housing

A.K. Jain

Housing for All

Will the economically weaker sections of the society
continue to live in slums and squatter settlements? Is
it possible to redevelop existing areas and open up
new avenues for social housing?

T
he Government of India, recently unveiled the
National Declaration on Urban Governance and
Housing for all. It has committed to provide
housing to all by the year 2022, along with toilets,
electricity, drinking water and other amenities.
According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
Alleviation, the total housing shortage in India in the year 2011
was about 18.78 million dwelling units (DUs), out of which
95% related to social housing, i.e. housing for the economically
weaker sections and low income group.
About one-third to one-half of the population of India’s
major metropolitan centres, like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai,
Bangalore and Chennai occupy various types of illegal,
informal, unplanned and slum settlements, which comprise
mainly the poor. The pavement dwellers/homeless form about
1 per cent of the total population. Traditional areas, villages and
old city house about one-third of population and unauthorised
colonies have about one-sixth of the population. Public sector
housing and site and services provide housing to about one-
third of the population. The role of the private sector in EWS/
LIG housing has been almost negligible. The current schemes of
affordable housing by the private sector also cater mostly to the

38 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People December 2014

middle income groups. The experience
of EWS/LIG housing is that these do
not reach the intended group, unless
land cost is discounted, construction
cost is subsidized, rental facility is
offered and loan is made available at
low interest.
In the absence of access to public
and private sector housing, the poor
continue to live in unauthorised
colonies within unapproved build-
ings. Slums and jhuggi jhompri/squat-
ter clusters and illegal colonies exist
on public land, except rarely on few
private tracts of land. These illegal Figure 2: A dense and compact illegal colony without any open space or community facilities
colonies have an average plot size of and utilities
60-200 sqm, largely catering to the
MIG. The average size of a jhuggi in a poor. Most of the poor live in the un- deserve shelter and city services.
slum cluster is a meagre 8 to 12 sqm, planned areas, such as the slums, old The Ministry of Housing and Urban
which caters to EWS. The increasing city, villages and illegal colonies, which Poverty Alleviation guidelines define
number of homeless, squatters and tend to remain ignored, as the authori- affordable housing with dwelling
slum dwellers reflects the inadequacy ties are focus on developing green- units between 21 to 60 sq. m. carpet
of delivery of social housing by public field areas. The informal, illegal and area for EWS and LIG categories. The
housing programmes. The informal so- squatter settlements continue to face household income ceiling for these
lutions to the deficiencies of housing the threat of demolition, and hence, categories for eligibility has been fixed
and urban development programmes, present great opportunities for gener- at Rs 8000 and Rs 16,000 per month
which openly defy planning legisla- ating corruption. The people in these respectively, in 2012, which is now
tion, illustrate the extent to which settlements provide essential services 16,000 and 25, 000 respectively (2014).
popular measures regulate the process to the city without demanding much. Housing is intimately connected with
of change and provide shelter to the They have the right to the city and land policy, infrastructure develop-
ment, concepts of planning, land use,
tenure and building regulations. There
is a need to adopt innovative systems
of land pooling and to harness com-
munity and private sector resources in
services, housing and development.

Land
According to the Town and Coun-
try Planning Organization (TCPO)
estimates, at least 84,724 hectares
to 1,20,882 hectares of additional
land would be required, to meet the
current housing shortage in the form
group housing, on average density
Fig. 1: Evolution of an unauthorized colony norms. Land is the basic platform for

December 2014 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People 39

housing

all human activities and housing. It is

the starting point of urban develop-
ment, infrastructure services, utilities,
public facilities, transportation and
corridors. With the changing times,
the acquisition of private lands has be-
come extremely difficult. The recently
notified Right to Fair Compensation
and Transparency in Land Acquisi-
tion, Rehabilitation and Resettlement
Act, 2013 necessitates minimizing the
need for land acquisition and control-
ling the urban sprawl by optimum
densities, intensive development and
redevelopment of existing urban ar-
eas. This is also essential for equitable
distribution of the land resource and
to minimize the infrastructure cost
and carbon footprints of urbanization.
Such an approach is visible in Singa-
pore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Tokyo and
even Dubai, which otherwise has vast
tracts of land. It may be suggested
that owners of large land parcels con-
tribute proportionate land for public
purpose (transport corridors, parking,
social facilities, social housing and
public greens) against grant of incen-
tive FAR/FSI . Fig. 3: Skeleton Prefab Social Housing, Architect. A. K. Jain

Planning and Design

Planning norms, land use, zoning,
density, Floor Area Ratio (FAR), and
building controls have direct implica-
tions on the costs and affordability of
housing. There is a need to frame or
review them so that these open up a
new avenue for social housing and the
redevelopment of existing areas. It is
essential to optimize the utilization
of land by rationalizing the FAR and
residential density. A fixed density and
FAR could lead to under-utilization
of land potential and imposition of
artificial limits to optimal use of scarce
urban land. This is necessary to make Fig. 4: FSI, Density and Housing Form

