 16
direct summand, 44 finite dimensional representation, 21
distinguished grouplike element finite quiver, 6
of dual Hopf algebra, 602 finite representation type, 104
distinguished grouplike element finitely generated module, 18
of Hopf algebra, 600 first (left) regular representation
division ring, 2 of an algebra, 15
double centralizer property, 155 first Brauer–Thrall conjecture, 304
double quiver, 452 Fitting lemma, 41
dualities of categories, 175 free module, 73
duality module, 183 Frobenius algebra, 336
duality of categories, 175 full functor, 157
Dynkin graph, 448 full subcategory, 124
Dynkin quiver, 457 fundamental reflection, 496
Dynkin type, 463 fundamental root of Coxeter group, 496
effective subgroup, 490 generalized quaternion algebra, 121
enveloping algebra, 369 generator of category, 151
equivalence of categories, 157 generators of module, 18
equivalences of categories, 157 geometrically isomorphic groups, 497
equivalent categories, 157 Grothendieck group, 105
equivalent extensions of modules, 209 group algebra, 3
equivalent representations of grouplike element of Hopf algebra, 572
algebras, 13
equivalent representations of Hecke algebra, 516
groups, 13 Heisenberg algebra, 581
essential submodule, 81 hereditary algebra, 93
Euclidean graph, 449 hom functor, 131
evaluation map, 26 homomorphism of bialgebras, 554
Index 647
homomorphism of coalgebras, 542 Jacobson radical of algebra, 30

homomorphism of Hopf algebras, 555 Jacobson radical of module, 50
homomorphism of right comodules, 585 Jacobson radical of module category, 204
homomorphism of right Hopf Jacobson radical of the homomorphism
modules, 586 space, 203
Hopf algebra, 555 Jordan–Hölder theorem, 68
Hopf ideal, 572
Hopf module, 586 K-algebra, 2
Hopf subalgebra, 571 K-algebra homomorphism, 2
K-category, 124
ideal, 2 kernel, 19
idempotent, 35 K-Hopf algebra, 555
identity functor, 141 K-linear functor, 131
identity map, 19 K-linear representation of a quiver, 21
Kronecker quiver, 7
identity matrix, 3
K-subalgebra, 2
identity morphism, 123
identity of ring, 1 left adjoint functor, 141
image, 19 left almost split homomorphism, 257
indecomposable algebra, 37 left annihilator, 348
indecomposable Cartan matrix, 448 left exact contravariant functor, 132
indecomposable module, 19 left exact covariant functor, 131
indecomposable representation, 22 left hereditary algebra, 93
infinite radical, 207 left ideal, 2
injective dimension, 90 left integral, 594
injective envelope, 82 left minimal almost split homomorphism,
injective module, 79 258
injective representation, 86 left minimal homomorphism, 257
injective resolution, 88 left module, 16
injective vertex, 283, 292 left perpendicular set, 349
injectively stable category, 234 length function, 293
inner automorphism, 184 length of admissible sequence, 516
inner automorphism group, 184 length of an element of the Coxeter group,
integral marked graph, 501 509
irreducible Coxeter group, 498 length of composition series of module,
irreducible homomorphism, 260 70
isomorphic algebras, 2 length of path, 6
isomorphic modules, 16 Lie algebra, 579
isomorphic sequences of modules, 269 Lie bracket, 579
isomorphism of representations, 21 local algebra, 32
isomorphism of translation quivers, 292 locally finite quiver, 292
Loewy length of algebra, 54
Jacobi identity, 580 Loewy length of module, 54
648 Index
Loewy series, 54 Noether–Skolem theorem, 373

loop, 6 nondegenerate bilinear form, 336
n-th extension space, 402
marked graph, 497, 499 n-th tensor algebra, 139
marked subgraph, 500
Maschke theorem, 65 A -periodic module, 414
matrix coalgebra, 545 opposite algebra, 4
maximal ideal, 30 opposite category, 124
minimal epimorphism, 75 opposite Hopf algebra, 570
minimal injective cogenerator, 177 opposite quiver, 12
minimal injective copresentation, 249 opposite-co-opposite Hopf algebra, 562
minimal injective resolution, 89 ordinary cycle, 359
minimal monomorphism, 81 orthogonal idempotents, 35, 47
minimal progenerator, 154
outer automorphism, 184
minimal projective presentation, 235
outer automorphism group, 184
minimal projective resolution, 88
Morita equivalence of module
parastrophic matrix, 333
categories, 160
path algebra, 6
Morita equivalence theorem, 165, 166
path of irreducible homomorphisms of
Morita equivalent algebras, 160
length t , 301
Morita invariant, 161
path of quiver, 6
Morita–Azumaya duality, 180
perfect field, 435
Morita–Azumaya duality theorem, 180,
period of algebra, 439
182
period of module, 414
morphism in category, 123
periodic algebra, 439
morphism of representations, 21
periodic module, 414
mouth of tube, 294
periodic module category, 414
multiplication of algebra, 540
p-map, 580
mutually inverse equivalences, 157
pointed coalgebra, 631
Nakayama algebra, 101 positive root, 496
Nakayama automorphism, 346 preprojective algebra, 454
Nakayama functor, 247 primitive element of Hopf algebra, 574
Nakayama lemma, 31 primitive idempotent, 47
Nakayama permutation, 377 product of algebras, 3
natural equivalence of functors, 157 progenerator of module category, 153
natural isomorphism of functors, 141, projective cover, 76
157 projective dimension, 90
natural linear isomorphism, 141 projective module, 73
natural transformation of functors, 140 projective representation, 86
negative root, 496 projective resolution, 88
nilpotent element, 31 projective vertex, 283, 292
nilpotent ideal, 31 projectively stable category, 233
Index 649
proper ideal, 2 ring, 1

proper submodule, 18 ring homomorphism, 2
pull-back, 114 root of Coxeter group, 490
push-out, 115 root system of Coxeter group, 490
quasi-inverse functor, 157 second (right) regular representation

quaternion group, 122 of an algebra, 15
quiver, 6 section, 41
sectional path in translation quiver, 312
radical of algebra, 30 sectional path of irreducible
radical of module, 50 homomorphisms, 312
radical of module category, 204 selfduality of module category, 183
radical of the homomorphism space, 203 selfinjective algebra, 178
radical series of module, 54 semisimple algebra, 57
reduced presentation of an element semisimple module, 45
of the Coxeter group, 509 separable algebra, 432
reflection along the vector, 489 separable extension of field, 435
reflection of the space, 489 set of morphisms, 123
reflection through the hyperplane, 489 short exact sequence of modules, 88
regular bimodule, 369 sigma notation, 542
relation in path algebra, 10 simple algebra, 58
representation of algebra, 13 simple composition factor, 68
representation of group, 12 simple module, 45
representation of quiver, 21 simple representation, 86
restricted commutator algebra, 582 simple root of Coxeter group, 496
restricted enveloping algebra, 583 sink in quiver, 108
restricted Lie algebra, 580 skew field, 2
retraction, 41 socle equivalent algebras, 383
right adjoint functor, 141 socle of algebra, 383
right almost split homomorphism, 258 socle of module, 53
right annihilator, 348 source of quiver, 6
right exact contravariant functor, 132 space of irreducible
right exact covariant functor, 132 homomorphisms, 284
right hereditary algebra, 93 space of left g-integrals, 598
right ideal, 2 space of left integrals, 594
right integral, 594 space of right g-integrals, 598
right minimal almost split space of right integrals, 594
homomorphism, 258 special biserial algebra, 365
right minimal homomorphism, 257 splittable exact sequence of modules, 88
right module, 16 splittable extension, 210
right perpendicular set, 349 stable Auslander–Reiten quiver, 455
right tensor Hopf module, 586 stable translation quiver, 293
650 Index
stable tube of rank r, 294 t -negative root, 491

standard K-duality of module categories, top of module, 53
20 t-positive root, 491
strictly smaller, 451 trace map, 342
structure constants of algebra, 4 trace of matrix, 342
subadditive function of Cartan matrix, translation, 292
448 transpose, 236
subcategory, 124 trivial extension algebra, 343
subcoalgebra, 552 trivial idempotent, 35, 47
subrepresentation, 21 trivial module, 619
subspace of coinvariants, 586 trivial path of quiver, 6
summand of idempotent, 48 two-sided ideal, 2
superfluous submodule, 75
Sweedler’s algebra, 558 underlying graph, 6
symmetric algebra, 336 uniserial module, 100
symmetric algebra of bimodule, 139 unit of adjunction of functors, 141
syzygy module, 392 unit of algebra, 540
unit vector, 489
Taft algebra, 559 universal property of fibered product, 114
target of quiver, 6 universal property of fibered sum, 115
A -periodic module, 415 universal property of tensor product, 135
A -periodic module category, 415
t-basis of root system, 491 valued translation quiver, 292
tensor algebra of bimodule, 139 valued translation quiver morphism, 292
tensor functor, 136 vertices of quiver, 6
tensor Hopf algebra, 560 weakly symmetric algebra, 378
tensor Hopf algebra of vector space, 575 Wedderburn theorem, 57
tensor product, 134
tensor product coalgebra, 546 zero matrix, 3

Algebras de Frobenius 1

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Algebras de Frobenius 1

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

EMS Textbooks in Mathematics

EMS Textbooks in Mathematics is a series of books aimed at students or professional mathemati-