40 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People December 2014

in-situ slum rehabilitation feasible and
to retrieve the encroached land, part
of which can be used for public facili-
ties, utilities and green reservations.
The myth of low-rise slum
rehabilitation has to be abandoned,
as it usually leads to illegal transfer of
the subsidised plots and creation of
new slums and squatter areas. Also,
walk-ups with four to five storeys
pose a problem for the elderly,
sick, and physically challenged. It
is incorrect to presume that the
poor cannot handle elevators/lifts
or afford their maintenance. It is an
impressionistic view that high rise
buildings are not energy efficient,
or environmentally less sustainable.
Higher FAR and densities result in
several environmental benefits. They
not only, reduce travel distances and
transmission losses but also reduce
the pressure on land, public transport
and services. According to the Twelfth
Five Year Plan (2013), a World Bank
study explains how Floor Space Index
or FSI and ground coverage can
be combined to increase densities.
However, in high rise housing, due
care has to be taken to provide
flexibility in the use of space, creating
‘streets’ on upper floors, small shops,
and social spaces, especially for
women and children and integrated
facilities, utilities and work places. By
making vertical gardens, roof gardens,
high-rise urban farming, sky terraces
and solar panels an integral part of it,
the high density housing design can
be made sustainable.
The norms of mixed land use, zon-
ing, density, FAR, and building controls
should encourage and open up new
areas for social housing and for the
redevelopment of existing areas. To
optimise utilisation of scarce urban
land, differential residential density
norms should be adopted. A fixed
density could result in under-utilisa-
tion of land and FAR or imposition of
artificial limits to optimal use of land.
The following density norms, with cor-
responding category of dwelling units
(DU) have been stipulated in the Delhi
Master Plan-2021:
• Slum/EWS housing (to 30 sq.m)
- 600 to 900DUs/Ha
• Category I (above 30 to 40 sq.m)
- 500 DUs/Ha
• Category II (above 40 to 80 sq.m) -
250 DUs/Ha
• Category III (above 80 sq.m)
-175 DUs/Ha
In-situ slum rehabilitation pilots,
Tekhand Project and Kathputhli
Slum Rehabilitation Project in Delhi
envisage PPP in social housing, which
is based upon: (a) using land as a
resource, (b) market sale component
of housing to subsidise social housing
(maximum one-third of total FAR
and land), (c) part commercial use
(FAR 10%) (d) optimum FAR (400) and
density pattern (500 to 600 Dwelling
Units per Ha).
According to the National Urban
Housing and Habitat Policy (2007), in
every housing scheme, at least 15 per
cent of the saleable net residential
land and FAR should be reserved for
social housing and pooled on a zonal
basis. This will ensure that they are
evenly spread out in different parts
of the city and not concentrated
in one place. In all areas, sufficient
land should be reserved for housing
low income and weaker sections.
Incentive FSI/FAR, ground coverage
and liberal density norms have been
recommended to create more housing
stock, while reducing the cost of land
component in housing.
December 2014 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People
Inclusive Housing
Development
Inclusive housing development
aims at:
i) Providing education, healthcare/
social infrastructure, utilities,
services and transport
ii) Attaining self-containment,
viability and integrity
The organization of urban space,
which allows the formation of ‘commu-
nities’ and ‘neighbourhoods’ is a key to
cross - sectoral commitments and spa-
tial coalition of social, economic, en-
vironmental and governance systems.
Social housing projects need to focus
on environmental footprints as well as
community development and health
package, covering the following:
• Improvement of infrastructure
(roads, drains, water, sanitation,
street lighting and community
halls)
• Health (promotional and
preventive, via maternal and child
health clinics, health awareness
and health volunteers)
• Education (pre-school, non-formal
education, literacy and adult
literacy)
• Housing with basic services
• Community-based participatory
planning facilities
• Community development,
institution building, gender
awareness, vocational training and
economic support
• Encouragement of small home-
based occupations
• Promotion of micro-credit
facilities; and
• Networking among slum
communities.
A GIS-based inventory and total
station survey of all potential lands
suitable for social housing, redevelop-
41
housing

ment and resettlement should be pre-
pared. After identification of potential
sites, it is necessary to assign suitable
land use for such sites, and provide
proper services and linkages. The plans
of housing development, regularisa-
tion and resettlement should be based
on the assessment of ground realities,
existing land use, land ownership, land
values, socio-economic characteristics
and physical conditions of the settle-
ment, reflected by updated digitised
maps and data. Based on the land and
housing inventory, the community can
access the land and housing fund for
infrastructure development and con-
struction of dwelling units. The criteria
for selection of a specific strategy of
relocation or in-situ upgradation have
to be based on certain indicators, and
a database. The site selection should
consider employment generation and
community welfare as the most impor-
tant elements.
The community development plan
should address specific local issues
and provide flexible choices of in-situ
upgradation, relocation, land shar-
ing or re-blocking. The local area plan
should network all the settlements,
where the local stakeholders plan
together.
ii). Mandatory adoption of waste
water recycling, dual piping,
natural lighting and ventilation,
renewable energy, water
conservation, energy efficiency as
per ECBC and Green Building Code,
which can save 10 to 15 % of water
and energy.
iii). Checking of leakages, thefts and
transmission losses which can
save about 15 to 20 % of water
and power
iv). Enhancement of organisational
efficiency.
Finance
To meet the total shortage of 18.78
million houses in the country (10.55
million houses needed for EWS and
7.41 million houses for LIG category)
an investment of about 18 lakh
crore is required, without taking
into account land cost. With the
Central Government’s contribution
through various schemes, and
matching contribution of the State
Governments, local bodies and
beneficiaries, the social housing and
slum rehabilitation schemes have
become viable and affordable.
The cost of land for EWS and LIG
housing can be met by cross-subsidy,
compulsory reservation, land pooling
and reconstitution, TDR and similar
instruments. In view of the recently
notified Right to Fair Compensation
and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Act,
2013, the acquisition of land is going
to be more costly and difficult. As
such, cities should explore the option
of redevelopment and recycling
existing urban areas, including
slum and squatter settlements and

Water and Power

Critical concerns in redevelopment,
redensification, slum rehabilitation,
regularisation and infill development
(unauthorised colonies) are water sup-
ply and power. Both are under severe
stress.
These require strategic interven-
tions, as follows:
i). Preparation of services plan
of redevelopment, slum
rehabilitation, social housing and Fig. 5: JNNURM Slum Rehabilitation (Thane) Financial Contribution: Central Govt.: 50%, State
regularisation projects Govt.: 25%, Local Body & Development Rights: 9% and Slum Dwellers 16%

42 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People December 2014

Fig. 6: Slum rehabilitation under JNNURM (Chandigarh)
encroached lands. Land is the most
expensive component of housing. If
land cost is excluded, social housing
becomes affordable and viable. This
Fig. 7: An Unauthorised Colony
implies mandatory reservation of land
for EWS/LIG in all housing projects/
layouts, the cost of which is excluded
from the cost of the house (which
December 2014 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People
could be as much as 80 to 90 percent
of total house cost).
Financing of social housing or slum
redevelopment need not be the sole
responsibility of the government. To
make such schemes self-financing,
incentives like additional FAR, develop-
ment rights, commercial component,
etc. can be very helpful. To make social
housing schemes bankable, it is neces-
sary to take advantage of manda-
tory reservations, optimise utilisation
of land by higher density and FAR,
besides reducing the cost and time in
land development, construction and
infrastructure provision. The Twelfth
Five Year Plan and Union Budget
(2014-15) suggest a set of instruments
to finance affordable housing. A new
proposal is Home Owners Mortgage
Equity Subvention Scheme (HOMES)
under which the loan limit has been
raised from Rs 5 lakh to Rs. 10 lakh for
EWS and Rs 8 lakh to 15 lakh for LIG
category, along with 5.5% interest
subsidy on these loans.
Security of Tenure
‘Tenure’ is a pre-requisite to enable
and empower the poor to transform
their lives and climb up in the socio-
economic ladder. Without legal right,
the poor cannot use their property
as collateral or get a loan. As such,
43
housing

granting ownership rights is essential
in all slum resettlement and low-
income housing schemes. A common
fear is that the formal housing of the
poor changes hands and is bought
over and the poor remain homeless.
To overcome this problem, it may be
suggested that such housing may
be leased out to the cooperatives
or in the name of joint family
members at nominal rents, instead
of selling them. Here, it becomes
necessary to redefine the concept of
shelter which should include transit
accommodation, dormitory, hostel,
camp, paying guest, etc. The industry,
educational institutions, offices
and other establishments may be
encouraged to provide residential
accommodation to the workers.
To curb the resale of social housing
and its speculation, it is necessary to
review the tenure and design options
of the dwelling clusters with a view to:
• Reducing the cost and enhancing
affordability;
• Providing toilets, common space,
etc. in a manner, which would
dissuade the beneficiaries from
selling their houses;
• Licencing shelter units initially on
rental basis, convertible into tenure
after 10 years, or so. Alternatively,
the land tenure can be given jointly
to husband and wife/parents,
or to the co-operatives/resident
associations;
• Encouraging an evolutionary
pattern of dwelling, which can be
expanded according to the needs
and resources.
For coordinated maintenance, it is
necessary to work out an accountable
structure and take up regular moni-
toring on short-term, mid-term, and
long-term bases. Effective involve-
ment of the community organisations
at the grass root level will help in
the process of motivation. It will also
help the beneficiaries to sustain and
manage day-to-day issues, such as
drainage, solid waste management,
water supply, electricity, public health,
sanitation, education, security and skill
development.
A.K. Jain as Commissioner (Planning),
worked on Master Plan for Delhi-2021,
National Urban Housing and Habitat
Policy, National Urban Transport Policy,
protocols for green Commonwealth
Games, New Delhi 2010, plans for
Dwarka and five Sub-cities for Delhi
2021. He was a member of the Advisory
Board of the UN-Habitat and contributed
in its reports- Sustainable Cities (2009),
Climate Change and Cities (2011) and
Sustainable Urban Mobility (2013).
Photographs and illustrations:
Courtesy the Author.

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