Jørn Justesen and Tom Høholdt, A Course In Error-Correcting Codes

© European Mathematical Society 2012

Typeset using the authors’ TEX files: I. Zimmermann, Freiburg

I Algebras and modules 1

II Morita theory 123

III Auslander–Reiten theory 203

11 The Bautista–Smalø theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

IV Selfinjective algebras 332

V Hecke algebras 489

VI Hopf algebras 539

This chapter is devoted to presenting background on finite dimensional algebras

(i) .A; C; 0A / is an abelian group, with zero element 0A ,

(ii) .ab/c D a.bc/,

(iii) a.b C c/ D ab C ac and .b C c/a D ba C ca,

for all elements a; b; c 2 A. Therefore, the multiplication is associative and both

elements a; b 2 A. We will frequently abbreviate 0 D 0A and 1 D 1A , if it will not

.ab/ D .a/b D a.b/

for all 2 K and all a; b 2 A, and 1K 1A D 1A , where 1K is the identity of K

Examples 1.1. (a) The field C D R ˚ Ri of complex numbers is a 2-dimensional

(b) Let H D R ˚ Ri ˚ Rj ˚ Rk be the division R-algebra of quaternions

Then H is a 4-dimensional (noncommutative) R-algebra. Observe that H is not a

where ıik is the Kronecker delta.

Since a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an form a K-basis of A, the required equalities are equivalent

Again, the required equalities are equivalent to the identity conditions 1A ak D

We will present now an important construction of finite dimensional K-algebras

l; m  0, because the product of a path of length l by a path of length m is either

consisting of a single vertex and a single loop. Then "1 ; ˛; ˛ 2 ; : : : ; ˛ l ; : : : is the

Then a simple checking shows that KQ is isomorphic to the matrix K-algebra

In particular, it follows that for K D R the path algebra RQ is isomorphic to the

"1 "2 "3 "4 ˛ ˇ  ˇ˛

Then a simple checking shows that KQ is isomorphic to the matrix K-subalgebra

of paths w1 ; : : : ; wn in Q of length at least 2 having a common source and a common

and I the ideal of KQ generated by ˛ˇ. Then I is an admissible ideal of KQ

K-algebra with a K-basis given by the cosets "1 C I , "2 C I , "3 C I , ˛ C I , ˇ C I ,

of M4 .K/. Then there is a K-algebra isomorphism f W KQ=I ! A given on the

(d) Let Q be the quiver

Indeed, there is a K-algebra isomorphism f W KQ=I ! ƒ given on the basis

quiver algebra KQ=I .

2 Representations of algebras and modules

Following F. G. Frobenius [Fro4], [Fro5], consider the matrices

Then it follows from Lemma / D L.aj /L.ak / for all j; k 2

Moreover, by Lemma 1.2 (ii), we also obtain that

Therefore, L W A ! Mn .K/ is a representation of A.

and hence Rt .1A / D R.1A /t D Int D In .

Let A be a K-algebra. Following E. Noether, a left A-module (or a left module

Proposition 2.4. Let A be a K-algebra. There is a bijection between the equiva-

a.x C y/ D ˆ.a/.x C y/ D ˆ.a/x C ˆ.a/y D ax C ay;

This defines on M a left A-module structure, denoted by Mˆ .

af .x/ D ‰.a/.C x/ D .‰.a/C / x D .C ˆ.a// x D C .ˆ.a/x/ D f .ax/

for all a 2 A, x 2 M . Therefore, f defines an isomorphism f W Mˆ ! M‰ of left

.C ˆ.a// x D C .ˆ.a/x/ D f .ax/ D af .x/ D ‰.a/.C x/ D .‰.a/C / x;

and hence C ˆ.a/ D ‰.a/C , or equivalently, ‰.a/ D C ˆ.a/C 1 . Therefore, the

Let A be a K-algebra. For right A-modules M , N , we denote by HomA .M; N /

W HomA .M; N / HomA .L; M / ! HomA .L; N /;

EndA .M / D HomA .M; M /

of all A-module endomorphisms of M has a K-algebra structure with respect to

Proof. Clearly, M D M1 C C Mr is just the fact that every element m 2 M

Hence the required equivalence follows.

A representation M of Q over K is said to be indecomposable if M is nonzero and

are representatives of the isomorphism classes of all indecomposable representa-

Finally, if Im '˛ ¤ M1 , then taking a K-vector space decomposition M1 D M10 ˚

(c) Let Q be the quiver

l; m 0, because the product of a path of length l by a path of length m is either

"1 "2 "3 "4 ˛ ˇ ˇ˛

for n 1, 2 K, give representatives of the isomorphism classes of all finite

for n 1, provides an infinite family of pairwise nonisomorphic indecomposable

where j 2 K, uj , vj are paths in Q (possibly trivial), and j 2 f%1 ; : : : ; %r g, for

holds, and hence x 2 rad A, by Lemma 3.1. Therefore I rad A.